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34969310

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Table Of Contents
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS
1.3 SCOPE OF THE WORK
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TYPES OF PIERS
2.3 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS OF PIER
Permissible Stresses in Concrete (in MPa)
2.4 CONCLUSIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 TYPES OF WELL FOUNDATIONS
3.3 ELEMENTS OF A WELL FOUNDATION
3.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WELL FOUNDATION
3.4.1 DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH
3.4.2 LOADS FOR WELL FOUNDATION DESIGN
3.4.3 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF WELL FOUNDATIONS
Table 3.2 Values of the constant Q for square or rectangular wells
3.4.4 DESIGN OF WELL CURB
3.4.5 DESIGN OF WELL STEINING:
3.4.6 DESIGN OF BOTTOM PLUG
3.4.7 DESIGN OF WELL CAP
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS


4.2.1 UNDER-REAMED PILES
4.2.2 BORED CAST-IN-SITU PILES
4.2.3 NUMBERS, SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF PILES
4.2.4 SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE GROUPS
4.2.6 LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS OF PILES
4.2.7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE
4.2.8 SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUP
4.2.9 DESIGN OF PILE CAP
4.3 CONCLUSIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 FUNCTIONS LAYOUT OF THE SOFTWARE
5.2.2 ANALYSIS OF PIER
5.2.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WELL FOUNDATION
5.2.5 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 PROBLEM ON WELL FOUNDATION
6.3 PROBLEM ON PILE FOUNDATION
6.4 CONCLUSIONS
7.1 CONCLUSIONS
7.2 SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK
Table A-5 Resultant Tensile Stresses at Point A & B on Pier
(a) Seismic moment due to mass of bridge components & live load
Table A-7 Seismic moment due of mass of bridge components & Live load
Table B-2 Stresses due to horizontal shear force at bearings
Table B-5 Resultant Tensile Stresses at A & B on Pier

ARRANGEMENT OF PILES IN FOUNDATION


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Bridge Substructure Analysis & Design
Bridge Substructure Analysis & Design
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ABSTRACT
The analysis and design of all the components of even the most simple bridgetype
can be a fairly laborious and cumbersome job especially with respect to the
variouselements of the bridge substructure. For bridges located on major perennial
rivers, resortwill have to be made to deep foundations like wells or pile foundations,
the design of which involves lengthy computational effort. The bridge engineer
should be equippedwith a handy computational tool with the help of which he can
quickly and reliablydetermine the suitability of various layouts and configuration of
the sub-structure beforefinalizing the most optimum design of the substructure. In
this thesis and attempt hasbeen made to develop a P.C. based software on VB.Net
platform for the analysis anddesign of substructure for bridges with simplysupported spans. The computerprogramme includes the analysis and of wall-type
and circular piers and includes theoption for the complete analysis and design of
two-types of deep foundations on the basisof the relevant IS Codes of Practice: Well
foundations and pile foundations. The pilefoundations can be analyzed and
designed for both river and non-river bridge crossingsand the user is presented the
option of two types of piles for use in the foundations:under-reamed piles
particularly for non-river bridge foundations and bored cast-in-situcircular piles. A
noteworthy feature of the program is that lateral load analysis of bothfree and fixedhead piles can be carried out by the user in line with the recommendationsof the
relevant IS Codes. The user friendly and interactive program assists the user in
theselection of preliminary dimensions of the well foundation, the safety of which
ischecked of the elastic state of the soil surrounding the well and at ultimate
loads.Structural design of the critical well components like well curb, steining and
well cap isincorporated in the software. The results for foundation design obtained
from theprogram have been validated with long-hand calculations present in the
Appendix.

CONTENTS
Chapter No. Title Pg. No.
Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Introduction 11.2 Objective of the Thesis 31.3 Scope of
the Work 31.4 Organization of the Thesis 3Chapter-2 PIERS & PIER CAPS2.1
Introduction 42.2 Types of Piers 42.3 Procedure for Analysis of Pier 62.4 Conclusions
9Chapter-3 WELL FOUNDATIONS3.1 Introduction 103.2 Types of Well Foundations
103.3 Elements of a Well Foundation 123.4 Analysis and Design of Well Foundation
143.4.1 Determination of Maximum Scour Depth 143.4.2 Loads for Well Foundation
Design 163.4.3 Stability Analysis of Well Foundations 163.4.4 Design of Well Curb

213.4.5 Design of Well Steining 223.4.6 Design of Bottom Plug 233.4.7 Design of
Well Cap 233.5 Conclusions 25Chapter-4 PILE FOUNDATIONS4.1 Introduction 264.2
Design of Pile Foundations 294.2.1 Under-reamed Piles 294.2.2 Bored Cast-in-situ
Piles 30

4.2.3 Numbers, Spacing and Arrangement of Piles 354.2.4 Safe Bearing Capacity of
Pile Groups 374.2.5Distribution of load between Vertical Piles of Pile Group394.2.6
Lateral load analysis of Piles 404.2.7 Structural Design of Pile 424.2.8 Settlement of
Pile Group 444.2.9 Design of Pile Cap 464.3 Conclusions 48Chapter-5 SOFTWARE
FEATURES5.1 Introduction 495.2 Functions Layout of the Software 495.2.1Selection
and Input of Parameters used forAnalysis and Design of Foundations505.2.2
Analysis of Pier 535.2.3Estimation of Scour Depth for FoundationDesign535.2.4
Analysis and Design of Well Foundation 555.2.5 Analysis and Design of Pile
Foundation 625.3. Conclusions 73Chapter-6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION6.1
Introduction 746.2 Problem on Well Foundation 746.3 Problem on Pile Foundation
1036.4 Conclusions 128Chapter-7 CONCLUSIONS7.1 Conclusions 1297.2 Scope for
Further Work 129Chapter-8 REFERENCES 130APPENDIX ASUPPORTING LONG HAND
CALCULATIONS FOR THEILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM ON WELL FOUNDATION132

APPENDIX BSUPPORTING LONG HAND CALCULATIONS FOR THEILLUSTRATIVE


PROBLEM ON PILE FOUNDATION164

LIST OF TABLES
Table.No.Title Pg.No.
2.1 Value of constant K for Pressure Intensity due to Water Current 72.2 Permissible
Stresses in Concrete 93.1 Silt factors for Sandy beds, IRC: 78-2000
8
153.2 Values of the constant Q for square or rectangular wells 204.1Bearing
Capacity Factor,334.2Value of coefficient of horizontal soil stress (334.3 Safe loads
for under-reamed piles 354.4Values of the constant (kN/m
3
)414.5 Values of the constant
K
(kN/m
2
) 41A-1 Calculation of Maximum Shear forces bearings 141A-2 Stresses due to
horizontal shear force at bearings 141A-3 Summary of Stresses due to various
forces acting on the Pier 142A-4
Resultant Compressive Stresses at Point A & B on Pier
143A-5
Resultant Tensile Stresses at Point A & B on Pier

