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ME-234 FLUID MECHANICS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 234: Fluid Mechanics LAB (0,1)


1. Introduction to the lab equipment and safety precautions.
2. To understand the working of hydraulic bench and to measure the flow rate.
3. (a) To determine the contraction, velocity and discharge coefficients (Cc , Cv and Cd)
for a sharp edged orifice.
(b) To determine the relationship between flow rate and head drop across the orifice
and to demonstrate that the discharge coefficient is constant over a range of flow
conditions.
4. (a) To determine the coefficient C of a venture meter by comparing the measured
flow rate with the ideal flow rate.
b) To measure the pressure distribution along the meter and compare it with the
ideal pressure distribution
5. (a) To determine the discharge coefficient C for rectangular and vee notch by
comparing the measured flow with the ideal flow.
(b) To determine the relationship between head H and flow rate Q over rectangular
and vee notches (weirs)
6. (a) To measure the force produce by a water jet when it strikes two types of vane: a
flat plate and a hemispherical cup.
(b) To compare the results with the theoretical values calculated from the moment
flux in the jet.
7. Determination of torque produced using a Pelton wheel.
8. (a) To demonstrate the existence of laminar and turbulent flow and to establish the
value of Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
(b) For the laminar flow regime, to use Poiseuilles equation to calculate the
coefficient of viscosity .
(c) To determine the variation of friction factor f in the laminar and turbulent flow
regimes
9. To determine the relationship between total head loss and flow rate for pipe bends
and other common fittings. To determine the loss coefficient K for each fitting and to
compare the results with standard data.
10. To visualization the difference between laminar and turbulent flow.
11. To determine how the stability of a rectangular pontoon is affected by altering the
vertical position of its center of gravity.
(b) To demonstrate how the metacentric height can be used as a measure of the
stability.
(c) To determine the height of the metacentric and compare this with the theoretical
value
12. To determine the hydrostatic pressure
13. Calibration of a pressure gage.
14. To study the surface profiles and shapes of free & forced vortexes and to plot the
relation between surface profiles and speed under different conditions.
15. To understand the working of the wind tunnel.

Fluid Mechanics

EXPERIMENT # 1:

INTRODUCTION

In first week of the lab, An Introduction of the lab equipment and experiments will be
given. List of equipment which will be used in lab experiments is given below:

S/No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Equipment
H1-Hydraulics bench
H4-Flowthrough an orifice
H5-Flow through a Venturi meter
H2-Stability of a Floating body
H-6 Discharge over a notch
H-8 Impact of a Jet
FM-108 Friction Loss along a pipe
FM-112 Reynolds number & Transitional flow
H-13 Free and Forced Vortex
H-16 Losses in pipe bends
H-19 Pelton Turbine
AF81-Wind Tunnel

H3-Calibration of a pressure gauge

The above mentioned equipment will be used in the respective experiments as mentioned in the
lab manual.

EXPERIMENT # 2:

Description of Hydraulic Bench

The Hydraulic bench provides facilities for performing a number of experiments. A small
centrifugal pump, drawing water from the water sump, which lies below the pump, delivers to
apparatus placed on the top of the bench. The flow rate is controlled by the valve, and is
measured by collecting water in the weigh tank. The weigh tank is supported beneath the bench to
one end of the weigh beam. The other end of the weigh beam projects slightly from the bench
support, and carries a weight hanger, sufficient to balance the dry weight of the tank, plus a small
amount of water. An operating lever, adjusted to weigh hanger, may be set in either the stand by
mode or the weighing model. In the stand by mode, a drain valve at the base of the weigh tank is
opened automatically, so alloying the contents to be emptied back to the sump.

Hydraulic Bench
To find the rate of discharge, the liver is moved to the weighing mode. This allows the free end of
the weighing beam to drop to its lower stop, there by closing the drain valve. Water then starts to
accumulate steadily in the weigh tank, so there comes a time when the weighing beam rises to its
upper stop. A stop clock is started at this instant. A known weigh is then added to hanger, so
returning the beam to its lower position. The stop watch is stopped when the beam rises to its
upper stop for a second time. The lever ratio of the weighing beam is 3: 1, so the weight of the
water collected in the time interval is three times the added weight. The flow rate(Kg/Sec) can be
calculated by dividing that weight by the time measured by the stop watch.

Observations and Calculations:

S No

1
2
3
4
5

Weight on Hangar (kg)

Mass of Water (kg)

Volume (m )

Time (s)

(Q = V/t)

(m3/s)

S
No
1
2
3
4
5

Volume (Liters)

Volume (m3)

Time (s)

(Q = V/t)
(m3/s)

EXPERIMENT # 3:

Flow through an Orifice

Objective:
1.
2.

To determine the contraction, velocity and discharge coefficients (Cc , Cv and Cd) for a
sharp edged orifice.
To determine the relationship between flow rate and head drop across the orifice and to
demonstrate that the discharge coefficient is constant over a range of flow conditions.

Applications of orifice:
There are several reasons you might want to install a restrictive device or orifice in a piping
system.
To create a false head for a centrifugal pump, allowing you to run the pump close to its
BEP.
To increase the line pressure.
To decrease the flow through a line.
To increase the fluid velocity in a line.

Apparatus:-

Orifice meter.

Theory:An Orifice is an opening in a vessel through which the liquid flows out.
Orifice meter is used to measure the discharge through pipe. An orifice meter, in its
simplest form consists of a plate having a sharp edge circular hole known as an orifice. This plate
is fixed inside a pipe as shown.

Vena Contracta:It has been observed, that the jet, after leaving the orifice, gets contracted. The
maximum contraction takes place at a section slightly on the downstream side of the orifice,
where the jet is more or less horizontal. Such a section is known as Vena Contracta as shown.
Section 1

Section 2

HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS:a) Coefficient of Contraction:-

b) Coefficient of Velocity:Cv =

c) Coefficient of Discharge:-

Cc

Area of jet at Vena Contracta


Area of Orifice

Actual velocity of jet at Vena Contracta


Theoretical velocity of jet

Cd = Actual Discharge
Theoretical Discharge

=
=

Actual Velocity x Actual Area


.
Theoretical Velocity x Theoretical Area
Actual Velocity
Theoretical Velocity

Actual area
Theoretical area

Cd = Cv x Cc
We can predict the velocity at the orifice using the Bernoulli equation. Apply it along the
streamline joining point 1 on the surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice.
P1+ (u12/2) + gz1 = P2+ (u22/ 2) + gz2_____(1)

