Losses appearing on the screen are those for a single pass through the feature causing them.

2.1.3 fresnel reflections, dead zones and ghosts.

Large Fresnel reflection signals can cause problems for the detection system. Often, they lead to transient
but strong saturation of the font end receiver which requires time to recover. The receiver bandwidth
should be as small as possible to maximize the SNR without compromising the optium instrument
resolution as dermined by the minimum pulse width used. This means that the receiver bandwidth should
be approximately equal to the pulse bandwidth, and, therefore, that its rise and fall time-constants will be
approximately equal to the pulse width. Following any change in the incident optical signal level, the
receiver will take time to recover to the new level of the backscatter. At best, this time will be of the order
of 3-5 time-constants for small signal level changes such as those arising from splice loss. The worst case
Arises from the detection of strong Fresnel reflected pulse from fibre interuptions or terminations which
driver the receiver into deep saturation. In such instances the recovery of the receiver output to the
backscatter signal level can take many tens of time-constants. Time corresponds to distance along the
fibre and the sidual displayeds signal during the detector recovery period after an event can mask other
event. The legth of fibre masked in terms of event detection in this way is know as a dead zone the legth
of which is determined by the pulse width and, for reflections events, by the amplitude of the reflected
pulse. The dead zones arising from the large Fresnel reflection signal from the fibre input and output(s)
are referredto as the near and far end dead zones respectively and those arising from connectors or
interruptions in the fibre line are referred to as event dead zones. Strong Fresnel reflections can give rise
to dead zones of the order of hundreds of meters corresponding to detector recovery periods of many tens
of receiver time constants, whereas splices result in dead zones of only a few tens of meters.
The large the Fresnel reflection signal, the longer it take the detector to recover. Hence, the near end dead
zones and event dead zones in shorter networks present greater problems. In addition, large Fresnel
reflected pulse from the terminations of short branches of a network are reflected again from the fibre
input face to repeat the journey to the termination and back to the detector. If the signal strength is
sufficiently high, as in short networks, these multiply reflected pulse will be detected and will appear on
the OTDR trace as what are referred to as ghosts. The ghosts are mach smaller than the detected pulse
from primary Fresnel reflections and appear at exact interger multiple distances relative to a primary
refleted pulse. They can be confusing if they apprear within the maximum length of a network, but
usually they can be discounted on the basis that they are weaker than primaries, have no loss associated
with then and occur at exact integer multiple distances from primaries. However, in most instances, they
do not represent a problem since they appear in the noise region beyond the maximum length of the
network.
Particular problems with dead zones cab arise in multi-branch networks where the Fresnel reflection from
the termination of a shorter branch may mask events in the longer branches at similar distances from the
input. These problems are sometimes eliminated by the use of angle connector and terminations for which
the reflected angle is greater than the acceptance angle of the fibre as defined by its numerical aperture.
Hence, the reflected pulse exist the fibre.
Many modern OTDRs incorporate a dead zone masking feature which can be set up to selectively
attenuate large incoming reflected signal pulse just for the period over which they arrive. This prevents