143A-6 Horizontal shear force at bearings & moments at the base of foundation
148A-7 Seismic moment due of mass of bridge components & Live load 148B-1
Calculation of Maximum Shear forces at bearings 168B-2 Stresses due to horizontal

shear force at bearings 169B-3 Summary of Stresses due to various forces acting on
the Pier 169B-4
Resultant Compressive Stresses at A & B on Pier
170B-5
Resultant Tensile Stresses at A & B on Pier
170B-6 Moment about longitudinal axis in pile cap from the critical section 182B-7
Calculation of two-way shear force 184B-8 Calculation of one-way shear force at
critical section along L-L axis of bridge185

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.No.Title Pg. No.
2.1 Typical Shapes of Piers 53.1 Different Shapes of Well 113.2 Typical Section of
Well Foundation 124.1 Piles Classification on the basis of load transfer mechanism
264.2 Uplift Piles 274.3 Use of piles in scourable beds 274.4 Piles in expansive soils
can control seasonal movements 284.5 Free Standing Pile Group 294.6 Piled
Foundation 294.7 Load resisting mechanism in a pile 314.8Bearing Capacity Factor,
for bored piles324.9 Adhesion factor for cohesive soils 344.10 Typical arrangement
of piles in a group 364.11 Determination of the depth of fixity of the pile 424.12
Reduction factors for free-head and fixed-head piles 434.13 Computation of
Settlements for End Bearing Piles & Friction Piles 454.14 Critical section for moment
& one-way shear 474.15 Critical section for two-way shear 474.16 Typical detailing
of reinforcement in a pile cap 475.1 Flow Chart of preliminary dimensioning of pier
515.2 Flow Chart for Analysis of Pier 525.3 Flow Chart for calculation of Maximum
Scour Depth 545.4 Flow Chart for calculation of soil resistance

565.5 Flow Chart for calculation of soil resistance at ultimate loads 585.6 Flow Chart
for design of Well curb 595.7 Flow Chart for design of Well steining 60

5.8 Flow Chart for design of Well Cap 615.9 Flow Chart for soil details 635.10 Flow
Chart for calculating safe bearing Capacity of bored cast-in-situ pile 655.11Flow
Chart for calculating safe bearing Capacity of an under-reamed Pile665.12 Flow
Chart for calculation of SBC of group of bored cast-in-situ piles 685.13 Flow Chart for
calculation of SBC of group of under-reamed piles 695.14 Lateral load capacity of
Under-reamed Pile 705.15 Lateral load capacity of Bored Cast-in-situ pile 715.16
Design of Pile Cap 726.1 Details of Soil layers in Ground 104A-1Pier Section in
longitudinal direction of bridge133A-2 Water Pressure Details 137A-3
Location of A & B on pier
142A-4 Diagram of a Well Foundation 145A-5 Diagram of Well curb 146A-6 Diagram
of Bottom Plug 146A-7 Load dispersion area in well cap 158A-8Moments in well-cap
when freely supported160A-9 Moments in well-cap when fully clamped 161A-10
Reinforcement Details of Well Cap 163B-1 Pier Section in transverse direction of
bridge 164B-2
Location of A & B on Pier
170B-3 Effective overburden pressure on pile 172B-4 Arrangement of Piles in
Foundation 174B-5 Settlement of End bearing piles 180B-6 Reinforcement details of
Pile Cap 186

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Thomas B. Macaulay once said: Of all inventions, the alphabet and the printing
press
alone, excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done the most for
the
civilization of our species. Since ancient
times, bridges have been the most visible testimonyto the contribution of
engineers. Bridges have always figured prominently in human history.They enhance
the vitalities of the cities and aid the social, cultural and economicimprovements of
the locations around them.Bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle
without closing the waybeneath. The required passage may be for a road, a railway,
pedestrians, a canal or a pipelineand the obstacle to be crossed may be a river, a
road, railways or a valley. The portion of thebridge structure below the level of the
bearing and above the founding level is generallyreferred to as the substructure.
The design of bridge substructure is an important part of theoverall design for a
bridge and affects to a considerable extent the aesthetics, the safety andthe
economy of the bridge. Bridge substructure are a very important part of a bridge as
itsafely transfers the loads from the superstructure to the earth in such a manner
that thestresses on the soil are not excessive & the resulting deformations are
within the acceptablelimits.The selection of the foundation system for a particular
site depends on manyconsiderations, including the nature of subsoil, location where
a bridge is proposed to beconstructed i.e. over a river, road, or a valley, etc. & the
scour depth. A bridge may haveeither have the following types of foundations:1.
Well foundations: It is the most common type of foundation in India for both road
&railway bridges. Such foundation can be sunk to great depths and can carry very
heavyvertical and lateral loads. Well foundations can also be installed in a boulder
stratum. It is amassive structure and is relatively rigid in its structural behavior.2.
Pile foundations: It consist of relatively long and slender members, called piles
which areused to transfer loads through weak soil or water to deeper soil or rock
strata having a highbearing capacity. They are also used in normal ground
conditions for elevated road ways.The analysis and the design of all the components
of a bridge particularly withreference to the bridge substructure can become a very

lengthy and laborious task if thecalculations are attempted manually. A design


engineer would like to try various

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configurations, shapes and sizes of the principal components of a bridge before


finalizing themost optimum combination on the basis of safety, economics and
aesthetics of the elementsof the super-structure and the sub-structure. At the same
time, in spite of the best effortsduring sub-soil investigations, many uncertainties
always exist with respect to the sub-soilconditions which may be encountered at
pier and foundation locations. Unexpected sub-soilconditions may require a
significant redesign of the foundation or in extreme cases thefoundation type may
have to be changed from for example an open-footing to a pile or a wellfoundation.
For the above eventualities, it is desirable that a quick, handy and
reliablecomputational tool should be available to the design engineer for the
analyses and design of bridge sub-structure in general and well and pile foundations
in particular.In this thesis an attempt has been made to develop P.C. software
package in theVB.Net platform for the analysis and design of sub-structures for
concrete bridges withsimply supported spans.Analysis of the super-structure for
loads transferred to the sub-structure is included inthe software. Two IRC loading
categories: Class AA and Class A are considered for super-structure analysis. The
option for single lane and two lanes of traffic is included. The user isprovided with
the option of two types of concrete piers: wall-type and hammer-head typewith a
circular shaft. The analysis and design of both these types of piers is included in
thesoftware. In the software, the option is provided for two types of deep
foundations: well andpiles. Well foundations are essentially meant for river-bridge
crossings where as the optionfor pile foundations take care of pile analysis and
design for both non-river and river bridgecrossings. The analysis of the well
foundation is carried out as per the relevant IRC code forthe resultant axial, lateral
loads and moments transferred from the super-structure for thefollowing two
conditions: (1) The soil surrounding the well is in an elastic state (2) Atultimate load
conditions. The program includes check on thickness of the bottom plug and
theanalysis and design of the critical components of a well viz. well curb, well
steining and wellcap. Practical considerations related to construction of wells are
examined through a check onthe sinking effort developed in the well. Two types of

piles are available for design of pilefoundations: (1) Under-reamed piles and (2)
Bored cast-in-situ circular piles. Under-reamedpiles are essentially meant for nonriver bridge crossings and their design for vertical andlateral loads has been carried
out as per recommendations of IS: 2911. The software includesthe analysis and
design of both free-head and fixed-head bored cast-in-situ circular piles incohesion
less as well as cohesive soils. A noteworthy feature of the software is the lateralload
analysis of the pile as per the relevant IS Code. The design of the pile foundation