At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0).At the orifice
the jet is open to the air so again the pressure is atmospheric (p = 0).The eq1 will become
then_________________
gz1 = (u22/ 2) + gz2
The density will be cancelled .If we take the datum line through the orifice then z1 = h and z2
=0, putting all these values in the above equation we will get_______________

___________(2)
This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately it will be an over estimate of the real
velocity because friction losses have not been taken into account. To incorporate friction we use
the coefficient of velocity to correct the theoretical velocity,

Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually lie in the range (0.97 - 0.99)
To calculate the discharge through the orifice we multiply the area of the jet by the velocity. The
actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice. We obtain this
area by using a coefficient of contraction for the orifice

So the discharge through the orifice is given by

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = Cc Cv

Method:1.
Stand the apparatus on the top of the hydraulics bench and connect the bench supply hose
to the inlet pipe diffuser to about 30mm below the top of the overflow pipe.
2.
Connect a hose to the overflow pipe and push the other end of the hose into the drain hole
in the bench top.
3.
Position the apparatus so that the orifice is directly above the pipe leading to the bench
weighing tank.
4.
Switch on the bench pump and open the flow control valve to supply water to the
apparatus.
5.
When the water level has risen to the top of the overflow pipe, adjust the flow control
valve to obtain a overflow pipe. This will ensure a constant water level in the tank..
6.
Determination of Cc and Cv. Set the traverse mechanism so that the sharp blade will
pass through the water jet emerging from the orifice.
7.
Traverse the blade to intersect one edge and then the opposite edge of the jet. Record the
lead screw reading at each point (the lead screw has I thread per mm and each division on
the hand nut represents 0,1mm)
8.
Now set the pitot tube in the center of the water jet. From the manometers on the side of
the tank, read the pitot head hp and the head h across the orifice.
9.
Measure the flow rate through the orifice by quantity of water in the bench weighing
tank.
10.
Record the diameter d of the orifice (this is given on the apparatus)
11.
Carefully reduce the flow rate to the tank so that the head h is reduced by about 10%
Adjust the inlet pipe to keep the diffuser about 30mm below the water.
12.
When the water in the tank has settled to a constant level, read the exact value of head
and measure the flow rate through the orifice.
Repeat (11) and (12) until you have about 8 sets of readings over a range of flow rates.

Results:
Diameter of the orifice (d) =
Area of orifice (A orifice )

mm =

d2 / 4 =

Tank piezometer reading (h) =

mm

Coefficient of contraction:
Lead screw reading on left side of the jet ( L1) =

mm

Lead screw reading on right side of the jet (L2) =

mm

Difference =

mm

diameter of jet (L1 L2) =

Coefficient of contraction( Cc ) = (dc / d) 2

Cc =
Coefficient of Velocity:
As from equation 2 we have____________
U2 = (2gh)
So we will take the readings of velocity in terms of water head.
U2 actual = ( 2ghp )
U2 theoretical = ( 2gh )
Coefficient of velocity = Cv = (U2 actual / U2 theoretical ) = ( 2ghp ) / ( 2gh )
By simplifying the above equation we get____________
________
Cv = (hp / h)
Pitot tube reading

Coefficient of Velocity =

hp

__________
Cv = (hp / h)
Cv

Coefficient of Discharge:
Mass of water collected =
M
Kg
Volume of water collected
=
V = M/ = M / 1000
Time taken
=
t sec
Volume Flow rate
=
Q = V / t = m3 / s
From the equation
Q = Cd A orifice 2gh
Where
Cd = ( Q ACT / Q TH)
Then by rearranging the above equation we get__________
Cd

Q
.
A orifice 2gh

m3

Variation of Flow Rate with Head:


M
(Kg)

V
(m3)

T
(s)

h
(m)

Q x 10-4
(m3 / s)

h
m

Cd

Avg Cd =

Actual Coefficient of discharge =

Cd ACT =

Theoretical coefficient of Discharge

= Cd TH =
=

% Error =

Cv x Cc

( Cd TH - Cd ACT / Cd TH ) x 100

Now write a brief summary of what you have learnt from the experiment. When writing
your conclusions, it may help you to think about the following questions:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Do your results show that Bernoullis equation can be applied with reasonable accuracy?
Is the approach velocity really negligible?
Is Cd constant over the range of flow rate?
How accurate are your results?

Draw a graph between h and Q x 104 (m3 / s)

h
Q x 104 (m3 / s)
VARITION OF h Q

EXPERIMENT # 4:

Flow through a Venturi Meter

Objective.
1.
2.

To determine the coefficient C of a Venture Meter by comparing the measured flow rate
with the ideal flow rate.
To measured the pressure distribution along the meter and compare it with the ideal
pressure distribution.

Apparatus:-

Venturi Meter.

Theory:A Venturi meter is an apparatus for finding out the discharge of a liquid flowing in a
pipe. A venture meter, in its simplest form, consists of the following three parts:
(a). Convergent cone
(b). Throat
(c). Divergent cone.

A Venturi meter
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of the
Venturi meter we have

By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual discharge taking in
to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of discharge

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or orientation (z1 or z2) of
the Venturimeter. This means that the meter can be at any convenient angle to function.
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady deceleration after
the throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises again to something near to the original
value before the Venturi meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees.
Wider than this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased friction and
energy and pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long and pressure
losses again become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to the
original is rarely greater than 80%.

Method.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

Stand the apparatus on top of the hydraulics bench. Connect the bench supply hose to the
inlet pipe and secure to with a hose clip. Connect a hose to the outlet pipe and put the
other end of the hose into the hole leading to the bench weighing tank.
Open the outlet valve, then switch on the bench pump and open the bench supply valve to
admit water to the apparatus.
Partly close the outlet valve so that water is driven into the manometer tubes. Then
carefully close both valves so that you stop the flow whilst keeping the levels of ware in
the manometers somewhere within the range of the manometer scale.
Level the apparatus by adjusting the leveling the screws until the manometers each read
the same value.
Open both valves and carefully adjust each one in turn until you obtain the maximum
differential reading (h1-h2) whilst keeping all the water levels within the range on the
manometer scale. If necessary, adjust the general level by pumping air into the reservoir
or releasing air from it
Record all of the manometer readings and measure the flow rate by timing the collection
of water in the bench weighing tank.
Partly close the outlet valve to reduce the differential reading (h1-h2) by about 10%.
Adjust the supply valve to keep all of the readings within the range on the manometer
scale.
Repeat (8) and (9) until you have about 8 sets of readings over a range of flow rate. For
one of these conditions, again record all of the manometer reading.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS


CALCULATION OF C
Q = Ca2 2g(h1-h2)/ 1-(a2/a1)2
Rearranged to express C we have

C = 1/a2

1-(a2 /a1)2 /2g

Q/

h1 h2

Now d1 = 26,00 mm
a1 = 531 mm2 = 5,31
2
(a2/a1) = 0.143 1- (a2/a1)2 = 0.857

10 4 m2

Q
C = 1039
h1-h2
TABLE1.
Piezometer
Tube No. n
A(1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

DIMESIONS OF VENTURI TUBE

Diameter
dn (mm)

d2/dn

a22/an

(a22/a1-a22/an)

26.00
23.20
18.40
16.00
16.80
18.47
20.16
21.84
23.53
25.24
26.00

0.615
0.690
0.869
1.00
0.953
0.867
0.787
0.730
0.680
0.633
0.615

0.144
0.226
0.575
1.000
0.830
0.565
0.400
0.289
0.215
0.168
0.144

0.000
0.082
0.431
0.856
0.686
0.421
0.256
0.145
0.071
0.024
0.000

TABLE 2
Qty
( kg )

.t
(s)

MEASUREMENTS OF (h1 h2) AND Q

h1
( mm)

Q x 10-4
(m3 / s)

h2
(mm)

.h1-h2
(m)

h1-h2
m

Avg C

TABLE 3.
Piezometer
tube No.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ALONG VENTURI


METER

.hn
(mm)
A (1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

m3 / s
m

Q
=
U22/ 2g =
.hn-h1
(m)

.hn-h1
u22/2g

Q =
U22/ 2g
.hn
(mm)

m3 / s
m

=
.hn-h1
(m)

.hn-h1
u22/2g

h1-h2
Q x 104 (m3 / s)
VARITION OF h1-h2 WITH Q

VARITION OF C WITH Q

C
Q x 104 (m3 / s)
VARITION OF C WITH Q

Flow over Weirs

EXPERIMENT # 5:
Objectives;

1. To determine the relationship between head H and flow rate Q over rectangular and vee
notches (weirs)
2. To determine the discharge coefficient C for each notch by comparing the measured flow
with the ideal flow.
Apparatus:Theory:a. Flow Over Notches and Weirs:A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir which extends above the surface of the
liquid. It is usually a device for measuring discharge. A weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually
found in rivers. It may be sharp crested but also may have a substantial width in the direction of
flow - it is used as both a flow measuring device and a device to raise water levels.
b. Weir Assumptions:We will assume that the velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so that kinetic energy
can be neglected. We will also assume that the velocity through any elemental strip depends only
on the depth below the free surface. These are acceptable assumptions for tanks with notches or
reservoirs with weirs, but for flows where the velocity approaching the weir is substantial the
kinetic energy must be taken into account (e.g. a fast moving river).
c. A General Weir Equation
To determine an expression for the theoretical flow through a notch we will consider a horizontal
strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in the figure below.

Elemental strip of flow through a notch

integrating from the free surface,


total theoretical discharge

, to the weir crest,

gives the expression for the

This will be different for every differently shaped weir or notch. To make further use of this
equation we need an expression relating the width of flow across the weir to the depth below the
free surface.
d. Rectangular Weir
For a rectangular weir the width does not change with depth so there is no relationship between b
and depth h. We have the equation,

A rectangular weir
Substituting this into the general weir equation gives

To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge,


losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in the area of flow, giving

, which accounts for

'V' Notch Weir


For the "V" notch weir the relationship between width and depth is dependent on the angle of the
"V".

"V" notch, or triangular, weir geometry.


If the angle of the "V" is

then the width, b, a depth h from the free surface is

So the discharge is

And again, the actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

Method.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10.
11.

Carefully slide the rectangular notch plate into the groove on the apparatus and check that
the rubber seal makes contact with the plate along all three edges.
Switch on the bench pump and open the bench supply valve. The apparatus with water
until the level reaches the bottom (crest) of the notch.
Using a beaker, add or remove water until the water surface is just level with the notch
crest. Use a steel rule to check that the level is correct
Set the hook gauge dial to zero and slide the hook up or down until the point of the hook
just coincides with the water surface. Subsequent readings of the water level will than be
relative to the true datum at crest level.
Set the hook gauge to a reading of 60mm. Then adjust the bench supply valve until the
water level corresponds roughly to the hook gauge setting.
Wait until the water level has settled to a constant value, then adjust the hook to this level
and read the exact value of head.
Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of water in the bench-weighing tank.
Again use the hook gauge to measure the water level and record a mean value of head.
Now decrease the head by about 5mm and take another set of head and flow rate
reading. Repeat this procedure until you have about 8 sets of reading over a range of
heads down to about 15mm.
Close the bench supply valve and fit the vee notch to the apparatus. Set the water level to
the base of the vee by adding or removing water. Check that the level is correct by
observing the notch from close to the water surface. The point of the vee and its
reflection should just coincide.
Repeat the procedure given in steps (5) to (9), but this time obtains reading over a range
of heads between 80mm and 30mm.
Switch off the bench pump. Record the witch b of the rectangular notch the semi-angle
of the vee notch.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:Results for Rectangular Notch:Width of the rectangular notch

b =

mm =

For Rectangular Notch:


Cd = Q 3 (1/2g) 1/2 H -3/2 1/B
2
RESULTS FOR RECTANGULAR NOTCH
H
(mm)

Qty
(kg)

.t
(s)

Q x 10 -4
(m3/s)

Log Q
(m3/s)

Log H
(m)

CLCULATION FOR THE DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT


H -3/2

Cd = Q 3 1/2g H -3/2 1/b


2

Results for V Notch:Angle = 30o


For V- Notch:

Tan = 0.57735
Q = C 8 2 g tan H 5/2
15
C = Q 15 1/2g 1/tan H -5/2
8
RESULTS FOR V- NOTCH

H
(mm)

Qty
(kg)

.t
(s)

Q x 10 -4
(m3/s)

Log Q
(m3/s)

Log H
(m)

CLCULATION FOR THE DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT


H -5/2

Avg Cd

C= Q 15 1/2g 1/tanH -5/2


8

Q x 10( 4m3/s)

H (m)

VARITION OF Q WITH H FOR RECTANGULAR AND VEE NOTCHES

Log Q (m3/s)

LOG H (m)

VARITION OF LOG Q WITH LOG H FOR RECTANGULAR AND VEE NOTCHES

EXPERIMENT # 6:

Impact of a jet

INTRODUCTION:
Water turbines are widely used through the world to generate power. In the type of water
turbine referred to as a Pelton wheel, one or more water jets are directed tangentially on
to vanes generated to the rim of the turbine disc. The impact of the water on the vanes
generates a torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to develop power. Such turbines
can generate considerable output at high efficiency. Power in excess of 100 MW, and
hydraulic efficiencies greater than 100%, are not uncommon. It may be noted that the
Pelton wheel is best suited to conditions where the available head of water is great, and
the flow rate is comparatively small.
Objectives:

1.
2.

