Mechanics of Solids

Mechanics of Solids
Syllabus:-
Syllabus Part - A
1. Simple Stresses & Strains:-
Introduction, Stress, Strain,
Tensile, Compressive & Shear Stresses,
Elastic Limit, Hooke’s Law, Poisson’s Ratio,
Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rigidity,
Bulk Modulus, Bars of Varying Sections,
Extension of Tapering Rods, Hoop Stress,
Stresses on Oblique Sections.
2. Principle Stresses & Strains:-
State of Simple Shear,
Relation between Elastic Constants,
Compound Stresses, Principle Planes
Principle Stresses,
Mohr’s Circle of Stress, Principle Strains,
Angle of Obliquity of Resultant Stresses,
Principle Stresses in beams.
3. Torsion:-
Torsion of Circular, Solid, Hollow Section Shafts
Shear Stress, Angle of Twist,
Torsional Moment of Resistance,
Power Transmitted by a Shaft,
Keys & Couplings,
Combined Bending & Torsion,
Close Coiled Helical Springs,
Principle Stresses in Shafts Subjected to
Bending, Torsion & Axial Force.
Mechanics of Solids
Syllabus:-
Syllabus Part - B
1. Bending Moment & Shear Force:-
Bending Moment,
Shear Force in Statically Determinate Beams
Subjected to Uniformly Distributed,
Concentrated & Varying Loads,
Relation Between Bending Moment,
Shear force & Rate of Loading.
2. Moment of Inertia:-
Concept Of Moment of Inertia,
Moment of Inertia of Plane Areas,
Polar Moment of Inertia,
Radius of Gyration of an Area,
Parallel Axis Theorem,
Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas,
Product of Inertia,
Principle Axes & Principle Moment of Inertia.
3. Stresses in Beams:-
Theory of Simple Bending, Bending Stresses,
Moment of Resistance,
Modulus of Section,
Built up & Composite Beam Section,
Beams of Uniform Strength.
4. Shear stresses in Beams:-

Distribution of Shear Stresses in Different
Sections.
5. Mechanical Properties of Materials:-
Ductility, Brittleness, Toughness, Malleability,
Behaviour of Ferrous & Non-Ferrous metals in Tension &
Compression, Shear & Bending tests, Standard Test
Pieces, Influence of Various Parameters on Test Results,
True & Nominal Stress, Modes of Failure, Characteristic
Stress-Strain Curves, Izod, Charpy & Tension Impact
Tests,
Fatigue, Creep, Corelation between Different Mechanical
Properties, Effect of Temperature, Testing Machines &
Special Features, Different Types of Extensometers &
Compressemeters, Measurement of Strain by Electrical
Resistance Strain Gauges.
Many structural elements like bars, tubes,
beams, columns, trusses, cylinders, spheres,
shafts are used for the benefit of the mankind.
They may be made up of timber, steel, copper,
aluminium, concrete or any other materials.
The application of the laws of mechanics to
find the support reactions due to the applied
forces is normally covered under the subject of
ENGINEERING MECHANICS.
In transferring, these forces from their point of
application to supports the material of the structure
develops the resistive forces and it undergoes
deformation. The effect of these resisting forces, on
the structural elements, is treated under the subject --
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL “OR” MECHANICS
OF SOLIDS .
The Strength Of Materials is an interdisciplinary

subject.
Architects and civil engineers like to see that the
trusses, slabs, beams, columns, etc. of the
buildings and bridges are safe.
Aeronautical engineers need this subject for the
design of the component of the aircraft.
Mechanical engineers and the Chemical
engineers must know this subject for the design
of the machine components and the pressure
vessels.
Mining engineers need it to design safe mines.
Metallurgist must understand this subject well so
that he can think for further improvement of the
mechanical properties of the materials.
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineers
need the basic knowledge of this subject because
of several mechanical components they need in
their products.
CONCEPT OF INTERNAL FORCES:-
 When a member is subjected to load, it develops
resisting forces; i.e. it is the force of resistance
offered by the material from which the member is
manufactured.
 To find the resisting force developed by a

member, we will use the method of section. In this
method a section plane may be passed through the
member and equilibrium of any part of the member
can be studied.
Force/Moment can be applied in the following
ways:-
• Axial ( Push / Pull )
• Flexural ( Bending)
• Torsion (Twisting )
• Shear ( Slicing )
 Axial Force:- As it’s name suggests, it is the force
which is acting along the axis of the member. In other
words, it’s line of action is passing through to the axis
of the member.
Push /
comp.
Axial Force Axis of the member
Pull /
Tens.
 Flexural Force:- It is the force whose line of action
is perpendicular to the axis of the member.
Flexural Forces
Axis of the member

Shear Force:- Any force which tries to shear-off the
member, is termed as shear force.
Torsion:- Any moment which tries to twist the
member, is termed as Torsion.
Axis of the member
Fixed end of the

member Torsion.
In this subject we will derive the relationship
between
FORCE, STRESS, STRAIN & DEFORMATION
To design any structure, our first aim is to find out
the type, nature and magnitude of forces acting on it.
Accordingly we will design the structure.
Our next aim is to ensure that the structure

designed by us remain safe and serviceable.
 To ensure safety, the stresses developed in the
member must remain within the permissible limits
specified by the standards.
 To ensure Serviceability, the deformations

developed in the member must remain within the
permissible limits specified by the standards.
There are mainly three types of supports:
1) Simple Support:
Support It restrains movement of the
beam in only one direction, i.e. movement
perpendicular to the base of the support. It is also
known as Roller support.
Reaction
2) Hinged support: It restrains movement of the beam
in two directions i.e. movement perpendicular to the
base of the support and movement parallel to the
base of the support.
Reactions
3) Fixed support: It restrains all the three possible
movements of the beam. i.e. movement
perpendicular to the base of the support and
movement parallel to the base of the support and the
rotation at the support.
Reactions:
There are mainly five types of beams:
Cantilever beam: It is a beam which has one
end, as fixed, and the other end as free.
free end
fixed end
L
Simply- supported beam:
It is a beam, which has it’s ends, supported freely on
walls or the columns. {Out of it’s two simple supports,
one support will be hinged support and the other
support will be roller support, then only the beam will
be determinate}
L
Over-hang beam: When the beam is continued
beyond the support and behave as a cantilever
then the combined beam is known as an over-hang
beam.
L L1
L2 L L1
4) Fixed Beam:
A beam whose both the ends are fixed or built-in
in the walls or in the columns, then that beam is
known as the fixed beam.
L
5) Continuous Beam:
A beam which is supported on more than two
supports that, it is called a continuous beam.
L1 L2 L3
POINT LOAD:- If a comparatively large load acts on
a very small area, then that load is called a point load.
It is expressed in N or kN.
W kN point load
L
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD:- When the load
is uniformly distributed over some length, then that
load is called a uniformly distributed load. It is
expressed in N/m or kN/m.
Total Load
= w kN/m *L m
= w*L kN
=
w kN/m
L
UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD:- When the load
Intensity is varying uniformly over some length, then
that load is called a uniformly varying load. In this
case total load will be the area covered by the
triangle.
w kN/m
Total Load = ½ *w * L
= (w*L)/2 kN
CONCENTRATED MOMENT ( moment acting at
any point):- If, at a point, a couple forms a moment,
then that is called Concentrated Moment.
Moment It is
expressed in Nm or kNm.
L
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY :-
 A rigid body can be in equilibrium if the
resultant force and moment of all forces at any
point is zero.
 A beam is noting but a rigid body.
 For a rigid body in equilibrium, the condition
of static equilibrium are three, Viz;
 Σ Fx = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0 ;
Σ M=0;
A beam is said to be statically determinate if the
total no. of unknown reactions are equal to the
no. of conditions of static equilibrium.
Total no. of unknown reactions will depend upon
the type of beam and the type of support.
The no. of conditions of static equilibrium, for a
rigid body, are 3 (three):
Σ Fx = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0 ; Σ M=0
A B
HA
VA VB
conditions of static equilibrium = 3,
No. of unknown reactions = 3, So
The beam is statically determinate.
HA
MA Condn. of static equilibrium = 3,

VA No. of unknown reactions = 3, So
The beam is statically determinate.
A beam is said to be statically indeterminate if the
total no. of unknown reactions are more than the
no. of conditions of static equilibrium.
A B
HA
HB
VA VB
Conditions of static equilibrium = 3,
No. of unknown reactions = 4, So
the beam is statically indeterminate.
HA
MA
VA VB
HA
HB
MA
VA VB
HA HB
MA MB
VA VB
We will limit our study to shear force and bending
moment diagrams of STATICALLY
DETERMINATE BEAMS.
Commonly encountered statically determinate

beams are,
a) Cantilever Beam,
b) Simply Supported Beam,
c) Over-hanging Beam.
Beam
These beams are usually subjected to the
following types of loading;
a) Point Load,
b) Uniformly Distributed Load,
c) Uniformly Varying Load,
d) Concentrated Moment.
The beam transfers the applied load to the
supports. The effect of applied load is to create
bending moment and shear force at each cross-
section. In transferring the applied load to the
supports, the beam develops resistance against
moments and shear force at all of it’s cross-sections.
The effect of applied load is to create bending
moment and shear force at each cross-section. We
will determine the shear force and bending moment
caused by loads at each section, for various given
loading condition. Then we will plot the Variation in
the shear force and bending moment across the
length of the beam.
=
Y 10 KN/m
25 KN 2m 5m 25 KN
SFYY = 25 –20 SFYY = 25 –30
= 5 kN = 5 kN
BMYY = 25*2 –10*2*1 BMYY = 25*3 –10*3*1.5

= 30 kN.m = 30 kN.m
Y
10 KN-m
25 KN 5m 25 KN
2m
3m
dx
10 KN-m 25-20 = 5 kN
*
**
25.2 –10.2.1 = 30 kN.m
25 KN
**
30 *
5
30
30 5 5
##
30 25 KN
30-25 = 5 kN
# #
5
##
25.3 –10.3.3/2 = 30 kN.m
30 kN.m 30 kN.m
5 kN 5 kN
The vertical force will try to shear-off
the member as shown in the fig.,
hence it is known as the shear
force.
The unbalanced-moment will try to bend the
member as shown in the fig., hence it is known as
the Bending Moment.
#To resist the shear force, the element will
develop the resisting stresses, Which is known as
Shear Stresses.
#To resist the Bending Moment, the element will
develop the resisting stresses, Which is known as
bending Stresses.
SIGN CONVENTIONS
+ve Shear The shear force is positive if it

tends to move the left portion
in upward direction relative to
the right portion.
The shear force is negative if

-ve Shear
it tends to move the right
portion in upward direction
relative to the left portion.
The bending moment is
+ve B.M. positive if it tends to
create tension in the
bottom fibers of the
beam. i.e. concave face
upward.
The bending moment is

