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The relative rate at which a nucleophile (Nu:-) reacts to displace (substitute for) a leaving group is
called nucleophilicity. Consider the following nucleophilic substitution reactions:
CH3OH + HI CH3I + HOH
CH3OH + HCl CH3Cl + HOH
The first reaction is much faster than the second because I- is a much better Nu:- than Cl-. The
leaving group (HOH) was the same in both cases. The nucleophilicity (relative reactivity) of various
Nu:-s is listed in the following table ...
Reactivity
Nu:-
Relative Reactivity
very weak
< 0.01
weak
ROH
HOH, NO3-
100
F-
500
Cl-, RCOO-
20 103
NH3, CH3SCH3
~ 300 103
N3-, Br-
~ 600 103
OH-, CH3O-
2 106
fair
good
very good
Note that Nu:-s are electron donors as are Lewis bases and reducing agents. Nu:-s are either
uncharged (with nonbonded electrons) or they are anions, but they are never cations. Nu:-s are
basic, neutral, or sometimes weakly acidic, but not strongly acidic. Strong acids (HCl, H2SO4) and
Lewis acids (AlCl3, SnCl2) are electrophiles (E+s), i.e., electron acceptors as are oxidizing agents.
1. Within any given row of the periodic table, nucleophilicity decreases from left to right as
polarizability decreases (because electronegativity of the central atom is increasing) ...
CH3-
>
NH2-
>
OH-
>
F-
>
NH3
>
OH2
>
HF
PH2-
>
SH
>
Cl-
PH3
>
SH2
>
HCl
2. For nucleophiles with the same attacking atom, the anion is more nucleophilic than the neutral
compound.
Cl- > HCl
OH- > HOH
RO- > ROH
NH2- > NH3
CH3CO2- > CH3CO2 H CN- > HCN
3. Nucleophilicity increases down any column of the periodic table; as the polarizability of atoms
increases ...
NH2-
OH-
F-
increasing nucleophilicity
increasing polarizability
H2P-
HS-
Cl-
H2As-
HSe-
Br-
H2Sb-
HTe-
I-
pKb = 22
pKb = 21
pKb = 11
pKb = -1.7
pKb = -2
pKb = -21
TosO-
I-
Br -
Cl-
F-
HO-
RO-
H2N-
60,000
30,000
10,000
200
Note: F-, OH-, RO-, & NH2- are not displaced by nucleophiles, i.e., they are lousy leaving
groups.
Strong dehydrating acids (H2SO4, H3PO4) favor elimination (dehydration) in alcohols. Because they are
strong acids, they readily protonate the alcohol thereby converting a poor leaving group (OH-) into a
good leaving group (HOH), however, the anions produced after protonation of the alcohol (HSO4- or
H2PO4-) are very poor nucleophiles and cant replace the leaving group.
CH3CH2-OH
(CH3)2CH-OH +
(CH3)3C-OH
H2SO4 (catalyst)
H 2O
(elimination)
(elimination)
(CH3)2C=CH2 + H2O
(elimination)
Strong non-dehydrating acids (like HI, HBr and HCl) also readily protonate an alcohol creating a good
leaving group (HOH) but with the difference that the resulting Nu:-s (like I-, Br-, and Cl-), are very good
Nu:-s and readily replace the leaving group which results in substitution.
+
HBr
CH3CH2-Br
+ H2O
(substitution)
(CH3)2CH-OH +
HBr
(CH3)2CH-Br + H2O
(substitution)
CH3CH2-OH
(CH3)3C-OH
CH2=CH2
H2SO4 (catalyst)
(CH3)3C-Br
HBr
+ H2O
(substitution)
Very strong bases can cause elimination reactions with alkyl halides because strong hydrohalic acids (HX)
produced by elimination react rapidly and completely with the excess strong base in a neutralization
reaction, as per Le Chatalier. This is especially true with 2 and 3 alkyl halides which are bulky
(hindered) and the Nu:- has difficulty contacting the reactive C atom.
CH3CH2-Cl
CH3O Na+
(CH3)2CH-Cl +
CH3O Na+
~ 20 % sub.
