Chng 2

CC I LNG THNG K
(Descriptive statistics)

i vi cc php phn tch lp li t mu ban u, c hai loi i lng dng

ch s phn b cc ga tr trong tp s liu l gi tr trung bnh v phn tn ca cc
gi tr di dng lch chun. Cc i lng thng k thng s dng nh gi tr
trung bnh, trung v, phng sai, lch chun, lch chun tng i, h s bin
thin Sau y chng ta ln lt xt cc khi nim ny
2.1. Cc i lngch s phn b ca cc gi tr o lp li
* Trung bnh s hc ( x ) (mean, arithmetic mean, average) l i lng dng
ch gi tr t c khi chia tng cc kt qu th nghim lp li cho s th nghim
lp li.
Gi s c tp s liu th nghim lp li gm n gi tr, k hiu t x1, x2,, xn th
gi tr trung bnh s hc ca tp s liu gm n th nghim lp li l:
N

x =

x1 x2 ... xn
n

i 1

(2.1)

Gi tr trung bnh c tnh cht sau:

-

Tng lch gia cc gi tr ring r v gi tr trung bnh bng khng.

(x

x) 0

Tng cc bnh phng lch nh hn tng bnh phng ca bt c lch no

gia gi tr n l v gi tr a no khng phi gi tr trung bnh.

( x x)
i

<

( x a)
i

( vi a x )

* Trung bnh bnh phng ( x bp): vi tp s liu gm N s liu lp li x1,

x2,,xn ta c:
x bp =

x12 x22 ... xn2

n

(2.2)

* Trung bnh hnh hc hay trung bnh nhn (geometric average) vi cc php
o c hm lng cn tm di dng logarit th:
1
n

lg x hh= (lg x1 lg x2 ... lg xn )

Do

( 2.3)

x hh= n x1.x2 ....xn

Trong cc i lng trung bnh k trn, thng s dng trung bnh s hc

* Trung v (median) : Nu sp xp n gi tr lp li trong tp s liu theo th t tng dn
hoc gim dn t x1, x2, , xn th s nm gia tp s liu c gi l trung v.
- Nu n l s l th trung v chnh l s gia dy s.
- Nu n l s chn th trung v l trung bnh cng ca 2 gi tr nm gia dy s.

Ch : Gi tr trung bnh hay trung v ca tp s liu c gi l cc gi tr trung

tm ca tp s liu. Cc tp s liu khc nhau c cng gi tr trung bnh c th rt khc
nhau v ga tr ring l v s th nghim. V vy, trung bnh v trung v khng cho ta
ci nhn tng qut v s phn b cc s trong tp s liu. Trong trng hp cn xt
n phn tn ( lch khi ga tr trung bnh).
* im t phn v (quartile): Nu sp xp cc s liu trong tp s liu t nh n
ln th mi tp s liu c 3 im t phn v: 25 % cc s trong tp s liu sp xp
c gi tr nh hn hoc bng im t phn v th nht, 75 % cc s trong tp s liu
sp xp c gi tr nh hn hoc bng im t phn v th ba, 50% cc s trong tp s
liu sp xp c gi tr nh hn hoc bng trung v (im t phn v th hai).
Khong gia im t phn v (interquartile) biu th s khc nhau gia im t phn
v th nht v th ba.
C th hnh dung im t phn v theo s sau:
Trung v

gi tr
thp

0%

25%

50%

im t phn v th nht

75%

100%

gi tr cao

im t phn v th ba.

* S tri (mode): l s c tn s xut hin l ln nht trong tp s liu lp li.

Ch : Gi tr bt thng c nh hng ng k ti gi tr trung bnh nhng khng

nh hng n s trung v. Do vy, vi nhng tp s liu rt nh, (thng N<10)

