Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bin tp bi:
Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
MC LC
1. Li ni u
1.1. Li ni u
2. Chng I. M u
2.1. Chng I. M u
2.2. Khoa hc qun l ni chung
2.3. S lc v s pht trin cc t tng qun l
2.4. D n l g
2.5. Qun l d n l g
2.6. Ngi qun l d n
3. Chng II. Lp k hoch d n
3.1. Chng II. Lp k hoch d n
3.2. Xc nh vai tr trch nhim trong d n
3.3. Ti liu m t d n
3.4. Bng cng vic
3.5. c lng thi gian
3.6. Xc nh ri ro
3.7. Lp tin thc hin
3.8. Phn b lc lng, ti nguyn
3.9. Tnh chi ph cho d n
4. Chng III. Cc phng tin phc v qun l d n
4.1. S dng phn mm tr gip qun l d n
4.2. S lung cng vic
4.3. H s d n
4.4. K nng hp v trnh by
4.5. Xy dng t d n
5. Chng IV. Qun l, kim sot d n
5.1. Chng IV. Qun l, kim sot d n
5.2. Cc c im ca d n CNTT
5.3. Kim sot d n
5.4. Khon ngoi - Mua sm
5.5. Kt thc d n
5.6. Bc tranh tng th v Qun l d n
5.7. Mt s vn bn php quy lin quan n t chc v trin khai d n
1/137
Tham gia ng gp
2/137
Li ni u
Li ni u
Vi s pht trin v cng mnh m ca Cng ngh thng tin (CNTT), nhu cu pht trin
phn mm ngy cng tng, c bit l nhng phn mm ln, c phm vi ng dng rng
ri, xy dng trong nhiu nm, huy ng mt i ng ng o nhng chuyn gia phn
mm khc nhau.
Cc phn mm c thit k v xy dng trong khun kh nhng d n CNTT. Rt
nhiu bi hc thc t Vit Nam v trn th gii cho thy rng d n cng ln th
kh nng thnh cng cng t. Vic qun l d CNTT ngy cng chng t vai tr c bit
quan trng ca n, gp phn m bo thnh cng cho d n. Qun l d n, t ch l
mt ngh thut, c nghin cu, tng kt v pht trin thnh mt mn khoa hc.
y l mt mn hc mang nhiu yu t ca khoa hc x hi, c ng dng trong khoa
hc t nhin.
Gio trnh nhm gip cho nhng ngi qun l d n CNTT:
Nm c nhng cng vic cn chun b trc khi d n hot ng
Trang b nhng phng php lun, bi bn, tiu chun cho vic qun l d n
ni chung v qun l d n CNTT ni ring
Cc hot ng qun l v kim sot trong khi d n hot ng
Cung cp mt s kinh nghim, bi hc thc t ca qun l d n CNTT Vit
Nam
2. V tr ca qun l d n
Nhn theo quan im tng th, qun l d n CNTT va l mt b phn ca cng ngh
phn mm va l b phn ca qun l d n ni chung. Chnh v vy m qun l d n
CNTT s mang c cc yu t k nng cng (phng php k thut trong CNTT) v cc
yu t k nng mm (giao tip con ngi, lnh o, t chc con ngi lm vic). Ni
dung ca qun l d n CNTT c trnh by trong cc ti liu ging dy Cng ngh
phn mm sau nhng ni dung v quy trnh lm phn mm, cc m hnh pht trin phn
mm, phng php pht trin phn mm, phn tch thit k h thng, v.v... Trong gio
trnh ny, qun l d n CNTT c trnh by nh mt mn hc ring, mang mu sc
khoa hc x hi nhiu hn, vi vic b sung nhng kin thc sau:
Khoa hc qun l ni chung
Qun l d n ni chung
Mt s k nng trnh by vn , iu hnh cuc hp, i ph ri ro, ...
3/137
4/137
Chng I. M u
Chng I. M u
5/137
i
Mc tiu cn t
tng
c
Q/l
Qun l
sn xut
trong
mt nh
my
- Ban
Gim
c
(ng
Cn
b,
cng
nhn,
6/137
u l
Gim
c)
nhn
vin
cc ch tiu, con s
c th
Qun l
hc tp
trong
trng
hc
Ban
Gim
hiu
(ng
u l
Hiu
trng)
- Gio
Dy ttHc tt(Quy
vinra cc ch tiu, con
Sinh
s c th)
vin
8/137
9/137
11/137
Chu u
- Lm vic sut i
- nh gi v bt chm - nh gi v bt nhanh
- Cng nhn a nng
- Quyt nh c nhn
- Trch nhim tp th
- Quyn li ton cc
- Quyn li ring
T duy v qun l theo d n pht trin mnh trong thi k ph cp cng ngh thng tin,
khi m mi trng kinh t tr thnh ton cu v mang tnh bin chuyn khng ngng.
12/137
D n l g
Khi nim v d n
D n l mt tp hp cc cng vic, c thc hin bi mt tp th, nhm t c mt
kt qu d kin, trong mt thi gian d kin, vi mt kinh ph d kin.
=> Phi d kin i hnh thc hin (ngun nhn lc)
=> Phi c ngy bt u, ngy kt thc
=> Phi c t nht 1 con s, ni ln kinh ph cho php thc hin cng vic
=> Phi m t c r rng kt qu (output) ca cng vic. Sau khi kt thc cng vic,
phi c c ci g, vi nhng c tnh/c im g, gi tr s dng nh th no, hiu
qu ra lm sao?
=> Phi c 1 khon tin cp cho D n thc hin. Ngi (hoc n v) cp tin gi l
ch u t
=> Phi c mt t chc cht ch theo di v thu thp mi thng tin pht sinh trong qu
trnh thc hin d n gip cho cc cp lnh o v t d n theo di st sao vic thc
hin d n
V d
Cc tnh cht ca d n
Phn bit hot ng d n v cc hot ng nghip v
Hot ng d n
Hot ng nghip v
To ra mt sn phm xc nh
Lin tc
Cc k nng chuyn mn
ha
T chc n nh- C iu
kin o to, nng cp cc
thnh vin trong nhm
D n ch lm 1 ln
B hu nu khng p ng mc tiu, yu cu
Phi m bo lm lu di
Hot ng nghip v
Nu c cho m ci
Nu cm n hng ngy
Xy nh mi (c nhn, c
quan)
Nghin cu mt ti khoa
hc mi
Ch to bom nguyn t, tu v
Sn xut v kh hng lot
tr
Xy dng mt phn mm mi, p dng mt phn mm trong hot ng thng
do c quan t hng
ngy (qun l k ton, nhn s, vt t, sn xut...)