+
~3 % sub.
+
~80% elim.
3
(CH3)3C-Cl
<10% elim.
2
(CH3)3C-Cl
> 90 % sub.
Na+CN
~ 97% elim.
(CH3)3C-CN + NaCl
If you read the last post, youll recall that a nucleophile is a species that donates a pair of electrons
to form a new covalent bond. Nucleophilicity is measured by comparing reaction rates; the faster
the reaction, the better (or, stronger) the nucleophile.
When discussing nucleophilicity were specifically talking about donating a pair of electrons to an
atom other than hydrogen (usually carbon). When a species is donating a pair of electrons to a
hydrogen (more specifically, a proton, H+) we call it a base.
This post attempts to address one of the most vexing question to students of organic chemistry.
What are the factors that make a good nucleophile?
For our purposes, there are at least four key factors contributing to nucleophilicity.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Charge
Electronegativity
Solvent
Steric hindrance
The first two should hopefully be familiar from the discussion of what makes something a strong
base. After all, basicity and nucleophilicity essentially describe the same phenomenon, except
basicity concerns donation of lone pairs to hydrogen, and nucleophilicity concerns donations of lone
pairs to all other atoms. Its the third and fourth points where extra factors come into play.
1. The Role of Charge
Since a nucleophile is a species that is donating a pair of electrons, its reasonable to expect that its
ability to donate electrons will increase as it becomes more electron rich, and decrease as it
becomes more electron poor, right? So as electron density increases, so does nucleophilicity.
A handy rule to remember for this purpose is the following: the conjugate base is always a better
nucleophile.
2. Electronegativity
Assuming an atom has a pair of electrons to donate, the ability of a species to donate that pair
should be inversely proportional to how tightly held it is. The key factor for determining
determi
how
tightly held an electron pair is bound is the familiar concept of electronegativity.
electronegativity Bottom line: as
electronegativity increases, nucleophilicity decreases
decreases.. Note: Its important to restrict application of
this trend to atoms in the same row of the periodic table; for instance, C N O F, or Si P S Cl. Going
down the periodic table, another factor comes into play (next)
3. Solvent
Nucleophilicity is not a property inherent to a given species; it can be affected by the medium its in
(otherwise known
n as the solvent). [For an introduction to the different classes of solvents, click
here]
A polar protic solvent can participate in hydrogen bonding with a nucleophile, creating a shell of
solvent molecules around it like mobs of screaming teenage fans swarming the Beatles in 1962. In
so doing, the nucleophile is considerably less re
reactive;
active; everywhere it goes, its lone pairs of electrons
are interacting with the electron-poor
poor hydrogen atoms of the solvent.
The ability of nucleophiles to participate in hydrogen bonding decreases as we go down the periodic
table. Hence fluoride is the strongest
trongest hydrogen bond acceptor, and iodide is the weakest. This
means that the lone pairs of iodide ion will be considerably more free than those of fluoride,
resulting in higher rates (and greater nucleophilicity).
A polar aprotic solvent does not hydrogen bond to nucleophiles to a significant extent, meaning that
the nucleophiles have greater freedom in solution. Under these conditions, nucleophilicity
correlates well with basicity and fluoride ion, being the most unstable of the halide ions, reacts
re
fastest with electrophiles.
[Often asked: why dont we care about non polar solvents here? Remember like dissolves like?
If we want a reaction to take place, we need to use solvents that will actually dissolve our
nucleophile. Many nucleophiless are charged species (ions) they dont dissolve in non-polar
non
solvents.]
4. Steric hindrance
Since, when discussing nucleophilicity, were often discussing reactions at carbon, we have to take
into account that orbitals at carbon that participate in re
reactions are generally less accessible than
protons are. An effect called steric hindrance comes into play.
The bottom line here is that the bulkier a given nucleophile is, the slower the rate of its reactions
[and therefore the lower its nucleophilicity]
nucleophilicity].
So comparing several deprotonated alcohols, in the sequence methanol ethanol isopropanol tbutanol, deprotonated methanol (methoxide) is the strongest nucleophile, and deprotonated tt
butanol (t-butoxide)
butoxide) is the poorest (or weakest) nucleophil
nucleophile.
