Digital Electronics by Rajesh

EN 202 Electronics
Welcome
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
My Introduction
Prof. Rajesh Gupta
Dept. of Energy Science and Engineering
Office: Room No. 3. Near to Energy Sci and Engg. Office
Phone: 7837
Email: rajeshgupta@iitb.ac.in
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Your Introduction
Name
Place
Background of electronics and electrical
What you expect from this course
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Objective of course
To give you a basic background of electronics
engineering, which is required for
Troubleshooting, understanding and making of

electrical/electronics circuits/instruments
Understanding of basic terminology of electronics
For laboratory experiments
Minimum electronics knowledge which help in understanding

system in which electronics is one of the component
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Digital Electronics
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
References
A.P. Malvino and D.P. Leach, Digital Principles and

Applications, Tata McGraw Hill Edition
W.H. Gothmann, Digital Electronics An Introduction
to Theory and Pratice, Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited.
A. P. Malvino, J. A. Brown, Electronics : An
Introduction to Microcomputers, Tata Mcgraw Hill.
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Rajesh Gupta
Logic Gates
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NOT Gate OR Inverter
Logic - Opposite of input
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AND Gate
Logic output is 0 if there is any input 0
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OR Gate
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NAND Gate
Universal Gate
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NOR Gate
Universal Gate

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XOR Gate
Logic output is 1 if there are odd number of 1s in input

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Rajesh Gupta
ICs of logic gates
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Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Construct NOT, OR and AND function

by NAND Gate
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Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Construct NOT, OR and AND function

by NOR Gate
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Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Propose an application based on digital
circuit
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Rajesh Gupta
Acceptable input & output voltage

TTL Transistor-Transistor Logic
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Binary number system
Why binary number system is required in digital electronics ?

Only two states are possible
Decimal Odometer
000, 001, 002, 003009, 010, 011..099, 100, 101
Binary Odometer
000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
Bit = X
Nibble= XXXX
Byte = XXXX XXXX
MSB
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LSB
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Weight of digits
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Weigh of digit in decimal system
Weight of digit in binary
Rajesh Gupta
Problems
A number 7 is required to electrically transmit

from one town to another town. What are
possible ways ?
Convert 10101 to decimal
Convert 55 to binary
Successive division
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Rajesh Gupta
Binary addition
Examples
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Rajesh Gupta
Binary subtraction
0-0=0
1-0=1
1-1=0
10-1=1
Examples
407
100 (4)
-328 -001 (1)
------ --------079 011 (3)
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1101 (13)
11001000
-1010 (10) -01001011
-------------- -------------0011 (3)
01111101
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Binary Adder
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Half Adder
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Full Adder
A B C
A
B
CARRY
CARRY
FA
SUM
SUM
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Boolean Arithmetic
- Based on logic gate
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OR and AND operation
Y= A+B
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Y= A.B
Rajesh Gupta
NOT, NAND and NOR
NOT
Y=
NAND
Y = AB
NOR
Y =AB
XOR
Y = ??
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Rajesh Gupta
Basics of boolean algebra
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Boolean rules for simplification
A+AB=A
A AB A B
Truth tables should match

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Contd.
A+BC=(A+B) (A+C)
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Circuit simplification example
Realize with less number of gates
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DeMorgan's Theorems
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Problem
Solve
Ans
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AB
Rajesh Gupta
Problems
AB A AB 0
AB AC A BC(AB C) 1
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Converting truth tables into Boolean

expressions
Sum of product approach
Ans AB+BC+CA
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Contd.
Product-Of-Sums approach
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Logic simplification with Karnaugh maps
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Contd.
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Contd.
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Rajesh Gupta
Larger 4-variable Karnaugh maps
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Contd.
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Contd.
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Contd.
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Sigma Notation
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Pi-Notation
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Don't Care cells in the Karnaugh map
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Problem
f= m (0,1,3,4,5,7,10,13)
f= m (1,2,3,5,6,7,8,12,13)
f= m
(0,2,6,10,11,12,13)+d(3,4,5,14,15)
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Rajesh Gupta
FLIP-FLOP
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Sequential logic
Sequential logic, unlike combinational logic is
not only affected by the present inputs, but
also, by the prior history
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R-S Flip-flop or R-S latch
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Gated S-R latch
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D Flip-flop OR D latch
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D Flip-Flop Response
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Edge-triggered Response
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Edge trigger realization
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Edge triggered RS flip-flop
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J-K flip-flop
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Preset and Clear in flip-flop
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Counters
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Asynchronous counters
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Contd.
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Up and Down counter
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Propagation delay in asynchronous counter
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Synchronous counters
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Contd.
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Application of counter
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Problem
Application of counters ?
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Shift Register
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Application
Shift registers produce a discrete delay of a