Ch to mt loi xe my mi
Th nghim mt dy chuyn
sn xut theo cng ngh mi
Cc hnh thc kt thc d n
Hon thnh mc tiu ra v nghim thu kt qu (kt thc tt p) ng thi
hn
Ht kinh ph trc thi hn (Kt thc tht bi)
V d: nghin cu ch thuc cha bnh SIDA. Chi tiu ht s tin c cp m vn
khng tm ra li gii
14/137
15/137
Qun l d n l g
Qun l d n l g
16/137
19/137
Ngi qun l d n
Bng phn vai trong d n
Ngi qun l d n (PM-Project Manager): Chu trch nhim chnh v kt
qu ca d n. C vai tr ch cht trong vic xc nh cc mc ch v mc
tiu, xy dng cc k hoch d n, m bo d n c thc hin c hiu lc
v hiu qu
Ngi ti tr d n (PS-Project sponsor). Cp tin cho d n hot ng, ph
duyt d n, quyt nh cho d n i tip hay cho cht gia chng.
T d n (PT - Project team). H tr cho Ngi qun l d n thc hin
thnh cng d n. Bao gm nhng ngi va c k nng v nng lc
Khch hng. (Client): Th hng kt qu d n. Nu yu cu, c ngi h tr
d n. L ngi ch yu nghim thu kt qu d n
Ban lnh o (Senior Mangement): B nhim Ngi qun l d n v T d
n, tham gia vo vic hnh thnh v xy dng d n
Cc nhm h tr (c th c nhiu hay t, tu tng d n): nhm t vn, nhm
k thut, nhm th k, ...
Thc t Vit Nam: thng thng Ngi qun l d n l ngi ph trch ban iu l
hnh (cn gi Ban qun l d n)z
Cc tiu chun cn c
Kin thc k thut
C chuyn mn c bit g phc v d n?
c kinh nghim vi d n tng t no cha?
Hin c tham gia d n no khc khng?
Nu c th khi no kt thc?
C th dnh bao nhiu thi gian cho d n?
Khi lng cng vic chuyn mn hin nay ca ngi ? c th gim bt? d
on thi gian ti? C th tham gia sut qu trnh d n c khng?
C hng hi tham gia nhm d n khng?
C truyn thng lm vic vi hiu qu cao khng?
C ngn np v qun l thi gian tt khng?
C tinh thn trch nhim khng?
C tinh thn hp tc khng?
Th trng ca ngi c ng h khng?
Nhng iu nn trnh
Tuyn chn nhng ngi ging mnh
20/137
Ni v ngi qun l d n
- Trch nhim ca ngi qun l d n
L ngi c nh hng ti mi ngi t ti cc mc ch v mc tiu ca d n. C
nhng trng trch:
Nm vng nhng ni dung bao qut chung v cng vic, cu trc phn vic,
lch biu v ngn sch.
Trao i vi cc anh em
Bao gm cc bo co, biu mu, bn tin, hi hp, v th tc lm vic. tng l trao
i ci m v trung thc.
ng vin, khuy ng tinh thn lm vic
Bao gm khch l, phn vic, mi tham gia v u quyn.
Theo di cng vic
Bao gm theo di, thu thp hin trng v nh gi hin trng
H tr cho mi ngi
Xy dng tp th vng mnh, bng nhiu cch, bao gm:
B nhim ngi ph trch
Phn b trch nhim
Khuyn khch tinh thn ng i
21/137
22/137
c th tr thnh ly lan sang nhng ngi tham d khc, lm cho nng sut c
th b gim.
u tu, gng mu, li cun. Ngi qun l d n cn c kh nng lm cho
mi ngi tham d vo d n v duy tr s tham d cho ti khi t c cc
mc ch v mc tiu. Nu ngi qun l d n khng th ng vin c anh
em th c nhm s khng thc hin tt cng vic
Trung thc. Nu ngi qun l d n khng t v mt ny, th vic qun l d
n s rt kh khn. S tin tng s b suy gim, gy n tng khng tt ca anh
em.
Nht qun. Ngi qun l d n khng th i chch tm nhn, ngoi tr nhng
hon cnh bt kh khng. Ngi qun l d n phi ra cc quyt nh t ti
cc mc ch v mc tiu d n. Tnh nht qun nui dng cho s n nh v
lm cho nhng ngi tham d thch ng vi hon cnh thay i. Vic thiu
nht qun hay dn n s bt ng.
Tm nhn xa trng rng. Ngi qun l d n phi c kh nng thy kt qu
cui cng, cho d n khng r rng trong nim ca nhng ngi khc. H
phi c kh nng hnh dung d n i ti u v bo m mi th xy ra t
ti tm nhn d n.
Phn ng tch cc. Ngi qun l d n khng i cho s vic xy ra ri mi
hnh ng. Phi a ra sng kin gi cho d n tin ln theo k hoch. Phi
chp nhn phc tp v s thay i. (Cha kho l qun l thay i ch khng
phi phn ng th ng).
Qun l trng i hc
24/137
25/137
Khch hng
Th hng kt qu d n. Nu yu cu, c ngi h tr d n. L ngi ch yu nghim
thu kt qu d n
Pht biu yu cu
H tr cho t d n thng tin m bo thnh cng
Xt duyt, nghim thu v k nhn sn phm bn giao
26/137
T chuyn mn
Cung cp thng tin lp k hoch thc hin d n, cc cng vic phi lm,
cc sn phm chuyn giao, v cc c lng
Hon thnh cc cng vic nh c xc nh trong bn k hoch d n
Bo co hin trng cho ngi qun l d n
Xc nh nhng thay i ngay khi xut hin
Mt vi hng dn tr gip
- Nng lc qun l ca trng nhm v s ngi trong mi nhm
Trng nhmS nm kinh nghim
Chuyn mn
T chc Lnh o
72
42
21
+ Chuyn mn: Kinh nghim v cng vic (phn tch, pht trin/lp trnh, bo tr, ...)