nh ch phn tch lp 2 hoc 3 ln th nn s dng gi tr trung v thay cho gi tr
trung bnh v s trnh c gi tr bt thng.
Th d 2.1. Kt qu phn tch lp li hm lng Selen (g/g) trong thc phm sau 9
ln th nghim nh sau: 0,07; 0,07; 0,08; 0,07; 0,07; 0,08; 0,08; 0,09; 0,08. Tm cc
gi tr trung bnh, trung v, s tri v im t phn v th nht v th ba.
Gii: p dng cng thc tnh c gi tr trung bnh l 0,07677= 0,077 g/l
Sp xp theo th t t thp n cao th s chnh gia l s th 5 v l 0,08g/l
S c tn s xut hin ln nht l 0,07g/l ( 4 ln) v 0,08g/l (4 ln).
im t phn v th nht l 0,07g/l (sau 2 s), im t phn v th ba l 0,08g/l
(s th 6)
- Mu thng k v mu tng th (statistical sample and population).
Trong thng k, mt s xc nh cc quan st thc nghim (hay kt qu ca
php o cc mu phn tch ring r t mu ban u) c gi l mu thng k. Gp tt
c nhng mu thng k gi l mu tng th. Nh vy c th xem phn tch mu
tng th l thc hin tt c nhng php o c th c v v cng ln (n).
Th d: Cn iu tra mc thiu iot trong hc sinh tiu hc thnh ph A. Tin hnh
ly mu nc tiu hc sinh mt s trng tiu hc trong thnh ph phn tch hm lng
it. Nh vy nc tiu ca mt s hc sinh tiu hc mi trng c ly mu l cc mu
thng k. Mu tng th y s l mu nc tiu ca hc sinh tiu hc thnh ph A ni
chung.

- Trung bnh mu x v trung bnh tp hp .

2

+ Trung bnh mu ( sampling fluctuation) ( x ) l gi tr trung bnh ca mt mu

thng k gii hn c rt ra t tp hp gm n s liu lp li v c xc nh theo
n

i 1

cng thc: x

+ Trung bnh tp hp (population average) () l gi tr trung bnh ca tp hp

gm N s liu lp li trong mu tng th, cng c xc nh theo phng trnh (2.1)
nhng vi N rt ln, gn t ti . Khi khng c sai s h thng th trung bnh tp hp
cng l gi tr tht ca php o.
N

i 1

khi N .

Thng thng khi N > 30 c th xem nh x

2.2. Cc i lng c trng cho phn tn ca tp s liu o lp li

* Khong bin thin hay quy m bin thin R (spread, range): l hiu s gia
gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht trong mt tp s liu.
R = xmax - xmin

(2.4)

ln ca R ph thuc vo kch thc mu. Vi cng sai s ngu nhin, khi s

php o tng, R s tng. Do , khong bin thin c dng c trng cho
phn tn ca tp s liu khi s php o nh.
* Phng sai (variance) ( 2 v S2): l gi tr trung bnh ca tng bnh phng s sai
khc gia cc gi tr ring r trong tp s liu so vi gi tr trung bnh. Phng sai
khng cng th nguyn vi cc i lng o.
Nu tp s liu ln (N ) th phng sai mu tng th c k hiu l 2 v c
N

tnh theo cng thc

i 1

Nu tp s liu nh th phng sai mu thng k c k hiu l S2 v c tnh theo

n

x x

cng thc

i 1

n 1

xi
1 n 2 i 1
=
xi

n 1 i 1
n

(2.5)

vi n-1=f c gi l s bc t do ( degree of freedom).

Khi c m tp s liu ca m mu thng k, mi tp s liu c cha k kt qu ca
k th nghim lp li i vi cng mt mu nh sau:
x11, x12, x13,, x1k
x21, x22, x23,, x2k

xj1, xj2, xj3,, xjk

xm1, xm2, xm3,., xmk

x
th phng sai chung ca m mu thng k ny l:

S2

ij

xi

j 1 i 1

N m

(2.5)
vi N l tng tt c cc th nghim N=m.k
(Khi nim ny t dng trong ho hc)
Nu phng sai cng ln th tn mn ca cc gi tr o lp li cng ln hay
lp li ca php o km.
* lch chun (Standard deviation)
- lch chun tp hp (Population standard deviation): () c trng cho
phn tn cc s liu trong tp hp cc gi tr o ca mu tng th so vi gi tr trung
bnh v c xc nh theo phng trnh:
N

hay 2

i 1

(2.6)

vi N l s th nghim lp li ca tp hp, thc t trong Ha phn tch thng

xem cc tp cc s liu lp li khi N>30 l tp hp.
- lch chun mu c on (Sample estimate standard deviation): (S)

x x

i 1

hay

n 1

S S2

(2.7)