-ve B.M. positive if it tends to
create tension in the
bottom fibers of the
beam. i.e. concave face
upward.
Shear force is an unbalanced force, parallel
to the cross-section, mostly vertical, but not
always, either the right or left of the section.
Thus, the procedure to find out the shear

force, at a section is to imagine a cut in the beam
at the section, consider either to the left or the
right portion and find the algebric sum of all the
forces normal to the axis.
Shear force diagram is the graph showing the
variation of the shear force throughout the length
of the beam.
Bending Moment is an unbalanced couple,
either to the right or left of the section.
Thus, the procedure to find out the Bending

Moment, at a section is to imagine a cut in the
beam at the section, consider either the left or
the right portion and find the algebric sum of the
moments due to all the forces.
Bending Moment diagram is the graph showing

the variation of the bending moment throughout
the length of the beam.
P Q w/u.l.
A
dx
B
F
Section at P M M
F
Section at Q F+dF
M+dM M+dM
F+dF
F
Element PQ
M M+dM
F+dF
P Q w/u.l.
A
dx
B
F
Element PQ
M M+dM
F+dF
Let, F = Shear Force at P
F+ dF = Shear Force at Q
M = Bending Moment at P
M+ dM = Bending Moment at Q
F w/u.l.
Element PQ
M M+dM
F+dF
Since the beam is in equilibrium, all the elements will
be in equilibrium. So element PQ is also in
equilibrium.
Equating Vertical Forces at Q , upward load
is considered as positive
 F - (F+ dF) - wdx = 0
 F - F - dF = wdx
 dF/dx = -w (-ve sign indicates downward
dF/dx = W ………………………..Eq(i)
 The rate of change of shear force, or in other

words, the slope of the shear force diagram, will
be equal to the intensity of loading at that section.
As per the sign convention, if the load is acting in

downward direction it will be considered as
positive
F w/u.l.
Element PQ
M M+dM
F+dF
Equating Moments @ Q
 M + Fdx - wdx(dx/2) - (M+ dM) =0
 Neglecting the term containing dx2
 dM/dx = F ……………………..Eq(ii)
 The rate of change of Bending Moment, or in

other words, the slope of the Bending Moment
diagram, will be equal to the intensity of Shear
force at that section.
1 W
Sec X-X
A B
x L
W
Fx = W
W +ve W
Mx = -WL + Wx
At A, x = 0; M= -WL S.F. Dia.
At B, x = L; M= 0
-ve
W.L θ (+ve)
B.M. Dia.
2 Step 1:- Support 10 kN
reaction
A B
∑FY = 0, x 5.0m
VA= 10 kN (up) 10
MA=10*5=50
kN.m, (anti clock
+ve
Wise moment) 10 10
Fx = 10
S.F. Diagram
Step 2:- Bending 10 kN
Moment at x;
A B
x 5.0m
M@x 10
= -50+10 * x
50 -ve -50+10 * x
Linear Equation
θ (+ve)
B.M. Dia.
At A, x = 0; M= -50 kN.m
At B, x = 5; M= 0 kN.m
So Linear change in B.M. value
10 kN
A B
5.0m
10
10 +ve 10
S.F. Diagram
50 -ve
θ (+ve)
B.M. Dia.
3 Step 1:- Support 10 kN
reaction 4.0m B
A
∑FY = 0, x
5.0m
VA= 10 kN (up) 10
At B, Point load,
So sudden
change in S.F. +ve 10
10
value 0
S.F. Diagram
Step 2:- Bending 10 kN
Moment at x; C B
A
x
5.0m
M@x 10
= - 40+10 * x
40 -ve
Linear Equation
θ (+ve)
B.M. Dia.
At A, x = 0; M = -40 kN.m
At C, x = 4; M = 0 kN.m
So Linear change in B.M. value
10 kN
A B
5.0m
10
+ve 10
10
0
0
40 -ve
θ (+ve)
4 Step 1:- Support 20 kN 10 kN
reaction C
A B
∑FY = 0, 2.5m 2.5m
VA= 30 kN (up) 30 5.0m
F(a) = 30
F(c-left) = 30 30 20
+ve
F(c-right) = 30-20
10
= 10
F(b-left) = 10 S.F. Diagram
F(c-right) = 10-10
=0
Step 2:- Bending 20 kN 10 kN
Moment at x; C
A B
2.5m 2.5m
x
30 5.0m
Mx (AC) = -100 +30 * x Lin. Eqn
MA = -100 kN.m MC = -25 kN.m
Mx (CB) = -100 + 30*(x) - 20*(x-2.5)

MB = 0.0 kN.m
-ve 25
100
B.M. Dia.
20 kN 10 kN
A C B
2.5m 2.5m
30 5.0m
30 +ve 20
10
S.F. Diagram
0.0
-ve 25
100
B.M. Dia.
5 w/m
Sec X-X
S.F.D.
A B
Fx = wL – wx x L
( linear variation) wL
FA = wL : FB = 0
θ (-ve)
B.M.D. wL +ve
Mx = -wL2/2
S.F. Dia.
+ wLx - wx2/2
(parabolic variation) -ve
MA= -wL2/2 B.M. Dia.
w.L2/2
MB= 0 θ (+ve)
Shear Diagrams by Integration of the Load:-
dF/dx=w
F= ∫ w dx + C1 (limit from 0 to x)
By assigning definite limits to this integral, it is seen that the
shear at a section is simply an integral (i.e. sum) of the
vertical forces along the beam from the left end of the beam
to the section in question plus a constant of integration C1.
This constant is equal to the shear on the left hand end.
Between any two definite sections of a beam, the shear
changes by the amount of the vertical force included between
these sections. If no force occurs between any two sections,
no change in shear takes place. If a concentrated force
comes into the summation, a discontinuity, or a “jump” in the
value of the shear occurs.
The continuous summation process remains valid
nevertheless, since a concentrated force may be thought of
as being a distributed force extending for an infinitesimal
distance along the beam.
On the basis of the above reasoning, a shear diagram
can be established by the summation process. For this
purpose, the reactions must always be determined first. Then
the vertical components of forces and reactions are
successively summed from left end of the beam to preserve
the mathematical sign convention for shear adopted. The
shear at a section is simply equal to the sum of all vertical
forces to the left of the section.
Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear:-
dM/dx = F
M= ∫ F dx + C2 (limit from 0 to x)
Where C2 is a constant of integration corresponding to
boundary conditions at x=0. This is analogous to previous
equation developed for construction of shear diagrams. The
summation of the small areas between definite sections
through a beam corresponds to an evaluation of the definite
integral. If the ends of a beam are on rollers, pin jointed, or
free, the starting and the terminal moments are zero. If the
end is fixed, the end moment is known from the reaction
calculations. If the fixed end of a beam is on the left, this
moment with the proper sign is the initial constant of
integration C2.
By proceeding continuously along the beam from the
left-hand end and summing up the areas of the shear
diagram with due regard to their sign, the moment diagram is
obtained. This process of obtaining the moment diagram from
the shear diagram by summation is exactly the same as that
employed earlier to go from loading to shear diagrams. The
change in moment in a given segment of a beam is equal to
the area of the corresponding shear diagram.
6 10 kN/m
Sec X-X
A B
5m
50
θ (-ve)
50 +ve
kN
S.F. Dia.
-ve
125
kNm B.M. Dia.
θ (+ve)
7
10 kN/m
A 2.5 m B
C
5m
7 31.25 10 kN/m
Reactions : A 2.5 m B
VA=25 kN x C
MA=(10*2.5*1.25) 5m
= 31.25 kNm 25
SFD:
FA= 25 kN 25
Fx(AC)= 25-10x
kN +ve
Fx(CB)= 25-25=0
S.F. Dia.
BMD
MA = - 31.25 -ve
Mx(AC) = -31.25+ 31.25
25x-10x2/2 kNm B.M. Dia.
Mx(CB) = 0
8
10 kN/m
2.5 m
A B
C
5m
8 93.75 10 kN/m
Reactions : 2.5 m
VA=25 kN A x C B
MA=(10*2.5*3.75) 5m
= 93.75 kNm 25
SFD:
FA= 25 kN
25
Fx(AC)=25 +ve
Fx(CB)=25-10(x-2.5) kN
S.F. Dia.
BMD
MA = - 93.75 -ve 31.25
Parabola
Mx(AC) = -93.75+25x 93.75
Mx(CB) = -93.75+25x betn BC
linear
-10(x-2.5)2/2 B.M. Dia.
9
10 kN/m
A B
2m C 3m D 2m
7m
9 140 10 kN/m
Reactions : C D
VA =10*2 +10*2 A x B
=40kN 2m 3m 2m
MA=(10*2*6+10*2*1)
= 140 kNm 40 7m
40
SFD:
FA= 40 kN
Fx(AC)= 40-10x +ve 20
Fx(DB)=40-20-10(x-5)
S.F. Dia.
9 140 10 kN/m
C D
A x B
2m 3m 2m
BMD 40 7m
MA = - 140
Mx(AC) = -140 + 40x-10x2/2
Mx(CD) -140 + 40x-20*(x-1)
Mx(DB) -140 + 40x-20*(x-4)-10(x-5)2/2
-ve 20
80 Parabola
140
linear
Parabola B.M. Dia.
10
10 20kN
kN/m 10 kN/m
A c d e B
2m 2m 2m 2m
8m
10 10 20kN
kN/m 10 kN/m
Reactions :
A
C D E B
VA =10*2 +20+10*2 x
=60kN 2m 2m 2m 2 m
MA=(10*2*7+20*4+ 60 8m
10*2*1)
= 240 kNm
60
SFD: kN 40 +ve
FA= 60 kN 20
Fx(AC)= 60 -10x
FD= 60 –20 = 40 (Left) S.F. Dia.
FD= 40 –20 = 20 (Right)
Fx(EB)=60-20- 20 -10(x-6)
10 240 10 20kN
kN/m 10 kN/m
BMD c d B
A x e x
MA = - 240 2m 2m 2m 2 m
Mx(AC)= -240+ 40x-
60 8m
10x2/2
Mx(CD)=-240 + 40x-
20
20(x-1) 60 Parabola
-ve
Mx(DE) =-240 + 40x- linear
20(x-1)-20(x-4) 140
linear
Mx(EB) = -10x /2
2
240
(Considering Right Parabola B.M. Dia.
portion)
11
w/m
A B
L
11 w/m
w.L /3
2
wx/L
Reactions :
A
VA =(1/2)Lw=wL/2
MA=(1/2)L*w*(2L/3) x L B
= wL /3
2 wL/2
SFD:
FA= wL/2
Fx= wL/2-{x*(wx/L)}/2wL/2 θ
+ve
= wL/2-wx2/2L S.F. Dia. -ve
BMD
MA = -wL2/3 -ve
Mx = -wL /3 + wL/2*x -
2
{wx2/2L*(x/3)} B.M. Dia.