+ T chc: Kinh nghim v t chc lm phn mm v phng php lun pht trin
+ Lnh o: Kinh nghim v ph trch
V d:
+ Mt trng nhm, nu cha c kinh nghim v lnh o, khng nn b tr ph trch
nhm nhiu hn 3 ngi
+ Mt nhm gm 7-9 ngi phi do 1 ngi ph trch c t nht 6 nm kinh nghim lm
thc t, trong 4 nm t chc v 3 nm ph trch
- Thnh phn, c cu
Loi D n Mi trng pht trin phn mm % ngi lnh ngh % phn tch vin
C
25-33
25-33
Mi
33-50
25-33
27/137
Mi
33-50
33-50
Mi
Mi
50-67
33-50
M hnh ng xon c
28/137
Va hc va lm
D i thoi vi ngi dng, li cun ngi dng vo vic
D lm r yu cu nghip v
Gim bt c cng vic bo tr sau ny
29/137
Nhc im
Ngi dng c th hiu nhm gia 1 hnh mu v sn phm cui cng
Pht sinh chi ph v thi gian cho vic lm hnh mu
30/137
Ti liu m t d n
Mc ch v mc tiu ca d n
Mc ch: (Goals) l nhng m t d n s t ti ci g. Mc ch ni chung khng o
c.
Mc tiu: (Objectives) l cc tp hp con (c th o c) ca mc ch. Vic t ti
mt mc tiu s ni ln rng vic t ti cc mc ch tng th ca d n i n mc
no.
Quan h gia mc ch v mc tiu
Mc tiu phi l:
Chi tit c th ca mc ch
Ph ho v nht qun cho mc ch
Khi tt c cc mc tiu t c, c ngha l mc ch t c
V d: D n xy cu
Mc ch:
Xy dng mt ci cu hin i qua sng Hng trong phm vi mt khong thi gian cho
php v trong phm vi ngn sch cho php
Cc mc tiu h tr cho mc ch ny:
Cu ch c xe t c ti trng ti a 15 tn
31/137
Ti liu m t d n
L ti liu xc nh ra phm vi ca d n v trch nhim ca nhng ngi tham d.
L c s thng nht kin trong s nhng bn tham gia d n. Khi thng nht v ni
dung ti liu m t d n , khch hng, ngi ti tr d n v ngi qun l d n coi
nh nht tr:
V cc mc ch v mc tiu ca d n.
Ai chu trch nhim lm vic g
Thng thng, khi xy dng ti liu m t d n, ny sinh nhng bt ng kin.
Ti liu m t d n cn xem nh bn cam kt gia ngi qun l d n, ngi ti tr
d n v khch hng. Khi tt c cc bn k k c ngha l ng tun th theo ni
dung ca ti liu m t d n. Thm ch c th t iu kin rng vic khng tun th
sau ny s b pht.
- Ni dung ch yu ca ti liu m t d n
Gii thiu d n
M t ngn gn v d n
Gii thch ca d n v xc nh nhng bn tham gia chnh
C th bao gm mt s thng tin v bi cnh lch s
Mc ch v mc tiu
Phm vi d n
Xc nh ranh gii ca d n
Sn phm kt qu ca d n
33/137
34/137
- Thnh ph chun b xy dng Cng vin tui tr trn din tch 12 ha. Cn gii phng
mt bng ti xm liu Thanh Nhn .......
Mc ch v mc tiu d n:
Mc ch: Di chuyn ton b dn c ti xm liu Thanh Nhn ri i ni khc, gii
phng mt bng.
Mc tiu: - Di chuyn 5000 dn thuc 800 h dn c trong cc cm dn c C1, C2,...
phng PPP, Qun QQQ
- Thi hn di chuyn: phi xong trc ngy 01 thng 6 nm 2001
- Ni nh c mi: Cc Khu Tp th Linh m, Php Vn, Trung Ho,...
Phm vi d n:
Lp k hoch di dn, la chn cc n v, cng ty h tr v phi hp v thc hin di
chuyn. Nhng dn c thuc cc din sau l nm trong phm vi ca d n
- Thuc cc cm C1, C2,...
- C h khu thng tr
- C cc loi giy chng nhn s dng t, s hu nh,
Nhng ngi lin quan chnh trong d n
- Nhng dn c thuc din n b
- Nhng dn c sinh sng trong phm vi gii to nhng khng thuc din n b
- .....
Ti nguyn d n (ngun nhn lc)
- Cng an qun, Cng an phng
- UBND Qun, phng
- Cty xy dng v pht trin nh TP H Ni
- Lc lng thanh nin xung phong tnh nguyn thuc trng H Kinh t Quc dn
35/137
- ......
Cc im mc thi gian quan trng
- Khi ng d n: thng 1 nm 2001
- Xong h s cng vic: thng 3 nm 2001
- Duyt danh sch nhng c nhn v h gia nh trong din gii to: thng 5 nm 2001
- Sp xp vo cc a ch mi - t 1 (30%): thng 7 nm 2001
- Sp xp vo cc a ch mi - t 2 (40%): thng 10 nm 2001
- Sp xp vo cc a ch mi - t 3: (30%): thng 2 nm 2002
- Gii quyt cc trng hp c bit : thng 4 nm 2002
- ....
Kinh ph. 40 t VND, c phn b vo cc thi im sau:
- Sau khi ph dut d n: 5 t
- Thng 5 nm 2001: 15 t
- Thng 11 nm 2001: 15 t
- Thng 3 nm 2002: 5 t
Hiu chnh/iu chnh
Cha c g
Ch k cc bn lin quan
n v ti tr d n
Ngi qun l d n
i din Cng An qun Hai B Trng
i din Cty xy dng v pht trin nh TP H Ni
36/137
37/137
38/137
Lu
- Nhng im cn trnh trong vic xc nh d n
39/137
40/137
41/137
42/137
Cu trc BCV
C chiu hng trn xung. Bt u t sn phm ton b v chia n ra thnh nhng yu
t nh hn.
So snh: Chun b dn bi cho mt bi vn. Mi ch u c chia thnh nhng ch
con, v mi ch con li c chia thm na thnh cc phn nh.
