You are on page 1of 69

Compaction

data handbook
I

-
f. #'-

INGERSOLL-FiAND
'

C O N S T B U C T J P N E Q U I P M E tir

PREFACE
In to d a y s construction industry C om paction plays a more
important role than it ever has before. During the past years,
industry has learned a great deal about the im portance and
effects o f C om paction. As insignificant as it may seem, this one
phase o f construction represents the very foundation o f the
construction industry. T od a y s projects around the globe d e
mand effective densification o f soils to support greater loads for
new highways, airports, dam and building foundations. M odern
tech n ology has answered the call with the introduction o f
vibratory com paction which has proved to be the most effective
m ethod and to o l fo r soil densification.
This text has been prepared to acquaint y o u with a working
knowledge o f soil reactions and the application o f com paction
equipment. The text presented herein concerns the basic co n
cepts relating to the requirements o f soil densification, but also
should alert y ou to the numerous factors involved in soil
com paction.

Ingersoll-Rand Company
Compaction Division
Ingersoll Drive
Shippensburg, PA 17257 U.S.A.

INGERSOLL-RAND
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

2
Figure I-l

CHAPTER I
From the beginning herds o f cattle and flocks o f sheep were
used effectively as a m ethod o f soil com paction. The times
yielded to the m ethods which were available in preparation o f
earth fill to make way for primitive roadways.
Horse and oxen-drawn rollers for road building were con
structed by approxim ately the 18th century. Steam rollers were
constructed in France in the middle o f the 19th century. The
sm ooth steel wheel roller emerged, driven b y steam pow er
which proved impractical.

Figure 1-2

Soon after, with the introduction o f the internal com bustion


engine, smaller pow er plants were available and became most
popular.

The United States was the pioneer in the developm ent o f soil
com paction engineering. The first sheepsfoot rollers, which
were designed for use in earth dam construction, were devel
oped in California in the years 1904 to 1906. A t that time, it
was still customary to move earth masses by means o f carts or
similar vehicles drawn b y horses and mules. Therefore, the first
sheepsfoot rollers were likewise horse or mule-drawn.
In the field o f road construction it was found at an early stage
that pavements laid on non-com pacted highway embarkments
were damaged in a short time and becam e uneven because o f
soil settlements. For this reason, road construction has becom e
and continues to be the greatest field o f application o f soil
com paction engineering.
The principles and m ethods o f soil com paction evolved in the
United States have also been widely applied in other countries.
The organizations in the United States had to deal with th eo
retical and practical studies o f soil com paction problems with
the various road authorities, such as the Federal Bureau o f
Public Roads and the Highway Department o f the individual
states. M oreover, such studies were also made by the Corps o f
Engineers, which is charged with dam construction, flo o d regu
lation, military airfield construction, etc., and by the Bureau o f
Reclam ation, which is a federal government organization deal
ing with irrigation projects, that has built many o f the largest
dams in the United States.
V ibratory com paction o f soils began to com e into use in Ger
many in the early 1 9 3 0 s in connection with the construction o f
the m otorw ay system. The first types o f vibratory com pactors
were the self-propelled 1.5 ton base plate type com pactor and
the caterpillar type com pactor, weighing about 25 tons, which
was manufactured by the Losenhausenwerk. The first selfpropelled and tractor tow ed vibrating rollers were constructed
in the 1 9 4 0 s (Fig. 1-3).

Nevertheless, tractor driven plate com pactors have proven


unfeasible and were quickly replaced with hand held or selfpropelled type equipm ent.

CHAPTER II
MATERIALS
SOIL TYPES
Steel, concrete and w o o d are easy construction materials with
which to w ork because they are o f hom ogeneous, uniform
com position. As such, their behavior can be predicted. Soil is
just the opposite. In its natural state, soil is rarely uniform and
can only be studied and w orked b y comparing it to a similar
type with which previous experience has been gained. To ac
com plish this, soil types first must be classified.
R o ck was form ed b y three different means. Igneous rocks
solidified from m olten masses; sedimentary rocks form ed in
layers settling ou t o f water solutions; and m etam orphic rocks
were transformed from material o f the first tw o by heat and
pressure. Time, chemistry, and weather have attacked these
rocks and have w orn much o f their surfaces dow n into soft
seas o f minute particles the soil. These have been well
m ixed by glaciers, wind, water, gravity, and man. Decaying
plant and animal matter have further com plicated the soil
picture by contributing organic material to the mixture.
The embankment builder is on ly concerned with five basic soil
types: gravel, sand, silt, clay and organic matter.
G R A V E L is any rock-like material dow n to 1 /8 inch in particle
diameter. But the larger particles are called stones, and those
single particles larger than 10 inches are boulders.
SAND has mineral grains below 1 /8 inch dow n to 0.002 inches.
It could be coarse or fine sand, but it feels grainy and its
strength is not affected by wetting. In general, it is called

granular material because the grains have little attraction for


each other. This leaves the soil with no dry strength. Granular
material can be vibrated into a dense form because the particles
jiggle themselves about until they find the m ost com pact grain
arrangement, thereby minimizing voids. Granular material does
have internal friction due to this stacking o f the particles.
SILT is very fine sand that presents a floury appearance when
dry. If pure, silt will settle out o f m uddy water and leave it
clear. Although the particle size is 0.002 inches and smaller, it
is still granular material. But silt com pacts very poorly , has next
to no dry strength because o f lack o f cohesion betw een the
grains and is easily pulverized when in dry lumps. All granular
material permits ready passage o f groundwater and is, there
fore, permeable.
C L A Y is the finest size soil material. It consists o f m icroscopic
colloidal scale-like particles which give clay its plastic pro
perties. In a m oist con dition , clay becom es very sticky and may
be rolled into a ribbon. Clay particles have much attraction for
each other and thus clay is a cohesive material. It has a high
dry strength, low erosion, good w orkability, and it com pacts
readily. But clay has no internal friction and is, therefore,
subject to slides. It also is susceptible to shrinkage and/or
swelling. It is low in permeability since water has difficulty
flow ing through the tight particle pattern held by the surface
tension bon d o f the natural moisture.
O RG A N IC M ATTER is partly decom posed vegetable or other
previously living matter. It appears as peats, organic silts, or
organic clays. They are generally soft, odorous upon heating
and appear fibrous, black, or very dark brown. Organic material
should n ot be considered fo r fill material since it will d ecom
pose further, leaving voids.
Therefore, we may break our soil types into tw o groups, c o
hesive material and non-cohesive. The cohesive soils will have
the characteristic o f sticking together. Examples w ould be clay,
coarse clay sediment, loam y sand, and sandy clay. The non-

cohesive soils take on the appearance o f graded sand, gravel,


sand mixtures, sand stone and crusher run material.
Generally, the soil types are fou n d in nature in some mixed
proportion. Care should be taken in placing fill embankments to
make the most advantageous use o f soil properties.

SOIL M IX IN G
Mixing soils at the borrow or on the jo b is closely allied with
moisture. It is the key step that makes subsequent operations
easy or difficult. Best results com e not from soil o f any one
predominant type, but from g ood sensible mixtures o f tw o or
more classifications o f soils if they are readily available. Here
the contractor and the engineer can w ork closely together in a
cooperative effort to develop a superior end product.
In a coarse grained sand, for exam ple, fine grain sand should be
added to im prove the density since the smaller grains will
distribute themselves am ong the spaces between the larger
grains and thereby reduce the am ount o f voids. If possible, clay
should be added as binder.
In every clayey material, granular soil should be added to
provide internal friction, prevent slides, and make possible a
better choice o f com paction equipm ent. Gravel and stones bear
up well, although they d o not com pact well, are unstable, and
may damage some com pacting equipm ent. In general, plastic
materials are m ore workable but have less bearing capacity
while granular materials lend stability due to internal friction
and g o o d strength.
If the soils to be m ixed appear together in the same borrow pit
in different layers, they often can be handled econom ically b y
shovel or belt loader. The machines, working against a mixed
face, mingle the different materials directly as they dig and load
them into the hauling units.