vi n l s th nghim trong mt mu thng k c rt ra t mu tng th. S

bc t do trong trng hp ny l f =n-1.
Nh vy, khi N th x v S . Ni cch khc khi N>30 c th xem S .
So vi phng sai, lch chun thng c dng o lp li hn do c cng
th nguyn vi i lng o.
Nu trng hp c m mu thng k, mi mu lm k th nghim lp li th:
m

ij

m.k m

bc t do f=m(k-1) (gi thit Sj khc nhau khng ng

k).
* Khi nim bc t do: Bc t do c th coi l s php o kim tra cn thit c
th xc nh c kt qu trong mt tp s liu. Mt cch khc, bc t do c
hiu l s cc quan st trong mt mu thng k c th t do thay i do bng
tng s cc gi tr trong tp s liu tr i 1 bc t do cho mi gi tr trung bnh
c tnh.
Nh vy vi 1 tp s liu mu thng k (c 1 gi tr trung bnh) th bc t do l
f= n-1. Vi hai mu thng k khi tnh phng sai chung th bc t do l f= n1+n24

2 v c hai ga tr trung bnh c tnh. Vi mu tng th, khi s th nghim v

cng ln th gi tr trung bnh chnh l gi tr thc nn khng xt bc t do.
Mt cch khc, c th hiu bc t do xut hin trong biu thc tnh phng sai
ca mu thng k. biu thc tnh phng sai (2.5) gi tr phng sai tc l
trung bnh ca tng bnh phng th ch c n-1 gi tr tng bnh phng c tnh
nn f= n-1.
Thut ng bc t do cn c gii thch qua ch s chch bnh phng
( xi x) 2 ) c lp dng trong php tnh phng sai nh sau:
Gi s c ba kt qu phn tch lp li hm lng As trong nc ngm l 18,5;
17,3 v 19,2 g/l. Do gi tr trung bnh c tnh l 18,33 g/l.
Nh vy cc gi tr chch bnh phng ln lt l
d12= (18,5-18,33)2= 0,0289; d22= (17,3-18,33)2= 1,0609; d32= (19,2-18,33)2=
0,7569
Cc gi tr chch bnh phng ny khng phi l cc s c lp v khi thay i
t nht 1 gi tr trong 3 kt qu o th gi tr trung bnh thay i v ko theo cc
gi tr chch thay i, do khng th c 3 bc t do. Ni cch khc, nu
chng ta c gi tr trung bnh v hai gi tr kia th chng ta s tnh c gi tr
th ba. Nh vy, bc t do trong trng hp ny l f=3-1=2.
Khi tnh ton ch khng lm trn s liu ca lch chun cho n khi kt
thc php tnh ton v gi tr cui cng phi c ghi di dng s c ngha.
i vi tp s liu nh (N<10) th lch chun thng c tnh bng cch nhn
khong bin thin vi h s k (k factor).
SR =R.kR
Gi tr kR tu thuc vo s th nghim lp li n, c tnh theo bng 2.1.
Bng 2.1: Gi tr k (theo s th nghim) dng tnh nhanh lch chun .
n

10

0,89

0,59

0,49

0,43

0,39

0,37

0,35

0,34

0,32

* lch chun hp nht (hay lch chun gp) (Pooled standard deviation)
Nu c nhiu dy s liu lp li (hay nhiu mu thng k), mi dy c n s liu
c ly ngu nhin t tp hp cc s liu lp li trong mu tng th (v d phng sai
do mi k thut vin/ PTN lm th nghim vi cng mu phn tch ban u), ni cch
khc s khc nhau ca cc phng sai trong mi mu thng k c xem nh khng
c ngha th c th tnh lch chun gp nh sau:
n1

x
S pooled

i 1

i1 x1

n2

x
2

j 1

2j

x2

n3

x
2

3k

x3

....

k 1

n1 n 2 n3 ... m

Vi n1 l s cc s liu lp li trong tp s liu th nht, n2 l s cc s liu

trong tp s liu th hai, m l s cc tp s liu c hp nht.