Ch : Quan h gia m t cng vic v m t sn phm
Sn phm: danh t (bao gm: u vo, u ra, ng tc x l)
Cng vic: ng t, m t mt qu trnh hot ng, x l
BCV c th c phn thnh nhiu mc. Khng phi tt c "nhnh" ca BCV u cn
chi tit cng s mc. Mi mc cho php to ra lch biu v bo co tm tt thng tin ti
tng mc .
BCV ch vit "ci g", ch khng vit "nh th no";
Trnh t ca tng cng vic l khng quan trng. (Mc du quen c t tri sang phi).
Xc nh trnh t trong giai on lp lch trnh
43/137
Kt hp c 2 danh sch sn phm v danh sch cng vic, ta c Bng cng vic chi tit
44/137
Cc bc xy dng BCV
Vic xy dng mt BCV tt, phi mt nhiu gi- thm ch hng ngy - lm vic ct lc
v sa cha.
Bc 1. Vit ra sn phm chung nht. Dng danh t hay thut ng m t trc tip 1
cch vn tt (v d: H thng phn mm qun l nhn s, Bnh vin a khoa, Cu mi,
....). Thng tin ly t ti liu "Phc tho d n"
Bc 2. To danh sch sn phm: Phn r sn phm chung nht thnh cc sn phm con
cc mc thp hn. Ni chung, khong 2-3 mc di l .
45/137
46/137
- Tt c cc u c m duy nht.
47/137
48/137
Nhng im cn lu
- Cc cch dn dng khc nhau trn mt BCV
49/137
50/137
51/137
Con ngi: Nhng ngi c mi quan h trc tip, hay gin tip, vi d n.
Tiu chun ca mt BCV tt
Mi nhnh ca BCV c chi tit ti mc thp nht, (qui tc 80 gi)
Mi ca BCV c nh s duy nht.
Mi ca Danh sch sn phm c th hin bng danh t (v tnh t)
Mi ca Danh sch cng vic c th hin bng ng t v b ng.
Mi cng vic trong BCV, u c xc nh y
c phn hi v chp thun t mi ngi lin i n BCV
Lu : Mi ngi chp thun BCV khng c ngha l khng th thay i. Khi d n tin
trin, c th cp nht BCV, vi nhng phn xt tht kht khe.
53/137
MO ML MP EST
V s v khoan tng
3.2
Lp cc ng gen
2.2
i dy
2.2
Lp cc hp ni
0.5
2.8
2.2
0.5
10
2.4
14
32
16
Sau , tng thm "mt t thi gian" cho mi cng vic (thi gian tiu ph gia chng).
Thng thng tng thm 7% - 10%
Tn cng vic
EST %
V s v khoan tng
3.2
10% 3.52
Lp cc ng gen
2.2
10% 2.42
i dy
2.2
10% 2.42
Lp cc hp ni
10% 1.1
54/137
2.8
10% 3.08
10% 2.42
2.4
10% 2.64
16
10% 17.6
u im ca PERT
Buc phi tnh n rt nhiu yu t (nu mun c c MO, MP).
Buc Ngi qun l d n phi trao i vi nhiu ngi (t c s ng
thun)
Gi tr nhn c l gi tr cn bng gia 2 thi cc => c ngha v ng tin
cy
Lm cho vic lp k hoch tr nn chi tit hn. Nu gp mt c lng l qu
ln (vt qu 2 tun hoc 80 gi) => phi phn r cng vic
Nhc im ca PERT
- Mt thi gian (ca 1 ngi v ca c tp th), khi d n c qu nhiu cng vic. (Tuy
nhin: Th mt thi gian ban u cn hn mt thi gian sau ny)
- C th xy ra: tranh lun hng gi v gi tr bi quan nht cho cng vic => c nguy c
lm cho mi ngi chn nn. (Tuy nhin: cn phi xem li nhng ngi t ra chn nn:
trnh chuyn mn, tinh thn vt kh, ...)
- C th dn n nhng tng ton rt vn vt => lm cho Ngi qun l d n ch "thy
cy m khng thy rng". (Tuy nhin: c th dng EXCEL tr gip)
Nng sut ton cc
Gi thit l tng rng mi th u hon ho 100%
Xy dng bng "khim khuyt" i vi cng vic. Khim khuyt l nhng im c th
nh hng xu n tin cng vic. V d:
Khim khuyt
Phn trm
15%
5%
5%
55/137
M t cng vic m h
10%
Tng cng
45%
Cc bc khi lm c lng
1. Khng nh Bng Cng Vic (BCV) l tt
2. Lit k cc cng vic trong BCV, vit trong bng c lng, c dng
S hiu M t cng vic Gi Ngy
1.2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
........
....
....
56/137
Nhng im cn lu
- Nhng tr ngi gp phi khi c lng, khin cho c lng l khng chnh xc
Thiu thng tin, thiu tri thc. V d: mt cng vic chuyn mn do nhng
chuyn gia k thut cao m nhim, lm th no bit c h thc hin
trong bao nhiu ngy?
Khng lng trc c nhng phc tp k thut
Khng lng trc c s ho thun hay bt ha ca nhng thnh vin khi
thc hin d n
Sau khi a ra mt c lng thi gian ri, c lng c th b nhng
kin khc gp : c tnh thu ngn li hoc dn di ra. => ly kin t vn
Sc p ca cp trn: thng mun thu ngn thi gian thc hin cng vic.
Thiu thi gian cn nhc, tnh ton. Thiu thi gian gp g, trao i vi
cc thnh vin d n, vi khch hng.
Hn hp v kinh ph => khng cho php d kin thi gian di d tho ng.
Nhng kh khn trong hp tc khi xy dng c lng thi gian: nhng ngi
khc (khch hng, thnh vin d n) khng cung cp (hoc che du) thng
tin.