digital signal or waveform
Very long shift registers served as digital
memory
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Shift Register Types
Serial-in/serial-out
Serial-in/parallel-out
Parallel-in/serial-out
Parallel-in/parallel-out
Ring counter
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Serial-in/serial-out
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Rajesh Gupta
Parallel-in/serial-out
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Serial-in/parallel-out
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Parallel-in/Parallel-out
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Ring counter
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Serial-in, Serial-out shift register
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Parallel-in serial out
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Serial-in/parallel out
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Problem
Parallel-in parallel-out circuit ?
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Ring counter
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Digital Storage
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Why digital ?
The basic goal of digital memory is to provide a

means to store binary data: sequences of 1's and 0's
The most evident advantage of digital data storage is

the resistance to corruption
Magnetization method of storage
Digital data storage also complements digital

computation technology
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Rajesh Gupta
Random access and sequential access
Random access means that you can quickly and

precisely address a specific data location within the
device, and non-random (sequential) simply means
that you cannot
Examples
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A vinyl record platter is an example of a

random-access device (CDs also)
Cassette tape is sequential
Rajesh Gupta
Writing and Reading
The process of storing a piece of data to a memory

device is called writing
The process of retrieving data is called reading
ROM (read only memory)- Some devices do not allow

for the writing of new data, and are purchased "prewritten.
Example: vinyl records
Read-write memory Memories allow reading and

writing
Example: Cassette audio and video tape
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Rajesh Gupta
Memory with moving parts: "Drives"
Paper tape
Magnetic tape (sequential

access,slow)
Magnetic storage drives
drum type (motor, R/W coil)

Floppy disk (not reliable)
Hard drive
Compact disk (CD)
Binary bits are "burned" into

the aluminum as pits by a highpower laser
Digital Video Disk (DVD)
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Modern nonmechanical memory
A very simple type of electronic memory is

flip-flop
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ROM-Read-only memory
PROMs - Programmable Read-Only

Memory
The simplest type of ROM is that which uses tiny
"fuses" which can be selectively blown or left alone
to represent the two binary states
EPROM - Erasable Programmable ReadOnly Memory
Electrically-erasable (EEPROM)
Ultraviolet-erasable (UV/EPROM)
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Rajesh Gupta
Volatile and non-volatile memory
Volatile memory loose its data when power goes off

(e.g, RAM of computer)
Non Volatile memory retain data even without power
(e.g. ROM, magnetic tapes)
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Rajesh Gupta
Memory Address
The location of this data within the storage device is

typically called the address, in a manner reminiscent
of the postal service.
the address in which certain data is stored can be

called up by means of parallel data lines in a
digital circuit
data is addressed in terms of an actual physical
location on the surface of some type of media
(e.g. tracks and sectors of circular computer disks)
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Rajesh Gupta
Memory Array
For more storage,
many latches
arranged in a form of
array where we can
selectively address
which one is reading
from or writing to.
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Rajesh Gupta
Memory Size
Number of bits
Generally memory size represented in bytes
(1 byte = 8 bits)
Example
1.6 Gigabytes = 12.8 Giga bits
One kilobyte" = 1024 bytes (2 to the power of

10) locations for data bytes (rather than exactly
1000)
"64 kbyte" memory device actually holds 65,536
bytes of data (2 to the 16th power)
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Digital computer
Main components
CPU: central procession unit
Memory
Input output device
Input
Microprocessor OR CPU
Output
Memory
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Microprocessor or CPU
It fatches instruction
from the memory and
performs specified tasks.
It store results in the
memory or sends results
to the output device
Accumulator
ALU
General purpose registers
Timing and Control Unit
It control with memory

and input/output devices
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Rajesh Gupta
Sections of CPU
Arithmetic and logic unit - to perform arithmetic operations

such as addition and subtractions, logical operation (AND,OR,
etc.)
Timing and control unit - control entire operation of a
computer. It acts as a brain. It also control all other devices
connected to CPU
General purpose registers - for temporary storage of data and
intermediate results while computer is making execution of
program
Accumulator It is a register which contain one the operands
and store results of most arithmetic and logical operations
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Rajesh Gupta
Electrical Theorem and