= -wL2/3 + wL/2*x - θ (+ve)
wx3/6L w.L2/3
12
10 kN/m
A
B
5m
12 10 kN/m
83.33kN.m 2x
Reactions :
VA =(1/2)*10*5 A
=25kN x B
MA=(1/2)10*5*(2*5/3) 25kN 5m
= 83.33 kN.m
SFD:
FA= 25kN 25 θ
+ve
Fx= 25-(x*2x/2)=25-x2 S.F. Dia. -ve
BMD -ve
MA = 83.33kN.m
Mx = -83.33 +25x-x2*x/3 B.M. Dia.
= -83.33+25x–x3/3 θ (+ve)
83.33
13
w/m
A
B
L
13 w/m
Reactions : w.L2/6 wx/L
VA =(1/2)Lw=wL/2 A
MA=(1/2)L*w*(L/3) x B
= wL2/6 wL/2 L
wL/2
SFD: θ
Fx=(wx/L)*x/2 -ve
= wx2/2L (Right side) +ve
FA= wL/2 S.F. Dia.
w.L2/6
BMD
-ve
Mx = (wx2/2L)*x/3
= wx3/6L B.M. Dia.
MA = -wL2/6 θ (+ve)
14
10 kN/m
A B
5m
14 10 kN/m
Reactions : 41.67 2x
B
VA =(1/2)10*5 A
=25kN x
MA=(1/2)10*5*(5/3) 25 kN 5m
= 41.67kN.m
SFD: θ
Fx= 2x*x/2=x2 25 -ve
FA= 25kN +ve
S.F. Dia.
BMD
Mx =x2(x/3) 41.67 -ve
= x3/3
MA = 41.67 kN.m B.M. Dia.
θ (+ve)
15
100
kN.m
A
B
10 m
15 100
100 A kN.m
kN.m x B
VA =0 10 m
S.F. Dia.
+ve 100
B.M. Dia.
16
100
kN.m
A B
C
10 m
6m
100
kN.m
A B
C
VA =0 10 m
6m
S.F. Dia.
+ve 100
B.M. Dia.
A B
HA
VA VB
1
W
A B
L
1
W
A B
L
W/2 W/2
W/2 + ve W/2
W/2 - ve
S.F. Diagram
1
W
A B
L
W/2 W/2
WL/4
+ ve
B.M. Diagram
1 W
A B
L
W/2 W/2
W/2 + ve W/2
S.F. Diagram
W/2 - ve
WL/4
B.M. Diagram + ve
2 5 10kN
A C B
10m 5
5
5 + ve 5
S.F. Diagram
5 - ve
25
B.M. Diagram + ve
2 4m 10kN
A C B
10m
6 4
6 + ve
S.F. Diagram
4 - ve 4
24
B.M. Diagram + ve
3 10kN 5kN
4m 4m
A C D B
10 m
8 7
8 + ve
S.F. Diagram 2
- ve 7
7
32 28
+ ve
B.M. Diagram
4
10kN 15kN 5kN

3m 3m 3m
A B
C D E
10 m
5
W kN/m
A B
C
WL/2 L WL/2
W kN/m
A B
C
WL/2 L WL/2
WL/2 + ve
- ve WL/2
WL2/8
+ ve
6
10 kN/m
A B
C
10 m
10 kN/m
A B
C
50 10 m 50
50 + ve
- ve 50
125 kN.m
+ ve
7
10 kN/m
A C B
10 m
5m
10 kN/m
A C B
37.5 10 m 12.5
5m
37.5
+ ve
3.75 m - ve 12.5
70.3125 kN.m
+ ve
8
10 kN/m
A C B
10 m
10 kN/m
A C B
12.5 10 m 37.5
5m
12.5 + ve 3.75 m
- ve
37.5
70.3125 kN.m
+ ve
9
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
10 m
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
20 10 m 20
20
20
S.F. Diagram
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
20 10 m 20
80
60 60
B.M. Diagram
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
20 10 m 20
20
20
80
60 60
10
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
10 m
10 kN/m
A C D B
3m 4m 3m
30 30
30
30
45 45
11
10kN 10 kN/m
A C D B
1.5
4m 3m
3m
10 m
10kN 10 kN/m
A C D B
1.5
4m 3m
38.5 3m 31.5
23.5
38.5 13.5
2.85 1.5 31.5

Mmax will
occur at 55.61
46.5
x=2.85m
55.5
from A 49.5
12
W kN/m
A B
L
W kN/m
A B
WL/3 L
WL/6
L /√ 3
WL/3
WL/6
WL2/(9√ 3)
13
9 kN/m
A B
9m
9 kN/m
A B
27 9
13.5
5.2
27
13.5
46.76
14
9 kN/m
A B
9m
9 kN/m
A B
13.5 9
27
5.2
13.5
27
46.76
15
100
kN.m
A C B
10 m
5m
15 100 kN.m
A C B
10 10
10 + ve 10
50
+ ve
-50 - ve
16
100 kN.m 50 kN.m
A B
10 m
16 100 kN.m 50 kN.m
A C B
5 5
5 5
- ve
100
+ ve
50
17
10
10√ 2
10 10 4
30 45 3
A B
1 1 2 1 1
6m
10 5 10 8
E
4.66 A C D 8.66 10 F 6 B
16.33 6m 16.67
10
16.33
5
10
16.67
8
10 5 10 8
E
4.66 A C D 8.66 10 F 6 B
16.33 6m 16.67
22.33 25
16.33
16.67
E
4.66 A C D 8.66 10 F 6 B
6m
Ten:– +ve
Comp:- -ve
4 + ve
4.66 - ve
- ve 6
Thrust diagram
Two beams AC and CB are connected by an
Internal Pin to form beam ACB. Draw SF and BM
diagram.
6 kN/m 20 kNm
C
A D B
15m 5m 5m
6 kN/m C
A
15
30 15m
15 20 kNm
D B
C
5m 5m 170
15
6 kN/m C
A
15
30 15m 15 20 kNm
D B
C
5m 5m 170
8.66m 15
30
+ ve
- ve
S.F. will be zero at a distance of L/

√ 3 = 8.66m from C
6 kN/m C
A
15
30 15m 15 20 kNm
8.66m
D B
C
5m 5m 170
86.6
15
+ ve
0.0 75
- ve
20 170
100
25 kN/m 25 kN/m
3.0 m 3.0 m 2.0m

100
25 kN/m 25 kN/m
C B D
A
97.9 127.1
97.9
27.9 50
72.1
100
25 kN/m 25 kN/m
C B D
A
97.9 127.1
181.2
50
20
10
15 kN/m 50
15 kN/m
17.32
6.0 m 2.0m
2 1 1 2
20
10
15 kN/m 50
15 kN/m
C D B 17.32
A
E F
x 6.0 m 2.0m
6.67 48.33
1.49 m
5 10.0
6.67 8.33
38.33
Fx = 10 - 48.33 + 30 + 7.5x2/2 = 0
X = 1.49 m
20
10
15 kN/m 50
15 kN/m
C D B 17.32
A
E F
6.0 m 2.0m
6.67 1.49 m 48.33
1.597 35
26.27
6.67 15
20
50 50
50
A B
C D E
1 6 2
50 50
50
A B
C D E
1 6 2
66.67 83.33
50 50
16.67 16.67
50 50 33.33
50 50
50
A B
C D E
1 6 2
66.67 83.33
- 50
- 100
50
50
15 kN/m
A B
C D E
1 6 2
50 15 kN/m 50
A B
C D E
1 6 2
86.67 103.33
2.445 m
50 50
36.67
50 50 53.33
50
50
15 kN/m
A B
C D E
1 6 2
86.67 103.33
- 5.17
- 50
- 100
25
25
25 kN/m
A B
C D E
1 6 2
Given SFD. Draw Loading diagram and
from it, BMD.
24
14.4
9.6
21.6
3 1 1 2
24
14.4
1.8 m
9.6
21.6
12
12 kN/m
8 kN/m
14.4 45.6
24
14.4
1.8 m
9.6
21.6
Given BMD. Draw Loading diagram and
from it, SFD.
A C D E B
4.5 0.5 2.0 3.0
+ ve
0.0 20.0 18.0 0.0
20.25
C D E B BMD Parabolic
A between AC – so SFD
4.5 0.5 2.0 3.0
will be linear
Area of SFD between
AC = 20.25 = ½ *4.5*x
X = 9 kN. ( I.e RA)
+ ve
Area of SFD between
0.0 20.25 20.0 18.0 0.0 CD = 20.25-20 = 0.25 =
½ *0.5*Y
Y = 1 kN.
BMD Linear = So SF
9 kN constant
Y = 1 kN
Area of SFD between
6 kN. EB = 18 = 3.0*Z
Z = 6 kN.
A C D E B
4.5 0.5 2.0 3.0
+ ve
0.0 20.25 20.0 18.0 0.0
5.0
2 kN/m
9.0 6.0
Make use of symmetry : If the structure is symmetric and also
loaded symmetrically, then no need to calculate the support
reaction. Both the reactions will be equal and it will be equal
to (total load /2).
SIGN CONVENTION:
Positive Shear:
Positive Bending:
Draw the beam and locate all the important points. I.e.
Supports, loading points, point at which type nature and
magnitude of load changes etc.
Draw faint projection lines through all these important points.

Draw the base line for shear force diagram and Bending
moment diagram. Positive values will be plotted above the
base line and negative Values will be plotted below the base
line.
Calculate SF and BM at all the important points and plot the

ordinates on respective projection lines.
Join t he ordinates with appropriate curves. For that make

use of two symmetrical equations.
dF / dx = - W and dM / dx = F
At free end of the cantilever beam, bending moment will be
zero, unless a concentrated moment is given.
At Two supports of a simply supported beam bending
moment will be zero, unless a concentrated moment is given.
There will be some moment, at support having overhang.
Between two points, if no other load is acting then SF

diagram will be straight horizontal line and BM diagram will
be an inclined line.
Between two points, if UDL is acting then SF diagram will be
straight inclined line and BM diagram will be a parabolic
curve.
Between two points, if UVL is acting then SF diagram will be
a parabolic curve and BM diagram will be a cubical parabola.
Whenever there is a concentrated load is there will be sudden

change in Shear force.
Whenever there is a concentrated Moment is there will be
sudden change in Bending moment.
Bending moment will be maximum when shear force changes

it’s sign.
For symmetrically loaded beams, Bending moment will be

maximum at midspan.
Principal Planes:--
The planes which carry only Direct Stresses and no
Tangential Stresses are called “ Principal Planes ”
Principal Stresses:--
The intensity of stress on the Principal Planes are
known as “ Principal Stresses ”
2 1
pt θ
p p
pn
1 2
All planes parallel to this planes
are principal plane with zero
principal
2 1 stress
pt θ
p p
pn
1 2
All planes parallel to this planes are
Principal plane with principal stress
=p
Importance of Finding Principal Planes:--
1. The Principal Planes carry the Maximum Direct