M ore generally, the different soils will com e from separate


sources o f b orrow and must be m ixed thoroughly with the fill
before com pacting. It is p oor practice to make alternate lifts o f
the different materials. They should be dum ped out and mixed
together long and well, generally by harrows.
A n hours tim e spent in processing is worth 3 to 5 hours o f
random rolling. Dozing serves to level out and spread the loose
material; back-dozing provides a pulverizing effect. Grader
blading for evenness o f layer thickness is important, for then
the com paction equipm ent can give the entire area the same
number o f passes to reach uniform density throughout. With
difficult, lum py soil, other equipment often must be brought
into play such as heavy disk harrows, field cultivators, or rotary
tillers.

10

U sing th e table sh ow n b e lo w w e can see th e various soil c o m


bin a tio n s u tilized and their classification s y m b o l.

c a
2 d)

o c a
..
c o >>
S-sf-B

>T3
SE
O ro

's !

c
E-

E 2
o .2
-5

a> o

CL E

c c
'i

E E
,

2
cc
_> a) a>

_ro

I i 8i

-I I

.2 I C L

I I
*

'S
D"ro

> o "5
, Q- to

"

III

'

o
CLOITS (: 5 E S I

II

-I I

( CL 2 U

jp

aa

o3

ro ): (
U

>w

55
a 's
: 2 r>2 c .-5 = AM O ? ro.

\a3T3
1 *O
o

ill
-S
m>
0)

I I X

500

(3 O

Figure II-1

11

-5J

<

Z
<
CC

ro c

Q
LU

;> sc

U 1-

2
c -5

O >"g < > _ro> Q

w -5 W CCO wU O ro
E I I I
S * I I zU- (
^ uo

SOIL PROPERTIES
The follow ing terms refer to properties and characteristics o f
various soil materials. To understand com paction techniques,
one must he acquainted with the various terms em ployed in the
industry. Once the basic terms are understood, selection o f the
correct com paction to ol can be made easier.
SHEAR RESISTANCE

The soils ability to resist m ovement or slippage when subjected


to an im posed load or to pressure from static or impact
com paction may be defined as shear resistance. This resistance
com es about from the friction between the soil particles. There
is also resistance in cohesion this happens when the soil par
ticles resist pulling away from each other. Such resistance is very
apparent in clay when the elasticity is very high. The cohesion
in rough sand and gravel particles by com parison is very low .
In observing Fig. II-2, the measure o f the shear resistance o f a
soil would be its degree o f resistance to particles sliding over
each other. The rate at which the material is subjected to

12

m ovem ent will be dependent upon the applied force, the inter
nal friction between the soil particles and the cohesion o f the
material. Therefore, one should be able to recognize material o f
a high shear resistance and a low shear resistance. A loosely
graded non-plastic granular material, easily com pactable, could
be classified as having low shear resistance. On the other hand, a
clay material which is very elastic and difficult to com pact
could be classified as having high shear resistance. Case in
p oin t:the more force required to shear the soil material from
adjoining soil particles the higher will be the shear resistance.
ELA S TICITY

As the term implies, elasticity is a soils ability to return


approxim ately to its original form after the applied load is
rem oved. Soils o f this type are very undesirable in construction
and road building. For exam ple, as autom obiles and trucks roll
over a road surface the base material gives way to the subjected
load and rebounds upon removal, continually flexing, which
eventually causes breakdown o f road surface.
COMPRESSIBILITY

As a volum e o f material is acted upon by a downward force, the

Figure II-3

voids within the material are decreased and take on less volum e.
As a result, the soil particles b ecom e forced together more
closely and remain together after the downward force has been
rem oved. In some cases a measurement o f soil density is
possible by equating the soils compression to the given load.
C A P IL L A R Y ACTIO N

The capillary action refers to a soils ability to absorb and


dissipate water. The molecular surface forces, acting upon the
interfaces between the water and surfaces o f the soil particles,

produce the capillary action in the voids o f the soil mass. The
water between the particles form s an elastic bond. The capillary
forces acting between the soil particles can be overcom e by
applying com pression and shear forces.
P ER M E A B ILITY

The permeability o f a soil is the rate at which water is permitted


to flow through the soil from gravitational forces or water

14

pressure. In com paction, this is a very important factor. The


moisture must be permitted to flow through the material in
order to reach the optim um moisture for satisfactory co m
paction density. Many times water may saturate an area with
little or no penetration into the depth o f the soil. A soil o f this
nature is not very permeable and will probably need to be tilled
in order to satisfactorily com pact at the correct moisture
content.
SHRIN KAGE

Shrinkage is usually limited to the finer grain o f soils in which


the water content is reduced b y means o f evaporation. Different
soils grow and shrink at different rates. Usually, clay materials
shrink a great deal whereas sand and gravel only shrink slightly.
Material which expands and contracts a great deal, such as clay,
offers an undesirable base for supporting surfaces. Soils may be
fully com pacted, but as water penetrates, the material expands
and as the water evaporates, the material contracts causing
flexibility and damage to the surface area. This is extrem ely
critical on rigid surfaces such as concrete highways or buildings
which are incapable o f absorbing any flexing m otion.

15

16
Figure III-l

CHAPTER III
SOIL TESTING
Testing is an important factor o f determining whether or not
com paction is, in a given soil, being achieved. The soil specifi
cations outline the best com binations o f achieving a given
density for the various soils utilized in construction operations.
There is no advantage if specifications and testing is by-passed,
needless com pactive effort may be the result.
The soil specifications pave the way to the various soil com b i
nations and moisture content to arrive at the maximum density
for a given soil. There are several ways o f testing for soil density
which were originally developed back in 1933 by R. R. Proctor.
It was he w ho established the relationship between the soil
material to be com pacted and its maximum density which
related to a condition called optim um moisture content. A soil
is not a solid mass; it contains particles o f water and air between
the soil particles. Excessive water does not allow the material to
bon d; insufficient water does not allow the particles to slide
together with the least resistance. Therefore, both excessive
water and insufficient water will produce unsatisfactory results.

OPTIMUM MOISTURE
The optim um moisture for a given soil is established in the
laboratory. This is the am ount o f water required for a given soil
to reach maximum density. The correct amount o f water is
necessary in order for the soil particles to slide together into
their form ation with the least resistance. A series o f soil samples
are com pacted at different moisture contents and plotted on a
graph as shown (See Page. 18).

17

18
Figure III-2

The graph is plotted in dry weight (lbs./cubic fo o t against


moisture content% by dry weight). The series o f tests begins
somewhere below optim um moisture point. A curve is then
plotted, comparing the soil density at the different moisture
levels. The optim um moisture content is the highest point on
the curve which maximum density o f the tested soil has
reached. U nfortunately, this density cannot be assimilated
100% under field conditions due to the variance o f materials.
Therefore, field densities are established and based on labor
atory tests and are normally a reduced version. For example, if
m aximum density under laboratory conditions is 131 lbs./cu bic
fo o t, specifications may require jobsite com paction at 90% for
satisfactory results.
The moisture content affects various soils differently. Granular
material tends to have a wider range to changes in the moisture
content. On the other hand, material o f silt and clay content
tend to be more sensitive to the range o f moisture content.