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concludes with check on group behavior including settlement analysis and


structural designof the pile and the pile cap.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS
Development of an interactive user-friendly software for the analysis and design
of substructures of RCC bridges with simply supported spans for river as well as
non-riverbridge crossings.
1.3 SCOPE OF THE WORK
The analysis of the simply supported super-structure has been carried out for only
twoloading classes: Class AA and Class A. Two type of piers are included in the
software: wall-type and hammer-head type with a circular shaft. Besides gravity
loads, lateral loads due towind, earthquake and hydro-dynamic effect are
considered in the analysis. The wellfoundation analysis is performed at both elastic
and ultimate state. The analysis and design of pile foundation is restricted to underreamed and bored cast-in-situ piles in both cohesionlessand cohesive soils for
vertical as well as lateral loads. Structural design of piles and pile-capis included in
the software. The software does not have the option of generating detailing
andworking drawings of the bridge sub-structure.
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
The introduction to the thesis & the scope of present work together with
theorganization of thesis is contained in Chapter 1.Chapter 2 discusses about the
piers in substructure. It contains the details &summarizes the available literature on
pier. The steps for analysis for pier areexplained in this chapter.The knowledge base
of well foundation is provided in Chapter 3, following theprocedure for analysis of
well foundation & design of various components of the well.Chapter 4 includes the

literature review on pile foundations & discusses the analysis& design steps of pile
foundations.The features & limitations of the software developed as the part of
thesis work arebeing explained in Chapter 5. The functioning of various modules of
the software areexplained in the form of flow chart, in the same chapter.The
application of the proposed software to the analysis & design of typical
wellfoundation and pile foundation is presented in Chapter 6.The conclusions from
the present study are discussed in Chapter 7.References form the last part of this
thesis.

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CHAPTER 2

PIERS & PIER CAPS


2.1 INTRODUCTION
Piers are substructures located at the ends of bridge spans at intermediate
pointsbetween the abutments. The function of the piers is two-fold: to transfer the
superstructurevertical loads to the foundation and to resist all horizontal and
transverse forces acting on thebridge. Piers are generally constructed of masonry or
reinforced concrete. Being one of themost visible components of a bridge, the piers
contribute to the aesthetic appearance of thestructure. They are found in different
shapes, depending on the type, size and dimensions of the superstructure and also
on the environment in which the pier is located.The pier cap (also known as the
bridge seat) is the block resting over the top of thepier or the abutment. It provides
the immediate bearing surface for the support of thesuperstructure at the pier
location, and disperses the strip loads from the bearings to thesubstructure more
evenly. The pier cap is given an offset of 75 mm beyond the edge of thepier. This
offset prevents rain water from dripping down the sides and ends of the pier
andalso improves the appearance of the pier. Minimum thickness provided to the
pier cap is 225mm for spans of up to 25 m, otherwise 300 mm.
2.2 TYPES OF PIERS
Typical shapes of piers commonly used in practice are as shown in Fig. 2.1. They
canbe solid, cellular, trestle or hammer-head types. Solid and cellular piers for river
bridges areprovided with semicircular cut-waters to facilitate and streamlined flow
and to reduce thescour. Solid piers can be of mass concrete or of masonry for
heights of up to 6 m and spansup to about 20 m. Hammer-head type piers are
increasingly used in urban elevated highwayapplications, as it provides slender
substructure with open and free-flowing perception to themotorists using the road
below. It is also used for river crossings with skew alignment, whichwill result in
least obstruction to passage of flood below the bridge. Cellular, trestle, hammerhead types are suitable for heights above 6 m and spans over 20 m. In trestle type
piers,concrete hinges have been recently introduced between the top of column and
the bent cap inorder to avoid moment being transferred from deck to the columns.
Reinforced concreteframed types of piers as shown in Fig. 2.1 (e) have also been

used in recent years. Such pierslead to economy in cost of superstructure as it


reduces the span length of girders on eitherside of pier, but at the same time it will
accumulate debris and floating trees from the streamflow. Two expansion joints
formed on each pier will result in riding discomfort.

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(a) Solid Pier(b) Cellular Type Pier(c) Trestle R.C. Pier (d) Hammer-head Type Pier(e)
Framed Type PiersFig. 2.1 Typical Shapes of Piers

6|
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Minimum top width of pier is kept 600 mm more than the out-to-out dimension of
thebearing plates, measured along the longitudinal axis of the superstructure.
Length of piershould not be less than 1200 mm in excess of the out-to-out
dimension of the bearing platesmeasured perpendicular to the axis of the
superstructure. The bottom width of pier is usuallylarger than the top width so as to
restrict the net stresses within the permissible values. It isnormally sufficient to
provide a batter of 1 in 25 on all sides for the portion of pier betweenthe bottom of
the pier cap and the top of the well or pile cap, as the case may be.
2.3 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS OF PIER
Analysis of pier is carried out considering various forces and loads transmitted
fromthe superstructure and forces acting directly on the pier. Following are the
loads and forces tobe resisted by a pier:

1.

Dead load
:Dead load of superstructure and substructure above the base level of pier.
2.

Live load:
This consists of Live load of traffic passing over the bridge. Effect of
eccentricloading due to live load should also be considered.
3.

Buoyancy:
Buoyancy has the influence of reducing weight. In masonry or concrete structure,
thebuoyancy effect through pore pressure may be limited to 15 percent of full
buoyancyon the submerged portion.
4.

Wind load:
Wind load is considered on the live load, superstructure and the part of
thesubstructure above the base of pier or water level, whichever is higher. It acts on
thearea of the bridge in elevation and is thus always taken to be acting laterally to
thebridge only. This force could be considered as per recommendations of IS:875
2
.
5.

Horizontal forces due to water current:

Horizontal force due to water current is considered on that part of substructure


thatlies between the water level and the base of pier. The water current pressure is
givenby Equation 2.1, (2.1)where, = intensity of pressure in kN/m
2
due to water current,
K
= a constant having different values for different shapes of piers.The values of this
constant for different pier shapes are present in

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Table 2.1V = velocity of current in m/sec at the point where pressure intensityis
being calculated.It is assumed that the velocity distribution in stream is such that V
2
ismaximum at the free surface of water, zero at the deepest scour level and
varieslinearly in between them. Also the maximum velocity of flow is assumed to be
equalto times the velocity of the current.Table 2.1: Value of constant K for Pressure
Intensity due to Water Current
SHAPE K

Values
Square ended piers 1.50Circular piers 0.66Piers with semi-circular cut-waters
0.66Piers with triangular cut-waters 0.5 to 0.9Trestle type piers 1.25For calculating
the pressure on the pier, the angle which the current makeswith the axis of the pier
should be taken into account. Generally, the maximumvariation in the angle of

water current to the transverse axis of the bridge is taken as20. Thus, the pressure
along the axis of the pier and transverse to it is respectivelygiven by,(2.2)(2.3)
6.

Centrifugal forces:
Centrifugal forces are taken into account, when the bridge is located on a curve.
7.