Stress (Tensile or Compressive).
2. The Principal Planes helps to locate the Planes of

Maximum Shear (Inclined at 45 with Principal Planes)
2 1
45
p p
1 2
Case:- 1 Element Subjected to Direct Stress &
Shear Stresses :--
Consider an element subjected to the direct stresses p
& p’ (both tensile) alongwith a shear stress of intensity “ q ”as
shown in figure. The shear stress intensity on all the sides
will be “q” for equilibrium of the element. Let “ t ” be the
thickness of the element.
Consider a plane BE inclined at angle θ with BC.
p'
Force on face BC D E
q C
= P1 = p * BC * t
Force on face BC
= P2 = q * BC * t p θ p
Force on face CE
= P3 = q * CE * t
Force on face CE Aq B
p'
Resolving forces parallel & perpendicular to BE,
Pn = (P1+P3)cos θ + (P2+P4)sin θ
Pt = (P1+P3) sin θ - (P2+P4)cos θ p'
P 4c D E qC
P4
θ θ
os
os p p
P 3c sinθ
θ
θ θ P4
P3
E co sθ Aq B
P1 p'
C
P3
θ
sin
Pt P1 Force on face BC
θ
θ
= P1 = p * BC * t
P1
sin
Force on face BC
Pn
θ
P2
= P2 = q * BC * t
co
P2 Force on face CE
sθ
θ θ = P3 = q * CE * t
i n
P 2s Force on face CE
B
Resolving forces perpendicular & parallel to BE,
Pn = (P1+P3)cos θ + (P2+P4)sin θ
Pt = (P1+P3) sin θ - (P2+P4)cos θ
pn = Pn / (BE.t)
=[(p*BC*t +q*CE*t) Cosθ +(q*BC*t + p’ *CE*t) Sinθ ] / (BE.t)
= p cos2θ + q sinθ cosθ + q sinθ cosθ + p’ sin2θ
= p/2 (1+cos2θ ) + p’/2 (1-cos2θ ) + q sin2θ
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ ……….(I)
pt = Pt / (BE.t)
=[(p*BC*t +q*CE*t) Sinθ - (q*BC*t + p’ *CE*t) Cosθ ] / (BE.t)
= p sinθ cosθ + q sin2θ - q cos2θ - p’ sinθ cosθ
To locate Principal Planes:--
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ ……….(I)

pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ ……………….……(II)
The Principal Planes are the plane which carry no Tangential
stress. Therefore pt = 0
at pt = 0, let θ = α
{(p - p’)/2} * sin2α - q cos2α = 0
√ (p
- p’) 2
{(p - p’)/2} * sin2α = q cos2α + 4q 2
tan2α = q / {(p - p’)/2 } 2q 2α
tan2α = 2q-1/ (p - p’) p - p’
α 1 = [ tan { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2
α = 90 + α
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) There are two √ (p
- p’) 2
+ 4q 2
values of α which will satisfy the 2q
2α
above eq. α 1 & α 2, where α 2=90+ α 1

p - p’
sin2α 1=2q/(√(p-p’)2+4q2) & cos2α 1=(p-p’)/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)

sin2α 2=-2q/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)& cos2α 2= -(p-p’)/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)
Substituting value of sin2α 1 & cos2α 1, in eq.(I),
p1 = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2α 1 + q sin2α 1…….(I)
= (p+p’)/2 + {(p-p’)/2}*{(p-p’)/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)} +
q* 2q/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)
= (p+p’)/2+ (p-p’)2*/ 2(√(p-p’)2+4q2) +2q2/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)
= (p+p’)/2 + √ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2
Similarly, substituting value of cos2α 2 & sin2α 2 in eq.(I),
All planes parallel to this plane are principal planes
and principal stress = p1, inclination = θ
p’
90 θ
p
q
All planes parallel to this plane are principal planes and

principal stress = p2, inclination = θ + 90 deg.
To locate Planes of Maximum Shear Stress:--
p1 = (p+p’)/2 + √ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2 …Major Principal Stress
p2 = (p+p’)/2 - √ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2 …Minor Principal Stress
Let “ t ” be the thickness of the element.
Consider a plane AC inclined at angle θ with AB.
p2
p2 p2cosθ
θ
p2sinθ
C B C
pt B
pt p1cosθ
p1 pn θ p1 θ p
pn θ
1
A p1sinθ
p2 A
Consider a plane AC inclined at angle θ with AB. Now,
Force on face AB = P1 = p1*AB*t
Force on face BC = P2 = p2*BC*t
Equating all the forces along to AC,
Pt = P1sinθ - P2cosθ P2cosθ
P2
θ
= p1 AB t sinθ - p2 BC t cosθ P2sinθ
C
pt = Pt / (AC. t) Pt B
P1cosθ
= p1 AB t sinθ - p2 BC t cosθ θ
AC. t Pn θ P1
= p1sinθ (AB/AC) - p2 cosθ (BC/AC) P1sinθ
A
= p1sinθ cosθ - p2 sinθ cosθ
pt = (p1- p2)sinθ cosθ
The Shear stress pt = (p1- p2)sinθ cosθ ;
E H
pt = (p1- p2)sinθ cosθ ; 45
= (p1- p2)/2 sin2θ 135

pt max. sin2θ = max.
G F
sin2θ =+/- 1
2θ = 90 or 270
θ = 45 or 135
When θ = 45, (EF) ptmax = (p1- p2)/2
When θ = 135,(GH) ptmax = (p1- p2)/2
Planes of maximum shear are always at Right angles to
each other (Inclined at 45 & 135 with principal planes.)
Location of Principal Planes;
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) (From previous slide)
(α anticlockwise from vertical)
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2
(at 45 & 135 with principal planes in anticlockwise)
α p2 p1 α pt2 p2
p1
pt1 45
Case:- 1 Element Subjected to Direct Stress &
Shear Stresses :--
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ …….….(I)

= (p cos2θ + q sinθ cosθ + q sinθ cosθ + p’
sin2θ )
p1 = (p+p’)/2 + √ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2 (Major Prin. Stress )(III)
p2 = (p+p’)/2 - √ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2 (Minor Prin. Stress)(IV)
Location of Principal Planes;
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) (α anticlockwise from vertical) (V)
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2 _ _ (VI)

(at 45 & 135 with principal planes in anticlockwise)
Q.1 A rectangular bar of cross sectional area 100cm2 is
subjected to an axial load of 20kN. Calculate the normal
and tangential stresses on a section which is inclined at an
angle of 30deg. with normal cross section of the bar.
Ans. Direct stress σ = load / cross sectional area
= 20000/10000 = 2MPa.
Normal stress σn = (p cos2θ + q sinθ cosθ + q sinθ
cosθ + p’ sin2θ ) as p’= q= zero we have
σn = σcos230 = 2* cos230 = 1.5MPa
and tangential stress
σt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ , as p’= q= zero
σt =(σ/2)sin2*30 = 0.866MPa
Q.2 Calculate diameter of circular bar which is subjected
to an axial pull of 160kN, if the permissible shear stress
on any cross section is 60MPa.
Ans. Direct stress p = 160000/(π*r2)
Maximum shear stress q = p/2= 80000/(π*r2)
Max. q = 60 = 80000/ ( π*r2)
Gives r = 20.6mm and diameter = 41.2 mm,
say diameter = 42mm
Q.3 A rectangular bar of cross section 200mm x 400mm is
subjected to an axial pull P. If permissible normal and
tangential stresses are 7 and 3.7MPa, calculate safe value
of force P.
Ans. Direct stress p = P/ (200*400) = 7 MPa
hence P = 560kN _ _ _ _(i)
and Maximum shear stress q = 3.7 =
p/2= P/ (2*200*400)
Hence P = 592kN _ _ _ _(ii)
From i and ii safe value of P = 560kN ans.
Q.4 Two wooden pieces 100mm X100mm cross section
are glued to gather as shown in fig. If permissible shear
stress in glue material is 1MPa, calculate maximum axial
pull P.
Glued joint
P 30deg P
With vertical the inclination of the joint is 60deg.

σt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ , as p’= q= zero shear
stress q = (p/2)*sin 2θ
So that q = 1 = [P/(2*100*100)]sin (2*60)
Give P = 23.094kN. Ans.
Q.5 Two mutually perpendicular planes are stresses as
shown in fig. calculate normal and tangential stress on an
oblique plane AB.
100MPa θ = 30deg.
120MPa θ 120MPa
100MPa
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ _(I)
σn = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ _ _ (II) as q = zero
pn = (120+100)/2 + [(120 – 100)/2 ]cos 2*30
= 115MPa and
σn = [(120 -100)/2]sin 2*30 = 8.66MPa. . . .Ans
Q.6 Two mutually perpendicular planes are stresses as
shown in fig. calculate normal and tangential stress on an
oblique plane AB.
60MPa θ = 30deg.
120MPa θ 120MPa
60MPa
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ _(I)
σn = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ _ _ (II) as q = zero
pn = (120- 60)/2 +[ (120 + 60)/2 ]cos 2*30
= 75 MPa
σn = [(120 + 60)/2]sin 2*30 = 77.94 MPa. . . .Ans
Example:-7 A point in a strained material, the intensities
of Normal stress across two planes at right angles to each
other are 800N/mm2 and 350N/mm2 (both tensile) and a
shear stress of 400N/mm2 across the planes as shown in
figure. Locate the principal Planes and evaluate the Principal
Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the planes of maximum shear
stress (pt max ) & its location. Find Normal(pn),Tangential(pt)
stresses on a plane inclined at 50 with vertical as shown in
figure.
350N/mm2
400N/mm2
50 800N/mm2
400N/mm2
Solution:
Given, p = 800 N/mm2, p’= 350 N/mm2,
q = 400 N/mm2 θ = 50
(i) pn & pt
= 575 - 39.07 + 393.93
= 929.85 N/mm2
pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ ………………..……(II)

= 221.58 - ( - 69.46)
= 291.04 N/mm2
(ii) Principal Planes:--
= 575 + 458.94
= 1033.94 N/mm2
= 575 - 458.94
= 116.06 N/mm2
(iii) Location of Principal Planes:--
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) α = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2
α 1 = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2 = 30.32° (ACW from p)
α 2 = 90 + θ 1 = 90 + 30.32 =120.32 ° (with vertical.)
(iv) ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p -p’)/2}2 + q2
= 458.94 N/mm2 (at 45° with principal planes.)
Example:-8 A point in a strained material, the intensities of
Normal stress across two planes at right angles to each other
are 500N/mm2 (tensile) and 100N/mm2 (Compressive) and a
figure. Locate the principal Planes and evaluate the Principal
Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the planes of maximum shear
stress (pt max ) & its location. Find Normal(pn),Tangential(pt)
stresses on a plane inclined at 30 with vertical as shown in
figure.
100N/mm2
200N/mm2
30 500N/mm2
200N/mm2
Solution:
Given, p = 500 N/mm2, p’= -100 N/mm2,
q = 200 N/mm2 θ = 30
(i) pn & pt
= 200 + 150 + 173.20
= 523.20 N/mm2