PROCTOR TEST
A standard proctor soil test is
conducted as follow s:
A soil sample is taken
from the job location and
placed in a container
equal to 1 /3 0 cubic fo o t.
A 5-1/2 pound weight
with a striking face o f 3.1
square inch is dropped 12
inches fo r 25 blow s on
each o f the three equal
layers. The soil material is
then weighed, less the
m old, and recorded as wet
w eight/cubic ft.
The material is then oven
dried for 12 hours in order to
evaluate the water content.

19

5 LB

2 5 B low s Per
Layer

Com paction Force


1 2,400 ft. lbs.

Soil Sample

So Cu. Ft.
3 Lay e rs

STANDARD

AASHO

Figure III-3

The m odified Proctor test is done in much the same way,


except a 10 pound hammer is used and dropped from a distance
o f 18 inches for 25 blow s. The material is contained in a
container 1 /3 0 cu. ft. and five equal layers. The com paction
effort produced is 56,200 fo o t pounds while the standard
Proctor test produces 12,400 fo o t pounds. The m odified test is
normally used in testing materials for higher shearing strength
w hich w ould probably be used in supporting heavier loads.

2 5 Blows Per
L aye r

Compaction Force
5 6 , 2 0 0 f t . lbs.

Soil Sample
30 Cu. Ft.
5 Layers

MODIFIED

AASHO

Figure III-4

A fter com paction, it is necessary to determine if the density o f


the com pacted fill meets the specification. This has been ac
com plished by testing an exact in-place volume o f the soil. To
determine the exact volum e o f sample soil, there are tw o basic
m ethods:

20

O rW
F IE L D TESTS

,b

7S SV

ft .

_ Federal Project Ni

sec. 3

JjELl

Sample taken from .


FIELD DENSITY
Material Removed from Test Hole
Wet Weight

Dry Weight

Loss Weight

Sf>7

6/1

<&/

M.C. (%) =(Loss + Dry Wgt.) X 100

Material Replaced in Test Hole

________ / 7 -3/

B. Wgt. control sand, jar and cone --------C. Wgt. control sand, jar and cone after u
D. Wgt. sand to f ill hole and cone ---------

E. Wgt. sand to f i l l cone _____________


F. Wgt. sand to f i l l hole ______________

+ Z3

G. F (Wgt. sand to f ill hole)

Volume o f Hole

i.t

H. DRY WGT. (Soil From Test Hole)


G.

' X 100

Wgt. Mold & Moist. Soil (M + Sw)


Wgt. Mold

(M)

Wgt. Moist. Soil

(Sw)

Wet Density

' / f t . 3)

Dry Density

( / f t . 3)

Wgt. Wet Soil & Can


Wgt. Dry Soi 1 & Can
Wgt. Loss
Wgt. Can

Density ( * / f t . 3 )

(%)

y -.b s


/ . 5T
n o 3
m . o
137-0
1173
n + n
3>z
bSi
H tl
b - s

D(y =

v in n
* '

F ield 7

ZS-hO
. S i
// 02.
/? O

Z S te Z z -.9 o
. / + L
II. OS _ u 02.
.
/ L .S
I3S. O 131. O
/2 S / l / l o
m o
r 12.01 t t + b
US-3
*2.
3Z
esz
<eS2.
fe il
+ to
vu
9S
75F
7 -oS

2 S. S g
/.5'1
// f
/S-
/3 6 S
12*0
LZ- / /
2-$3
7/0
A j,

Method A

4 " mold - 4. Material 3 equal

layers, 25 blows per layer.

Method B

6 mold 4. Material 3 equal

layers, 56 blows per layer.

REVIEWED AND APPROVED BY

4 mold. Material coarser th an3 /4 " shall be replaced by on equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the

4.

3 equal layers, 25 blows per layer.


Method D

6 " mold. Material coarser than 3 /4" shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the # 4.
5 equal layers, 56 blows per layer.
ASTM DESIGNATION D-1557-Run all tests with 10 lb. hammer dropped 18"

Method A

4 " mold 4. Material 5 equal

layers, 25 blows per layer.

Method B

6 " mold - 4. Material 5 equal

layers, 56 blows per layer.

Method C

4 " mold. Material coarser then 3 /4 " shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the 4.
5 equal layers, 25 blows per layer.
6 * mold. Material coarser than 3 /4 " shall be replaced by an equal amount passing 3 /4 " & retained on the 4.
5 equal layers, 56 blows per layer.

Method D

S' ^

OPERATOR'S SIGNATURE _,______________________________


O '

ASTM DESIGNATION 0-698 - Run*oil te s ts with 5*5 lb . ho-------* , . 1 1 2 -

Method C

Lob. ^

Wet = Sw X 30 ( 4 Mold) or Sw X 13.33 (6 Mold)


Density Wet

D .n .ity , . / , , 3 ,

PROCTOR DENSITY:

CONTROLLED MOISTURE DENSITY

37-/5 6-7
z + .Z 7
i+ .S Z
/OZI
1*1-2.
13.?
1/7/
11 V-S5
2.3
b 52.

ASTM DESIGNATION

Moisture Content

F i. u

- %Compaction

Proctor Density

Note:

OPTIMUM MOISTURE:

34 W o = /2 3 *

(Volume of Hole)

I. Field Density

I.k (o S ' %

Density of Control Sand

* 4 " mold = 1/30 cu. ft. (0.0333) - 6 " mold = 1/13.33 cu. ft. (0.075)

Typical Field w orksheet

21

(a) LiquidIn the liquid procedure, water from a cali


brated vessel is forced into a rubber balloon in the hole.
The am ount o f water used equals the samples in-place
volum e. The disadvantages in the liquid m ethod are
breakage o f the balloon and freezing o f the water in
winter. (Fig. III-5).

(b) SandIn the sand cone m ethod (m ost popular), the


hole from which the soil sample was removed is filled
with measured dry sand o f uniform known density
from a graduated bottlethe dry weight volum e is then
know n (Fig. III-6).

22

Figure III-6

The disadvantages lie in the discom fort o f working with


sand in w indy areas and the moving o f 100 pound bags
o f sand and bottles around the test site, plus the degree
o f human error.
Samples are then cut from this exact-volum e sample,
weighed, and oven-dried to obtain the water content.
This is then plotted and checked against the specifi
cations fo r required density.

23

NUCLEAR SOIL DENSITY TESTING


This type o f testing is con du cted with an instrument designed
to measure the bulk density and moisture o f soil. The measuring
probe uses a radioactive source in com bination with geiger tubes
to measure either density or moisture.

C o u r t e s y o f C a m p b e ll P a c ific N u c le a r C o r p .

Figure III- 7

A n external detector probe is inserted into the soil to the


desired depth. Basically, gamma rays being emitted from the
detector probe are absorbed by the soil and water atoms. The
denser the soil and the m ore water present, the m ore rays are
absorbed. Therefore, fewer rays manage to reach the instrument
detector to be counted. Thus, the denser the soil, the lower the
count rate will be.

24

Figure III-8

We may think o f soil as a shield against the gamma rays being


em itted by the detector probe or being similar to light from a
glowing lamp. The light rays diminish in strength as we move
away or strengthen as we com e closer. In this case, the rays are
im peded by the density o f the soil.
Advantages o f the nuclear field test m ethod are that it:
(1) Is non-destructive; does not disturb in soil structure.
(2 ) Reduces the personal element that is involved in co n
ventional test procedures, thereby increasing the consis
tency o f density and moisture test results.

25

NUCLEAR DENSITY/MOISTURE
FIELD TEST DATA

SECTION _

3B

OPERATOR _

DATE __

TEST NO. .

6A

MODEL NO. .

TYPE MATERIAL

OPTIMUM MOISTURE .