* sai chun ( lch chun ca trung bnh) (standard deviation of a mean/

standard error):
Nu c nhiu dy s liu lp li (hay nhiu mu thng k), mi dy c n s liu
c ly ngu nhin t tp hp cc s liu lp li th s phn tn ca trung bnh tp
hp (vi N th nghim) c c trng bng sai chun m thay cho lch chun
trong tp hp. S phn tn ny gim khi N tng.
m l lch chun trung bnh hay sai chun v c tnh nh sau :
m=

Tuy nhin, i vi tp s liu hu hn (n<30) ta ch thu c s c lng S x thay

cho m.
2

Sx

S2
S

n
n

i 1

nn 1

sai chun thng c dng c trng cho khng m bo ca gi tr

trung bnh. sai chun m c dng c trng cho sai s ngu nhin ca phng
php phn tch. Tuy nhin, sai chun c trng cho sai s ngu nhin ca
phng php phn tch cn tin hnh cc php xc nh song song, khng ph thuc
nhau (nh thi gian phn tch khc nhau) nh gi ti lp ca phng php
phn tch v dng kt qu phn tch khng lm trn (vi 1 ch s cui cng l s
khng c ngha).
* lch chun tng i (Relative standard devition) (RSD%) v h s bin
thin (coefficient variation) (CV%).
lch chun tng i (RSD) l t s gia lch chun v gi tr trung bnh.
N thng c biu th bng phn nghn (nhn vi 1000 ppt) hay ph bin hn l
phn trm lch chun tng i (nhn vi 100%).
S
x

RSD(%)= .100 %

hay

S
x

RSD= .1000 (ppt)

RSD(%) cn c gi l h s bin thin (CV%). i lng ny c dng o

chm ca php phn tch.
Ngi ta thng s dng lch chun tng i (RSD) hn l lch chun (S)
do c th nh gi c lch chun chim bao nhiu phn trm gi tr trung bnh v
c ci nhn r hn v chm ca cc s liu trong tp s liu lp li.
Th d 2.2. (a) Mt sinh vin phn tch lp li 4 ln xc nh hm lng Sn trong
mt mu qung thic c cc kt qu nh sau: 51,3%, 55,6%, 49,9% v 52,0%.
Tnh gi tr trung bnh, lch chun v lch chun tng i
Gii: p dng cc cng thc ta c
Gi tr trung bnh: x = (51,3 + 55,6 + 49,9 + 52,0)/4=208,8/4= 52,2 (%)
lch chun

S=
S=

(51,3- 52,2)2 (55,6- 52,2)2 (49,9- 52,2)2 (52,0- 52,2)2

4 1

(-0,9)2 (3,4)2 (-2,3)2 (-0,2)2

3

0,81 11,56 5,29 0,04

5,9 =2,43
3

lch chun tng i %RSD = 100.S / x =4,65 (%)

(b). Cho kt qu phn tch lp li 35 ln hm lng nitrat (g/ml) trong mu nc
chun nh sau :
0,51 0,51 0,49 0,51 0,51 0,51 0,52 0,48 0,51 0,50 0,51 0,53 0,46 0,51 0,50
0,50 0,48 0,49 0,48 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,49 0,50 0,52 0,49 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,53
0,49 0,49 0,51 0,50 0,49
Hy tnh gi tr trung bnh, lch chun, sai chun v lch chun tng i
ca tp s liu trn.
Gii: Vi tp s liu trn khi N>30 th c th xem nh y l tp hp cc s liu khi
phn tch mu tng th. Do vy s c gi tr trung bnh tp hp, lch chun tp
hp, sai chun tnh nh sau:
35

i 1

i 1

35

i1

0,504113 0,50 4 (g/ml)

= 0,015 (g/ml) = = 0,0026(g/ml)

4
m
2

35

%RSD=100./=3,06%.
* lch chun lp li v lch chun ti lp: phn bit lch chun
ca cc th nghim song song trong cng iu kin v khc iu kin, ngi ta a ra
hai khi nim lch chun lp li (Sr) v lch chun ti lp (SR).
- Trong mt tp s liu lp li (v d c n th nghim lp li) do cng mt k
thut vin trong 1 PTN tin hnh trn cng trang thit b, ha cht.. trong khong thi
gian ngn th lch chun lp li l:
n

(x
Sr

x) 2

i 1

n 1

- Nu c nhiu tp s liu lp li nh ca k k thut vin (KTV) hay c k PTN th

cn thit tnh lch chun ti lp. tnh gi tr ny trc tin cn tnh phng sai
trung bnh c trng cho tng bnh phng s sai khc ca k PTN ny chnh l
trung bnh ca k gi tr phng sai ring r (gi l phng sai chung trong PTN(within laboratories) k hiu l MSwithin hoc S 2 r
Ta c: phng sai trong cng mu thng k: (cng PTN, cng KTV)
n
2