57/137
13%
58/137
c ti liu hng dn
16%
13%
15%
Hun luyn
6%
Gi mail, chat
5%
30%
50%
Lm nhng cng vic khc, khng phc v trc tip cho cng vic 20%
S chung
Gii thch s : V d
+ Mc d vic phn tch yu cu l chnh yu trong giai on phn tch yu cu, nhng
nhng cng vic ny vn cn tip din trong cc giai on sau, vi mc t hn
59/137
60/137
Mi
1.4
Mi
1.4
Mi
Mi
61/137
Cng sc v thi gian cn ph thuc vo tay ngh ca nhm pht trin (nhm
lp trnh)
S nm kinh nghim H s nhn
10
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.4
2.6
Mt s phng cch c lng
32
45
17
6050
D n 2 12
59
26
23
8300
D n 3 11
83
32
13300
D n 4 21
62
18
5900
D n 5 10
44
45
17
3300
D n 6 28
44
28
68
38990
D n 7 21
74
10
38600
D n 8 7
66
27
19
12760
D n 9 14
38
47
60
26500
62/137
63/137
Xc nh ri ro
nh ngha ri ro
- Ri ro l mt s kin c th e do v cn tr vic thc hin d n theo tin thi
gian v trong khun kh ngn sch.
- Kim sot ri ro nhm ngn chn v gim thiu nhng tn tht do ri ro gy ra cho d
n
Xc nh v phng nga ri ro
- Xc nh ra nhng s kin khng mong mun c th xy ra (gi l nhng e do)
Ch : C 2 loi ri ro (e do):
Ri ro khng th d on trc (ho hon, c ngi cht t t, khng b, ....),
hoc xc sut xy ra qu thp
Ri ro c th d on trc
=> Ch nn ngh n nhng loi ri ro c th d on c
V d:
Mt n nhn vin ngh sinh con (d on trc c)
Mt trm (khng d on trc c)
Mt nhn vin c c quan b tr cho i hc nc ngoi trong nhiu thng
(on trc c)
Mt k s gii b sang c quan (hoc Cng ty) khc (phi d on trc)
Mt nhn vin no b tai nn giao thng, tai nn lao ng (khng d on
c)
My tnh b virus (phi lng trc)
Gi thu vn phng tng (d on c)
Th trng phi hp quc hi trong nhiu tun, khng ai k t trnh (d on
c)
Thay i b my lnh o, ban lnh o mi c th khng theo di d n t
u, khng to iu kin thun li (d on c???)
Hng ho, thit b v mun hn so vi d kin (d on c)
Tin mt gi (d on trc)
v.v...
Bng lit k mt vi loi ri ro
64/137
1. Ri ro "chnh tr"
- Ni chin, thay i chnh quyn
- Thay i lut php
- Thay i chnh sch
- Thay i ngi lnh o
2. Ri ro "th trng"
- Gi thnh vt t, nguyn liu
- Gi thnh sn phm
3. Ri ro "ti chnh"
- Li sut
- T gi hi oi
- Lm pht
4. Ri ro "cng ngh"
- Thay i cng ngh
5. Ri ro v t chc, nhn s
- Mu thun gia cc c nhn, cc tp th
- Gim ngi v nhiu l do khc nhau
6. v.v...
Bng phn loi nguy him ca ri ro
Tc ng n DAKh
nng Xy ra
Tc ng
mcThp
Tc ng
mcTrung bnh
Tc ng mcCao
70- 90%
Trung bnh
(TB)
Cao
65/137
40-60%
Thp
Cao
10-30%
Thp
Cao
- nh gi (phn tch) ri ro
- Xc nh xc sut xut hin (thp, trung bnh, cao) i vi nhng e da
- M t tc hi n k thut, tin trin cng vic v ti chnh ca d n (c th quy ra
thi gian v tin bc th cng tt)
- Qun l ri ro: L vic xc nh cc bin php, phng sch cn tin hnh ngn cn
e do khi xut hin hay lm gim nh tc ng ca e do nu n xy ra.
Cc phng sch cn lm qun l ri ro:
Nhng ri ro c th xy ra
Xc
nh yu Xc nh yu cu khng r rng
cu
-nt-
ca th trung v ca nhn
vin l khc nhau
Mc
nh
hng
(Cao,
TB,
Thp)
Xc sut xy ra
(kinh nghim
ca Ngi
qun l d n)
Mc nguy
him v
Bin php
d phng
Cao
50%
(KCN)
Cao
10%
(Cao)
66/137
-nt -
Cao
20%
(Cao)
-nt-
C nhng yu cu v l, khng
lm phn mm c (v d: qun
Cao
l qu en, qun l quan h ring
t ca cn b, ...)
40%
(KCN)
20%
(Cao)
Thit k
K s thit k cha c kinh
phn
nghim, phi chnh sa nhiu ln
mm
Cao
-nt-
10%
(TB)
-nt-
- K s thit k chnh sp ci v
Trung
bnh
99%
(Cao)
Lp
trnh
cho
phn
mm
Trung
bnh
50%
(KCN)
-nt -
100%
(TB)
-nt -
50%
(Cao)
Trung
bnh
v.v...
- Lu :
D n cng ln th ri ro cng nhiu.
Vic d bo ri ro ph thuc vo kinh nghim ca ngi Ngi qun l d n
Kim sot ri ro khng nhm loi b ri ro, ch nhm hn ch ti thiu thit hi
ca ri ro.
Khng th loi tr c trit
Khng phi c tp trung ht sc ngn chn v phng ri ro l tt, v c
th phi tr gi t, nu ri ro khng xy ra. Do , cn d bo ri ro chnh xc.
67/137
Mc ch ca lch biu:
68/137
69/137
70/137
71/137
Hnh ti nguyn
- Hnh ti nguyn
72/137
73/137
- Thay i trt t logic gia cc cng vic. (V d: quan h S - S thay bng quan h F S)
74/137
- Chn thi gian tr vo khong thi gian gia hai cng vic, hoc gim thi gian lm
vic trong 1 ngy (t 8 gi xung 6 gi)
Cc hng dn b sung
- Nn lp k hoch s dng nhng ti nguyn khc
a. Thit b
75/137
76/137
Tin cng,
tin lng
Vn
Thit
phng
b
phm
Thit b,
ng/ vt
liu
Hun
Khc Tng
luyn
Tng
- Chi ph khc:
Tin nghi
Thng tin
i li (thu khch sn, cng tc ph, thu xe,...)
v.v.....
77/137
- Chi ph thc t
Pht sinh trong thc t thc hin d n.