JO/

ROUTE _

FREQUENCY RANGE
STANDARD COUNT

DENSITY

2.
3.
4.
5.
Total
Avg.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Total
Avg.

TEST NUMBER

/76 +37

OFFSET

2 .'

ELEVATION

2.

o ff

DENSITY
COUNT RATIO
WET
DENSITY PCF

MOISTURE COUNT
MOISTURE

3.

/X*

6 "

*/

& 0

177

/ f/7
257
127.00 /3/ So /25.00
6 77

/29oo
635

7S

/ W

COUNT RATIO

*37

MOISTURE PCF

S-5e>

DRY DENSITY

120. So

% MOISTURE

II. (o

% MAXIMUM
DENSITY

5.

/76+45

DEPTH

DENSITY COUNT

"Rolled w/th
/Zoo VPrt x - x
S P -S M

99/5??s/
9674
79Z4
9706,
*9230
9W 6

1.

STATION

OPERATING FREQUENCY
REMARKS

MOISTURE

27/33
27 OOO
2b?4l
27//Z
2.6 963
/3S/55
2.703/

SP- 54.

MAXIMUM DENSITY J

COMPACTOR NAME

1.

JS.

I-n

US- 5o /22 ./o //S. bo


/0-1
/o /
/2 3
.

97. z

/ 0. o

V .7

Typical Field w orksheet

26

6.

(3 ) Provides a means o f performing density tests on large


sized aggregate base courses and on frozen material
w hich are difficult to handle by other test m ethods.
(4) Saves m oney, over the long pull, because o f its greater
speed and closer quality control. It also eliminates
several conventional field test procedures requiring
more trained personnel, and the new m ethod creates
less interference to the con tractors operations.
A disadvantage o f nuclear testing is the possibility o f radiation
exposure to the operator. However, individual radiation e x
posure can be maintained within the A tom ic Energy C om
missions safety levels b y exercising ordinary caution.
To sum up, the process o f com paction is a mechanical effort to
get soil particles in as close an arrangement as possible, thereby
minimizing the water and air in the voids. This way, soil is at its
maximum density. By a series o f trials in the laboratory, some
water content is reached that will give this condition. This is
then duplicated in the field, with proper com paction equipm ent
selection, required density may be achieved.

VISUA L TESTS
It is n ot always possible to have accurate test data available,
therefore, one should have som e idea o f what to look for. From
previous experience we know that to o little moisture can have
as unsatisfactory results as t o o much moisture. Also, in the
classification o f soils, it is beneficial to recognize the soil type
so we may proceed with the proper selection o f com paction
equipment.
A simple m ethod most often em ployed in the industry is to
pack a soil sample by hand into the shape and size o f a g olf ball.
After the shape is achieved, placed the ball between the index
finger and thumb.

27

Figure HI-9

If the material shatters into fairly uniform fragments, the soil is


close to the optim um moisture.
If the material weeps in you r hand
flattens out, the soil is over optim um
cannot be form ed into a ball or is
probably under optim um and moisture

or does not break but


moisture. When the soil
difficult to shape, it is
must be added.

Figure III-l 0

In order to help classify the soil, roll a sample b y hand into a


thin roll about 1 /8 inch in diameter. If y o u have no problem
rolling the material into this shape, the soil is usually plastic and
extra care must be exercised when attempting to com pact.
Ideally, we are lookin g for material that cannot be rolled into
the 1 /8 diameter, which means it is less plastic and more
desirable for com pacting.
A m ethod fo r determining the amount o f coarse and fine
material is to place a soil sample into a glass o f water. Shake
thoroughly and allow to settle for IV2 minutes. If the water
clears during this time, the material is very granular with very
little if any plastic material or fines. In the event the water is
muddy or cloudy, there is a high percentage o f cohesive or
plastic soil. Several types o f soil will generate this condition. A
good indication w ould be the clay material which will usually
require soil manipulation.

Figure III-l 1

29

COMPACTION METHODS
Knowing what types o f soil are to be com pacted are useful to
determine what piece o f equipm ent should be selected to d o the
jo b . The Soil-Selection Guide may be used for making rough
field checks w ithout any apparatus, but should not eliminate
the standard tests for positive confirm ation.
SOIL SELECTION GUID E
G R A N U L A R SOILS,
FINE SANDS, SILTS

PLASTIC (COHESIVE)
SOILS, CLAYS

V isu a l appearance and


feel.

Coarse grains can be


seen. Feels g r it ty w hen
rubbed betw een f in
gers.

G rains ca n n o t be seen
b y naked eye. Feels
s m o o th
and
g re a s y
w h e n rubbed be tw een
fing ers.

M o vem en t o f w a te r in
the spaces.

W hen a sm all q u a n tity


is shaken in the palm
o f the hand, w a te r w ill
appear on th e surface
o f th e sam ple. W hen
shaking
is stopped,
w a te r g ra d u a lly disap
pears.

W hen a small q u a n tity


is shaken in the pa lm
o f th e hand, it w ill
s ho w no signs o f w a te r
m o vin g o u t o f th e
voids.

P la s tic ity w h e n m o is t.

V e ry little o r no plas
tic ity .

P lastic and s tic k y . Can


be ro lle d .

C ohesion in d ry state.

L ittle or no cohesive
stre n g th in d ry state.
W ill c ru m b le and fla k e
re a d ily .

Has
a
high
d rie d
s tre n g th .
C rum bles
w ith
d if f ic u lt y
and
fla ke s s lo w ly in w a te r.

S e ttle m e n t

W ill settle o u t o f sus


pe nsion
w ith in
an
h o u r.

W ill stay in suspension


in w a te r fo r several
days unless it f lo c
culates.

W HA T TO LOOK FOR

in

w a te r.

30

CHAPTER IV
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
C om paction equipm ent does its jo b in any one o f four principal
ways, or com binations o f them :
1.

Static weight

2.

Kneading action

3.

Impact

4.

Vibration

Static-weight com pactors are surface rollers o f either the


smooth-steel-wheel or pneumatic-tired type.
Tandem rollers are those that have two or three rolls in line.
The rolls are actually steel drums that can be filled with ballast
to increase their weight. If a roller is described as 14-20 ton s ,

Figure IV-1

31

it means that the minimum deadload weight o f the machine is


14 tons and that the rolls can be ballasted with material such as
water or wet sand to give a maximum total weight o f 20 tons. It
should be kept in mind that although total weights o f tandem
rollers can be greater than three-wheel rollers, their unit pres
sures tend to be less because the greater contact surface o f the
rolls will spread the load over a larger area.
Three wheel rollers have tw o rear wheels and a front steering
wheel. The narrow rear wheels and the wide front wheel may be
either spoked or ballastable. The three wheel roller is quite
maneuverable but tends to leave deep ruts in granular soils due
to the concentration o f load in the narrow wheels.
Both types have rather slow running speeds and have ques
tionable safety for operation near the edges o f high, steep-sided
hills.
Steel rollers o f the tandem or three-wheel type are effective
m ost generally on soils o f a more granular nature where the
crushing effect o f their static weight can be best em ployed.
However, loose sands may n ot support the heavier rollers.

32

A steel rollers com pactive effort is lessened in material o f


granular-plastic or plastic-granular nature. Thats because the
heavy rollers create crushing at the top o f the layer with
diminishing effectiveness dow n to the lower parts o f the lift,
even in shallow thicknesses.
For plastic material, steel rollers tend to have a bridging effect.
This means that the roller will squeeze material from the high
spots to the lows, but the material m oved will not be co m
pacted. Steel rollers also have a plowing effect. This creates
plastic waves ahead o f the rolls and also results in a springing up
o f material behind them.
Steel-wheel rollers can be used effectively to level o ff high spots
after sheepsfoot, vibratory or pneumatic-tired rollers have done
their w ork, but traction is very limited with this type o f
com paction.