Sr1

(xi x1 )2
i 1

n 1

( x

ki

Sk

xk ) 2

i 1

n 1

Mi mu thng k hay mi ngi th nghim lm n th nghim lp li, do c

n-1 bc t do. Tng s mu thng k l k mu. Vy bc t do i din cho tt cc cc
mu l f0 =k(n-1).
Do vy, phng sai trong cng mu (within-sample estimation of variance/
within-sample mean square) s l:
k

Si
S 2 r = MS within

j 1

(x

ij

x j )2

j 1 i 1

k ( n 1)

Khi ly k gi tr trung bnh ca k KTV hay k PTN th cc gi tr trung bnh ny s

khc vi gi tr trung bnh chung hay cn gi l trung bnh tp hp nn phng sai
gia cc mu thng k (hay gia cc KTV, cc PTN) k hiu l MSbetween hay S2L
(between-sample estimation of variance) c tnh nh sau:
k

Trung bnh tp hp l

xi

j 1

Khi phng sai gia cc mu (hay phng sai gp gia cc nhm):

k

n ( x j x)2
MS between

j 1

k 1

Khi phng sai ti lp l tng phng sai ca hai thnh phn phng sai gia
cc nhm v trung bnh phng sai trong mt nhm. T gi tr ny, ly cn bc hai ca
phng sai s thu c lch chun ti lp v lch chun ti lp tng i
(%RSDR).
S2R= S2L + S 2 r = MSwithin + MSbetween
V %RSDR = 100.SR/ x (%)
Th d 2.3: Mt PTN thuc h thng cng nhn cc PTN Vit nam VILAS ( PTN
c cng nhn cht lng ca Vn phng cng nhn cht lng thuc Tng Cc
o lng cht lng) cn nh gi lch chun lp li v lch chun ti lp
tin hnh xc nhn gi tr s dng ca phng php th mt loi thuc tr su
trong mu rau. Bn KTV khc nhau, mi ngi lm lp 10 ln vi mt mu rau
thm chun (l mu rau sch, khng cha cht cn phn tch v c thm cht
chun) c nng 100,0 ppb trn cng thit b, dng c v ha cht c sn trong
cng PTN..
Kt qu hm lng thuc tr su tm li c trong mu thm chun ny nh
sau:
STT
1
2
3
4

KTV-1
99,07
99,06
99,03
99,06

KTV-2
99,68
99,69
99,74
99,61

KTV-3
99,51
99,54
99,51
99,54

KTV-4
99,55
99,62
99,56
99,62
8

5
6
7
8
9
10

99,07
99,07
99,06
99,05
99,06
99,06

99,73
99,68
99,74
99,76
99,64
99,74

99,53
99,54
99,53
99,54
99,51
99,49

99,57
99,58
99,57
99,56
99,58
99,54

So snh chnh xc trong cc th nghim mi KTV, kt lun v sai s ngu

nhin hay sai s h thng.
- Hy tnh lch chun lp li v lch chun ti lp ca PTN ny.
Gii: + Trc tin tnh 4 gi tr trung bnh hm lng ca 4 KTV, lch chun
lp li v lch chun tng i ca mi KTV, ta c cc kt qu ln
lt nh sau :
-

x
Sr
%RSD
ER(%)