To measure the force produce by a water jet when it strikes two types of vane: a
flat plate and a hemispherical cup.
To compare the results with the theoretical values calculated from the moment flux in the jet.

Apparatus

Fig No: 1

Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Fit the flat plate to the apparatus.


Set the weighing beam to its datum position. Set the jockey weight on the beam so that datum
groove is at zero on the scale. Turn the adjusting nut above the spring until the grooves on the tally
are in line with the top plate.
Switch on the bench pump and open the bench supply valve.
Fully open the supply valve and slide the jockey weight along the beam until the jockey return to
its datum position. Record the reading on the scale corresponding to the grove on the jockey
weight.
Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of water.
Move the jockey weight inwards by 10 to 15 mm and reduce the flow rate until the beam is
approximately level position.
Repeat the step 6 until you have 6 sets of readings over the range of flow. For the last set, the
jockey should at about 10mm from the zero position.
Switch off the bench pump and fit the hemispherical cup to the apparatus using the same method
as of flat plat take another set of readings.

Switch off the bench pump and record the mass m of the jockey weight, the diameter of
the nozzle and the distance of the vanes from the outlet of the nozzle.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS:


TABLE # 1 RESULTS FOR A FLAT PLATE
Qty
(kg)

t (s)

x
(mm)

m
(kg/s)

m Uo
(N)

U (m/s) Uo
(m/s)

F
(N)

TABLE # 2 RESULTS FOR A HEMISPHERICAL CUP


Qty
t (s)
x
m
U (m/s) Uo
2 m Uo F
(kg)
(mm)
(kg/s)
(m/s)
(N)
(N)

Plots:

1. Force on a Vane (F) versus Momentum Flux (m Uo) for a Flat Plate

2. Force on a Vane (F) versus Momentum Flux (2m Uo) for a


Hemispherical Cup

EXPERIMENT # 7:

Pelton Wheel

Objective
Determination of torque produced using a Pelton wheel.
Equipment required
1.
2.

A suitable stroboscope for measurement of rotational speed.


Pelton Wheel apparatus.

Fig No: 2
Procedure for calibration of dynamometer scale
a)
b)
c)

d)

e)
f)
g)
h)

Set the quadrant arm (carrying the scale graduated 0-35) horizontal with weight hanger
suspended from the pointer at the 100mm radius
Turn the loading knob (at the top) anti-clockwise to lower the pivot of the lever from the
lever arm until the friction cord is slackened off.
Remove the friction cord by unhooking it from the lever arm. In this configuration the
tension in the spring should be adjusted by turn the knurled nut to counterbalance the
weight of the lever arm and the weight hanger (i.e. set the pointer mid way between the
upper and lower stop).
Place a 50 g mass on the hanger. This will deflect the pointer downwards on to the lower
stop. Unclamp the quadrant arm (knob at left hand side) and rotate it slowly clockwise
(upwards) until the pointer lifts off the lower stop pin and reaches a central position
between the stop pins.
In this position the torque applied to the lever by the weight at 100mm radius is
counteracted by the tension in the spring. Read off the angular position of the pointer
relative to the scale.
Add further mass in increment of 20g (10g as appropriate) and read off and record the
angular deflection in the spring.
Plot a graph of scale reading against mass at 100mm. The resulting graph should be
straight line from which the calibration factors for the dynamometer, Kg/deg. can be
determined.
Mass (g)

Scale Reading

Test Procedure
a)
b)
c)
d)

e)
f)
g)

When no mass on the hanger, and the pivot of the lever arm is lowered, reassembled the
friction cord around the aluminum drum.
Connect the supply. Start up the pump and with the valve on the pelton wheel nozzle set
position 4 say, turn the supply valve to the fully open position. This setting will give
app. Maximum flow.
Turn the loading (at the top) clockwise to raise the pivot of the lever arm and supply a
resisting torque to the pelton wheel. The friction cord will move the pointer to the lower
stop pin.
Unclamp the quadrant (by unscrewing the knob at the left hand end of the lever arm) and
rotate it clockwise (upwards) to lift the pointer off the lower stop pin. The friction cord is
then counteracted by the tension in the spring. Read off and record the angular deflection
of the quadrant scale relative to the pointer.
Using the stroboscope check and record the rotational speed of the pelton wheel rotor.
Repeat for other values of the resisting torque (as given by different setting of the loading
knob) until the rotor stalls (is at standstill).
Calculate power in watts at each speed.
Power = .
Where

= torque in Nm , and

= angular velocity in rad/s


rpm

= --------x 2
60
h)

Plot torque (Nm) and power (watts) against rotational speed (rev/min)

Results of a typical test


Scale reading

Mass at 100mm
radius
(from calibration
graph)

Torque
(nm)

Speed
(rev/min)

Power
(watts)

EXPERIMENT # 8:

Laminar, turbulent flow and Reynolds no


Friction Loss Along a Pipe

Objectives:
1.
2.
3.

To demonstrate the existence of laminar and turbulent flow and to establish the value of
Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
For the laminar flow regime, to use Poiseuilles equation to calculate the coefficient of
viscosity .
To determine the variation of friction factor f in the laminar and turbulent flow regimes.

Apparatus

Fig No: 3
Method
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.
8.