Related Posts:
Tagged as: base, charge, electron rich, electronegativity, leaving groups, lewis bases, nucleophiles,
nucleophilicity, solvent, steric hindrance
{ 41 comments read them below or add one }
nucleophiles, which means that smaller nucleophiles in polar protic solvents will not be able
to react as well and thus are poorer nucleophiles.
For example, Florine anions become so heavily solvated in polar protic solvents that they
wont even react, but Iodine, being much larger, is much less solvated and can still react.
In aprotic solvents, hydrogen bonding does not occur to any significant extent and the
stronger base is usually the stronger nucleophile.
Reply
Reply
to it?
PS AMAZING site! You are soon gonna get a lot of Indian visitors. :D
Reply
Reply
like Ochem a lot, but now I think I will never undestand it and it bums me out.
Another thing, in a SN2 reaction, ammonia is the nucleophile and it is asked which solvent
will make the reaction faster: ether or ethanol. I would say ethanol, because it would
stabitize the transition state by solvation, right? But, no, according to my professor, ether
would be the best one because it would not make hydrogen bonds to ammonia. Now I dont
know if I must consider transition states, and solvents stabilizing carbocations or just the
nucleophile and hydrogen bonding.
Please, help.
Reply
o
o
o
o
Four Factors to Consider in Determining the Relative Ease at which SN2 Displacement
Occurs
1.
2.
3.
4.
It has been experimentally shown that a nucleophile containing a negatively charged reactive atom
is better than a nucleophile containing a reactive atom that is neutral. The next diagram illustrates
this concept. Notice that when oxygen is part of the hydroxide ion, it bears a negative charge, and
when it is part of a water molecule, it is neutral. The O of -OH is a better nucleophile than the O of
H2O, and results in a faster reaction rate. Similarly, when nitrogen is part of NH2, it bears a negative
charge, and when it is part of NH3, it is neutral. The N of NH2 is a better nucleophile than the N of
NH3, and results in a faster reaction rate.
In general chemistry, we classified solvents as being either polar or nonpolar. Polar solvents can be
further subdivided into protic and and aprotic solvents.
Protic Solvents
A protic solvent is a solvent that has a hydrogen atom bound to an oxygen or nitrogen. A few
examples of protic solvents include H2O, ROH, RNH2, and R2NH, where water is an example of an
inorganic protic solvent, and alcohols and amides are examples of organic solvents. The diagram
below shows a few examples of protic solvents we will see.
Since oxygen and nitrogen are highly electronegative atoms, the O-H and N-H bonds that are
present in protic solvents result in a hydrogen that is positively polarized. When protic solvents are
used in nucleophilic substitution reactions, the positively polarized hydrogen of the solvent
molecule can interact with the negatively charged nucleophile. In solution, molecules or ions that
are surrounded by these solvent molecules are said to be solvated. Solvation is the process of
attraction and association of solvent molecules with ions of a solute. The solute, in this case, is a
negatively charged nucleophile.
The following diagram depicts the interaction that can occur between a protic solvent and a
negatively charged nucleophile. The interactions are called hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond
results from a from a dipole-dipole force between between an electronegative atom, such as a
halogen, and a hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine. In the case below, we are
using an alcohol (ROH) as an example of a protic solvent, but be aware that this interaction can
occur with other solvents containing a positively polarized hydrogen atom, such as a molecule of
water, or amides of the form RNH2 and R2NH.
Why is this important? Solvation weakens the nucleophile; that is, solvation decreases
nucleophilicity. This is because the solvent forms a "shell" around the nucleophile, impeding the
nucleophile's ability to attack an electrophilic carbon. Furthermore, because the charge on smaller
anions is more concentrated, small anions are more tightly solvated than large anions.
The picture below illustrates this concept. Notice how the smaller fluoride anion is represented as
being more heavily solvated than the larger iodide anion. This means that the fluoride anion will be
a weaker nucleophile than the iodide anion. In fact, it is important to note that fluoride will not
function as a nucleophile at all in protic solvents. It is so small that solvation creates a situation
whereby fluoride's lone pair of electrons are no longer accessible, meaning it is unable to participate
in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.