Longitudinal forces:
Longitudinal forces are caused due to tractive effort caused through acceleration
of the driving wheels, braking effect due to application of brakes to the wheels
&frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearings due to change
of temperature. Braking effect is invariably greater than the tractive effort, and as
aresult the tractive effort of vehicles is neglected.

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8.

Seismic forces:
Seismic force acts on all loads, which posses mass at their centre of gravity.
Seismicforces acting in horizontal direction, along longitudinal and transverse axis
of thebridge are considered. Forces acting in the vertical directions are
comparatively small,and are hence neglected. During earthquake, water in river will
apply hydrodynamicforce on the submerged portion of pier. Seismic forces are
considered to act only inone direction at a time.All the above loads are classified
into different loading cases as discussed below.
1.

Normal (N) Case loading:


It includes dead load, live load, buoyant force, wind load,forces due to water
current, centrifugal forces, braking force/tractive force &horizontal shear force at
hinge bearings due to the effect of braking force, wind load.
2.

Temperature (T) Case loading:


It includes loads due to frictional restraint totemperature movement at bearings.
3.

Seismic (S) Case loading:


It includes seismic forces acting in horizontal forcesacting in horizontal direction.

Considering the probability of earthquake with other forces, it is generally


assumedthat earthquake and wind forces will not occur simultaneously and so only
one can beconsidered at a time. Taking all the case loading into accounts, pier is
analyzed for threedifferent load combinations: Normal (N) Case, Normal and
Temperature (N + T) Case &Normal, Temperature and Seismic (N + T + S)
Case.Longitudinal forces acting on the bridge like braking effort/tractive effort,
frictionalresistance at the bearings and seismic forces acting on live load and bridge
superstructure willproduce horizontal shear force at the bearings. The horizontal
shear force will be calculatedfor different load combinations as discussed above,
and later is incorporated into theirrespective case of load combinations.Stresses
developed into the pier due to different loads and forces are calculatedindividually,
and the resultant maximum stress acting on the pier is worked out for differentload
combinations. The resultant maximum stress for each load combination should be
withinthe permissible stress limits. For brick masonry in cement mortar, permissible
compressivestress is 1 MPa and permissible tensile stress is 0.10 MPa. In stone
masonry, compressivestress is limited to 1.5 MPa and tensile stress is limited to
0.10 MPa. Permissible stresses forconcrete are given in Table 21 of IS: 456-2000
1
, for different grades of concrete. Table 2.1shows the permissible stresses for plain
concrete used in bridge analysis and design.

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Table 2.2: Permissible Stresses in Concrete


Grade of ConcretePermissible Stresses in Concrete (in MPa)For Compression For
Tension
M 10 2.5 -M 15 4.0 0.6M 20 5.0 0.8M 25 6.0 0.9M 30 8.0 1.0M 35 9.0 1.1M 40 10.0
1.2M 45 11.0 1.3M 50 12.0 1.4IRC: 6-2000
6
allows the increase in permissible stresses of concrete for different
loadcombinations. For Normal and Temperature (N + T) case i.e. when the effect of
temperatureis considered, permissible stress can be increased by 15 percent.
Finally, for Normal,Temperature and Seismic (N + T + S) case permissible stress can
be exceeded by 50%. If themaximum stresses in piers for the worst loading
combination are more than the permissiblestress, it is required to redesign the piers
in order to bring maximum stresses within thepermissible limit.
2.4 CONCLUSIONS
The types and the features of piers and pier caps usually employed for
bridgecrossings have been briefly discussed together with analysis methodology
and permissiblestresses for design.

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CHAPTER 3WELL FOUNDATIONS


3.1 INTRODUCTION
Well foundations have their origin in India & have been used for hundreds of
yearsfor providing deep foundation to important buildings and bridges. Well
foundations werefreely used during the Moghal Period for bridges across the major
rivers. Moghal monumentsincluding Taj Mahal are built on well foundations. Well
foundations provide a solid &massive structure. This foundation has maximum
sectional modulus for a given cross-sectional area. Wells can resist large horizontal
forces & vertical loads even when theunsupported length is large in scourable river
beds. A well foundation is monolithic andrelatively rigid in its structural behaviour.

3.2 TYPES OF WELL FOUNDATIONS


Different types of wells in common use are shown in Fig. 3.1 The controlling
factorsin selecting the shape of the well foundation are: the base dimensions of pier
or abutment, theease with which the well can be sunk, cost, considerations of tilt
and shift, ease of sinking andthe magnitude of the forces to be resisted by the
foundation. Circular wells are used mostcommonly and the mains points in their
favour are their strength, simplicity in constructionand ease of sinking. However, in
terms of the lateral stability for a given cross-sectional area,circular wells offer the
least resistance against tilting when compared with other sections.Circular wells
also suffer from the disadvantage that in the case of large oblong piers, thediameter
of a circular well becomes excessive which renders them uneconomical
besidescreating obstruction to the flow of water.Two or three independent circular,
square or rectangular wells in section suitablyconnected can be used for supporting
long piers. Such wells are called tied wells. Tied wellsof different shapes are
preferred to avoid relative tilts between wells. Double-D shaped anddumb-bell
shaped wells are the most commonly used shapes of tied wells. Double
octagonalwell is also a monolithic well consisting of two circular dredge holes. On
account of itsshape, the flexural stresses developed in the steining are relatively
less compared to a double-D shape. However, sharp corners of double octagonal
wells produce grater scour.Rectangular wells are generally adopted for bridge
foundations having shallow depths. Theycan be adopted very conveniently where
the bridge is designed for open foundations andchange to well foundation becomes
necessary during the course of construction on account of adverse conditions such
as excessive inflow of water and silt into the excavation. For piers of

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very large sizes, wells with multiple dredge holes are used. Wells of this type have
been usedfor the towers of the Howrah Bridge.

(a) Circular well (b) Double-D well(c) Double octagonal well (d) Double rectangular
well(e) Dumb-bell (f) Rectangular well(g) Multiple dredge-hole wellFig. 3.1 Different
Shapes of Well

12 |
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3.3 ELEMENTS OF A WELL FOUNDATION


A

well foundation is a type of foundation which is generally built in parts at thesurface


and sunk to its final position, where it forms the permanent foundation. Fig.
3.2shows a typical section of a circular well foundation.Fig. 3.2 Typical Section of
Well Foundation
(a)

Well-cap:
It is a RCC slab laid at the top of the well steining to transmit the loads and
moments fromthe pier to the well or wells below. Shape of well cap is same as that
of well with a possibleoverhand of 150 mm all-around to accommodate lengthy
piers. It is designed as a two-wayslab with partial fixedity at supports. The top of the
well cap is usually kept at the bed level incase of rivers with seasonal flow or at
about the low water level in case of perennial rivers.Thickness of well cap is usually
between 1500 mm to 2000 mm.