Pneumatic-Tired Rollers
Pneumatic-tired rollers are also surface rollers, but in addition
they apply the principle o f kneading action. They are either
self-propelled or tow ed and are o f tw o typesthose with small
tires and those with large tires.

Figure IV-3

33

Rubber tired Rollers generally have tw o tandem axles with four


to nine wheels each. The wheels are arranged so that the rear
ones will run in the spaces between the front ones, theoretically
leaving n o ruts. The chassis o f the vehicle is also a container for
solid or liquid ballast. The weights carried may be varied to suit
the material being com pacted.
The individual wheels may be a knee-action type mountings to
avoid omissions o f low spots or bridging on highs. Wheels may
also be m ounted slightly out o f line with the axle, giving them a
weaving action and the name w obble w heel . This condition
improves the kneading action.
Pneumatic-tired rollers cannot be overloaded with ballast or
m oved at excessive speeds. Such faulty operation will give more
coverage but will result in extra tire and bearing wear, thus
increasing maintenance costs.
Small-tire com pactors provide the same unit surface pressure as
large-tire units with less overall weight on the material being
com pacted. They provide m ore crushing o f lumps and d o not
push w hole masses before them or cause lateral displacement.
Disadvantage lies in p o o r flotation in loose materials, slipping o f
self-propelled units in very w et soil, and about a 6-in. maximum

Figure IV-4

34

depth o f com pactive effectiveness, with density only on the


upper layers and soil bridging.
Large-rubber-tire rollers will w ork on most types o f soils. They
cover a bigger unit-pressure area and have a deeper effect on soil
m ovem ent (due to less lateral support, percentage wise) than do
small-tire units, but still are restricted to shallow com paction.
The expense is in their operation since they require the right
type tractor to pull them and they must make a greater number
o f passes to get com plete coverage o f the spaces between the
wheels. Their best use is in test or p r o o f rolling.
When considering a large-tire roller for general com paction
w ork, the contractor should check the econom ics o f getting the
same unit loadings in other types o f com paction equipment.
There are at least four ways used to express the com pacting
ability o f pneumatic rollers. They are: (1) gross weight o f
vehicle; (2) wheel or tire load; (3) weight per inch o f tire width;
and (4) tire inflation pressure. The problem is com plex because
rubber, unlike the steel roller, is flexible and low tire air
pressure allows an oval surface contact area to enlarge. This
diminishes the effect o f total load by giving larger weight
distribution and, consequently, lower unit ground pressure.
N ote, on some units tire pressure may be varied while the
vehicle is working.
A ccordingly, gross-weight ratings mean nothing unless the
number o f wheels, tire size, and inflation pressures are known.

SHEEPSFOOT ROLLERS
For cohesive materials (clays and silty clays), sheepsfoot or
pa d foot rollers are used. The typical sheepsfoot roller can be
self-propelled or tow ed , and com pacts with a kneading action
on the soil. These units generally range in weight from 2 tons to
20 tons and vary in coverage width normally between 30 and
100 inches. The feet or pads can be o f various shapes and are
norm ally less than 10 inches in length.
The sheepsfoot com pactor is usually most effective on lifts
between 10 and 12 inches in com pacted thickness, and operated

35

on the theory that the feet will com pact the lower layers o f the
soil first and w ork toward the surface in successive passes until,
when com pletely com pacted, the soil will yield no further and
the roller will walk o u t o f the lift. Because the feet penetrate
the lift and com pact within it, they affect the soil particles in all
directions. It is not necessary that the roller drum tou ch the
surface, since the total load is transmitted to the soil b y the feet
in small areas at high concentrations.

Figure IV -5
In som e cases sheepsfoot rollers will bridge over the soil at the
outset, but this bridging stops after several passes. They do
expose more soil surface to the air for evaporation o f moisture,
causing crusting. Their penetrating feet pulverize lumps in the
soil. They w ork well by causing lateral particle movement
beneath the surface, thus blending coarse and fine materials
m ore thoroughly. On the other hand, sheepsfoot rollers should
not be used in graded aggregate or stone bases since there they
will cause segregation.

IMPACT COMPACTORS
When a com paction unit has very low frequency and a very high
amplitude it is classed as an impact com pactor even though it
does have a som ewhat vibrating effect. Generally, these are
hand held tampers or rammers and are used in small areas or
confined spaces.

36

Figure IV-6
A lso available are rammers with a self-contained gasoline engine
that makes the entire unit jum p up and dow n. Guided by an
operator, a 125-lb. machine can deliver an 1150-lb. blow to the
ground surface.

V IB R A TO R Y COMPACTORS
A vibratory com pactor functions by producing a dynam ic force
into the ground with a series o f rapid impacts. Soil particles
tend to stack by nesting in void spaces between other grains.
When shaken or vibrated, the soil grains will shift themselves
into the tightest arrangement. If the particles are dry, friction
may impede their flow or shifting. If the material is to o wet,
water will take up the voids since water is n ot compressible. The
correct am ount o f water will lubricate the m ovem ent o f the soil
with least resistance into maximum density. This is known as
optim um moisture point. Maximum density at optim um m ois
ture can be achieved by all the previously mentioned com

37

pactors but it will require more time and expense to achieve.


The success o f vibratory com pactors lies in the ability to com
pact a wide range o f soils in deeper lifts and less time than
conventional expensive m ethods.
There are tw o principal classes o f vibratory com paction equip
mentdrum rollers and plate tampers.
A . D RU M RO LLE R S
A drum roller will impart vibrations into the soil
through a steel drum. An eccentric shaft is usually
housed within the center axis o f the drum and sup
ported b y bearings at each end o f the shaft. As the shaft

Figure IV- 7

rotates at a given speed, the drum assembly is displaced


from the neutral axis within the suspension system. The
drum assembly rebounds against the ground surface
with a force generated by the eccentric shaft and static

38

Figure IV-8

weight o f the assembly while traveling along the ground.


Drum com pactors may be self propelled with a rubber
tired tractor unit, driven individually as tandem drum
machines o r may be tow ed behind a tractor. Pad fo o t
drum com pactors are equipped with tamping feet,
w elded to the circum ference o f the drum surface. The
tamping feet function in a manner similar to a sheeps
fo o t roller but afford a dynam ic force in addition to the
kneading o f the soil material (Fig IV -8).
B.

PLATE COM PACTORS


A plate com pactor is individually vibrated by an
eccentric shaft driven mechanically or hydraulically.
The eccentric is affixed to the vibrating plate. As the
eccentric shaft rotates, a force imparts which causes the
plate to rebound against the ground surface. Simultane
ously the com pactor is vibrated in a forward or reverse

39

direction. The vibrating plate may normally be guided


individually by hand and is suitable for com pacting
bottom s o f trenches, con fined areas and steep slopes.

Figure IV -9

One o f many advantages o f vibratory com paction is that it


keeps the com pacted surface fairly well sealed against evapora
tion o f internal moisture and also against entrance o f new
water. This crusting effect permits rapid resumption o f work
after rain. Due to the penetrating effect o f the vibrations, this
crusting does not prevent uniform com paction through the
entire lift as is the case with crusting under a static roller.
In com pacting granular material, some number (frequency) o f
blow s in a given period gets it dow n faster and tighter than
few er blow s o f a heavier order (amplitude). The com bination o f

40

frequency and amplitude o f vibrations get varying results with


different soils, depending on grain size, distribution and m ois
ture, since every material has its own frequency rate (or re
sonance). Vibrations vary from 1,000 per minute in some com
paction machines to 5,000 per minute in others and it is more
econom ical to use a machine that will vibrate closest to the
soils resonant frequency.