Connect the bench supply hose to the inlet of the apparatus and direct the outlet flexible
outlet pipe into the bench drain.
Open the needle valve (N) on the right of the apparatus.
Start the bench pump and slowly open the bench supply valve so that water flows through
the apparatus.
Open the bleed screws (B) at the top of the mercury U-tube, and then slowly closes the
needle valve so that the air is expelled from the piezometer tubes. Open the air valve (V)
to release the air from the water manometer. When all air bubbles have been driven out,
close the bleed screws and air valve.
With the needle valve (N) closed, check that the mercury levels in the Utube are in
balance. If not repeat the process of expelling air. For the first part of the experiment
obtain readings of head loss h along the pipe using the mercury
U-tube as follows.
Close the water manometer isolating tap (T) and fully open the needle valve.
Collect the flow from the outlet pipe into a measuring cylinder and measure the time t for
collection of a known quantity Q.
Read the heights of the two columns of mercury in the U-tube.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Reduce the flow rate by partially closing the needle valve to produce approximately 10%
reduction in differential U-tube reading, and then repeat the measuring process.
Repeat this procedure until you have about 10 sets of readings over the whole flow range.
Measure the water temperature from time to time during the experiment. Now obtain a
similar set of readings over a smaller range of flow, using the constant head tank and the
water manometer for measurement of head loss. To do this, proceed as follows;
Switch on the bench pump and adjust the bench supply valve until you obtain a steady
trickle of water down the overflow pipe.
Open the isolating tap (T), and then pump some air into the top of the manometer to
depress the water surfaces to a convenient level in the two limbs.
Check that the two sides balance at zero flow; If they do not, repeat the process of
bleeding air from the top of the manometer.
Starting with a differential manometer reading of about 450mm of water again take
readings of head loss and flow rate until you have about10 sets of readings over the
whole range.
Measure the water temperature from time to time during the experiment.
Record the length L and diameter D of the test pipe.

Results
Length of pipe between piezometer taping,
Diameter of pipe
Cross-section area

L=
D=
A=

mm =
mm =
m2

m
m

Result with Mercury U-tube


o
=
C
Mean temperature of water
Coefficient of viscosity
=
Ns/m2 (from graph)
Hydraulic gradient,
i = (h1 h2)/L
Velocity,
V = Qty/ t x A
Reynolds number,
Re = VD/
Where;
= 1000 Kg/m3
Plot i against V and add a scale of Re along the top of the graph. Obtained values of log i and log
V and plot a graph.

h1

h2

Qty

Re

Log i

Log V

Determination of critical Reynolds number


As the flow rate reduced, laminar flow first becomes established and when V has the value,
V=
m/s
Re =
Calculation of viscosity from experimental results
i = 32 V/ gD2
= gD2/ 32 x i / V
From fig 1. the standard value of viscosity at the mean temperature is
= --------------------Ns/m2
Poiseuilles equation

Calculation of index n in turbulent regime


For the turbulent regime the slope of the line is
n=
i V

Calculation of f as a function of Re
The relationship between friction factor f and hydraulic gradient i is given by the equation;
i
= 4f/D V2/2g
f
= i/4 D2g/V2
The relationship between Reynolds number Re and velocity V has been established previously in
these results for the particular temperature of the tests.
Read off values of i at few values of Vin each of the laminar and turbulent region. Calculate
values of f and Re from the expressions. Then plot a graph between friction f and Re with the
following standard equations.
Laminar:
f = 16/ Re
Turbulent:
1/ f = 4log (Re f) 0.4
Conclusions
In your laboratory, write a summary what you have learned from the experiment and answer the
following questions.
1. At what value of Re does turbulent flow change to laminar flow? How does this value
compare with the accepted value of 2000?
2. What accuracy have you achieved in measuring the coefficient of viscosity?
3. What difference in friction factor you expect if the inside surface of the pipe is very
rough?

EXPERIMENT # 9:

Pressure losses in bends and pipes

Objectives
1.

To determine the relationship between total head loss and flow rate for pipe bends and
other common fittings.
2.
To determine the loss coefficient K for each fitting and to compare the results with
standard data.
Apparatus

Fig No:4
Methods
1.
2.
3.
4.

Close the globe valve K and open the gate valve D. Switch on the bench pump and open
the bench supply valve to admit water to the dark blue circuit. Allow water to flow for 2
to 3 minutes.
Close the gate valve D and bleed all the air into the top of the manometer tubes. Check
that all the manometers show zero pressure difference.
Open the gate valve and then, by carefully open the bleed screws at the top of the
mercury U-tube, fill each limb with water. Make sure that all air bubbles have been
expelled, and then close the bleed screws.
Close the gate valve, open the globe valve, and repeat the procedure for the light blue
circuit.

Dark Blue Circuit


5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.

Open fully the bench supply valve. Then close the globe valve and open fully the gate
valve to obtain the maximum flow rate through the dark blue circuit.
If necessary, adjust the water level in the manometers by pumping air into, or releasing
air from the bleed valves at the tops of the manometers.
Record the readings of the manometers in the dark blue circuit. Note the reference
number of each manometer and also record the type of fitting next to each pair of results.
Also read the levels in the mercury U-tube connected between the inlet and out let of the
gate valve D.
Measure the flow rate by timing the collection of water in bench weighing tank.
Measure the water temperature.
Close the gate valve to reduce the differential manometer readings by about 10%. Again
read the manometer and U-tube, and then measure the flow rate.
Repeat this procedure until you have about 10 sets of readings over the whole range of
flow.

Result for dark blue circuit


Water temperatures:-------------- oC
Mean temperatures: ---------------------oC
2
Sr. M
t
V
V / Manometer readings and differential heads (mm
U-tube
No Kg
s
m/s 2g
of water)
(mm of Hg)
m
Elbow Bend
Straight pipe
Mitre bend
Gate valve
m 1
2
3
4
5
6
h
h2
h
hf
h
H
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Light Blue Circuit


Close the gate valve and open the globe valve. Then repeat (6) and (11) to obtain the sets of
readings for the light blue circuit.

Results for light blue circuit

Sr.
No

Water temperature:-------------- oC
Mean temperature: ---------------------oC
M t V
V2
Manometer readings and differential heads (mm of water)
Kg s m/s /2g
mm
Expansion Contraction
Bend J
Bend H
Bend G
7

10

1
1

1
2

1
3

1
4

1
5

1
6

U-tube
(mm of
Hg)
Globe
Valve
h h
H
1
2

EXPERIMENT # 10:

Turbulent Flow

To visualize the difference between Laminar &

INTRODUCTION
The Osborne Reynolds demonstration apparatus has been designed for students experiment on
the laminar, transition and turbulent flow. It consists of a transparent header tank and flow
visualization pipe. The header tank is provided with a diffuser and stilling materials at the bottom
to provide a constant head of water to be discharged through a bell mouth entry to the flow
visualization pipe. Flow through this pipe is regulated using a control valve at the discharge end.
The water flow rate through the pipe can be measured using the volumetric tank (or volumetric
cylinder). Velocity of the water can therefore be determined to allow the calculation of the
Reynolds number. A dye injection system installed on top of the header tank so that flow pattern
in the pipe can be visualized.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Unit Assembly

1. Dye reservoir
3. Stilling tank
4. Water inlet valve
6. Water outlet valve

2.Dye injector
4. Observation tube
5. Bell mouth
7. Overflow tube

The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration apparatus is equipped with a visualization tube for
students to observe the flow condition. The rocks inside the stilling tank are to calm the inflow
water so that there will not be any turbulence to interfere with the experiment. The water
inlet/outlet valve and dye injector are utilized to generate the required flow.

INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING


1. Assemble the Osborne Reynolds as shown in the picture.
2. Place the Osborne Reynolds apparatus on a level ground. Use a level spirit to level the
apparatus.
3. Connect hose to the apparatus outflow, inflow and overflow.
4. Fill up the dye reservoir with ink.
5. Establish water supply by connecting the inlet hose to a water source and open the inlet
valve.
6. Fill the stilling tank with stones that are being provided and proceed to fill up the stilling
tank with water.
7. Open the outflow valve to test the unit. Check for any leaking of water and proceed to
inject the ink.
8. The unit is now ready to use.

THEORY
The Reynolds number is widely used dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics.
Reynolds number formula . R = VL
v
R = Reynolds number
V = Fluid velocity, (m/s)
L = Characteristic length or diameter (m)
2
v = Kinematic viscosity (m /s)
Reynolds number R is independent of pressure
Pipe Flow Conditions
For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits, L is the diameter of the pipe. For Reynolds number
less than 2300, the pipe flow will be laminar. For Reynolds number = 2300 the pipe flow will be
considered a transitional flow. Turbulent occur when Reynolds number is above 2300. The
viscosity of the fluid also determines the characteristic of the flow becoming laminar or turbulent.
Fluid with higher viscosity is easier to achieve a turbulent flow condition. The viscosity of fluid is
also dependant on the temperature.
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denoted a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel paths, there
being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition the dye observed will
remain as a solid, straight and easily identifiable component of flow.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the center of the
pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in different manners in terms
of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different equations that predict their
behavior.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes and unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact causing shear
plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed will become disperse in
the water and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be identifiable at this points.

EXPERIMENT
Aim:

To compute Reynolds number (R).


To observe the Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent flow.

Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.


Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is achieved.
Regulate the water inlet and outlet valve until an identifiable dye line is achieved.
Measure the flow rate using volumetric method i-e collect the water from the outlet having
die in it in a volumetric tank and calculate the time with a stop watch.
9. Repeat the experiment by regulating water inlet and outlet valve to produce different
flows.
Table
Sr. #

Discharge
(Liter)

Time (sec)

Flow rate Q
(LPS)

Flow Rate Q
3
(m /sec)

Reynolds
Number

EXPERIMENT # 11:

Stability of Floating Body

Objectives
1.
2.
3.

To determine how the stability of a rectangular pontoon is affected by altering the vertical
position of its center of gravity.
To demonstrate how the metacentric height can be used as a measure of the stability.
To determine the height of the metacenter and compare this with the theoretical value.

Theory:Whenever a body is placed over a liquid, either it sinks down or float on the liquid. If we
analyze the phenomenon of floatation, we find that the body, placed over a liquid , is subjected to
the following two forces:1. Gravitational Force
2. Upthrust of the liquid.
Since the two forces are opposite to each other, therefore we have to study the the comparative
effect of these forces. A little consideration will show, that if the gravitational force is more than
the upthrust of the liquid, the body will sink down. But if the gravitational force is less than the
upthrust of the liquid, the body will float. This may be best understood by the Archimedecss
principle as discussed below.
a). Achimedecss Principle:Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid, it is buoyed
up (i.e lifted up) by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
b). Buoyancy: - The tendency of a fluid to uplift a submerged body, because of the upward thrust
of the fluid, is known as the force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy. It is always equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
c). Centre of Buoyancy: - It is the point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
It is always the centre of gravity of the volume of the liquid displaced.
d). Metacentre:-

Whenever a body, floating in a liquid, is given a small angular displacement, it


starts oscillating about some point. This point, about which the body starts oscillating, is called
metacentre.
e). Metacentric Height:-

The distance between the centre of gravity of a floating body and


metacentre is called metacentric height.
As a matter of fact, the metacentric height of the floating body is a direct measure of its stability.
Or in other words, more the metacentric height of a floating body, more it will be stable. In the
modern design offices, the metacentric height of a floating body or a ship accurately calculated to
check its stability. Some values of metacentric height are given below:
Merchant Ships = up to 1 m
Sailing ships = up to 1.5 m
Battle ships = up to 2.0 m
River Craft
= up to 3.5 m
Conditions of equilibrium of Floating Body:
A body is said to be in equilibrium, when it remains in a steady state,
while floating in a liquid. Following are the three conditions of equilibrium of a floating body.

Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium:-

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original


position, when given a small angular displacement. This happens when metacentre ( M ) is higher
than the centre of gravity ( G ).
Unstable Equilibrium:-

A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium , if it does not return back


to its original position and heels farther away, when given a small angular displacement. This
happens when the metacentre (M) is lower than the centre of gravity (G).
Neutral Equilibrium:-

A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position


and remains at rest in the new position, when given a small angular displacement. This happens
when metacentre (M) coincides with the centre of gravity (G).

Method
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Record the weights, W of the complete pontoon, w of the jockey and Wy of the
adjustable weight on the mast.
Measure the over all length L and width D of the pontoon.
Set the adjustable weight about half way up the mast and measure its height Y 1 from the
base of the pontoon.
Determine the height y of the center of the gravity from the base of pontoon by upending it and balancing the mast on the edge of a steel rule. Loop the plumb the plumb
line over the scale so that the plumb bob is kept approximately in its normal position.
When the pontoon is hanging vertically, mark the balance point with pencil.
Measure the height of the balance point from the base of pontoon. This represents the
height y of the center of gravity.
Fill the plastic container with water to a depth of about 70mm and float the pontoon in it.
Set the jockey weight exactly half way across the pontoon and check the reading of the
plumb line on the scale. If necessary, set the reading to zero by adjusting the pin at the
top of the mast.
Set the adjustable weight to its lowest position on the mast and record its height from the
base of the pontoon.
Set the jockey weight to 5 different position on each side of the pontoon, for each
position, record the distance X1 from the center of the pontoon and measure the angle of
tilt
Repeat the reading for three or four other height of the adjustable weight, raising it each
time by about 50mm. The pontoon will become decreasingly stable as you move the
adjustable weight up the mast, so the number the tilt angle reading you can take will be
limited by the width of the scale.