Components
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Rajesh Gupta
Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin's Theorem is a way to

reduce a network to an equivalent
circuit composed of a single voltage
source, series resistance, and series
load
Useful in analyzing power systems and
other circuits where one particular
resistor in the circuit (called the "load"
resistor) is subject to change, and recalculation of the circuit is necessary
with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and
current through it.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Steps to follow for Thevenin's Theorem

1.
Find the Thevenin source voltage

by removing the load resistor from
the original circuit and calculating
voltage across the open
connection points where the load
resistor used to be.
Designate R2 as the "load"
resistor
Determining voltage and current
across R2
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
2.
Find the Thevenin resistance by

removing all power sources in the
original circuit (voltage sources
shorted and current sources open)
and calculating total resistance
between the open connection
points.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
3.
Draw the Thevenin equivalent

circuit, with the Thevenin
voltage source in series with
the Thevenin resistance. The
load resistor re-attaches
between the two open points
of the equivalent circuit.
4.
Analyze voltage and current for

the load resistor following the
rules for series circuits.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Norton's Theorem
Norton's Theorem is a way to

reduce a network to an equivalent
circuit composed of a single current
source, parallel resistance, and
parallel load.
Useful in analyzing power systems and
other circuits where one particular
resistor in the circuit (called the "load"
resistor) is subject to change, and recalculation of the circuit is necessary
with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and
current through it.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Steps to follow for Norton's Theorem

1.
Find the Norton source current by

removing the load resistor from the
original circuit and calculating
current through a short (wire)
jumping across the open connection
points where the load resistor used
to be
Designate R2 as the "load" resistor
Determining voltage and current across
R2
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
2.
Find the Norton resistance by

removing all power sources in the
original circuit (voltage sources
shorted and current sources open)
and calculating total resistance
between the open connection
points.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
3.
Draw the Norton equivalent

circuit, with the Norton current
source in parallel with the
Norton resistance. The load
resistor re-attaches between
the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.
4.
Analyze voltage and current for

the load resistor following the
rules for parallel circuits.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Thevenin-Norton equivalencies
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Rajesh Gupta
Electrical Components
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Rajesh Gupta
Capacitor
The ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an

electric field is called capacitance. It is measured in the unit of
the Farad (F).
Capacitors used to be commonly known by another term:

condenser.
Capacitors react against changes in voltage.
When a capacitor is faced with an increasing voltage, it acts as

a load: drawing current as it absorbs energy.
When a capacitor is faced with a decreasing voltage, it acts as a

source: supplying current as it releases stored energy.
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Rajesh Gupta
Capacitors and calculus
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Contd.
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Contd.
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Factors affecting capacitance
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PLATE AREA
PLATE SPACING
DIELECTRIC
MATERIAL
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Series and parallel capacitors
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Rajesh Gupta
Practical considerations
Working voltage
Polarity
Equivalent circuit
Physical Size
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Inductors
The ability of an inductor to store energy in the form of a

magnetic field is called inductance. It is measured in the unit of
the Henry (H).
Inductors used to be commonly known by another term: choke.
In large power applications, they are sometimes referred to as
reactors.
Inductors react against changes in current by dropping voltage
in the polarity necessary to oppose the change.
When an inductor is faced with an increasing current, it acts as
a load
When an inductor is faced with a decreasing current, it acts as a
source
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Rajesh Gupta
Inductors and calculus
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
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Rajesh Gupta
Factors affecting inductance
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TURNS IN THE COIL