Previously we learned how nucleophilicity follows basicity when moving across a row. In our
discussion on the effect of protic solvents on nucleophilicity, we learned that solvation weakens the
nucleophile, having the greatest effect on smaller anions. In effect, when using protic solvents,
nucleophilicity does not follow basicity when moving up and down a column. In fact, it's the exact
opposite: when basicity decreases, nucleophilicity increases and when basicity increases,
nucleophilicity decreases.
Aprotic Solvents
An aprotic solvent is a solvent that lacks a positively polarized hydrogen. The next diagram
illustrates several polar aprotic solvents that you should become familiar with.
Aprotic solvents, like protic solvents, are polar but, because they lack a positively polarized
hydrogen, they do not form hydrogen bonds with the anionic nucleophile. The result, with respect
to solvation, is a relatively weak interaction between the aprotic solvent and the nucleophile.
The consequence of this weakened interaction is two-fold. First, by using an aprotic solvent we can
raise the reactivity of the nucleophile. This can sometimes have dramatic effects on the rate at
which a nucleophilic substitution reaction can occur. For example, if we consider the reaction
between bromoethane and potassium iodide, the reaction occurs 500 times faster in acetone than
in methanol.
A second consequence that results from the weak interaction that occurs between aprotic solvents
and nucleophiles is that, under some conditions, there can be an inversion of the reactivity order.
An inversion would result in nucleophilicity following basicity up and down a column, as shown in
the following diagram. When we considered the effects of protic solvents, remember that the
iodide anion was the strongest nucleophile. Now, in considering aprotic solvents under some
conditions, the fluoride anion is the strongest nucelophile.
What happens as we move up and down a column when considering uncharged nucleophiles? It
turns out that, in the case of uncharged nucleophiles, size dictates nucleophilicity. This is because
larger elements have bigger, more diffuse, and more polarizable electron clouds. This cloud
facilitates the formation of a more effective orbital overlap in the transition state of bimolecular
nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reactions, resulting in a transition state that is lower in energy and a
nucleophilic substitution that occurs at a faster rate.
For this reason, sterically hindered nucleophiles react more slowly than those lacking steric bulk.
Contributors
How to:
1) Nuc/Base Strengths. The easiest categories to recognize are the strong/strong and
weak/weak categories. These follow the general correlation between basicity and
nucleophilicity. The more difficult categories are the weak/strong and strong/weak because
they deviate from this correlation.
2) Descriptions and explanations of the four categories.
(ii) Weak/weak. In general, weak bases are also weak nucleophiles. Therefore, weak bases
such as neutral oxygens with a proton will also be weak nucleophiles.
Weak/weak nuc/bases are usually also the solvent for their reactions. This makes sense as
they are so weak that you need a lot of the nuc/base to facilite the substitution or
elimination reaction.
(iii) Weak/strong. One exception to strong bases also being strong nucleophiles is for very
bulky nuc/bases. SN2 reactions are particularly sensitive to the size of the nuc/base because
they proceed via a crowded transition state. Elimination reactions are
re less sensitive to the
size of the nuc/base since the beta
beta-hydrogen
hydrogen is sticking out and is easy to access.
Therefore, a very bulky (large) nuc/base can be a weak nucleophile while still being a
strong base. We will only learn two nuc/bases that fa
fallll into this category. They are
potassium tert-butoxide
butoxide (KOt
(KOt-Bu) and lithium diisopropyl amide (LDA). The structures of
these two weak/strong nuc/bases are shown below.
(iv) Strong/weak. These nuc/bases fall into two general categories that will reduce their
basicity:
i) Neutral nuc/bases that have lone pairs on less electronegative atoms such as nitrogen,
sulfur, and phosphorous. These include amines, thiols and phosphines.
(ii) Negatively charged nuc/bases that are stabilized by resonance or have a negative charge
on a large atom such as sulfur or iodine.
) Descriptions and explanations of the four categories.