Results and calculations


Weight of total floating assembly
Jockey weight
Adjustable weight
Length of pontoon
Breadth of pontoon
Enter your other results in table.

W =
w =
Wy =
L=
D=

Calculations
Second moment of water plain area,
I

I=

Volume of water displaced,


V

Theoretical value of BM,


BM = I / V
Depth of immersion (2X Yb) = V/ LD
Height of center of buoyancy B above base, Yb =

Kgf
Kgf
Kgf
mm =
mm =

m
m

1
= --------- LD3
12
1
12

m4

Weight W
-------------------Specific weight of water

mm

Determination of height of G
Height of adjustable weight of above base Y1 =
mm
Measured height of G above base
Y=
The ratio of the adjustable weigh Wy to the total weight W is 1:
Y = Y1 + A
Where A is a constant. Substituting for Y and Y1
= ------------- + A
A = ---------------- mm
Hence calculate values of Y in table

mm

GRAPHICS OF TILT ANGLE AGAINST JOCKEY WEIGHT POSITION

BG=Y- YB
GM

W
------W

X1
--------- (mm)

Table: measured angles of tilt


Height of
Adjustable
Weight Y1
(mm)

Height
Of G
Y
(mm)

-75

-60

Position of jockey weight X1 (mm)


-45 -30 -15 0
15
30 45

60

75

Angle
Of
Tilt

Table: calculated values of GM and BM from experimental results


Height of G
Y
(mm)

X 1/
(mm/degree)

(mm/radian)

GM
=w/W.X1/
(mm)

BG
=Y-Yb
(mm)

BM
=BG+GM
(mm)

EXPERIMENT # 12:

submerged body

Center of Pressure and Hydrostatic Force on a

Objectives:
To understand the hydrostatic pressure distribution
To verify the location of center of pressure
Apparatus:
The apparatus is designed in a way that only the moment due to hydrostatic pressure
distribution on the vertical end of water vessel should be included. The water vessel is
designed as a ring segment with constant cross-section. The top and bottom faces are
concentric circular arcs centered on the pivot so that the resultant hydrostatic force at
every point passes through the pivot axis and does not contribute to the moment.

EXPERIMENT # 13:

Calibration of a Pressure Gauge

Objectives:
To study dead weight calibration.

INTRODUCTION
A dead weight tester apparatus uses known traceable weights to apply pressure to a fluid
for checking the accuracy of readings from a pressure gauge. A dead weight tester
(DWT) is a calibration standard method that uses a piston cylinder on which a load is
placed to make an equilibrium with an applied pressure underneath the piston.
Deadweight testers are so called primary standards which means that the pressure
measured by a deadweight tester is defined through other quantities: length, mass and
time. Typically deadweight testers are used in calibration laboratories to calibrate
pressure transfer standards like electronic pressure measuring devices.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The mechanism of the gauge is shown in the figure below. A tube, having a thin wall of
oval cross section, is bent to a circular arc encompassing about 270 degrees. It is rigidly
held at one end, where the pressure is admitted to the tube, and is free to move at the
other end, which is sealed. When pressure is admitted , the tube tends to straighten, and
the movement at the free end operates a mechanical system which moves a pointer round
the graduated scale the movement of the pointer being proportional to the pressure
applied. The sensitivity of the gauge depends on the material and dimensions of the
Bourden tube; gauges with a very wide selection of pressure ranges are commercially
available.

FORMULA
The formula on which the design of a DWT is based basically is expressed as follows :
p
where :

F/A

[Pa]

p : reference pressure
[Pa]
F : force applied on piston [N]
A : effective area
[m2]

PART IDENTIFICATION

Diameter of piston = 18mm


Mass of piston = 0.5kg

EXPERIMENT
Aim
To find out pressure with a bourdon tube pressure gauge and compare it with theoretical
results.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Remove the piston from unit.


Close valve V1 and open valve V2.
Fill cylinder with oil.
Now close valve V2.
Put piston back in position with V1 and V2 in close position.
Read out pressure value on gauge and compare it with theoretical results.
Repeat the experiment by adding weights.

Observations
Sr. #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Applied
Load
(kg)

Applied
Load
(N)

Area
(m2)

Theoretical
Pressure
(N/m2)

Practical
Pressure
(N/m2)

EXPERIMENT # 14:

FREE AND FORCED VORTEX

Free Vortex
Objectives:
1.
To study on surface profile and speed.
2.
To find a relation between surface profile and speed.
Procedure:
1.
Perform the general start-up procedures.
2.
Select an orifice with diameter 24mm and place it on the base of cylinder tank.
3.
Close the output valve and adjust the valve to let the water flows into the sink from two
pipes with 12.5 mm diameter. The water can flow out through the orifice.
4.
Switch on the pump and open the valve slowly until the tank limit. Maintain the water level
by controlling the valve.
5.
When the water level is stable, collect the vortex profile by measuring the vortex diameter
for several plane.
6.
Push down the profile measuring gauge until the sharp point touch the water surface.
7.
Record the measured height, h (from the top of the profile measuring gauge to the bridge.
Obtain the value of a (mm) - distance from the bridge to the surface of the water level (bottom level
of the cutout).
8.
Use the pitot tube to measure the velocity by sinking it into the water at the depth of 5mm
from the water surface. Measure the depth of the pitot tube in the water and also the height
difference of the U tube at the side of the tank.
9.
Repeat Step 3-8 for another two orifice with diameter 16mm and 8mm respectively.
10.
Plot the coordinates of vortex profile for all diameter of orifice in the same graph and
calculate the gradient of graph as shown below:

X=
11.

Which X is the pressure head / depth of the pitot tube.


Plot the velocity which study from the pitot tube reading, H versus the radius of the profile.
V = (2gH)0.5
Theoretically, the velocity can be calculated by using the following equation:
K
V
r
Diameter at
Centre, D
(mm)

Measured
Height, h
(mm)

Pitot Tube
Head
Difference,
H (mm)

Pressure
Head / Depth
of the pitot
tube, X (mm)

Forced Vortex
Objectives:
1.
To study on surface profile and angular velocity.
2.
To find a relation between surface profile and total head.
Procedures:
1.
Perform the general start-up procedures.
2.
Place a closed pump with two pedals on the foot of the bed.
3.
Close the output valve and adjust the valve to let the water flows into the sink
from two pipes with 9.0 mm diameter. The water can flow out through another two pipes with
12.5mm diameter.
4.
Make sure that the water flow with the siphon effect by raising the hose to a
standard before letting the water to the sink.
5.
Measure the angular speed of the pedals by counting the number of circles in
a certain times.
6.
Push down the surface probe until the sharp point touch the water surface.
7.
Record the vertical scale reading.
8.
Repeat Step 4-7 for another two volumetric flow rate.
9.
Plot the coordinates of vortex profile for different angular velocity.
10.
Plot the calculated profile vortex in the same graph as they relate as

h = h0 +

r2
Compare both experimental and calculated profile.