COIL AREA
COIL LENGTH
CORE MATERIAL
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Series and parallel inductors
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Rajesh Gupta
Practical considerations
Rated current
Equivalent circuit
Inductor size
Interference
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Rajesh Gupta
Analog Electronics
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Rajesh Gupta
References
A.P. Malvino, Eletronic Principles, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi
N.N. Bhargava, D.C. Kulshreshtha, S.C. Gupta,
Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi
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Diodes
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n-type semiconductor
+4
+4
Fifth
electron
+4
P
+4
+5
+4
+4
+4
+4
Legends :
Free electron (Negative Charge)
Hole (Positive Charge)
Immobile ion (Positive Charge)
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Rajesh Gupta
p-type semiconductor
Incomplete bond
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
Hole
+4
+3
+4
+4
+3
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
Legends :
Hole (Positive Charge)
Electron (Negative Charge)
Immobile ion (Negative Charge)
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Rajesh Gupta
p-n junction
P - type
N - type
P - type
Electric field
N - type
Depletion region
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p-n junction forward biased

P - type
N - type
Depletion
region
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Rajesh Gupta
p-n junction reverse biased

P - type
N - type
Depletion region
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Introduction
Diode operation
Flow permitted
Current prohibited
Diode is reverse-biased
Hydraulic check valve
Current permitted
Diode is forward-biased
Anode
Cathode
Schematic symbol
Real component appearance
Flow permitted
Stripe marks cathode
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
I D I S (e
ID
IS
e
q
V
N
k
T
qV
NkT
1)
ID
diode current
forward
saturation current
Eulers Constant(2.71828.)
19
Charge of electron(1.6 10 As)

Voltage across the diode
Non-ideality coefficient(typ.between 1 and 2)
Boltzmanns constant (1.38) 1023 )
Junction temperature in kelvin
forward-bias
reverse-bias
0.7
VD
V
reverse
Breakdown!
I D I S (eVD / 0.026 1)
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Rajesh Gupta
Example
0.7 V
+ -
5.3 V
Forward-biased +
6V
-
6.0 V
0.0 V
Reverse-biased 6V
+
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Rajesh Gupta
Summary
A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for

current.
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode
allows current, the diode is said to be forward-biased.
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode
prohibits current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is
called the forward voltage. Forward voltage for a diode varies only
slightly for changes in forward current and temperature, and is fixed
principally by the chemical composition of the P-N junction.
Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts.
The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without
"breaking down" is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.
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Rajesh Gupta
Meter check of a diode
Diode is forward-biased by
ohmmeter shows 0 ohms of
resistance.
Connected one way

across the diode, the
meter should show a
very low resistance.
Anode
Cathode
V
A
COM
Connected the other

way across the diode,
it should show a very
high resistance ("OL"
on some digital meter
models)
Diode is reverse-biased by
ohmmeter shows infinite
resistance.
Cathode
Anode
V
A
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COM
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Find out Application of Diodes
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Rajesh Gupta
Rectifier Circuits
Rectification is the conversion of alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC).
A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only one half-cycle of

the AC voltage waveform to be applied to the load, resulting in
one non-alternating polarity across it. The resulting DC
delivered to the load "pulsates" significantly.
A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts both half-cycles of
the AC voltage waveform to an unbroken series of voltage
pulses of the same polarity. The resulting DC delivered to the
load doesn't "pulsate" as much.
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Rajesh Gupta
Half-wave Rectifier
Half-wave rectifier circuit
Bright
AC Voltage
source
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Dim
A
AC Voltage source
Load
Rajesh Gupta
Full-wave Rectifier
V
A
V
Full-wave rectifier circuit (center-tap design)
A
V
AC Voltage
source
+
Load
-
A
V
~
+
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Rajesh Gupta
Full wave bridge rectifier

V
+
~
-
Full-wave rectifier circuit (bridge design)
+
-
A
V
AC
Voltage
source
~
+
Load
~
+
+
-
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Rajesh Gupta
Diode ratings
In addition to forward voltage drop (Vf) and peak inverse
voltage (PIV), there are many other ratings of diodes
Maximum DC reverse voltage = VR or VDC The maximum

amount of voltage the diode can withstand in reverse-bias mode
on a continual basis. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum reverse current = IR the amount of current

through the diode in reverse-bias operation, with the maximum
rated inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to as
leakage current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a perfect
diode would block all current when reverse-biased. In reality, it
is very small compared to the maximum forward current.
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Maximum (average) forward current = IF(AV) The maximum