13 |
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(b)

Steining:

It is the main body of the well which transfers load to the base of the foundation.
Steining isnormally of reinforced concrete. Minimum grade of concrete used in
steining is M20 withcement content not less than 310 kg/m
3
. To facilitate well sinking an off-set of 75 mm to 100mm is provided in well steining
at its junction with the well curb.The thickness of well steining should not be less
tan 500 mm nor less than that givenby Eq. 3.1.(3.1)

where, t = minimum thickness of concrete steining, m,D = external diameter of


circular well or dumb bell shaped well or smallerplan dimension of twin D well, m,L
= depth of well in m below L.W.L. or top of well cap whichever is greater,K = a
constant depending on the nature of subsoil and steining material (takenas 0.30 for
circular well and 0.039 for twin

D well for concrete steiningin sandy strata and 10% more than the corresponding
value in the case of clayey soil).
(c)

Well curb:
It is the wedge shaped RCC ring beam located at the lower portion of the well
steiningprovided to facilitate sinking. Well curb carries cutting edge for the well and
is made up of reinforced concrete using controlled concrete of grade M25. The
cutting edge usually consistsof a mild steel equal angle of side 150 mm. In case
blasting in anticipated, the outer face of the well curb should be protected with 6
mm thick steel plate and the inner face should have10 mm thick plate up to the top
of the curb and 6 mm plate further up to a height of 3 mabove the top of the curb.
(d)

Bottom plug:
After the well is sunk to the required depth, the base of the well is plugged with
concrete.This is called the bottom plug. It acts like an inverted dome supported by
the steining on allthe sides and transmits the load to the subsoil and acts as a raft
against soil pressure frombelow. Minimum grade of concrete used in bottom plug is
M15. Thickness of bottom plugshould not be less than the half of dredge-hole

diameter nor less than the value calculated inEq. 3.2., (3.2)where, W = total bearing
pressure at the base of well,

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f
c
= flexural strength of concrete in bottom plug,, and,
= Poissons ratio for concrete, 0.18 to 0.20.

(e)

Top plug:
The top plug is an unreinforced concrete plug, generally provided with a thickness
of about600 mm beneath the well cap to transmit the loads from the pier to the

steining. Minimumgrade of concrete used in top plug is M15.The space inside the
well between the bottom of the top plug and the top of bottomplug is usually filled
with clean sand, so that the stability of the well against overturning isincreased.
While this practice is good in case of wells resting on sand or rock, the desirabilityof
sand filling for wells resting on clayey strata is doubtful, as this increases the load
on thefoundation and may lead to greater settlement. In the latter case, the sand
filling is done onlyfor the part of well up to scour level, and remaining portion is left
free.
(f)

Intermediate plug:
As discussed above, for wells resting on clayey strata, it is not preferable to fill the
spaceinside the well completely with sand. In such cases, sand filling is not done or
sand is filledup to the scour level. A concrete plug covering the filling is usually
provided, known asintermediate plug. Usually, thickness of intermediate plug is
taken as 500 mm.
3.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WELL FOUNDATION
In order to design the well foundation, maximum depth of scour should be
determinedfirst since the maximum scour depth decides the depth of the well
foundation.
3.4.1 DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH
The codes IRC: 78-2000
8
and IS:3955-1967
5
recommend that the maximum scourdepth in a stream should be ascertained,
whenever possible, by actual soundings at or near thesite proposed for the bridge,
during or immediately after a flood before the scour holes havehad time to silt up
appreciably. In case actual soundings are not possible, depth of scour instream can
be ascertained using theoretical methods taking into account the velocity of stream,
characteristics of the river bed materials, and many other factors.The IRC: 78-2000
8
recommended formula for calculating the mean depth of scourbelow High Flood
Level (HFL) for natural channels flowing over scourable bed is as follows:

, (3.3)
where, D
b
= Design discharge per meter width of effective linear waterway, m
3
/ms,

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= , Q is the design discharge in the stream in m

3
/s

andis the linear waterway, m,K


sf
= Silt factor for a representative sample of the bed material obtained upto the level
of the anticipated deepest scour, and,= 1.76 ,
d
m
is the median size of the bed sediments in mm.Table 3.1 presents the IRC: 78-2000
8
recommended values of silt factor for varioustypes of sandy beds for ready
reference and adoption.

Table 3.1: Silt factors for Sandy beds, IRC: 78-2000


8
The normal scour depth for natural streams in alluvial beds can also be calculated
using Laceys formula given below:

,
(3.4)

where,
d
= Normal depth of scour below highest flood level for regime conditions ina stable
channel, m.Q = Designed discharge, m
3

/s and,
f

= Laceys silt factor for a representative sample of the bed material. This
can be determined from Table 3.1.The scour depth with maximum value, obtained
from any of the formulae as discussedabove will be considered as ,
the
mean scour depth for design of foundation.As per the recommendations of IRC: 78

2000
8
, at the noses of piers, the maximumdepth of scour, d
max
, is taken as twice of mean scour depth, .(3.5)
Type of bed material
Coarse siltSilt/fine sandMedium sandCoarse sandFine bajri and sandHeavy
sand0.040.081 to 0.1580.233 to 0.5050.7250.9881.29 to 2.000.350.5 to 0.60.8 to
1.251.51.752.0 to 2.42

16 |
Page

The well foundation shall be taken to such a depth that it is safe against scour.
Apartfrom this, the depth of the well foundation should also be sufficient from
considerations of bearing capacity, settlement stability and suitability of strata at
the founding level. Invariably,the well foundation in all cases shall be taken down to
a depth which will provide sufficientgrip. The grip length below the anticipated
maximum scour level shall not be less than 1/3
rd
the maximum anticipated depth of scour below H.F.L.
3.4.2 LOADS FOR WELL FOUNDATION DESIGN
After determining the depth of the well foundation, the dimensions of well and
itsdifferent components are empirically assumed.The following loads are considered
for the analysis and design of well foundation:1.

Dead load2.

Live load3.

Buoyancy4.

Wind load5.

Horizontal force due to water current6.

Centrifugal forces7.

Longitudinal forces8.

Seismic forces9.

Horizontal shear forces at bearings due to longitudinal forces and seismic forces10.

Forces due to tilt and shift.The loads mentioned above are discussed in Section 2.2
of Chapter 2. These loads arecalculated with respect to the bridge superstructure
and substructure and correspondingly, thetotal vertical load, the total horizontal
forces acting along the longitudinal direction and thetransverse direction of bridge
and the moments about the transverse and longitudinal axis of the bridge are
obtained for the design of the well foundation. Moments due to shift and tilt of wells
are also be included in the analysis of the well.
3.4.3

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF WELL FOUNDATIONS


The stability of well foundation under the action of lateral loads, particularly
largemagnitudes of seismic forces, depends on the passive resistance of the soil on
the sides andthe base of the well. As the lateral load increases for a given
magnitude of the vertical load,the soil deformation increases disproportionately
when compared with the deformation atinitial loading. Under the combined action of
vertical and lateral loads the mechanism of sharing the applied loads between the
sides and the base of the well also gets significantlymodified. Hence, the behaviour
of the soil at ultimate loads is different form that at the elastic

17 |
Page

stage which is assumed to prevail under vertical loading. The IRC: 45-1972
7
thereforespecifies two checks, one for soil pressures under working loads and the
other for the factorof safety available with respect to ultimate strength of the
surrounding the well.As per IRC: 45-1972
7

, the resistance of the soil surrounding the well is checked using:a.