Distance from
Centre (mm)
0
30
70
110
No of revolutions
in 60s
Angular Velocity
(rad/s)

1st (___LPM)

ho (mm)
2nd (___LPM)

3rd (___LPM)

SUMMARY OF THEORY
1.1

Free Cylindrical Vortex

When a liquid is flowing out of a tank through a hole at the bottom of the tank, free vortex
is formed with the number of oscillation depending on the distortion that created the flow.
The liquid is moving spirally towards center following current, energy per unit mass is
assumed to be constant when energy loss by viscosity is neglected. If, while the mass of

water is rotating, the central exit hole is plugged, the flow of water in the vertical plane
ceases and the motion becomes one of simple rotation in the horizontal plane. This is
known as free cylindrical vortex.
Bernoullis theorem can be used because the movement is along the flow axis,
p V2
z constant
g 2g
For horizontal plane, the relation becomes
p V2
constant
g 2g
Integration of the above relation with r gives
1 dp V dV
g dr g dr

(1)

Next, consider a pair of stream line being divided with distance r and is in same
horizontal plane and are linked by a fluid tube wide A . The centrifugal force of the tube is
balanced by the pressure difference between both ends, that is
V 2 dp
g A r
r A
gr dr
gV 2
gr

dp
dr

(2)

Combine (1) and (2) to produce


V 2 V dV
0
gr g dr
dV V
0
dr r

Integrate above relation to obtain

ln r ln V constant
vr K (constant)
K
V
r

(3)

In free cylinder vortex, velocity is inversely proportional to distance from spiral axis.
Bernoullis theorem is used to determine surface profile as follow:
V2
z C (constant)
(4)
2g
Substitute (3) into (4)

K2
2 gr 2

K2
2gr 2

That is, equation for hyperbolic curve yx 2


horizontal to z = C
1.2

(5)

A that is symmetry to axis of rotation and is

Free Vortex

Movement in free vortex is different with free cylindrical vortex because free vortex
contains radial velocity towards center. Equation for such situation can be generated by
considering the water passes through round segments towards its diameter, where energy
passing any tube and is kept constant until
p V2
z constant
g 2g
If A and V is surface area and velocity of a particular position, and A1 , V1 are surface area
and velocity at distance r from center circle,
AV A1V1 constant
By taking A

Kr ,

r1V1
r

If z is constant,

p
g

r1 V1
2 gr 2

C
2

r1 V12
2gr 2

p
g

p1
g

V1
2g

p1
g

V1
2g

(6)

Also,

p1
g

C
2

r1 V1
2 gr 2
2

V1
r
1 12
2g
r

(7)

Free vortex can be said as combination of cylinder vortex and radial flow. Velocity is
inversely proportional to radius in every case. Angle between flow axis and radius vector at
any point is constant and these axis form the spiral pattern.
1.3

Forced Vortex

As we know, angular velocity is constant,


V

Increase in radial pressure is given by


dp
V2
dr
r
p2

p1

p 0 , when r1

By taking p1

Because p

r1

p1

0 , and p 2
p

r2

dp
p2

p0
g

rdr

1
2

(r2

p when r2

r1 )

(8)

r,

w2 2
r
2g

h , so
h ho

h0

2g
2

2g

r2

r2

This is a parabolic equation.


Surface profile for forced vortex can be represented by equation:
2 2
r
z
2g
Distribution of total head can be represented by equation:
2 2
r
H
g
Where:
Z
=
Surface profile
=
Angular velocity
r
=
Radius
g
=
Gravity
H
=
Total Head
Angular velocity can be calculated by:

Where:
Z

Surface profile

(9)


r
g

=
=
=

Angular velocity
Radius
Gravity

EXPERIMENT # 15:

Wind Tunnel

Objectives
1.

To study the operation of the wind tunnel.

2.

To find the velocity of air in the test section of the wind tunnel using Pitot tube.

Apparatus:

Wind Tunnel Specifications:


Overall Length = 4.4 meters
Height = 2.0m
Width=0.9m
Test section airspeed = 50 m/s (max)
Test section dimensions = 230 mm x230 mm x480 mm

AF-81 Wind Tunnel is basically designed for study of aerodynamics in subsonic region.
Typically Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics studies fluid motion in flows which are
much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow.
A purpose built contraction is designed to allow uniform velocities in the test section of
the wind tunnel and velocities up to 50 m/s are attainable in the wind tunnel. A
mechanical damper assembly is installed in the wind tunnel which provides continuous
variable control of the air velocity.
In solving a flow problem, one decision is to be made, whether to incorporate the effects
of compressibility or not. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of
density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the flow are small i.e. at low
velocities, the density is assumed to be constant. The problem is then treated as an
incompressible low-speed aerodynamics or a subsonic flow problem. If study of the flow
is characterized by large velocities, the density is not constant anymore and varies
according to the velocity, the problem is then called a compressible flow problem and
effects of compressibility on the flow have to be incorporated in the solution. In air,
compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number of the flow does not
exceed 0.3. Flows involving Mach number greater than 0.3 should be solved by
incorporating compressibility effects.
Test Section of the Wind Tunnel:

1. In the test section, the air velocity can be measured by a Pitot Static Tube, and the
pressure variation can be measured along various models/aero foils.
2. To prevent unnecessary vibrations in the test section the fan assembly is mounted
in its own support and fitted with anti-vibration mounts.

Calculation of Velocity:
Air Velocity in the test section can be calculated from the Bernoullis equation.
Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
Mathematically;

Static pressure is negative because of the air flowing above the Pitot static tube creates a
negative pressure on the surface of the Pitot static tube,
Air velocity can be derived from the velocity pressure relation which comes out to be:

Since;
and;
Substituting and solving for V in the above mentioned equation yields;

Here;
P1 = atmospheric pressure (mbar)
P2 = Pressure difference on the manometer (mbar)
R = Specific Gas Constant (287.1 J/Kg 0K)

T = Temperature (Kelvin)

Observations:
S No

Temperature
(Kelvin)

P1 (mbar)

P2 (mbar)

Velocity (m/s)

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