KTV-1
99,06
0,0120
0,012
-0,94

KTV-2
99,70
0,0493
0,049
-0,30

KTV-3
99,52
0,0178
0,018
-0,48

KTV-4
99,58
0,0268
0,027
-0,42

Nh vy, cn c vo cc gi tr %RSD ca mi TKV c th kt lun,

chm hay lp li ca KTV-1 l tt nht v ca KTV-2 l km nht. Tuy nhin,
cc gi tr RSD l nh (<1%) nn c th ni mi KTV lm th nghim u cho
chm tt.
Da vo sai s tng i gia gi tr trung bnh tm c v gi tr ng =
100,0 ppb ban u c th kt lun kt qu phn tch ca c 4 KTV u mc sai s
h thng m. ng nh gi qua sai s tng i cho thy kt qu phn tch
ca KTV-2 l nh nht v KTV-1 l ln nht. Tuy nhin, c 4 gi tr sai s tng
i u thp (<1%) chng t cc KTV lm ng. Ni cch khc s liu ca 4 KTV
u chnh xc ( chm tt, ng cao).
+ Tnh lch chun ti lp ca PTN.
Dng cc cng thc nh nu phn trn s tnh c
MSwithin= 0,000902 ; MSbetween = 0,787043, phng sai ti lp S2R= 0,787945
lch chun ti lp l SR= 0,88766= 0,8877 vi gi tr trung bnh chung l
x = 99,465 ppb
lch chun ti lp tng i % RSDR= 0,89%

Cch tnh ton cc i lng thng k s dng phn mm MINITAB:

Phn mm MINTAB l phn mm thng k in hnh, c s dng rng ri
trong x l thng k s liu phn tch, thch hp cc bng s liu c copy t word,
excel hoc chuyn cc file s liu dng ASCII sang.
tm cc i lng c trng thng k ca tp s liu lp li cn nhp s liu
di dng ct (mi tp s liu trong mt ct) v copy vo ct trong ca s lm vic
ca MINITAB, chn Stat Basic Statistics Display Descrative Statistics, chn ct
cha tp s liu v trong mc Statistics chn cc i lng mong mun. Khi kt
qu s c hin th trong ca s ca Session.
Th d 2.4.: Tnh cc i lng thng k c trng ca tp s liu cc PTN A, B,
C, D, E.
9

Sau khi nhp s liu, kt qu tnh bng phn mm MINTAB thu c nh sau:
PTN S TN Gi tr TB Sai chun lch chun Phng sai %CV Trung v Khong bin thin

A
B
C
D
E

6
6
6
6
6

41,9
41,9
43,2
39,1
41,5

0,202
0,697
0,171
1,330
0,526

0,494
1,708
0,420
3,250
1,288

0,244
2,916
0,176
10,58
1,659

1,18
4,08
0,97
8,32
3,10

42,0
42,0
43,2
38,8
41,9

1,4
4,1
1,1
8,0
3,6

Ch : * Cc i lng trung bnh, chch v sai s tng i biu din ng

ca tp s liu, kim tra c xut hin sai s ngu nhin hay h thng th lch chun
tng i hay h s bin thin c dng nh gi chm.
* i vi cc phng php phn tch, ty theo nng cht phn tch m ISO
qui nh CV(%) ca mt phng php phn tch. Vi cc mu c nn phc tp, gi tr
CV(%) ln nht c php cho bng 3.3.
Bng 2.1: Quan h gia nng cht phn tch v CV(%) cho php vi phng
php phn tch.
Hm
lng

100

10

100

10

100

10

0,1

g/kg g/kg g/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg

CVmax 2
(%)

11

15

21

30

43

Cng theo ISO, sai s tng i dng nh gi qua ng ca phng php

phn tch lng vt nh sau :
- Nu lm lng cht phn tch 1 ppb th sai s tng i cho php t -50 %
n +30 %
- Nu lm lng cht phn tch t 1 ppb n 10 ppb th sai s tng i cho
php t -30% n +10%
- Nu lm lng cht phn tch nh hn1 ppm th sai s tng i cho php t 20% n +10%.
2.3. Lan truyn khng m bo o khi c sai s ngu nhin
Chng ta u bit, kt qu nh lng thu c t thc nghim trong rt nhiu
php o khng phi l kt qu ca php o trc tip m c th c tnh ton t mt
hay nhiu php o trc tip. Khi khng c sai s h thng th tt c cc kt qu phn
tch nh lng thu c t thc nghim u c cha sai s ngu nhin. Nh cp
cc gi tr c bo co phi c vit di dng gi tr trung bnh (ng s c ngha
km theo) khng m bo o. Khi ch c sai s ngu nhin th khng m bo
o c th l lch chun, sai chun, dung sai, hoc khong tin cy khi s dng
chun thng k no (s xt sau). Mt khc, mi s liu thu c trong cc php tnh
u c hoc lm lp li nhiu ln hoc c nhiu yu t sai s gy nn v c lch
chun ring, v vy phi xt n lan truyn sai s ngu nhin gy ra cho kt qu cui
cng.
Trong phn ny, chng ta s xt lan truyn khng m bo o theo lch
chun.
10