Elastic theoryb.

Plastic theory (also called as Ultimate Resistance Method)The following assumptions


are made in computing soil pressure using elastic theory:i.

The soil surrounding the well and below the base is perfectly elastic, homogeneous
and obeys Hookes law
ii.

Under design loads, the lateral deflections are so small that the unit
soil reaction pincreases linearly with increasing lateral deflections z. Hence p =
K
H
zwhere, K
H
is the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction at the base.iii.

The coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction increases linearly with depths in


thecase of cohesionless soils.iv.

The well is assumed to be a rigid body, subjected to an external unidirectional


horizontal force H and moment M at scour level.
As a consequence of the above assumptions, the pressure distribution is parabolic
on the sidesof the well and linear at the base.The elastic theory gives the soil
pressure in the sides and the base of the well underdesign loads. However, to
determine the actual factor of safety against failure it is necessaryto calculate the
ultimate soil resistance which is done by assuming plastic behaviour of thesoil at

ultimate loads. For checking the ultimate load capacity of the well foundation,
theapplied loads are multiplied by suitable load factors for various load
combinations and theultimate resistance is reduced by appropriate under-strength
factors and the two are thencompared.A step-wise description of these two methods
of analysis of well foundations is givenbelow:Both the above methods are applicable
if the well foundation is resting onnon-cohesive soil like sand and is surrounded by
the same soil below the maximum scourlevel.The above methods should not be
used for analysis if the depth of embedment of the wellis less than 0.5 times the
width of foundation in the direction of the principal lateral forces.

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Page

1.

ELASTIC THEORYSTEP 1:
Determine the values of W, H and M under combination of normal loadswithout wind
and seismic loadswhere, W = total downward load acting at the base of well,
including self weight of wellH = external horizontal force acting on the well at scour
levelM = total applied external moment about the base of well, including thosedue
to tilts and shifts,
STEP 2:
Compute and and;where, (3.6)= moment of inertia of base about an axis normal to
the direction of horizontal forces and passing though the C.G. of the well.= moment
of inertia of the projected area in elevation of the soil massoffering lateral
resistance =
;
L = projected width of the soil mass offering lateral resistance multiplied bythe
appropriate value of shape the factor. The value of shape factor forcircular wells
shall be taken as 0.9. For square or rectangular wellswhere the resultant horizontal
force acts parallel to the principal axis, theshape factor shall be unity and where the
forces are inclined to theprincipal axis, a suitable shape factor based on
experimental results isused.D = depth of well below scour level,m = K

H
/K; Ratio of horizontal to vertical coefficient of sub grade reaction atbase of well. In
the absence of values for K
H
and K determined by fieldtests m shall generally be assumed to be unity,=
coefficient of friction between the sides of the well and the soil=
, where is the angle of wall friction between well and the soil,

=
for a rectangular well,= for a circular well.
STEP 3:
Ensure the following:
(3.7)

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(3.8)
where,
,=
coefficient of friction between the base of the and the soil. Itshall be taken as=
angle of internal friction of soil.
STEP 4:
Check the elastic state
(3.9)

where,
=
density of the soil (submerged density to be taken when under water orbelow water
table)
=
passive and active pressure coefficients to b
e calculated using Coulombstheory, assuming , the angle of wall friction
between well and soil to
be equal to , but limited to a value of .
(3.10)

(3.11)

STEP 5:
Calculate
(3.12)
where, & = maximum and minimum base pressures, respectively,

A
= area of the base of well,
B
= width of the base of well in the direction of forces and moments,
P
= M/r,
STEP 6:
Check i.e. no tension, and,& allowable bearing capacity of soil.
STEP 7:
If any of the conditions in Step 3 or Step 4 is not satisfied, then the grip length
of the well may be increased and all the calculations are revised. If the conditions in
Step 5 arenot satisfied then, either the grip length of the well or the diameter of the
well is increased.
STEP 8:
The above steps are repeated for load combinations containing seismic and
windloads separately.

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Page

2.

ULTIMATE RESISTANCE METHODSTEP 1:


Check that
, (3.13)
where, W = total downward load acting at the base of well, taking appropriate
loadfactors as per the combinations given below:1.1D1.1D + B + 1.4(W
C
+E
P

+ W or S)1.1D + 1.6L1.1D + B + 1.4(L + W


C
+E
P
)1.1D + B + 1.25(L + W
C
+E
P
+ W or S)where, D = dead loadL = live load including barking load and other forces
related to live loadB = BuoyancyW
C
= water current forceE
P
= earth pressureW = wind forceS = seismic forceA = area of the base of well=
ultimate bearing capacity of soil below the base of well (taking a factorof safety of
2.5).
STEP 2:
Calculate the base resisting moment, M
b
, at the base of well using the followingequation:M
b
= QWB, (3.14)where, B = width, in the case of square and rectangular wells
measured parallel tothe direction of forces and diameter for circular wellsQ = a
constant whose values are given in Table 3.2 below for wells with asquare or a
rectangular base. A value of 0.60 is taken for circular wells= angle of internal
friction of soil.Table 3.2 Values of the constant Q for square or rectangular wells
D/B
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Q

0.41 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.64

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Page

The ultimate moment of resistance of the well sides due to the passive resistance
of the soil, , is calculated next.(3.15)where, = density of soil (submerged density to
be taken for soils under water orbelow the water table),L = projected width of the
soil mass offering resistance. In case of circularwells, it shall be 0.9 times the well
diameter
=
passive and active pressure coefficients to be calculated using Coulombstheory,
assuming , the angle of wall friction between the well and the
surrounding soil to be equal to but limited to a value of .
STEP 3:
The ultimate moment of resistance of the well sides due to friction, , iscalculated(i)

For rectangular wells,(3.16)(ii)

For circular wells,(3.17)


STEP 4:
The total ultimate moment of resistance of the well is taken as M
t
M
t
= 0.7(M
b
+M
s
+M
f

) (3.18)Where 0.7 is the strength reduction factor


STEP 5:
Check M
t
Mwhere, M = Total applied external moment about the plane of rotation of the
welltaking appropriate load factors as per combinations given vide step 1.
STEP 6:
If the conditions in Steps 1 and 5 are not satisfied, the well shall be redesigned.
3.4.4 DESIGN OF WELL CURB
When the well is dredged during the process of sinking, the curb cuts through the
soilunder the action of the dead weight of the steining including kentledge, if any
and hence hooptension is developed in the well curb. The well curb has to be
designed for the hoop tension.Total hoop tension
, (3.19)
where, N = running load of the well steining on the curb,d = mean diameter of well
steining,= angle of beveled edge of well curb with horizontal, and,
=
coefficient of friction between soil and concrete of curb.