= 259.80 - (100)
= 159.80 N/mm2
= 200 + 360.55
= 560.55 N/mm2
= 200 - 360.55
= -160.55 N/mm2
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) α = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2
α 1 = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2 = 16.85° (with vertical.)
α 2 = 90 + θ 1 = 90 + 16.85 =106.85° (with vertical.)
(iv) ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p -p’)/2}2 + q2
are 650N/mm2 (Compressive) and 150N/mm2 (Compressive)
and a shear stress of 320N/mm2 across the planes as shown
in figure. Locate the principal Planes and evaluate the
Principal Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the planes of maximum
shear stress (pt max ) & its location. Find
Normal(pn),Tangential(pt) stresses on a plane inclined at 60
with vertical as shown in figure.
150N/mm2
320N/mm2
60 650N/mm2
320N/mm2
Solution:
Given, p = - 650 N/mm2, p’= - 150 N/mm2,
q = 320 N/mm2 θ = 60
(i) pn & pt
= - 400 + 125 + 277.13
= 2.13 N/mm2

= - 216.50 - ( - 160)
= - 56.50 N/mm2
= - 400 + 406.08
= 6.08 N/mm2
= - 400 - 406.08
= - 806.08 N/mm2
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) α = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2
α 1 = [ tan-1 { 2q / (p - p’) } ]/2 = - 26.00° (with vertical.)
α 2 = 90 + θ 1 = 90 + 16.85 =+ 64.00° (with vertical.)
(iv) ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p -p’)/2}2 + q2
Mohr’s Stress Circle Method:--
When principal stresses & planes at a point in a two

dimensional stresses are given, we can use the Mohr’s
Stress Circle Method to obtain the normal and tangential
stress-intensities across a given plane through the point.
In Mohr’s Circle ;
The Normal Stress (pn) is plotted on X-axis.
The Tangential Stress (pt) is plotted on Y-axis.
Angle on Mohr’s circle is taken as twice the given angle

p'
Shear Stress (pt)
D E
qC
p θ p
Aq B
O
p'
Normal Stress (pn)
Sign Conventions:--
1. Tensile Stresses are taken as Positive (+ve)
2. Compressive Stresses are taken as Negative (-ve)
3. Clockwise Shear is taken as (+ve)
4. Anticlockwise Shear is taken as (-ve)
Case:-1 If an element is subjected to the direct stresses (p
& p’) & shear stress (q) then the principal stresses are (p1 &
p2) and the normal and tangential stresses (pn & pt) across a
plane inclined at angle θ to the plane carrying stress p are,

Location of Principal Planes; tan2α = 2q / (p - p’)
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2
Steps to Draw Mohr’s Circle:- D q C
P’(CD) p p
pt
q
Aq p' B
Q
pn
O p' Q’ C
q
p
P(BC)
1. Select origin O and draw axis OX.
2. Draw OQ = p . On faces BC & DA the shear stress q is
anticlockwise, ( -ve) , draw QP = q (downwards)
3. OQ’ = p’ and on faces AB & CD the shear stress q is
clockwise, hence it is +ve, so draw Q’P’ = q ( upwards as it is
+ve)
4. Join the points P & P’ which will intersect OX at C.
pt (CD)P’
q
B Q A
O p2 Q’ C
p' pn
q
p
p1 P(BC)
5. Point C is the Centre of Mohr’s Circle. With C as centre
and radius equal to CP or CP’, draw a circle, which will
intersect OX at points A & B.
6. Measure OA which gives maximum direct stress and no
Shear stress & it is Major principal stress (p1) OA=p1
Measure OB as Minor principal stress (p ) OB = p .
D q C
α
p p
pt (CD)P’ Aq p' B
q
B Q A
O p2 Q’ 2α pn
C
p' q
p P(BC)
p1
7. From plane CP measure angle as 2α anticlockwise
up to CA, therefore the principal plane will be located
at α anticlockwise from face BC.
T
pt (CD)P’
q
B Q A
O p2 Q’ C 2α
pn
p' q
p
P(BC)
p1
8. Measure CT which gives maximum Shear stress . Which

is inclined at 90 & 270 in Mohr’s circle, so in actual case it is
inclined at 45 & 135 with principal planes.
D q
C
p θ p R
Aq p' B (CD)P’
pt q pt
2θ Q
Q’
O pn R’ C pn
p' q
p
P(BC)
9. From point P (BC) measure angle 2θ in anticlockwise
direction and draw a line CR. From R, draw RR’ on OX.
Measure OR’ as p and RR’ as p .
Proof:-
QQ’ = OQ - OQ’ = p - p’
CQ = CQ’ = (p - p’)/2
OC = OQ’ + Q’C = p’ + (p - p’)/2 = (p + p’)/2
Radius of Mohr’s Circle;

CP = √ CQ2 + QP2 = √ {(p - p’)/2}2 + q2
OA = OC+CA = (p + p’)/2 + √ {(p - p’)/2}2 + q2 = p1
OB = OC - CB = (p + p’)/2 - √ {(p - p’)/2}2 + q2 = p2
since p1 & p2 are on X-axis the tangential stress is
zero. Hence they represent the “Principal Planes”.
Here p1 is major principal plane and p2 is minor
principal plane.
pt T
P’
q
B Q A
O Q’ C 2α pn
q
T’ P
p'
p p - p’
p2
p1
let QCP = 2α then
tan2α = QP/CQ = q / {(p - p’)/2} = 2q / (p - p’)

The max. tangential stress = max Y-ordinate in the circle
which is equal to the radius of the circle (CT = CT’)
ptmax = CT = CP = √ {(p - p’)/2}2 + q2= (p1 - p2)/2
the position of the plane CT is at 90 from CA, hence
the plane of max. shear is inclined at 45 with principal
planes.
Example:-10 A point in a strained material, the intensities
of Normal stress across two planes at right angles to
each other (both tensile) and a shear stress of across the
planes are shown in figure. Locate the principal Planes.
Calculate the Principal Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the
planes of maximum shear stress (pt max ) & its location.
Find Normal(pn),Tangential(pt) stresses on a plane
inclined at 80 with vertical as shown in figure.
350N/mm2
400N/mm2
80 800N/mm2
400N/mm2
350N/mm2 Example:-10
400N/mm2
80 800N/mm2
400N/mm2
R
pt P’
pt 400
160 Q
O Q’ R’ C pn
pn
400
350N/mm2
P
800N/mm2
350N/mm2 Example:-10
400N/mm2
α 800N/mm2
400N/mm2 T
pt P’
400N/mm2
B Q A
O p2 Q’ C 2α pn
350N/mm2 400
P
800N/mm 2
p1
Solution:-- Example:-10
Measure:
OR’ = pn = Normal stress = 929.85MPa
RR’ = pt = Tangential Stress = 291.04MPa
OR = pr = Resultant Stress = 974.33MPa
OA = p1 = Major Principal Stress = 1033.94MPa
OB = p2 = Minor Principal Stress = 116.06MPa
Angle PCA = 2α = ___ therefore, α 1 =30.32& α 2=120.32
CT = ptmax = Maximum Tangential Stress = 458.94MPa

Example:-11 A point in a strained material, the Normal
stress across two planes at right angles to each other
are 500N/mm2 (tensile) and 100N/mm2 (Comp.) and a
figure. Locate the principal Planes and evaluate the
Principal Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the planes of
maximum shear stress(ptmax ) and its location. Find
Normal (pn),Tangential (pt) stresses on a plane inclined at
30 with vertical as shown in figure.
100N/mm2
200N/mm2
30 500N/mm2
200N/mm2
100 Example:-11
200
500 30
500 pt
200
P’
200 R
Q’ pt pn
- pn
100 O C 60 Q R’
pn
200
P
500
100 Example:-11
200
500 α
500 pt
200
T
P’
200
B Q’ Q A pn
- pn
100 O C 2α
200
P
500
p2 p1
Measure:
OR’ = pn = Normal stress =523.20MPa
RR’ = pt = Tangential Stress = 159.80MPa
OR = pr = Resultant Stress = 547.06MPa
OA = p1 = Major Principal Stress = 560.55MPa
OB = p2 = Minor Principal Stress = -160.55MPa
Angle PCA = 2α = ___ therefore, α 1 = 16.85& α 2=106.85
CT = ptmax = Maximum Tangential Stress=360.55MPa

are 650N/mm2 (Compressive) and 150N/mm2 (Compressive)
and a shear stress of 320N/mm2 across the planes as shown
in figure. Locate the principal Planes and evaluate the
Principal Stresses (p1 & p2). Also find the planes of maximum
shear stress (pt max ) & its location. Find
Normal(pn),Tangential(pt) stresses on a plane inclined at 60
with vertical as shown in figure.
650N/mm2
320N/mm2
60 150N/mm2
320N/mm2
650 Example:-12
320
60 150
R pt
320 P’
320 pt
pn R’ Q
Q’ C 120 O
320
pn
P 150
650
650 Example:-12
320
α 150
T pt
320 P’
320
pn B C QO A
Q’ p2 2α
650 320
P
150
p1
Measure:
OR’ = pn = Normal stress = _____
RR’ = pt = Tangential Stress = ______
OR = pr = Resultant Stress = _______
OA = p1 = Major Principal Stress = _______
OB = p2 = Minor Principal Stress = _______
Angle PCA = 2α = ___ therefore, α 1 = ___& α 2=___
CT = ptmax = Maximum Tangential Stress = _______