the receiver from detecting high levels of optical power and ensures that it does not remotely approach
saturation thus minimizing the length of the dead zone. In some instrusment, the mask is simply a variable
electro optic attenuator which can be swithched on only for the duration of large incident pulses. Once a
trace has been run, the exact arrival times of large incident pulse can be determine, and thev operator can
set up the OTDR to swithch on its masking feature at precisely these times. In this way, when the trace is
re-captured, the length of the dead zone are be minimized. Reductions in dead zone length by factors of 35 are not unusual. In some instrusments the near end dead zone is automatically by electronic techniques.
Many manufactures define the length of a dead zone as that required for the signal to recover to within
0.5dB of the background Rayleigh scatter signal. However, in practice, low loss event such as good
splices may be masked for a distance considerably greater than this.
2.1.4 SNR, signal recovery and loss measuarement resolution
The bandwidth of the receiver must be sufficiently high to detect the OTDR pulse without compromising
the spatial resolution i.e the receiver bandwidth must be approximately equal to the reciprocal of the
minimum pulse width [ see section on spatial resolution below]. This means that for good resolution of
10m or less, requiring a 50ns pulse, the receiver bandwidth must be greater than 20MHz which essentially
sets the level of thermal noise in the system. Rayleigh backscattering in an optical fibre is very weak and
the signal returned by a single pulse is buried in the noise from the font end receiver. Hence, a great deal
of signal averaging is required to achieve a useful SNR. This is , done by dividing the photodiode output
following each launched pulse into a large number of time slots ( 2048, 4096 or 8192), the number
depending on the range addressed and the required range resolution. For example, for a 4km range, the
use of 4096 samples provides a range resolution of about 1m[see below]. The signals from all of the
individual time slots are fed into sample and hold memories which then store and add up the signals from
many pulse. In this way the signal increases linearly with the number of additions(pulse)., wgereas the
noise, which in uncorrelated from trace to trace, increases with the square root of the number of additions.
Therefore, each time we double the number of additions we increase the SNR by a factor of square root 2
i.e by 1.5dB. Typicallym averaging is performed over 2 16 (65536) pulse or more, giving SNR
improvements of about 24dB or greater. At pulse repetition rates in the region of tens of kHz, averaging
times are only a few seconds. With this level of averaging the signals are such that the loss resolution can
be as low as 0.02dB or less.
2.1.5 spatial resolution, range resolution and event location
One of the key performance feature of an OTDR is the spatial resolution which is the minimum
separation at which two events can be distinguished as determined by the pulse width. Length in the fibre
is directly related to time via
Thit hi xut hin trn mn hnh l nhng ngi cho mt pass duy nht thng qua tnh nng gy ra
chng.
2.1.3 fresnel phn x, vng cht v nhng con ma.
Ln cc tn hiu phn x Fresnel c th gy ra vn cho cc h thng pht hin. Thng thng, h dn
n bo ha thong qua nhng mnh m ca cui thu phng ch m i hi phi c thi gian phc hi.
Bng thng my thu nn cng nh cng tt ti a ha SNR m khng nh hng optium phn gii

c cng dermined bi rng xung ti thiu s dng. iu ny c ngha rng bng thng nhn phi c
xp x bng vi bng thng xung, v, do , m thng trm thi gian hng s ca n s xp x bng vi
rng xung. Sau bt k thay i trong s kin cp tn hiu quang hc, ngi nhn s mt thi gian phc
hi n cp mi ca s tn x ngc. Tt nht, thi gian ny s c cc th t ca thi gian 3-5 hng
s thay i mc tn hiu nh nh nhng pht sinh t mt mi ni. Trng hp xu nht
Pht sinh t vic pht hin ca Fresnel mnh m phn nh xung t interuptions si hoc chm dt m li
thu vo bo ha su. Trong trng hp nh vy s phc hi ca sn lng thu n mc tn hiu tn x c
th mt nhiu thi gian hng chc hng. Thi gian tng ng vi khong cch dc theo si v displayeds
sidual tn hiu trong thi k phc hi sau khi pht hin mt s kin c th che du s kin khc. Cc legth
si eo mt n v pht hin s kin theo cch ny c bit nh l mt vng cht legth trong c xc
nh bi rng xung v phn x cho cc s kin, bi bin ca xung phn nh. Cc vng cht pht
sinh t cc tn hiu phn x Fresnel ln t u vo si v u ra (s) c referredto nh cui vng cht
gn xa tng ng v nhng pht sinh t kt ni hoc ngt qung trong dng cht x c gi l vng cht
s kin. Phn x Fresnel mnh c th lm pht sinh cc vng cht ca th t ca hng trm mt tng
ng vi my d giai on phc hi ca nhiu chc hng s thi gian nhn, trong khi mi ni dn n
vng cht ch vi chc mt.
Ln cc tn hiu phn x Fresnel, cn phi ly my d phc hi. Do , cc vng cht gn ht v vng
cht s kin trong cc mng ngn trnh by vn ln hn. Ngoi ra, ln Fresnel phn nh xung t u
cui ca nhnh ngn ca mt mng c phn nh li t mt si u vo lp li hnh trnh n vic
chm dt v tr li my d. Nu cng tn hiu l cao, nh trong mng ngn, nhng xung nhn
phn nh s c pht hin v s xut hin trn cc du vt OTDR nh nhng g c gi l bng ma.
Nhng con ma ang mach nh hn so vi cc xung pht hin t s phn x Fresnel chnh v xut hin ti
chnh xc interger nhiu khong cch tng i so vi mt xung refleted chnh. H c th kh hiu nu
h apprear bn trong chiu di ti a ca mt mng, nhng thng thng h c th c gim gi trn c
s rng h l yu hn so vi bu c s b, khng c tn tht lin quan n sau v xy ra chnh xc
s nguyn nhiu khong cch t bu c s b. Tuy nhin, trong hu ht cc trng hp, h khng i din
cho mt vn v chng xut hin trong khu vc n qu di ti a ca mng.
Vn c th vi cht khu cab pht sinh trong cc mng a chi nhnh ni cc phn x Fresnel t ngy
chm dt ca mt chi nhnh ngn hn c th che du cc s kin trong cc ngnh cn khong cch
tng t t u vo. Nhng vn ny i khi c loi b bng cch s dng kt ni gc v chm dt
m gc phn x l ln hn gc chp nhn ca si nh nh ngha bi khu s ca n. Do , cc xung
phn nh tn ti cc cht x.
Nhiu OTDRs hin i kt hp mt khu vc nng masking cht m c th c thit lp chn lc lm
gim bt n ln phn nh xung tn hiu ch cho khong thi gian m h n. iu ny ngn cn cc my
thu t pht hin mc cao ca quyn lc quang hc v m bo rng n khng tip cn t xa bo ha
do gim thiu di ca vng cht. Trong mt s instrusment, mt n n gin ch l mt suy hao
quang in bin m c th c swithched trn ch trong thi gian xung c ln. Mt khi mt du vt
c chy, thi gian n chnh xc ca xung c ln c th c xc nh, v iu hnh thev c th thit
lp cc OTDR swithch v tnh nng to mt n ca n chnh xc nhng thi gian ny. Bng cch ny,
khi cc du vt c bt li, chiu di ca vng cht ang c gim thiu. Gim chiu di vng cht bi
cc yu t ca 3-5 khng phi l bt thng. Trong mt s instrusments vng cht gn kt thc t ng l
bng k thut in t. Nhiu nh sn xut xc nh di ca mt vng cht nh yu cu cho cc tn hiu