Figure IV -1 0

There are tw o schools o f thought regarding resonant frequency.


One claims that since the resonance factor o f various granular
materials determines their com pactability and the depths to
which com paction will be effective, then before going ahead
with the selection o f a dynam ic com pactor it is best to have a
com petent laboratory run a set o f vibratory com paction tests.
The other viewpoint is that such tests are only necessary for
plant foundations where the structure will contain vibrating
machinery. On highways or airports where the embankment is
subjected to im pact loads, or in dams where the stress is static,
no laboratory vibration tests are needed. H owever, a full scale
test-trial on the jo b is always in order before any equipment is
finally chosen.

41

CHAPTER V
FUNDAM ENTALS OF V IB R A TO R Y COMPACTION
The follow in g are basic fundamentals o f vibratory com paction
equipm ent. In the pages that fo llo w we attem pt to give simple
explanations o f som e o f the concepts and term inology co m
m only encountered in the field o f vibratory com paction. This
material is geared and only intended to furnish basic familiarity
with this type equipment.
Soil com paction, through vibration, is accom plished b y :
(A ) The movement o f soil particles reducing the internal
friction and repositioning to produce the maximum
density or least am ount o f air voids.

Figure V -l

43

(B) The influence o f the impact generated by the vibrating


drum or plate against the ground, and the static weight
w hich presses the drum or plate against the earth.
Each com pactor must be equipped with an eccentric shaft
necessary to produce the vibratory action. The eccentric shaft is
merely a b o d y which rotates about any axis other than one at
its center o f mass. This exerts an outward force called centri
fugal force upon the axis w hich restrains it from moving in a
straight line.

One com m on analogy on h ow centrifugal force is produced:


Suppose y o u secure a one pound weight to the end o f a
string and begin whirling it in a circle. The tug y o u feel on
the string is the centrifugal force y ou have generated by
its rotation.

44

Figure V-3

The faster y o u whirl, the more force will be felt on the


string. If you increase the weight on the end o f the string
we will also experience a higher force. The centrifugal force
we have generated is relative to the weight o f the off-center
material, distance o f the weight to the center o f rotation,
and the velocity at which this weight rotates.
Every vibratory com pactor produces centrifugal force which is
generated by this eccentric shaft, the am ount o f force is prede
termined by limiting the size o f eccentric and the speed o f
rotation. The eccentrics are designed to match the weight o f the
vibrating member which in effe ct is a ratio o f the weight o f the
vibrating drum to that o f the springborne frame. The centrifugal
force created by the eccentric shaft will have little effect with-

out the proper drum frame weight to keep the drum pressed
against the soil during vibration. As the eccentric shaft rotates,
the centrifugal force generated is directed in a 360 force
pattern.

Figure V-4

The centrifugal force acts inside the drum or baseplate. This


force is n o t equal to the dynamic fo rce which is being dealt to
the underlying soil. Very often the centrifugal force is mistaken
for dynam ic force. The frequency (V.P.M .) amplitude and
weight o f the vibrating drum, plus the properties o f the soil will
be dependent on the results o f dynam ic force generated. This
fo rce is n ot an exact measurement o f com paction effort, but
gives an approxim ate value with the variance o f soil material.
The dynam ic force may be accurately measured b y pressure
cells under the vibrating drum. The centrifugal force generated
b y the vibrating drum is then added to the static working
weight o f the drum assembly exerted on the ground to make up
the applied drum force.

46

Therefore, we can clearly see that without this static weight


from the drum and frame weight, w e would not be able to
effectively retain the drum against the soil. The ratio o f ec
centric force to drum and frame weight is carefully designed to
produce the most efficient penetration into the soil. The vi
brating m em ber (drum) is always isolated from the main frame
assembly by utilizing rubber shock mounts symmetrically
located on each end o f the vibrating drum. The static weight has
a large influence on the com paction effort since the energy as
well as the m om entum from the vibrating drum is directly
proportional to the weight when the frequency and amplitude
are constant.

WHAT ABOUT FREQUENCY AN D AM PLITUD E


The velocity at which the eccentric shaft rotates is referred to as
its frequency. Each machine is designed to operate at a pre
determined frequency for maximum efficien cy, since this is
how we generate m aximum drum force. The frequency level is

47

level is broken dow n into a low range (500-1000) and a medium


range o f (1 0 00 -3 0 00 ) and a high range (3000-50 00) vibrations
per minute (V.P.M .). As the eccentric shaft rotates at the pre
scribed frequency developing centrifugal force, the drum
assembly is displaced from the rest position and is restrained
within the isolation system. The total vertical distance that the
vibrating drum or baseplate travels is called the amplitude. The
amplitude is a direct function o f the drum weight and make up
o f the eccentric shaft. The amplitude is also determinate upon
the elasticity and tamping properties o f the soil.

Figure V-6

The frequency and amplitude o f a machine will predetermine its


m ost effective application. As an exam ple, if our requirement
application is fo r com paction o f a highly elastic material we
w ould normally require a high amplitude and low frequency to
accom plish this. The reason fo r this choice is to break dow n the
highly resistant cohesive material; consequently, a high ampli
tude is more desirable to penetrate a material o f this nature.

48

A nother example w ould be the com paction o f bituminous bases


and other types o f asphalt surfaces which w ould require the use
o f high frequency and low amplitude fo r satisfactory results on
these materials.

SOIL REACTIONS
Vibratory rollers operate with a rapid succession o f impacts
against the soil. These impacts are generated by the rotating
eccentric to produce forces and pressures w hich transmit into
the soil. Each load cycle generates a stress wave which decreases
intensity as it travels further from the vibrating drum. Each
wave characteristics is dependent upon the properties o f the
soil. Various soils will react differently when subjected to vi
bration. The purpose o f vibration is to set the soil particles into
a state o f m otion almost as a fluid. The soil is broken dow n and
subjected to shear between the particles as the material is
gradually rearranged during com paction. Soil particles in
m otion slide against each other and eventually settle out,

Figure V-7

49

keeping themselves together in a densely packed state. The


m ovem ent o f soil will be greatest when the vibratory drum is
operating closest to the natural frequency o f the vibrator-soil
system.

IMPACT PER FOOT


As a vibratory com pactor rolls over the ground surface, a series
o f blows is delivered to the ground surface, which is generated
by the vibrating drum. The drum rebounds against the ground
during the period o f time it takes to apply. Slower travel speeds
will com pact heavier lifts m ore effectively due to the longer
time duration. Generally, 2-3 MPH is considered the most
effective travel speed for m ost applications.

Figure V-8

Exam ple: A n SP-56 operating at 1,825 V P M traveling at 3 M PH


will produce approxim ately 7 im pacts per foot.
1,825 V P M
3 M P H (5,280 ft/m ile)

60 min
1 hour

50

.
,
imPacts per foot

G R O U N D FORCE
I f we wish to determine ground force exerted from the vibrating
drum our applied drum force m ust be divided over the length of
the drum.
Example: A n SP-56 has a drum applied force o f 53,800 lbs.
(24,404 kgs.) acting on the soil, the drum width is 84 inches
(2134 mm).
Ground Force =

Ground Force

= 640 lbs. per lineal inch (pli)

^ S = 11.44 kg. per linear mm.