Case:- 2 Element Subjected to direct stress
Stresses only and no shear stress:--
Consider an element subjected to only Direct Stresses
p & p’ (both tensile) as shown in figure. Here the shear stress
intensity “q” is zero.
p'
C B
pt
p pn θ p
A
p'
1. Element Subjected to Direct & Shear Stresses
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2
Case-2 Element Subjected to Direct Stresses only:--
If in any case, an element is subjected to only direct
stresses & no tangential stresses as shown in figure. In that
case the pn, pt, p1, p2 & ptmax can be found out by substituting
q=0 in equations of CASE- 1.
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p -p’)/2}2 + q2
For CASE-2 Substituting q = 0 in above equations;
pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ ………….…….….(I)
pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ …………. ……………….……(II)
p1 = p/2 + √ p2/4 = p …Major Principal Stress
p2 = p’/2 + √ p’2/4 = p’ …Minor Principal Stress
Case:- 2 Element Subjected to Direct Stress only
and no shear stress:--
p'
C B
pt
p pn θ p
A
pn = (p + p’)/2 + {(p - p’)/2} cos2θ p'
pt = {(p - p’)/2} sin2θ
pr =√ pn2+ pt2
ptmax = (p - p’)/2
Example:-13 A point in a strained material is
subjected to the stresses as shown in figure. Find
Normal(pn) , Tangential(pt) and Resultant (pr)stresses
on a plane inclined at 50 with vertical as shown in
figure.
Also find Maximum Tangential stress (ptmax )
450 N/mm2
50
800 N/mm2 800 N/mm2
450 N/mm2
Solution:- 450
50
q=0 800
p = + 800 N/mm2 (Tensile)
p' = + 450 N/mm2 (Tensile)
θ = 50
pn = (p + p’)/2 + {(p - p’)/2} cos2θ = 594.61 N/mm2
pt = {(p - p’)/2} sin2θ = 172.34 N/mm2

pr=√ pn2+ pt2 = 619.08 N/mm2
ptmax = (p - p’)/2 = 175 N/mm2
figure.
200 N/mm2
30
500 N/mm2 500 N/mm2
200 N/mm2
Solution:- 200
q=0 30
p = - 500 N/mm2 (Comp.) 500
p' = + 200 N/mm2 (Tensile)
θ = 30
pn = (p + p’)/2+ {(p - p’)/2} cos2θ = - 325 N/mm2
pt = {(p - p’)/2} sin2θ = - 303.11 N/mm2

pr=√ pn2+ pt2 = 444.41 N/mm2
ptmax = (p - p)/2 = - 350 N/mm2
figure.
300 N/mm2
40
600 N/mm2 600 N/mm2
300 N/mm2
Solution:- 300
q=0 40
p = - 600 N/mm2 (Comp.) 600
p' = - 300 N/mm2 (Comp.)
θ = 40
pn = (p + p’)/2 + {(p - p’)/2} cos2θ = - 476.04 N/mm2
pt = {(p - p’)/2} sin2θ = - 443.16 N/mm2

pr=√ pn2+ pt2 = 650.39 N/mm2
ptmax = (p - p’)/2 = - 450 N/mm2
Case:-II If the tangential stresses acting on element is
zero, then the normal and tangential stresses across a plane
inclined at angle θ to the plane carrying p are,
pn = (p + p’)/2 + {(p - p’)/2} cos2θ
pt = {(p - p’)/2} sin2θ
p'
C B
pt
p pn θ p
A
p'
Steps to Draw Mohr’s Circle:-
pt
B A
O p' C pn
1. Set off the axis OX on this set off OA = p & OB = p’

2. Bisect BA at C.
3. With C as centre and CA or CB as radius, draw a circle.
This circle is known as Mohr’s circle.
P
pt
pr
pt
B 2θ A
O p' Q C pn
pn
4. Draw line CP at angle “2θ ” with OX in anticlockwise so

that the point P is on the circle.
5. From P, drop perpendicular PQ on X axis. Measure OQ
as pn & measure PQ as pt.
6. Join and measure OP which gives resultant stress pr.
T
P
pt
pr
pt
B 2θ A
O p' Q C pn
pn
p
7. Join & measure CT which represents the plane of

maximum shear stress. It inclined at 90 & 270 in Mohr’s circle
with principal plane, hence in actual case they are inclined at
45 & 135 with principal planes.
pt
P T
pr
pt
B 2θ A
O Q C pn
p' p - p’
pn
p
subjected to following stresses. Find Normal(pn) ,
Tangential(pt) and Resultant (pr)stresses on a plane
inclined at 50 with vertical as shown in figure. Use
Mohr’s Circle Method.
450 N/mm2
50
800 N/mm2 800 N/mm2
450 N/mm2
pt Example:-16
50
800 N/mm2
P T
450 N/mm 2
pr
pt
B 100 A
O p' = 450 N/mm2 Q C pn
pn
p = 800 N/mm2
Measure:
OQ = pn = Normal stress = _____
PQ = pt = Tangential Stress = ______

350 N/mm2
30
150 N/mm2 150 N/mm2
350 N/mm2
Example:-17
30
150 N/mm2 pt
T
350 N/mm
2
P
pt
pr
B C 60 A
- pn
p' = 350 O Q pn
pn
p = 150
Measure:

800 N/mm2
40
600 N/mm2 600 N/mm2
800 N/mm2
Example:-18
40
600 N/mm2
pt
T P
800 N/mm2
pt pr
B C 80 A
pn Q O
p =- 600 N/mm2
pn
p' = - 800 N/mm2

Measure:

Case :-3 Stress in One Direction Only:--
Consider an element subjected to stress p in only one
direction as shown.
Here, the p’ = 0 & q = 0.
2 1
θ
p p
1 2
1. Element Subjected to Direct & Shear Stresses
Location of Principal Planes; tan2θ = 2q / (p - p’)
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2
Case-3 Element Subjected to Direct Stresses only:--
If in any case, an element is subjected to direct stress
in only direction & no tangential stresses as shown in figure.
Then the pn, pt, p1, p2 & ptmax can be found out by substituting
p’ & q = 0 in eq. of CASE- 1.
Location of Principal Planes; tan2θ = 2q / (p - p’)
ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p -p’)/2}2 + q2
For CASE-3 Substituting p’ & q = 0 in above equations;
pn = p /2 + p /2* cos2θ = p cos2θ ………….…….….(I)
pt = p /2 * sin2θ ………………..……………….……(II)
p1 = p/2 + √ p2/4 = p …Major Principal Stress
p2 = p/2 - √ p2/4 = 0 …Minor Principal Stress
Case :-3 Stresses in One Direction only :--
pn = p cos2θ
pt = p/2 sin2θ
pr = √ pn2 + pt2
ptmax = p/2 (Inclined at 45 with Principal Planes)
2 1
θ
p p
1 2
subjected to the stress as shown in figure. Find
figure.
50
800 N/mm2 800 N/mm2
Solution:--
pn = p cos2θ = 800 * cos2(50) = 330.54 N/mm2
pt = p/2 sin2θ = (800/2) * sin(100) = 393.93 N/mm2
pr = √ pn2 + pt2 = 514.23 N/mm2
ptmax = p/2 (Inclined at 45 with Principal Planes)
= 800/2
= 400 N/mm2
50
800 N/mm2 800 N/mm2
Example:-20 Find p1, p2 & θ if the stresses on two
planes are as shown in figure.
2
m m
100 N/mm2 N/
50 B
C
A θ
60 N/mm2
30 N/mm2
D
100
C 50 B
A θ
60
30 D P’(CD)
30
C Q
B Q’ A
C’
p2 2θ
50
60 N/mm2
100 N/mm2 P(AB)

p1
STEPS:--
STEPS 1. Select origin O and draw axis OX.
2. On face AB, Draw pn = OQ = 100 N/mm2, the shear stress
= 50 is anticlockwise, Draw QP = 50 (downwards)
3. On face CD, Draw pn = OQ’ = 60 N/mm2, the shear stress
= 30 is Clockwise, Draw Q’P’ = 30 (upwards)
4. Join the points P & P’ . Now find the centre of line PP’ as
point C’. From point C’ draw perpendicular bisector C’C ,
which will intersect OX at C.
5. Point C is the Centre of Mohr’s Circle. Join CP & CP’.
With C as centre and radius equal to CP or CP’, draw a
circle, which will intersect OX at points A & B.
6. Measure OA which gives maximum direct stress and no
Shear stress & it is Major principal stress (p1) OA=p1
Measure OB as Minor principal stress (p2) OB = p2.
7. From CP, measure the angle PCP’ in anticlockwise
Example:-21 Find p1, p2 & θ if the stresses on two
planes are as shown in figure.
C B
900 N/mm2
θ
30
A 30
1200 N/mm2
D
Principal Strain:--
Strain
If p1, p2 & p3 are principal stresses, then the principal
strains e1, e2 & e3 are given by;
e1 = p1/E - µ p2/E - µ p3/E (in direction of p1)
p2
p1
p3
Example:-22 A rectangular block if steel is subjected to
stresses of 1100 Mpa (tensile), 600 Mpa (Comp.), & 450
Mpa (tensile) across three pairs of faces. If µ = 0.3, and E =
2*10 5 N/mm2, Calculate strain in each direction.
Solution:-- p1 = 1100 N/mm2 (Ten)
p2 = - 600 N/mm2 (Comp.)
p3 = 450 N/mm2 (Ten)

µ = 0.3, and E = 2*10 5 N/mm2
e1 = p1/E - µ p2/E - µ p3/E (in direction of p1) = ______
Example:-23 A circle of 250mm diameter is drawn on a
mild steel plate. Then it is subjected to the stresses as shown
in figure. Find the lengths of major & minor axis of the ellipse
formed due to the deformation of the circle. Take E = 2 * 10 5
N/mm2; µ = 0.25
450 MPa
300 MPa
600 MPa 250 600 MPa
300 MPa
450 MPa
Solution:-- E = 2 * 10 5 N/mm2; µ = 0.25
p = 600 Mpa , p’ = 450 MPa, q = 300 Mpa
= 525 + 309.23 =834.24 MPa
= 525 - 309.23 = 215.76 Mpa
e1 = p1/E - µ p2/E (in direction of p1)
= 1/E { 834.24 - 0.25(215.76)}
= 0.0039 (in direction of p1)
Increase in diameter along Major axis;
∆ d1= e1 . d
= 0.0039 * 250 = 0.975 mm
e2 = p2/E - µ p1/E (in direction of p2)
= 1/E { 215.76 - 0.25(834.24) }
= 0.000036 (in direction of p2)
Increase in diameter along Major axis;
∆ d2 = e2 . d
= 0.000036 * 250 = 0.009 mm
Minor axis of ellipse, d2 = 250 + 0.009 = 250.009 mm
Major axis of ellipse d1= 250 + 0.975 = 250.975 mm