22 |
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A minimum reinforcement of 72 kg/m


3
is provided in the well curb
. Ther
einforcement is provided in the form of rings distributed along the perimeter of the
wellcurb, the rings being enclosed within stirrups.
3.4.5 DESIGN OF WELL STEINING:
Before designing the section of the steining, the stresses in the steining are
calculatedat the level of maximum scour.
(3.20)(3.21)w
here, W =

total vertical load acting up to the maximum scour depth,A = area of cross-section
of well steining,M = Resultant moment due to various loads as considered during
analysisof well at maximum scour levelZ = Section modulus of well steining.The
stresses should be within the permissible limits. Permissible limit of stresses
fordifferent grades of concrete can be obtained from Table 2.2. If the stresses
exceed thepermissible limits, the thickness of the well steining has to be
increased.A minimum thickness of the steining, t
min
, given by the following equation is requiredto avoid the excessive kentledge during
sinking of the well.Thickness,
(3.22)w
here, d = external diameter of well,= density of concrete, and,
f

= skin friction acting on the curved surface area of the well,=where, =

coefficient of friction between soil and concrete,


K
A

= coefficient of active earth pressure= submerged density of soil on the sides of


steiningh = height of well.After performing the checks for stresses and thickness of
steining, the reinforcementsin the steining are calculated. The vertical
reinforcements in the steining should not be lessthan 0.12 percent of the gross
sectional area of the actual thickness provided for the steining.The vertical
reinforcement should be equally distributed on both the faces of the steining. The

23 |
Page

vertical reinforcement should be tied up with hoop steel not less than 0.04 percent
of thevolume per unit length of the steining.
3.4.6 DESIGN OF BOTTOM PLUG
The bottom plug has to be checked for minimum thickness given by the
followingequations,
(F
or circular wells), (3.23)
(
For rectangular wells),

(3.24)

where, r = radius of well at the baseq = unit bearing pressure against the base of
the well
=
flexural strength of concrete used in bottom plugb = short side of well
= short side/long side ratio of well.

3.4.7 DESIGN OF WELL CAP


A well cap is needed to transfer the loads and moments from the pier to the well.
Theshape of the wall cap is normally kept the same as of the well with a possible
overhang of 150 mm. The top of the well cap is usually kept at about the low water
level in case of perennial rivers. The well cap is designed as a two-way reinforced
concrete slab resting overthe top of well. The support conditions are taken partially
restrained.The design of the well cap is carried out by assuming that the load from
the pier actson an imaginary circle having an area equal to the area of dispersion of
the loads transferredfrom the pier to the well cap.Since the well-cap is assumed to
be partially restrained by the steining, the moments inthe well-cap are calculated
for circular patch loading and for U.D.L. (self-weight of well cap)for the following two
conditions:(1)

Well cap freely supported on steining(2)

Well cap fully clamped on steining


Condition 1: Well cap freely supported on the steining
Take,
Poissons ratio of concrete,
w = weight of well cap per unit areaV = vertical load acting on the well-caph =
effective diameter of well-cap,
&
are the

radial and the tangential moments in well-cap, respectively.

24 |
Page

In the first instance, the moments in the well cap due to vertical loads transferred
from thepier and the self weight of the well cap are determined.(i)

Moments beneath loaded area due to circular patch loading


(3.25)(3.26)
d = diameter of equivalent circular patch loading(ii) Moments beneath unloaded
area due to circular patch loading(3.27)(3.28)At support, d = h; = 1The radial and
tangential moments in the well cap due to U.D.L. are given by

(3.29)(3.30)
At centre, d = 0; = 0At support, d = h; = 1
Condition 2: Well cap fully clamped at support

(i)

Moments beneath loaded area due to circular patch loading


(3.31)(3.32)
d = diameter of equivalent circular patch loading(ii) Moments beneath unloaded
area due to circular patch loading
(3.33)

(3.34)
At support, d = h; = 1The radial and tangential moments in the well cap due to
U.D.L. are given by

(3.35)

25 |
Page

(3.36)

At centre, d = 0; = 0At support, d = h; = 1If is the resultant moment per metre


length of the pier, then maximum reactive moment atthe support =Hence, the
maximum moment at the centre of the well cap due to momentstransferred form
pier =The maximum moment at the edges of the well cap due to moments
transferred frompier =
.
The resultant moments for the design of the well-cap section at mid-span and
atsupports can be found out as follows.M
centre
= (Mean radial moment due to patch loads beneath the loaded area)+ (Mean radial
moment due to U.D.L. at the centre of well-cap)+ (moment at the centre of well cap
due to moments transferred from pier)M
edge
= (Mean radial moment due to patch loads beneath unloaded area)+ (Mean radial
moment due to U.D.L. at the support of well-cap)+ (moment at the edges of well
cap due to moments transferred from pier)Hence, the reinforcement at the centre of
the well-cap is calculated for the moment M
centre
and the reinforcement at the edges of well-cap is calculated for the moment M
edge
. Half of themain tension reinforcement at the centre and at the support sections of
the well cap isprovided on the compression face. All reinforcement in the well-cap is
provided as anorthotropic mesh.The well-cap is finally checked for punching shear
as per IS: 456-2000
1
.
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
The role and the features of well foundations have been discussed in this chapter.
Thisstability analysis of well foundations has been explained and the design of
variouscomponents has been briefly reviewed.

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CHAPTER 4

PILE FOUNDATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transfer loads through weak
soilor water to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. Piles are
usuallyinstalled in clusters/group to provide foundations for bridges. A pile
foundation may havevertical piles or batter piles or a combination of vertical and
batter piles. Well foundations areprovided to the bridges, only when soils with high
bearing capacity are available at theshallow depths in ground, in order to resist
loads and moments transferred by well to the soil.It is not preferable to use well
foundations, when low bearing strata like clay is present in theground up to greater
depths.The uses of piles for bridge foundations are justified in the following cases:
(a)

The upper soil strata are too compressible or too weak to support the heavy
verticalreaction transmitted by the superstructures and piers. In this instance, piles
serve asextensions of piers to carry the loads to deep, rigid stratum such as rock.
Such pilesare called as point or end bearing Piles. If a rigid stratum does not exist
withinreasonable depth, the load must be gradually transferred, mainly by the
friction, alongthe pile shafts. Piles transferring loads to soil by skin friction through
its lateralsurface area are called as Friction Piles.(a) Point Bearing Piles (b) Friction
PilesFig. 4.1 Piles Classification on the basis of load transfer mechanism

27 |
Page

(b)

Piles are also frequently required because of relative inability of other foundations
totransmit inclined, horizontal, or uplift forces and overturning moments. As the
name implies,uplift piles are used for resisting uplift forces on foundations.Fig. 4.2
Uplift Piles(c)

Pile foundations are often required when scour around the foundations can
causeerosion in spite of presence of strong, incompressible strata (such as sand,
gravel, etc.) atshallow depths. In such cases, piles can be particularly effective in
bypassing scourable strataand transferring loads to in erodible soil.Fig. 4.3 Use of
piles in scourable beds(d)

In areas where expansive or collapsible soil extends to considerable depth below


theground, pile foundations may be needed to ensure safety against undesirable
seasonalmovements of foundations.