Lp bng theo di chi tiu thc t, c cp nht lin tc
Bit c tnh trng chi tiu cho mi cng vic: lm chi (overrun) hoc chi cn
d (underrun)
Bng theo di c dng sau:
S
hiu
cng
vic
M t
cng
vic
( 1)
(2)
c
tnh
Ngn
sch
c
duyt
% hon
thnh
(today)
c
php chi
(today)
Thc Lm
chi
chi/chi
(today) cn d
Tng
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(7)-(6)
(4)+(8)
(4)x(5)
2.1.1
CV A
4,650
4,650
100%
4,650
5,000
350
5,000
2.1.2
CV B
3,950
3,950
75%
2,962
4,000
1,038
4,988
2.1.4
CV C
1,137
1,137
60%
682
1,200
518
1,655
CV F
5,804
5,804
60%
3,482
3,000
-482
5,322
11,776
13,200 1,424
...
2.2.2
Tng
15,541 15,541
16,965
78/137
79/137
Phn mm MS Project
Chc nng:
81/137
82/137
Cc th tc d n
V sao phi p t cc th tc
To ra mt chun mc trao i, lm vic trong nhm mt cch hiu
qu
Tp trung suy ngh, hnh ng ca cc thnh vin trong t theo 1 hng
Tng nng sut cng vic (mi vic quy nh r rng, khng mt thi
gian hi nhau)
Mi th tc u phi tr li cc cu hi: lin quan ti ai, ci g, khi no, u,
th no v ti sao.
Vic xy dng cc th tc
Lu
Ch nn t ra cc th tc cho nhng ni dung chnh, quan trng (tu ngi qun l d
n quyt nh). Nn xy dng cc th tc cho:
83/137
85/137
H s d n
H s qun l d n
H s qun l d n: bao gm tt c cc giy t, ti liu lin quan n qu trnh
hot ng ca d n.
Lu tr nhng g:
Chia thnh cc loi ti liu khc nhau
86/137
Cc biu mu
Ngi qun l d n cn quy nh mt s biu mu cho mt s bo co, ngh, t
trnh, ....
ngha ca cc biu mu
Thng nht cch trnh by v mt vn
D theo di, x l
V d v mt s biu mu
M t cng vic
c lng thi gian cng vic
Bn ghi hin trng cng vic
Kim sot thay i
B nhim nhn vin
D kin chi ph
Vn ny sinh
n mua hng
Theo di s dng lao ng (chm cng)
Bn ghi chi ph s dng ti nguyn thc t
Hnh ti nguyn
v.v...
- Lu :
Bo co
Bo co: l mt loi Biu mu (Form), c thit k cp di bo co ln cp trn.
Form cho bo co c thit k a dng, phong ph (li vn, hnh v, bng biu,...). C
gng sao cho bo co c th to ra trn my tnh.
Mt s v d v bo co c dng trong d n bao gm:
Biu mi tn
S thanh
Biu vic trc
Lch biu vic trc - sau
87/137
Lch biu d n
Tm tt trng thi d n
Chi ph ti nguyn
Vic s dng ti nguyn n ngy
Th vin d n, lu tr
Cc n bn ca ring c quan
Sch
Bo ch, tin tc
H s, ti liu d n
Cc th tc d n
Ti liu k thut
Cc bin bn
- L mt loi ti liu khng th thiu
- L mt dng ghi li nhng thng nht, cam kt
- Theo di v qun l cc cuc hp v cc s kin ca d n
- Lu
Vn phng d n
- Trung tm ch huy v kim sot ca d n. Phn ln cc hot ng v quyt nh qun
l d n chnh u xut hin ti vn phng d n
- Ni cung cp cc ti nguyn d n
- Ni t chc cc cuc hp quan trng
- Ni lm vic chnh thc ca Ban qun l d n
- Lu :
D n cng ln => Vn phng d n cng ln
88/137
89/137
K nng hp v trnh by
Khng nn v nn
- Khng nn
- Nn:
K nng trnh by
Chun b cho trnh by
Lu : Khng chun b tc l chun b cho tht bi
Chn ch
Thnh gi mun nghe
Ch mi m
Mnh nm vng
Phn tch thnh gi
Vng lai, t nguyn hay bt c d
Mc ch nghe ca thnh gi
90/137
M u:
To ra s ch
Khi qut vn
Chng minh tm quan trng
Sp t tm trng v ging iu
Lu : Khng c c hi th hai gy n tng ban u
Thn bi
La chn nhng ni dung quan trng
Sp xp theo mt trnh t logic
n nh thi gian cho tng ni dung
91/137
Ti liu h tr
Lm r
Tng hp dn
Tng n tng
Chng minh
Dng c v phng tin
Ti liu phn pht
My chiu, slide/PowerPoint
92/137
70%
10%
Nhn
72%
20%
65%
V thanh
Ngn t T ni
T vit
Phi
Ging niTing th diKu laCht ging (m
ngn t lng, cao, ...)
iu bDng vHnh
thcNt mt...
Dng iu v c ch
Mt (Mt l mt tin ca ngi nh thn th)
Mt (Mt l ca s tm hn)
Tay
Di chuyn, khong cch vi thnh gi
Trang phc
93/137
Sc mnh ca thng ip
- Lun tn ti
- C gi tr thng tin cao
- Mang tnh quan h
- Chu nh hng ca vn ha
c tnh ca thng ip phi ngn t
***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
S khc bit ca thng ip ngn t v phi ngn t
Ngn t
Phi ngn t
n knh
a knh
Khng lin tc
Lin tc
Khng r rng
Lng nghe
- Khi nim chung
Li ch ca vic lng nghe
Thi lng s dng cc k nng
c: 16%
Ni: 30%
Vit: 9%
Nghe: 45%
- So snh cc hot ng giao tip
Nghe
Ni
Vit
94/137
Phi hc
u tin
Th hai
Th ba
t nht
Tng i t
Cui cng
t nht
- Cc kiu nghe
Nghe thng tin
Nghe c phn tch
Nghe ng cm
- Cc yu t nh hng n hiu qu nghe
Ngi nghe
Nhu cu
Thi , lng tin
Mc ch
S thng minh
Thng ip
Cu trc ca thng ip
Knh truyn thng ip
S mi l, hp dn
Ngn ng, ng php
Ngi ni
S gn gi
S hp dn
S tin tng
Mc ch, ng c
Cch din t
95/137
a v, quyn lc
Mi trng
- Nguyn nhn nghe khng hiu qu
Nghe khng n lc, tp trung
Nghe phc kch
Nghe mt phn
Gi v nghe
Nhiu tm l
Nhiu vt l
Tai c vn
- K nng nghe hiu qu (1)
Nghe xong hy ni
Gc tt c cc vic khc li
Kim sot cm xc bn thn
Phn hi ng h ngi ni
Nhn vo ngi ni
Khng ngt li khi khng cn thit
Khng vi vng tranh ci hay phn xt
Hi hiu r vn
- K nng nghe hiu qu (2)
i din vi ngi ni
Ngi thng
96/137
Giao lu bng mt
- K nng nghe hiu qu (3)
Nhc li ni dung
Din gii ni dung
Tm ra chnh
Khng v on
Ghi chp thng tin chnh
97/137
Xy dng t d n
Bao gm nhiu t (nhm con), lm vic di s qun l ca ngi qun l d n, thng
qua cc t trng.