Gi s cc kt qu thc nghim thu c a, b, c, ... l cc s liu thu c t

cc php o trc tip M1, M2 , M3. Gi x l gi tr cui cng tnh ton c t cc
kt qu ring r a, b, c.Khi x l hm s ph thuc vo cc tham s a, b, c
Gi a , b , c l lch chun ca cc php o trc tip khi xc nh a, b, c,
v gi thit l sai s trong cc php o ny c lp ln nhau th lch chun ca i
lng x l :

x [ x
a

a 2 x b 2 ...]1 / 2 (theo nh lut lan truyn sai s, biu thc

ny ng khi x l hm tuyn tnh ca cc php o a, b,c).

Cch tnh lch chun ca i lng x ny tu thuc vo dng cng thc tnh
em s dng. Kt qu o ca i lng x s c biu din di dng : x Sx
V d trong tp s liu th tch dung dch chun dng cho qu trnh chun , cc gi
tr th tch thu c l 10,09; 10,11; 10,09; 10,10; 10,12 ml, Nh vy, th tch dung
dch chun dng s l x S = 10,10 0,01 (vi N=5 th nghim lp li),
* lch chun ca tng v hiu:
Nu x = a1. a( Sa) + b 1.b( Sb) c1 .c( Sc)
th lch chun ca x l
2

vi a1,b1, c1 l cc hng s

S x a1 .S a2 b1 .S b2 c1 .S c2 ...

* lch chun ca php nhn v chia:

Nu x =

a a1 .b b1
th
c c1

Sx
2 S
2 Sb
2 S
a1 . a b1 . c1 . c ...
x
b
a
c

* lch chun ca php tnh logarit:

Nu x= k.lna
Nu x= k.loga

Sa

vi k l hng s
th Sx=

th Sx= k .

k Sa
.
2,30 a

Cc gi tr lch chun trong php o trn c gi l khng m bo o

Sa
gi l khng m bo o tng i.
a

tuyt i ca php o. i lng

Th d 2.5: a) Tnh gi tr biu thc:

x=(65,060,07) +(16,130,01)-(22,680,02)= 58,51?

ta c
S x 0,07 2 0,012 0,02 2 0,073 v biu din x = 58,51 0,07
lch chun tng i ca php o l

0,07
.100% 0,1%
58,51

b) x= 2,0164(0,0008)+1,233(0,002)-2,61(0,01)= ?
x= 0,6394= 0,64
11

Sx=

0,00082 0,0022 0,012 = 0,01023.

Vit theo ng s c ngha cho x v Sx s l : x= 0,640,01

( v trong 3 s hng th s c t s c ngha nht sau du phy l 2 s)

c)

(13,67 0,02).(120,4 0,2)

356,0 ?
4,623 0,006
2

ta c

Sx
0,02 0,2 0,006



=0,0026
x
13,67 120,4 4,623

do vy Sx=356,0.0,0026=0,93
Kt qu cui cng s l x = 356,00,9
d) The quantum yield of fluorescence, , is calculated from the expression:
= If /kclI0
where the quantities involved are defined below, with an estimate of their
relative standard deviations in brackets:
I0 = incident light intensity (0.5%)
If = fluorescence intensity (2%)
= molar absorptivity (1%)
c = concentration (0.2%)
l = path-length (0.2%)
k is an instrument constant.
From equation (2.13), the relative standard deviation of is given by:
RSD = 22 + 0.22 + 0.22 + 0.52 + 12 = 2.3%
Th d 2.6 : Tnh lch chun s mmol Cl- trong 250,0 ml dung dch mu, nu
ly 25,00 ml dung dch mu ny chun bng dung dch chun AgNO3 c nng
( 0,11670,0002) M. Th tch dung dch AgNO3 tiu tn sau 3 ln chun
lp li l 36,78; 36,82 v 36,75 ml.
Gii : - th tch dung dch chun AgNO3 trung bnh l: 36,78 ml
-

p dng cng thc tnh lch chun th tch chun ta c S= 0,035

Vy V AgNO 36,78 0,04 (ml)

S mmol Cl- c chun trong 250 ml mu :

X= (0,11670,0002).((36,780,04).10= 42,92 ?
12

Ta c :

Sx
0,0002 0,04
(

).102 0,019
x
0
,
1167
36
,
78

Do Sx= 42,92.0,019=0,082
Kt qu s mmol Cl- trong 250 ml mu l (42,920,08) mmol
Ch : Trong qu trnh tnh ton v c s lan truyn sai s nn cn trnh lm
trn s khi vic tnh ton cha kt thc.