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Page

Fig. 4.4 Piles in expansive soils can control seasonal movementsPiles can be
classified according to the materials of which they are made of. The mainmaterials
used in makings piles are timber, reinforced concrete and steel. Reinforced
concretepiles are generally used in pile foundations for bridges. Concrete piles are
either precast orcast-in-situ. Precast piles are installed into the ground by drilling,
while cast-in-situ piles arebored pile. Under-reamed pile is a special type of bored
pile having one or more bulbs. Withthe presence of under-ream, substantial bearing
or anchorage is available. These piles findapplication in widely varying situations in
different types of soils where foundations arerequired to be taken down to a certain
depth. Diameters of bulbs are usually 2 to 3 times thediameter of the pile shaft. The
under-ream increases the load carrying capacity of the pile.Such piles are claimed
to be useful and economical in expansive soils like black cotton soilsof India, where
shrinkage and swelling of clays rules out the use of shallow spread footings.Piles in
foundations are usually installed in a group. The top of the piles are
connectedtogether with a stiff reinforced concrete slab called pile cap. All the piles
are projected atleast50 mm in the concrete of the cap.A pile group having pile cap
standing clearly above the ground is know as a freestanding pile group. Free
standing pile groups are used in river bridge crossings, where thetop of the pile cap
is usually kept at the level of L.W.L. A pile group in which the pile caprests on the
soil, partially or is fully buried below ground level is known as piled foundation.In a
piled foundation, the pile cap may, under certain soil conditions, help in transmitting
apart of the load to the soil on which it rests. Piled foundations are generally used
for elevatedhighways and flyovers where pile cap is fully buried inside the ground to
provide space forthe roadways.

29 |
Page

Fig. 4.5 Free Standing Pile Group Fig. 4.6 Piled Foundation
4.2 DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

If pile foundations are to be used for river bridge crossings, then the maximum
scourdepth for the stream has to be determined. The calculation of maximum scour
depth isdiscussed in Section 3.3.1 of Chapter 3. For river bridge crossings, the top of
the pile cap isplaced at the level of L.W.L., while for non-river bridge crossings, the
pile cap is fully buriedinto the ground with its top placed at ground level. Later, the
forces and moments acting atthe top of pile cap i.e. at the base of pier are
calculated, during the analysis of pier. Aftercalculating the forces and moments at
the base of pier, the axial loads in the piles due toapplied forces and moments are
determined for an assumed size and configuration of piles ina pile group. The
assumed pile properties are subsequently checked for safety.
4.2.1 UNDER-REAMED PILES
The diameter of under-reamed piles in bridge applications is generally not taken
lessthan 300 mm. The length of the pile is selected as per the nature of the soil
strata. Forexample, if a weak layer is underlain by a strong stratum at a reasonable
depth, the length of the pile is so chosen such that the penetration of the pile into
the strong stratum (bearingstratum) is a minimum of 5 times the pile diameter or
width. On the other hand, if the weak layer extends to a considerable depth, the
length of pile is so chosen as to obtain adequate pilecapacity through skin
resistance.The design of under-reamed piles can be carried out with the aid of Table
1 of IS:2911(Part III)

1980
4
. Table 1 of IS: 2911(Part III)

1980
4
which is reproduced in toto asTable 4.3 in this thesis is a useful guide for selecting
important parameter w.r.t. under-reamedpiles viz. Diameter of pile shaft and underream, length of pile number of under-reams andthe capacity of a selected
configuration of under-reamed pile in compression, tension and

30 |
Page

lateral load carrying capacity. Usually a suitable value is selected as the diameter of
the pileshaft. The diameter of the under-ream is taken as 2.5 times the diameter of
pile shaft. Pilescan have one or more than one under-reams, but it is not advisable
to have more than twounder-reams on one pile without ensuring their feasibility in
strata needing stabilization of boreholes by drilling mud. For piles up to 300 mm
diameter, the spacing between consecutiveunder-reams should not exceed 1.5
times the diameter of the under-ream. For piles of diameter greater than 300 mm,
spacing can be reduced to 1.25 times the stem diameter. Thetop-most under-ream
should be at a minimum depth of 2 times the under-ream diameterbelow the
ground. In expansive soils, the top-most under-ream should not be less than 1.75
mbelow ground level. Clearance between the underside of pile cap embedded in the
ground andthe top under-ream should be minimum 1.5 times the under-ream
diameter. Columns (3) &(4) of Table 4.3 provide minimum length for single and
double under-reamed piles,respectively.After fixing the dimensions of the underreamed pile, the load bearing capacity of asingle under-reamed pile is estimated.
The pile capacity is compared with the maximum loadexpected on the pile to ensure
an adequate margin of safety.
4.2.2 BORED CAST-IN-SITU PILES
The
s

afe bearing capacity of a pile can be determined from its ultimate bearingcapacity,
by using a suitable factor of safety. The methods available to estimate the
ultimatecapacity of a single pile in compression can be grouped into the following
categories:i.

Static-in-situ test.ii.

Static analysis,iii.

Dynamic analysis,The static-in-situ test, popularly known as pile load test, is the
only direct method fordetermining the allowable load on piles. It is considered to be
the most reliable of all theapproaches, primarily due to the fact that it is an in-situ
test performed on a pile of prototypepile dimension. Pile load test is a costly test
and is used to confirm whether the actual pileinstalled in the filed can take the load
predicted by static or dynamic analysis. Dynamicanalysis is used for determining
ultimate capacity of driven piles. Static analysis, which is
based on soil mechanics approach provides approximate estimates of pil
e capacity, asvalues of a number of parameters appearing in the static formulae are
assigned empirically.For bored piles, static analysis is performed. A brief description
of static analysis of piles ispresented next.A pile when loaded, transfers the load
through skin friction along the length of the

31 |
Page

pile and through point bearing at the tip of the pile.Thus, the ultimate capacity of a
pile may be obtained as,, (4.1)where,= total skin frictional resistance,= total point
bearing resistance,= unit skin frictional resistance,= unit point resistance,= lateral
surface area of the pile, and,= area of the pile tip.Fig. 4.7 Load resisting mechanism
in a pileThe unit frictional resistance, and the unit point bearing resistance, , depend
onmany factors such as the type of soil, method of installation and the pile material.
Of these,the method of pile installation affects the pile capacity significantly, and
also makes theestimation of pile capacity more complex. In order to clearly identify

the effect of pileinstallation and account for the same, it is convenient to discuss
separately the case of piles incohesion-less soils and cohesive soils.

32 |
Page

Piles in Cohesion-less soil:


As suggested in Eq. 4.1, the pile capacity can be obtained as the sum of point
bearingresistance and skin friction resistance.
Point Bearing Resistance:
The unit point bearing resistance in cohesion-less soil is given by,, (4.2)where, =
effective overburden stress at the level of the pile tip,B = diameter or width of
pile,= density of the soil,= shape factor, 0.4 for square or rectangular piles, and,0.3
forcircular piles, and,& = bearing capacity factors.The second term in Eq. 4.2, is
usually neglected, particularly in the case of long piles, as this constitutes an
insignificant part of the total capacity. The first term in Eq.4.2 implies that the base
resistance increases linearly with depth. The bearing capacity factor,is a function of
the angle of internal friction of soil, , and its value can be obtained fromFig. 1 of IS:
2911 (Part 1)

1979
3
, reproduced here as Fig. 4.8. The bearing capacity factor,can also be read off from
Table4.1.Fig. 4.8 Bearing Capacity Factor, for bored piles.

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