Lu :
1. Mt t khng nn ng qu (di 10 ngi)
2. Nu trn 10 => tm cch tch thnh 2 t
3. Xc nh r mi quan h "ai bo co ai":
4. Lp ma trn trch nhim
98/137
L th B
Cao vn C
Khng
V vn D
Khng
Phm vn E
Trn th F
...
C
R
99/137
100/137
Cc c im ca d n CNTT
Lch s ca vic lm phn mm
Xu th
Trc y
Ngy nay
Mainframes
Lp trnh tun t
Xy dng cc h thng th
ng
Xy dng cc h thng ch ng
101/137
1 thng
500
Nh
Va
2-5
1-2 nm
5-50K
Ln
di 100
2-3 nm
50-100K
Rt ln
di 500
4-5 nm
1000 K
Cc ln
trn 500
Phn mm nhiu li
Chy khng n nh
Tr hn
Vt qu kinh ph d kin
Kh bo tr
Phn cng ngy cng r => Nhu cu lm phn mm ngy cng tng
102/137
- Xu th tin b
Cc h mm ngy cng ln, c th ln n vi triu dng lnh, v cht lng
ngy cng cao
Nng sut lp trnh (tnh theo dng lnh) tng khong 6% / nm
Nhng ngn ng lp trnh ngy cng mnh
Phong cch lm vic theo Cng ngh phn mm pht huy tc dng
Phng php lun qun l d n pht huy tc dng
o ca d n CNTT
- L nhng g c th nh lng ho, nhm nh gi tin , n nh v cht lng
ca vic pht trin phn mm.
S liu khch quan: s lng gi lm vic ca cc thnh vin trong nhm,
SLOC, s li mc phi
S liu ch quan: ph thuc vo nh gi ch quan, v d: mc kh khn
ca bi ton, r rng ca cc yu cu,...
- Cc thng tin v khch quan v ch quan l b sung cho nhau.
Cc s liu ch quan l c s gii thch cho cc s liu khch quan
Cc s liu khch quan l ch da ngi ph trch xem li xem s nh gi
ca mnh, s hiu ca mnh v bi ton chnh xc cha
Nhng thng tin khch quan phn nh tin hoc tnh trng d n. V d: s
cc module lp trnh xong, s lng cc kim th thc hin. Nhng con
s ny s cho thy tin n u.
Kiu
V d
o
Ngun ly
o
Thi
gian
ly
Mc ch
Khi - Total SLOC (new, modified, reused)lng Total modules/units- Total effort
Ngi qun l
Hng - Xem
thng n nh ca
104/137
s tin trin
d n
- Lp trnh
vin- C th
thng qua
phn mm
chuyn dng
- n
nh ca d
Hng
n- Cn c
tun
lp k
hoch li
- Yu cu h thng (S lng cc yu
cu chung, yu cu cha r)- Cc
Trng
Modules/Units thit k, lp trnh,
thi
kim th- SLOC- S lng cc kim
th
- Ngi qun
l- Lp trnh
vin- Lp
trnh vin
2
tun
- Tin d
n- n
nh ca
cc yu cu
Li/
sa
i
- Lp trnh
vin
Lao
ng
- S gi lm vic- S gi my tnh
- S li- S cc thay i
105/137
Kim sot d n
Cc yu t lm nh hng n nng sut v cht lng phn mm
Nng lc c nhn: Nng khiu, lng yu ngh, tnh sng to, tnh cn c
K nng trao i trong t, nhm
Ni mt cch thuyt phc
Mnh ni ngi khc hiu, ngi khc ni mnh hiu
Ni mt cch thuyt phc
phc tp ca phn mm
Nhiu dng lnh, thut ton phc tp, nhiu module
Ph thuc vo nghip v phc tp hay n gin
Cch tip cn h thng
Thi gian c php
Nu thi gian cng thng qu => phn mm b lm gp s nhiu li
Kh nng hiu thu vn , hiu nghip v, hiu cng c lp trnh
n nh ca cc yu cu
K nng i hi ca nhng cng ngh mi: Cng ngh client/server, cng ngh
Web
Mi trng lm vic, cng c
S o to, hun luyn ca t chc
K nng qun l
Cc ri ro xy ra
Nhng hn ch ca mt lp trnh vin mi
Kh nng din t vn
Hiu nghip v ca nhng lnh vc ng dng
Cha c thc v vic bo hnh, bo tr phn mm
Lm vic trong mt khun kh, bi bn ca qun l d n
Lm vic trong nhm
106/137
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
107/137
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
M t: Xc nh vn (ri ro)
Gi thit: Hon cnh c th lm xut hin ri ro
Xc sut: c lng kh nng xut hin (%)
nh gi nh hng i vi d n
Cch gii quyt (i sch)
[2]
1.
2.
3.
4.
[3]
[4]
M t, thut li s c
Tm quan trng ca s c.
Tn ngi gii quyt s c.
Thi gian vn c hay s c gii quyt.
109/137
110/137
111/137
pht trin v hon thin mt chng trnh (c bit l cc chng trnh ln),
lp trnh vin mt 70% thi gian vo vic xem li v ci tin cc on chng
trnh c, ch 30% thi gian dnh cho vic vit m lnh mi.