S c ngha trong cc php tnh phc tp c ghi km khng m bo o:

- Qui tc: S u tin trong lch chun l s c ngha cui cng trong kt qu
nhn c.
+Cho php tnh

0,002664(0,000003)
0,1066(0,0002)
0,02500(0,00005)

Trong php tnh trn, lch chun, s c ngha l s 2, khi gi tr 0,0002 c

4 ch s sau du phy nn kt qu c ghi vi 4 s sau du phy (con s ny c 4 s
c ngha).
+Vi php tnh sau

0,8210(0,0020
1,022(0,004) th kt qu c biu din ti
0,803(0,002)

4 ch s c ngha mc d s c ngha t nht trong s chia l 3 s v kt qu tnh

lch chun cui cng vi 1 s c ngha to ra s c 3 ch s sau du phy.
+Trong php tnh

1,76(0,03) 0,59(0,02)
0,619 0 ?
1,89(0,02)

Kt qu tnh ly n 2 ch s c ngha sau du phy cho kt qu ca t s nhng 3

s c ngha v c hai s trong php chia tip theo u c 3 ch s c ngha.
tnh Sx, s dng cng thc lan truyn sai s tng phn nh sau
0,032 0,022 = 0,036 nn t s vit l 1,17(0,036)

lch chun ca t s:
2

0,036 0,02
Nn Sx= 0,6190.

=0,020135
1,17 1,89

V khng m bo o ca cc s thnh phn ch 2 ch s sau du phy nn Sx

phi c vit l 0,020. Do vy kt qu cui cng phi biu din thnh 0,62(0,02) v
trong khng m bo o ch c 2 s c ngha sau du phy.
Th d 2.7: a) Dung dch HCl c c nng phn trm l 37,0(0,5)%, khi lng
ring 1,18(0,01) g/ml. c dung dch cha 0,050 mol HCl cn 4,18 ml dung dch
HCl c. Nu lch chun tng i ca 0,050 mol HCl l 2% th khng m
bo o ca 4,18 ml HCl c l bao nhiu? Bit khi lng nguyn t ca H l
1,00794(0,00007) v Cl l 35,453(0,002)
Gii: T gi tr lch chun tng i ca s mol HCl l 2% dng cng thc i
ra lch chun tuyt i S= 0,02.0,050= 0,001
s mol HCl trong 4,18 ml dung dch HCl c l:
13

mol HCl=

V (ml ).d .C %
molHCl.100.M
do V(ml)=
100.M
d .C %

Ta c 4,18(x)=
=

0,050(0,001).[1,00794(0,00007) 35,453(0,002)]
1,18(0,01).0,370(0,005)

0,050(0,001).36,4609(0,0002)
1,18(0,01).0,37(0,005)

Ta c 94318 =
2

0,001 0,01 0,005 0,0002

=4,18.0,118258=0,40,49 (ml)
0,050 1,18 0,37 36,4609

x= 4,18.

b) xc nh nng dung dch HCl sau khi pha long, ngi ta chun li bng
dung dch chun Na2CO3 vi ch th phenolphtalein. chun ht 27,350,04 ml
dung dch HCl cn 0,9674 0,0009 gam Na2CO3 (khi lng mol phn t l
105,9880,001). Tnh nng mol ca dung dch HCl.
Gii: Phng trnh phn ng vi ch th phenolphtalein l
2H+ + Na2CO3 2Na+ + H2O + CO2
Cng thc tnh nng mol HCl l: C= 2.
Do C=

m
M .V (l )

2.0,9674(0,0009).1000
0,66745
105,988(0,001).27,35(0,04)
2

SC= 0,66745.

0,0009 0,001 0,04

0,9674 105,988 27,35

= 0,00116136

Tuy cc gi tr tnh ton c t nht 4 ch s c ngha nhng khng m bo cui

cng c tnh bt u t s th ba sau du phy nn kt qu cui cng c vit
cso 3 ch s c ngha l 0,667(0,001) mol/l.
BI TP CHNG 2

14