2,134 mm

SUMMARY
In field applications it is difficult to determine the actual forces
being generated into the ground. Many figures are published on
centrifugal and dynam ic forces em ployed by various com
pactors, these values are no assurance o f the forces dealt into
the soil. Many factors can alter the effect o f com paction in the
soil. The frame weight is responsible for holding the drum
against the soil, if the frame is too light the energy by the
eccentric shaft will be dissipated upward, if the frame is too
heavy the amplitude may be considerably effected. The drum
construction can also effect com paction, the drum shell must
not be allowed to flex under load, otherwise a degree o f energy
will be absorbed b y drum deflection. Therefore frequency,
amplitude, frame weight and drum construction all tend to
influence the com pactive effort. The amount o f time or impact
per unit distance is governed by the travel speed o f the co m
pactor. The travel speed and number o f passes influence the
am ount o f production as illustrated in Chapter VI. Our o b
jective is to establish the maximum travel speed with the fewest
passes to achieve a required density.

51

CHAPTER VI
P R O D U C TIV ITY
With any com paction device it is very important to be able to
measure the expected amount o f material able to be com pacted
during a specified period o f time. Because o f unknown factors
o f the soil material, this production rate cannot always be
accurately predetermined, but by making certain assumptions,
one can arrive at a reasonably close estimate o f com paction
output. Following is a simple form ula for determining pro
duction.
p _ D

T x L
P

where P
D
T
L
C
P

=
=
=
=
=
=

production in com pacted soil volume per hour


drum width
com paction unit travel speed
lift thickness
conversion factor
passes required to achieve density

When working with the foot-pou n ds system, the follow ing units
o f measure would apply. Drum width would be expressed in
inches, com paction unit travel speed in miles per hour, lift
thickness in inches, and the conversion factor required to make
the sum o f inches multiplied by miles per hour multiplied by
inches equal to cubic yards per hour would be 1.36.
W hen w orking in metric units (the meter-kilogram system ), dif
ferent units o f measure are required. Drum width is expressed in
millimeters, travel speed in kilometers per hour, lift thickness in
centimeters, and the conversion factor is 0.01.

L ets now examine one specific example for each system. First,
we are using an SP-56 operating at a speed o f three miles per hour
and com pacting a fourteen inch thick lift (com pacted thickness)
in three passes. W hat is our production rate?

,
_______ . D X T X L X C
Production Rate ( P.R. ) = -----------------D
T
L
C
P

=
=
=
=
=

drum width
84 inches
travel speed
= 3 miles per hour
lift thickness
= 1 4 inches
conversion factor =
1.36
passes
= 3

therefore p R = <84>X<3)X , 14)X(.)

= 1599com pacted
cubic yards per
hour.

Suppose now we have an SPF-56 com pacting a twenty centimeter


thick lift (com pacted thickness) o f cohesive material with two
passes at five kilometers per hour. W hat is our rate o f com pac
tion?
Production Rate ( P.R. ) = D X T g L x C
D
T
L
C
P
thus

= drum width
= 2134 centimeters
= travel speed
= 5 kilometers per hour
= lift thickness
= 20 centimeters
= conversion factor = 0 .0 1
= passes
= 2
P.R. = (2134)X (5)X (20)X (0.01)= ^
com pacted
cubic meters per
hour

However, no com paction device is 100 percent efficient on an ac


tual jo b . A certain amount of time is required to change travel
direction, to start and stop, and a certain amount o f production is
lost because of required overlap between side by side passes.
Therefore it is necessary to take into account some factor for effi
ciency. This is to some degree variable, but experience has shown

54

us that our self-propelled vibratory com pactors have an efficien


cy factor ( E.F. ) of 85 percent.
E m ploying this efficiency correction with our previous examples
we find that we can reasonably expect an SP-56 operating at a
speed o f three miles per hour to com pact a fourteen inch thick lift
in three passes at the rate of:
1599 cubic yards per hourX85% E.F. = 1359 com pacted cubic
yards per hour.
Similarly the SPF-56 using tw o passes to com pact a 20 cen
timeter lift at a speed o f five kilometers per hour would, when
considering actual efficiency, perform at the rate of:
1067 cubic meters per hourX85% E.F. = 907 com pacted cubic
meters per hour.
Based on this inform ation, the contractor, engineer, or sales
representative can fairly accurately predetermine how much com
paction equipment is required to efficiently com pact the material
being placed by the hauling equipment, and he can better
schedule his equipm ent on the entire job .

APPLICATION DATA
T o intelligently approach and select proper com paction equip
ment, one must recognize several factors; the type o f soil being
com pacted, the moisture con ten t and equipment selection.
Various soils require different types o f com paction equipm ent
to satisfy the soil system. T o aid in the selection o f equipm ent,
refer to the C om paction Selection Chart (Fig. V I-1), Unified
Soil Classification (Fig. II -l) and Machine Specifications (Fig.
V I-2). The C om paction Selection Chart will assist in a
basic selection. The Soil Classification Chart will further define
the com position o f the soils you will encounter under standard
classifications. Machine Specifications will furnish inform ation
as to approximate machine production and soil application in
conjunction with the Unified Soil Classification System. Bear in
mind, this inform ation is on ly a guide; fluctuations in a soil
system or other variables may require altering a selection.
Let us take a hypothetical case:
A project requires com paction o f a silty gravel and sand
material in 12-14 inch lifts and production o f approxi
mately 10,000 cubic yards per 8 hour day. Referring to the
C om paction Selection Chart under Sand-Silt-Gravel we find
several machines capable o f this com paction requirement.
The determining factor will be the amount o f production
required.
L ets go a step further and refer to the Unified Soil Classifi
cation Chartthe silty, gravel and sand mixture is described
under Secondary and classified as a (GM ) material. Refer
to the machine specifications, observing the production
range. Our requirement is 1 0,0 0 0 /8 or 1250 cu/yds/hr.
The SP-56DD appears to meet production requirements and
soil classification as shown. Once we have selected the unit
we m ay further calculate our production rate for the job.

58

Following is the example o f calculating the production rate


for the SP-56DD in this hypothetical case:
Drum W idth
84 inches
Travel Speed
= 3 miles per hour
L ift Thickness
= 14 inches
Conversion Factor = 1 .3 6
Passes
= 3
E fficency Factor
= 0.85
Production Rate =
P.R. =

(84)X (3)X (14)X (1.36)


X 0.85
3

Production Rate ( P.R. ) = 1359 com pacted cubic yards per hour
L ets assume an eight hour day:
1359 cu. y d /h r.X 8 hr. = 10,872 cubic yards per day
Therefore, we can clearly see that we are able to meet ( and even
exceed) the required production rate with the SP-56DD. L e ts go
one step further and com pute the cost to operate the SP-56DD.

OPERATING COST
Operating cost is an indirect fixed cost which includes the
expenditures for repairs and maintenance, the costs for fuels
and lubricants, and the expense for an equipm ent operator. The
follow ing assumption are made.
1.

2.

Repairs and maintenance costs are determined by


considering a fixed cost equal to eight percent o f the in
itial purchase price o f the machine under normal condi
tions and dividing this figure b y the base value o f 1000
hours between maintenance intervals. The resulting
cost is the estim ated repair and maintenance costs per
hour o f equipment operation.
Fuel costs are quickly com puted b y multiplying the
fuel consum ption rate in gallons per hour times the
average cost per gallon o f fuel.

59

3.

Lubrication costs are figured at a consum ption o f 1/8


gallon per hour at whatever cost per gallon is appro
priate.

4.

O perators wage should be determined from local pay


scales.

L e ts use the SP-56DD from the preceeding productivity example


to estimate the operating cost per cubic yard o f material com
pacted. First com pute the maintenance costs as suggested. Then
determine the hourly fuel and lubricants costs. A d d to these
costs the actual hourly equipment operators rate for a total
operating cost.
Take the total operating cost per hour and divide it b y the pro
duction rate in cubic yards per hour. The answer, then, is the ac
tual cost per cubic yard of material com pacted. Keep in mind,
however, that these costs are estimated. Different areas may ex
perience variations from these values and adjustments should be
made accordingly.