Ngoi ra, rt nhiu tnh hung trong thc t i hi ngi ny phi c chng
trnh ca ngi kia ( g li, hoc m rng thm mt s chc nng)
Nhiu khi phi xem li m chng trnh sau hng thng, hoc hng nm.
Thng thng, lp trnh vin lm vic di mt sc p v thi gian, do
khng quan tm n hu qu ca nhng on m lnh sn sinh ra, min l
chng trnh chy c.
Kim th v Chp nhn phn mm
Tn ti liu: Ti liu kim th phn mm
K hoch v kch bn kim th (c vit da trn ti liu v yu cu v c t h thng)
Cc hot ng iu chnh
- Khi vic thc hin d n khng din ra theo k hoch, hoc cht lng sn
phm/cng vic cha t yu cu
iu chnh li lch biu thi gian: cho chnh xc hn
Tm thm nhn vin mi
Ch : thi gian lm quen vi d n, quan h vi cc thnh vin c, kinh ph
pht sinh)
Mua hay thu thit b tt hn, phn mm tt hn
Ch : tng kinh ph, mt thi gian anh em hc s dng
Hp l ho, ci tin phong cch lm vic
H thp yu cu cht lng cng vic (khng nn !!!)
Tp trung cho cc cng vic trn ng gng
Lm thm gi (khng nn ko di qu lu)
Hn ch ngh php (coi chng phn ng ca t vin!!!)
Khen thng/ph bnh
o to, hun luyn, nng cp nhn vin (ch thi gian v chi ph hun
luyn)
Xem li cch thc hp tc , trao i thng tin trong nhm
- Khi chi ph cho d n c nguy c tng ln
H thp yu cu sn phm (Ch : khch hng c th phn i)
Gim nhn vin: nhng ngi khng lm cc cng vic trn ng gng (ch
: nguy c mt ngi gii)
Thu lao ng r mt (nguy c "tin no ca ny!!!)
Dng thit b, vt t r tin
112/137
113/137
M t
thay i
Phn tch
tc ng
Mc
Ngi
u tin khi u
Ngi chu
trch nhim
ng Ngy
?
hiu lc
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[6]
[7]
[5]
[8]
115/137
116/137
117/137
Phi c thm nh hiu nng theo k hoch tip din, nu khng s c nguy c
c lng thp chi ph hay c lng qu li ch ca khon ngoi.
Chn bn th ba v trch nhim ngh nghip
- Trch nhim ngh nghip nn bao gm vic nh gi k tt c thng tin v bn th
ba, v bao gm:
Vn hp ng
- Cp qun l phi m bo rng nhng trng i v ngha v ca tng bn c xc
nh r, c hiu r v thc thi c.
- Tnh mt v tnh an ninh
- Vic tip tc li kinh doanh v k hoch d phng
- Nhn din
- Bo him
- Gii quyt tranh chp
119/137
121/137
122/137
Hp v kim im nh cung cp
Kim im sn phm cng vic ca nh cung cp
Kim sot thay i nh cung cp
Qun l cu hnh phn mm nh cung cp
123/137
124/137
Khi no kim im
K hoch ca nh cung cp
Pha lp k hoch
Pha lp k hoch
Pha xy dng
Pha xy dng
Kt qu kim th
125/137
126/137
Kt thc d n
Nhp
Mt d n phi kt thc, sm hay mun. Cc l do kt thc d n
- hon thnh cc yu cu
- Cha hon thnh cc yu cu, nhng c cc yu t sau:
Thng k li d liu
Thng k li cc s liu "lch s" v chi ph, thi gian thc hin, cht lng cng vic,
cht lng sn phm.
So snh gia k hoch v thc t
Tm nguyn nhn (k c trong trng hp mi s l hon ho)
Rt bi hc kinh nghim
- Gi v mt dn bi
- Gi 1 dn bi
I. Gii thiu chung v d n
A. Mc ch
B. Phm vi
II. Tnh hnh/hin trng trc khi thc hin d n
III. Tm tt ni dung cng vic ca d n
IV. Nhng im t c/thnh cng
127/137
A. Cc thnh cng
B. Tho lun v tng thnh cng
V. Cc vn gp phi trong khi thc hin d n
A. Tho lun v tng vn
B. Cch khc phc vn
VI. C hi cho cng vic tng lai
- Cc ngun ti liu tham kho vit ti liu
- Thi gian tt nht vit ti liu: liu ny: cui d n hoc hay ngay sau khi d n kt
thc. Cng mun cng khng hay.
- Ti liu ny l khng c li khi no?
Ngi qun l d n khng trnh , khng thng tin => vit ra mt ti
liu khng chnh xc.
Mc ch chnh tr ca ti liu: Ti liu khng phn nh s tht, hoc cng
kch ngi khc
Khng ph bin cho ai, hoc khng cho ai c
128/137
- Cc lu khi hp kim im
Mi t vn c lp
Khoanh vng nhng ni dung cn hp bn, trnh i lan man, ci v
Cn khong 3-6 thng chun b cho cuc hp (tu ln ca d n)
Tng kt nhng im mi (sng kin, kinh nghim, ...) trong d n
ng d n
Trong giai on cui ca d n, trc khi kt thc, nn lm mt s vic:
Gim bt ngi, phn cng li cng vic
Xc nhn v cng b nhng c nhn/n v lm tt (ng vin tinh thn,
hoc km theo vt cht - d nhiu/t)
Ly xc nhn t pha khch hng (mt cch ngi qun l d n t bo v
mnh)
129/137
130/137
131/137
Tham gia ng gp
Ti liu: GIO TRNH QUN L D N
Bin tp bi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://voer.edu.vn/c/10d828a4
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Li ni u
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/16ab7fb9
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Chng I. M u
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/dd31f7c8
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Khoa hc qun l ni chung
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/e10760ce
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: S lc v s pht trin cc t tng qun l
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/a0203412
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: D n l g
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/85decb71
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: Qun l d n l g
Cc tc gi: Vien CNTT DHQG Hanoi
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/48a313ef
132/137
133/137
134/137
135/137
URL: http://www.voer.edu.vn/m/f6003014
Giy php: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
136/137
137/137