phc hi trong vng 0.5dB ca nn Rayleigh tn hiu phn tn. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, s kin tn tht
thp nh splices tt c th c che y cho mt khong cch ln hn ng k so vi iu ny.
2.1.4 SNR, phc hi tn hiu v phn gii measuarement mt
Bng thng ca my thu phi cao pht hin cc xung OTDR m khng nh hng n phn gii
khng gian tc l bng thng my thu phi c xp x bng nghch o ca rng xung ti thiu [xem
phn v phn gii khng gian bn di]. iu ny c ngha rng i vi phn gii tt di 10m, i
hi mt xung 50ns, bng thng my thu phi ln hn 20MHz m v c bn thit lp mc ca ting n
nhit trong h thng. Rayleigh tn x ngc trong si quang l rt yu v tn hiu tr v bi mt xung n
c chn trong ting n t my thu cui font. Do , rt nhiu tn hiu trung bnh l cn thit t
c mt SNR hu ch. y l, thc hin bng cch chia ra photodiode sau mi xung tung ra vo mt s
lng ln cc khe thi gian (2048, 4096 hoc 8192), s lng ty thuc vo phm vi cp v gii quyt
yu cu phm vi. V d, i vi mt phm vi 4km, vic s dng 4.096 mu cung cp mt phn gii
phm vi khong 1m [xem bn di]. Cc tn hiu t tt c cc khe thi gian c nhn c a vo mu v
gi nhng k nim m sau lu tr v cng cc tn hiu t nhiu xung. Bng cch ny, tn hiu tng
tuyn tnh vi s lng b sung (xung)., Wgereas ting n, m trong tng quan t du vt theo di,
tng vi cn bc hai ca s lng b sung. Do , mi ln chng ti tng gp i s lng b sung chng
ta tng SNR bi mt yu t ca cn bc 2, tc l theo 1.5dB. Typicallym trung bnh c thc hin trn
216 (65536) xung hoc nhiu hn, cho ci tin SNR khong 24dB hoc cao hn. Vi tc lp xung
trong khu vc ca hng chc kHz, ln trung bnh ch c mt vi giy. Vi mc trung bnh ca tn hiu l
nh vy m phn gii mt mt c th thp nh 0.02dB hoc t hn.
phn gii khng gian 2.1.5, phm vi phn gii v v tr s kin
Mt trong nhng tnh nng hot ng quan trng ca mt OTDR l phn gii khng gian m l cch
ti thiu m ti hai s kin c th phn bit c xc nh bi rng xung. Chiu di trong cc si c
lin quan trc tip n thi gian qua