60

SUMMARY

These examples are guides which are intended to point y ou in


the right direction. P oor soil conditions may bring about unsat
isfactory results even though the equipm ent selection was
correct and the soil itself required altering. Proper equipment
selection is imperative to ensure econom ical and effective com
paction results, but their is no exact m ethod o f pre-determining
the results o f soil com paction prior to actual field testing with
the unit. Soil testing is one o f the factors that make it possible
to actually establish the full benefit o f densification through
vibration. We are still learning about the effects o f vibration in
soil com paction and must conclude that there is not a fixed
procedure for com paction assignments. As we move forward in
time, new technologies in com paction m ethods emerge which
o ffer new, efficient techniques to serve the construction in
dustry.

61

APPENDIX
CUBIC MEASURE
1
1
1
1

Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic

Yard = 27 Cubic Feet = .7645 Cubic Meter


F oot = 1.728 Cubic Inches = .02832 Cubic Meter
Meter = 35.314 Cubic Feet = 1.308 Cubic yd.
Centimeter = .061 Cubic Inch

MEASURES OF LENGTH
1 Mile =
1,760 yds. = 5,280 ft. = 1.609 Kilometers
1 Yard =
3 ft. = 36 inches = .9144 meters
1 Foot =
12 inches = .3048 meters = 304.8 millimeters
1 Inch =
2.54 centimeters = 25.4 millimeters
1 Kilometer = .6214 miles
1 Meter =
3.2808 feet = 1.093 yards = 39.37 inches
1 Centimeter = .3937 inches
1 Millimeter = .03937 inches

SQUARE MEASURE
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square
Square

Kilometer = .3861 sq. miles = 247.1 acres


Meter =
10.764 sq. feet = 1.196 sq. yards.
Centimeter =.155 sq. inches
Millimeter = .00155 sq. inches.
Mile =
2.5899 sq. kilometers
Yard =
.836 Square meters
F oot =
.0929 Square Meters

LIQUID MEASURE
1 U.S. Gallon

= .1337 cubic feet = 231 cubic inches


= 4 qts. = 8 pints = 3.785 liters.
1 British Imperial Gallon = 1.2009 U.S. Gallons = 277.42 cu.
inches
1 Cubic F oot
= 7.48 U.S. Gallons
1 Liter
= .2642 U.S. Gallons = 1.0567 U.S.
Qt.

63

MEASURE OF W EIGHT
IT o n (short) =
1 T on (long) =
1 Metric T on =
1 Pound =

2000 lb.
2240 lb.
.9842 Ton (long) = 2204.6 lbs.
16 ounces=.4536 kg.

GRADE CHART

Percent

Degrees

Percent

Degrees

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40

2
5
8
11
14
16
19
21

45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80

24
26
28
30
33
35
36
38

52
43
32
19
2
42
17
48

14
34
49
58
1
52
40

b_
Percent grade is c or the amount o f vertical rise relative to
horizontal distance travelled expressed in terms o f percent.
_b
The angle o f the grade in degrees is tan B = c or equivalent to the
tangent trigonom etric function of the product o f the adjacent side
and the base o f the triangle.

64

D EFIN ITIO N S
AASH O

The Am erican A ssociation o f State Highway


Officials

Adhesion

A property o f soil which causes the particles


to stick together.

A ggregate

Stone or gravel which has been crushed and


screened to various sizes for use in concrete,
asphalt, or other road surfaces.

Am plitude

The total vertical distance the vibrating


drum or plate is displaced from the rest or
neutral position from the eccentric moment.

Applied
Drum Force

The sum o f forces exerted against the ground


from the static working weight o f the drum
assem bly and the centrifugal force generated by
the eccentric shaft.

A ST M

American Society for Testing and Materials.

Basalt

A finely grained dense igneous rock usually


blackish gray in color.

Base

The first or foundation course in pavement


construction usually consisting o f aggregate.

Binder

A material made up o f fines which hold gravel


and crushed stone together.

Caliche

Soil material which consists o f layers of


weathered deposits bonded by carbonates such
as lime.

Capillarity

A property o f soils which allows


m ovem ent o f water upward or laterally.

Centrifugal
Force
C IM A

the

The force generated b y the vibration-induc


ing mechanism at the stated frequency.
C on stru ction
Association.

65

In d u stry

M anufacturers

r-

Clay

Soil material com posed of m icroscopic


particles derived from the decom position o f
rock.

Cohesion

A property o f soil or asphalt which bonds the


particles together.

Com paction

A volum e change produced artificially by a


m om entary load application.

Compression

A volum e change produced by application of


a static external load.

Consolidation

A volum e change that is achieved naturally


with the passage of time.

D ensity

W eight per unit volume o f a soil or other


material.

D ouble
Am plitude

Dynam ic
Force

The total peak to peak vertical movem ent per


com plete vibrating cycle o f the drum in a freely
suspended condition.
The force generated by the vibration inducing
mechanism at a stated frequency.

Elasticity

A characteristic o f a material which allows


deform ation when subjected to a load but to
return to original configuration after removal o f
the force.

Expansion

A n increase in volume in soil usually


resulting from increase in moisture content
(swell).

Frequency

The number o f com plete cycles of the


vibrating mechanism in a vibratory com pactor
per minute.

Gradeability

The ability o f a machine to climb a grade at a


constant velocity (usually expressed in percent).

66

Granular

Soil particles which do not have internal


cohesive forces, but rather get their strength
from friction.

Gravel

Cohensionless aggregate with particle sizes


from 3.0 to 0.8 inches.

Gum bo

A material identified b y a soapy or waxy


appearance when wet.

Hardpan

A layer o f material which is extremely dense


and fine-grained with a minor amount o f
cohesive material.

Humus

O rg a n ic
m a teria l
fo rm e d
decom position o f vegetation.

Im pervious

Resistant to the flow of water.

Lift

Newly deposited material graded to a specific


thickness.

Loam

A material which is cohesive with a particle


size ranging from .01 to .05 mm.

Nominal
Am plitude

Non-Vibra ting
W eight
Operating
W eight

Optimum
Moisture

by

the

One-half o f Double Am plitude, and the term


preferred by C IM A to evaluate vibratory com
pactors.
The static weight measured at the drum(s)
minus the Vibrating W eight.
The gross machine weight with full
mechanical operating system s, plus a full tank
of fuel, plus a half sprinkler tank of water, if so
equipped, plus a 175 lb. (80 kg) operator.
The exact amount o f water necessary to coat
and lubricate each soil particle so the maximum
density for any com paction effect may be ob
tained.

67

Pass

A one-way trip or passage o f the machine. A


round trip in the same path is tw o passes.

Permeability

A characteristic o f a soil which allows water


to flow through it by gravity.

Plasticity

The ability o f a soil to be molded and formed


without cracking or rupturing the soil mass.

Sand

A cohesionless aggregate o f round or angular


fragments with particle sizes between 2 and .05
mm.

Shearing
Resistance

A soils ability to resist sliding against


adjacent particles when a force is applied. Fric
tion and cohesion determine shear resistance.

Shrinkage

Volum e change produced


stresses during drying o f a soil.

Silt

Soil material com posed of particles between


.05 and .005 mm in diameter.

by

capillary

Sprung
W eight

Preferred term is N on-Vibrating W eight.

Unsprung
W eight

Preferred term is Vibrating W eight.

Vibrating
W eight

The weight o f all the intentionally vibrated


parts at each roll.

N O TE : M any o f the definitions contained above are representative


of the terms and definitions established b y C IM A , and as
such will be standard throughout the com paction industry.

68

You might also like