Minor axis of ellipse d2= 250 + 0.009 = 250.009 mm
250
250.975
250.009
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) = 600 / (600 - 450) = 4
α 1 = 38° (Anticlockwise with vertical)
α 2 = 90° + 38° = 128°(with vertical)
d1= 250.975 mm ; d2 = 250.009 mm
450 MPa
300 MPa
38°
P1
600 MPa 600 MPa

d2 d1
P2
300 MPa
450 MPa
Example:-24 Solve following 4 example using
Mohr’s circle method.
400 N/mm2
800 N/mm2
200 N/mm2
800 N/mm2
200 N/mm2
400 N/mm2
200 N/mm2
200 N/mm2
SOLID SHAFTS SUBJECTED TO BENDING MOMENT
AND TWISTING MOMENT:
(WITHOUT ANY AXIAL FORCE)
Shear stress due twisting moment q = Tr/J = 16T/πd3
Bending stresses are due to bending moment
= p = pbt or pbc = M/Z = 32M/ πd3( pbt and pbc =
bending tensile and compressive stresses resp.)
Principal stresses, p1 and p2 = p/2 ± [(p/2)2 + q2]1/2
Using values of p and q
p1 and p2 = 16[ M ±( M2 + T2)1/2 ] / πd3
Maximum shear stress
τ max = (p1 +p2)/2 = 16 [( M2 + T2)1/2 ] / πd3
For position of principal planes tan2α = 2q / (p - p’)
gives tan2α = 2q / p as p’ is zero
For position of principal planes
tan2α = 2q / (p - p’) gives
tan2α = 2q / p as p’ is zero
= T/M
α 1 = α and α 2 = α + 90 deg.
HOLLOW SHAFTS SUBJECTED TO BENDING
MOMENT AND TWISTING MOMENT:
(WITHOUT ANY AXIAL FORCE)
q = Tr/J = 32T(D/2)/π[D4 – d4] …..(1)
p = pbt or pbc = M(D/2)/I = 32M(D)/ π[D4 – d4]……(2)
Principal stresses are given by equations
p1 and p2 = p/2 ± [(p/2)2 + q2]1/2
Inserting values of p and q
p1 and p2 = 16D[ M ±( M2 + T2)1/2 ]/ π[D4 – d4]
Maximum shear stress τ max = (p1 +p2)/2
= 16 D[( M2 + T2)1/2 ] /π[D4 – d4]
(Where D and d are outer and inner diameters of the shaft)
Q.1 A solid shaft 100mm diameter is subjected to a
bending moment of 10kNm and a twisting moment of 12
kNm. Calculate principal stresses and position of plane on
which they act.
Ans: M = 10kNm and T = 12kNm
Principal stresses are given by
p1 and p2 = 16[ M ±( M2 + T2)1/2 ] / πd3
p1 and p2 = 16*106[10 ± ( 10 2 + 12 2 ] ½ / π100 3
= 130.48 MPa and 28.625MPa
τ max = (p1 +p2)/2 = 16 [( M2 + T2)1/2] / πd3
=(p1 +p2)/2 = 50.928MPa
tan2α = T /M = 1.2, So α 1 = 25.1 and α 2 =115.1deg.
Q. 2 The maximum permissible shear stress in hollow shaft
is 60MPa. For shaft the outer diameter shaft is twice the
inner diameter. The shaft is subjected to a twisting moment
of 10kNm and a bending moment of 12kNm. Calculate
diameter of the shaft.
Ans. Given T = 10kNm and M = 12kNm
τ max = (p1 + p2)/2
= 16D[( M2 + T2)1/2 ] /π[D4 –d4]
60 = 16*D[ 122 + 102 ] ½ / π [ D4 - (D/2)4 ]

Outer diameter D = 112.25M say 114 mm
Inner diameter d = 57mm
Torsion accompanied with bending and axial force:
(either tensile or compressive axial force )
The following forces/moments may act of shafts:
*Axial force
* Twisting moment and
* Bending moment
*Direct stresses ’p’ due to axial force on shaft
p = axial force/ cross sectional area of the shaft
For solid shafts, p = P/(πR2), R = radius of shaft
For hollow shafts, p = P/[π(R2 – r2) , Where R is outer
radius of the hollow shaft and r is inner radius of the shaft
Shear stresses due to twisting moment on shaft:
T/J = q/r = cθ/L (equation for twisting of shaft)
For solid shaft:
Shear stress q = Tr/J = 16T/πd3
For hollow shaft:
Shear stress q = T(D/2)/[π(D4 – d4)/32]
= 16T/ [π(D4 – d4)]
Bending stresses due to bending moment:
Bending tensile or compressive stresses
For solid shafts:
pbt or pbc = M/Z = 32M/ πD3
For hollow shafts:
pbt or pbc = My/I = M(D/2)/ [π(D4 – d4)/64],
where D and d are outer and inner diameter of the shaft
and M is bending moment.
Stress at any point on the shaft (either hollow or solid)
depends on the application of axial force, bending
moment and twisting moment on the shaft.
Principal stresses on shaft =
p1 = (p+p’)/2 + [ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2]1/2 and
p2 = (p+p’)/2 – [{(p-p’)/2}2+q2] 1/2
Where p = p + pbt (or pbc) i.e. algebraic sum of direct
and bending stresses and q is shear stresses due to
twisting moment
p1 = (p+p’)/2 + [ {(p-p’)/2}2+q2]1/2 and
p2 = (p+p’)/2 – [{(p-p’)/2}2+q2] 1/2
Where p = p + pbt (or pbc) i.e. algebraic sum of direct and
bending stresses and q is shear stresses due to twisting
moment. The p’ is zero in y direction.
p1 and p2 = (p)/2 ± [ {(p)/2}2+q2]1/2
Q. 3 A propeller shaft 200mm diameter transmits 2000kW
at 300rpm. The propeller is over hanging by 500mm from
support and has mass of 5000kg. The propeller thrust is
200kN. Calculate maximum direct stresses induced in the
shaft. Also locate position of section where the maximum
direct stresses are acting and point on cross section where
the maximum direct stresses are act.
Ans.
1. Direct stress due to thrust = force / c. s. area
p = ± 200*1000/ π*1002 = 6.366MPa
2. Bending moment
M = 5000*9.81*500 Nmm (cantilever beam action )
Bending stress = M/Z = 5000*9.81*500/[ π 2003 / 32]
= 31.226MPa
3. Power, P = 2 πNT/ 60 or T = 60P/2 πN
T = 60*2000*106/2 π*300 = 63.66*106Nmm
Shear stress due to twisting moment
q = 16T/ πd3 = 16*63.66*106 / π*2003
= 40.527MPa.
Q. 3A propeller shaft 200mm diameter transmits 2000kW
at 300rpm. The propeller is over hanging by 500mm from
support and has mass of 5000kg. The propeller thrust is
200kN. Calculate maximum direct stresses induced in the
shaft. Also locate position of section where the maximum
direct stresses are acting and point on cross section where
the maximum direct stresses are act.
Ans.
1. Direct stress due to thrust = force / c. s. area
σ = ± 200*1000/ π*1002 = 6.366MPa
2. Bending moment
M = 5000*9.81*500 Nmm (cantilever beam action )
Bending stress = M/Z = 5000*9.81*500/[ π 2003 / 32]
= 31.226MPa
3. Power, P = 2 πNT/ 60 or T = 60P/2 πN
T = 60*2000*106/2 π*300 = 63.66*106Nmm
Shear stress due to twisting moment
q = 16T/ πd3 = 16*63.66*106 / π*2003
= 40.527MPa.
A
C D
shaft
B
p1 and p2 = (p)/2 ± [ {(p)/2}2+q2]1/2
p = σ + pbc and p = σ - pbt
p = 6.366 + 31.226 =37.592MPa at point B (comp.)
p = 6.366 - 31.226 = - 24.86MPa at point A (tensile)
p = 6.366 MPa (bending stress = zero at points C & D
shear stress q = 40.527MPa at circumference
A
C D
shaft
B
At Point A p1 = -54.82MPa and p2 = 29,96MPa
τ max = (p1 – p2)/ 2 = 42.39MPa
At Point B p1 = 65.166MPa and p2 = - 27.574MPa
τ max = (p1 – p2)/ 2 = 46.37MPa
At Point C & D
p1 = 43.835MPa and p2 = - 37.469MPa
τ max = (p1 – p2)/ 2 = 40.652MPa
Ductility is the property of the material by virtue of
which it undergoes a great amount of deformation before rupture.
A material which undergoes a great

amount of deformation before rupture is called ductile material.
e.g. Mild Steel
Brittleness is the property of the material by

virtue of which it can undergoes a little amount of plastic
deformation before rupture.
A material which undergoes a very little

amount of plastic deformation before rupture is called brittle
material. e.g. Cast Iron
The material which is capable of recovering
original size and shape on removal of load.
When the material is loaded, it will result

in deformation. When the load is removed, the deformation will be
disappeared. This behaviour of the material is known as elastic
action.
The material which is not capable of

recovering original size and shape on removal of load.
When the material is loaded, it will result

in deformation. When the load is removed, the plastic deformation
will remain in the material. This behaviour of the material is known
as elastic action.
Strain energy: When load acts on the body, it undergoes
deformation. The work that the body absorbs as a result of this
deformation is called strain energy.
The area under the load-deformation diagram gives us the
amount of energy stored.
Proof Resilience: If the body is deformed within the elastic

limit, the stored strain energy is recovered on removal of
deformation. This is called elastic strain energy or Proof
Resilience.
The strain energy required per unit volume to
rupture is called toughness of the material.
Higher Toughness - Ductile material

Lower Toughness - Brittle material
Impact test is a measure of toughness.
It is a property of the metals and alloys by virtue of which it

deforms plastically under compression without rupture.
Mild Steel Specimen For Tensile Test
Gauge Length
Cup & Cone Type Failure

A - Limit of proportionality
B - Elastic Limit E
C - Upper Yield Point C

B F
D - Lower Yield Point Stress D
A
E - Ultimate stress
F - Fracture
O
Strain
From point O: as the load increases, the strain(deformation) will
also increases up to point C.
At point C : The load decreases slightly but the strain increases

continuously up to point D.
From point D: load further starts
increasing and strain also increases E
but at a faster rate up to point E.
C
B F
The load cannot be further Stress D
increased beyond point E and A
starts decreasing Upto point F
and at point F, the specimen fails.
O
Strain
IMPORTANT POINTS:
From D to E, increase in length and decrease in area is substantial.
After point E, there starts forming a neck in the Centre.

TRUE STRESS AND NOMINAL STRESS.
To generalize the observations for any cross sectional area and

any other gauge length,
better to plot P/A0 ==>δ L/L0

P/A0 = Load at any stage / original cross sectional area
P/A0 = Nominal stress
To be more precise, it should be plotted between

P/A ==> δ L / L0 where,
P/ A = Load at any stage/ area measured at that load.
P/ A =True stress
PROPORTIONALITY LIMIT:
The point upto which the stress-strain curve is a straight line.
This maximum uniaxial stress Upto which the stress and strain are
proportional is called proportion limit.
ELASTIC LIMIT:
For every material, a limiting value of stress is found Upto and
within which the resulting strain entirely disappears when the load
is removed. The value of this stress is known as the elastic limit.
YIELD POINT:
When a material is loaded beyond the elastic limit, the stress
increases more quickly as the stress increased, up to point C.
The ordinate of point C, at which there is a slight increase in strain
without increase in stress is known as the yield point of the
material.
Steel has two yield point, upper and lower.
Permanent set :
Beyond point C if the load is removed there will be plastic or
permanent deformation remained in the material. It is called
permanent set.
STRAIN HARDENING:
E’
F’
C
E
B B F
Stress Stress
A A D Strain
Strain
Loading and unloading Loading and unloading in
within the elastic limit the plastic zone.
Loading, unloading and reloading of MS in tensile test.

E’
F’
C
E
B B F
Stress Stress
A A D Strain
Strain
Unloading and reloading within the elastic limit causes no change

and the graph returns on the same path.
Unloading in the plastic zone will give us line CD, here AD is
permanent set.
Reloading again it will give us line DE, E is in continuation, with
point C. i.e. curve BC, but at present still in elastic zone which
means , the yield point stress is increased.
Point E’ is new yield point and we will get DE’G’ curve.
This raising of elastic limit (yield point) because of the process of
unloading and reloading is known as the phenomenon of strain
hardening.
This property of mild steel is used to increase the yield strength by
cold drawing.
Measurement of Ductility:
(1) first method is based on the total elongation produced in the

specimen.
If L = length of the test bar at fracture.
l = length of the test bar before application of stress.
Than % elongation = (L - l) / l * 100 %
(2) second method is based on total reduction in sectional area.
A = area before application of stress

A’ = area after application of stress
% reduction = (A- A’) / A *100 %
Different types of Materials
σ Non Linear
(1) Ideal Elastic Material:--
The material continues to
deform under the action of
applied load up to failure.
Linear
During any stage if the load
is removed, it will regain its
original shape and size. ε
σ
(2) Ideal Plastic Material:--
Up to certain stress Ideal Plastic
limit the material does not
deform at all, but after that,
it continuously deform to
failure at constant stress.
ε
(3) Ideal Rigid Material:--Up σ
to the failure point the
material will not deform at Rigid
all.
ε
(4) Fluid :- The material σ
will deform largely on the
application of a very small
load. Fluid
ε
(5) Elasto-Plastic Material:- σ
Up to certain stress limit the Elastic Point Strain Hardened
material behave as perfectly
elastic material then deforms Ideal
as a plastic material up to
Strain softened
failure.
ε
Strain Hardened : After reaching the elastic limit, the material does
not fail at the same value of stress, but after elastic limit as strain
increases, the material is hardened and can resist still more load.
Strain Softened : After reaching the elastic limit, the material does
not fail at the same value of stress, but after elastic limit as strain
increases, the material gets softened and the value of stress it can
take decreases till failure.
σ
Elastic Point Strain Hardened
Ideal
Strain softened
ε
Stress-Strain Curve for a Brittle Material:--
There is no defined yield point. The breaking or rupture will be at
low strain.
To determine the yield strength in brittle material, it is general
practice to draw a straight line parallel to the elastic portion of
the curve at a predetermined strain ordinate value(0.1% to 0.2%).
The point at which this line intersect the stress-strain curve, is
called proof stress at 0.1% or 0.2% strain, or yield strength at
0.1% or 0.2% strain.
Failure
σ
0.2% yield strength or
0.2% proof strength
Linear
Parallel
ε
0.002
Stress-Strain Curve for Ferrous Metals:--
Alloy Steel
High Carbon Steel
Medium Carbon Steel

Stress
σ
Mild Steel (Ductile)
Cast Iron (Brittle)
Strain ε
Stress-Strain Curve for Non-Ferrous Metals:--
Magnesium Oxide
Aluminium Bronze
Brass
Stress
σ
Annealed Copper
Strain ε
Hardness is the resistance of the material to permanent
deformation of the surface.
It can be defined as the resistance of the metal to penetration by

an indentor.
The main usefulness of hardness lies in the fact that, It seems to
bear a fairly constant relationship to the tensile strength of a give
material.
Empirical co-relations are developed to relate hardness with the
tensile strength etc.
1. BRINNEL HARDNESS TEST:-
A standard hardened steel P
ball of diameter “D” is pressed
into the surface of the specimen
by a gradually applied load “P”, indentor
which maintained on the D
specimen for a definite period of
time @ 10 to 30 seconds.
The impression of the steel ball
so obtained is measured by a
micrometer & the Brinnel
Hardness Number (BHN) is
found by following relation: d
BHN = (Load in kg.) / (Surface area of indentation)
= P Kg/mm2
(π D/2) * (D - √ D2 - d2 )
2. VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST:-
A square based diamond

pyramid is used as indentor.
Vicker’s Pyramid Number,
θ
VPN = 2P*sin(θ /2) / d2
P= Load in kg. specimen
θ = Angle between opposite Elevation

face of diamond pyramid.
d= Avg. length of two diagonals.
d1
This method is used to
indentations
determine the hardness of very
thin & very hard materials. d2
Plan
3. ROCKWELL’S HARDNESS TEST:-
The Rockwell Hardness Test is very widely used because of its

speed & freedom from personal error.
This test requires much smaller penetretor than Brinnel
Hardness Test.
For Soft Materials: B Scale is used,
its range is :RB 0 to RB100
For hard Materials : C Scale is used,
its range is :RC 20 to RC70
MODES OF FAILURE
Brittle Failure Ductile Failure
Fibrous Failure Cup & Cone Type Failure
Failure without large plastic Failure after considerable

deformation over c/s area plastic stretching.
perpendicular to the axis of
the specimen.
The specimen used is either cube or cylinder.
Brittle Material Ductile Material
Failure does not take place,

Failure takes place along an but the specimen deforms to
inclined plane ~ 55o. the shape of a coin.
Comp. Strength is much Tensile &
higher than tensile strength Compressive
e.g. Cast Iron strengths are comparable.
e.g. Mild Steel
When one body having some momentum & energy strikes with
other, the energy & momentum transfer takes place. The time of
transfer is very small, hence large force is generated. This
phenomenon is called Impact.
Impact test gives the measure of toughness of the material.
It is used to check the resistance offered by the material to shock
or energy loads.
To design certain parts of machines, Impact test is required.
(1) IZOD IMPACT TEST
(2) CHARPY IMPACT TEST
(1) IZOD IMPACT TEST :-
This test uses a cantilever test piece of 10mm x 10mm section and
75mm length.
The “V” notch of angle 45 and depth of the notch is 2mm.
22mm
V notch
75mm 2mm
10mm
10mm
The pendulum hammer strikes near its ends. The specimen is
fixed in clamping vice.
IZOD IMPACT VALUE
Energy absorbed by the specimen
=
C/S area below notch
Energy at Release - Final Energy
=
C/S area
Er - Ef
=
Ac
clamping vice.
(2) CHARPY IMPACT TEST :-
This test is most common. It uses a cantilever test piece of 10mm
x 10mm section and 55mm length.
The “V” notch of angle 45 and depth of the notch is 2mm.
55mm 40mm
H
h
10mm
10mm
FATIGUE:
Materials subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a
stress much lower than that required to cause fracture under
steady loads. This behaviour is called fatigue.
σ +
σ max
σ - σ min
Time
Stress Cycles:
The simplest type of load is the alternate stresses.
Stress amplitude is equal to the maximum stress and the mean or
average stress is zero.
CREEP:
In many engineering applications materials are required to sustain
steady loads for long period.
When the load is applied, the deformation will take place.
If, under any conditions, deformation continues when the load Is
constant, this additional deformation is known as creep.
The time dependent strain under the constant stress is also known
as creep.
Most material creep to a certain extent at all temperature, although

engineering materials such as steel, aluminum etc. creep very little
at room temperature.
Such time dependent deformation can grow large and even result
in final fracture without any increase in the load.
Strain is a fundamental physical quantity, while stress is
more or less a mentalised concept.
The instrument which measure the strain is known as strain

gauge.
BASIC CHARACTERSTICS OF A STRAIN GAUGE.

1 Gauge Length
2 Gauge sensitivity
3 Accuracy
4 Reproducibility
TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES:
The principle employed in strain gauge construction can be used
as the basis for classifying the gauge into five following
categories.
1 Mechanical
2 Optical
3 Electrical
4 Acoustical
5 Pneumatic
==>@ 150 different types of strain gauges are available
==> Mostly used is the electrical resistance type
strain gauge.
TYPICAL ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE TYPE STRAIN GAUGE:
G.L.
Wires
0.001 inch dia.
Base of
paper
Cover
Cement
Metal of the Wire used :- Advance , Iso elastic

Base- Acts as carrier as well as insulating agent , It transfers strain
from the specimen to the gauge.

Mechanics of Solids

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Mechanics of Solids

4. Shear stresses in Beams:-

The Strength Of Materials is an interdisciplinary

 To find the resisting force developed by a

Axial Force Axis of the member

Axis of the member

Axis of the member

Fixed end of the

Our next aim is to ensure that the structure

 To ensure Serviceability, the deformations

MA Condn. of static equilibrium = 3,

Commonly encountered statically determinate

SFYY = 25 –20 SFYY = 25 –30

BMYY = 25*2 –10*2*1 BMYY = 25*3 –10*3*1.5

+ve Shear The shear force is positive if it

The shear force is negative if

The bending moment is

Thus, the procedure to find out the shear

Thus, the procedure to find out the Bending

Bending Moment diagram is the graph showing

 The rate of change of shear force, or in other

As per the sign convention, if the load is acting in

 The rate of change of Bending Moment, or in

VA= 30 kN (up) 30 5.0m

Mx (CB) = -100 + 30*(x) - 20*(x-2.5)

{wx2/2L*(x/3)} B.M. Dia.

10kN 15kN 5kN

2.85 1.5 31.5

100 kN.m 50 kN.m

S.F. will be zero at a distance of L/

3.0 m 3.0 m 2.0m

Draw faint projection lines through all these important points.

Calculate SF and BM at all the important points and plot the

Join t he ordinates with appropriate curves. For that make

Between two points, if no other load is acting then SF

Whenever there is a concentrated load is there will be sudden

Bending moment will be maximum when shear force changes

For symmetrically loaded beams, Bending moment will be

1. The Principal Planes carry the Maximum Direct

2. The Principal Planes helps to locate the Planes of

pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ ……….(I)

above eq. α 1 & α 2, where α 2=90+ α 1

sin2α 1=2q/(√(p-p’)2+4q2) & cos2α 1=(p-p’)/(√(p-p’)2+4q2)

All planes parallel to this plane are principal planes and

= (p1- p2)/2 sin2θ 135

pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ …….….(I)

ptmax = (p1- p2)/2 = √ {(p-p’)/2}2 + q2 _ _ (VI)

With vertical the inclination of the joint is 60deg.

pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ ………………..……(II)

pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ ………………..……(II)

pt = {(p - p’)/2} * sin2θ - q cos2θ ………………..……(II)

When principal stresses & planes at a point in a two

Angle on Mohr’s circle is taken as twice the given angle

pn = {(p + p’)/2} + {(p - p’)/2}* cos2θ + q sin2θ …….….(I)

8. Measure CT which gives maximum Shear stress . Which

Radius of Mohr’s Circle;

tan2α = QP/CQ = q / {(p - p’)/2} = 2q / (p - p’)

which is equal to the radius of the circle (CT = CT’)

ptmax = CT = CP = √ {(p - p’)/2}2 + q2= (p1 - p2)/2

the position of the plane CT is at 90 from CA, hence

the plane of max. shear is inclined at 45 with principal

RR’ = pt = Tangential Stress = 291.04MPa

OR = pr = Resultant Stress = 974.33MPa

BMYY = 252 –1021 BMYY = 253 –1031.5

Mx (CB) = -100 + 30(x) - 20(x-2.5)

Angle PCA = 2α = _ therefore, α 1 = _& α 2=___