average amount of current the diode is able to conduct in forward bias
mode. This is fundamentally a thermal limitation: how much heat
can the PN junction handle, given that dissipation power is equal to
current (I) multiplied by voltage (V or E) and forward voltage is
dependent upon both current and junction temperature. Ideally, this
figure would be infinite.
Maximum (peak or surge) forward current = IFSM or if(surge) The
maximum peak amount of current the diode is able to conduct in
forward bias mode. Again, this rating is limited by the diode
junction's thermal capacity, and is usually much higher than the
average current rating due to thermal inertia (the fact that it takes a
finite amount of time for the diode to reach maximum temperature for
a given current). Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Maximum total dissipation = PD The amount of power (in watts)

allowable for the diode to dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE) of
diode current multiplied by diode voltage drop, and also the dissipation
(P=I2R) of diode current squared multiplied by bulk resistance.
Fundamentally limited by the diode's thermal capacity (ability
to tolerate high temperatures).
Operating junction temperature = TJ The maximum allowable
temperature for the diode's PN junction, usually given in degrees
Celsius (oC). Heat is the "Achilles' heel" of semiconductor devices: they
must be kept cool to function properly and give long service life.
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Contd.
Typical junction capacitance = CJ the typical amount of

capacitance intrinsic to the junction, due to the depletion region acting
as a dielectric separating the anode and cathode connections. This is
usually a very small figure, measured in the range of picofarads (pF).
Reverse recovery time = trr the amount of time it takes for a diode
to "turn off" when the voltage across it alternates from forward-bias to
reverse-bias polarity. Ideally, this figure would be zero
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Rajesh Gupta
Power Supply
Transformer
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
Regulated dc output
AC mains
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Need of Filter
Full-wave rectifier output is not smooth, it has lot of

ripples
In order to minimize these ripples, a filter is required
to smooth the out of full wave rectifier.
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Rajesh Gupta
Shunt Capacitor Filter
Shunt capacitor is simplest

and cheapest type filter
Connect a large value of
capacitor across load
Block DC, allow AC to follow
Rate of discharge depend
on RLC
Large C give less ripples
Upper limit of C depends on
current handling rating of
diodes
EN 202 Electronics
Filter
Power
mains
Full-wave
rectifier
Vm
A
0
R L o
V dc
2
Vm
A
0
Load
E
F
2
V dc
3
Rajesh Gupta
Conduction angle of diode

o
Vm
A
0
V dc
2
Vm
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E
F
2
V dc
3
Rajesh Gupta
Ripple voltage
Q
V
C
Q
V1 1
C
V1 V2
Q1 Q 2
T1 T2 C (T1 T2 )
Vrip
I
fC
V2
Q2
C
V1 V2
V1 V2 Q1 Q2
T
CT
Q1 Q 2
C
V1 V2 I
T
C
Vrip peak-to-peak ripple voltage
dc load current
ripple frequency
C capacitance
Vdc V2 ( peak )
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Vrip
2
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Load current = 10 mA
Capacitance= 470 F
Line frequency = 50 Hz
Find ripple voltage of full wave rectifier and half wave

rectifier
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Rajesh Gupta
Need of Regulator
Output of filter also have some ripples, to make it

more smooth, regulator is required.
Zener diode is one of the simplest type of regulator
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Rajesh Gupta
Zener diodes
0.7 V
7.0 V
50 V
150 V
100 V
Diode Vbreakdown
Zener diode
Anode
100 V
Cathode
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Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
32.4 V
12.6 V
1 K
Presistor (32.4mA)(32.4V )
32.4 mA
Presistor 1.0498W
45 V
12.6 V
Pdiode (32.4mA)(12.6V)
Diode
V zener 12 .6V
Pdiode 408.24mW
32.4 mA
A zener diode with a power rating of 0.5 watt would be adequate,

as would a resistor rated for 1.5 or 2 watts of dissipation.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
32.4 V
Presistor (324 A)(32.4V )
100 K
Presistor 10.498mW
324 A
12.6 V
45 V
Pdiode (324 A)(12.6V )

Pdiode 4.0824mW
324 A
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
44.776 V
32.4 V
1 K
45 V
100 K
32.4 mA
12.6 V
Rload
45 V
447.76 A
0A
224 mV
Rload
500
500
7.2 mA
32.4 mA
447.76 A
25.2 mA
447.76 A
25.2 mA
447.76 A
44.776 V
100 K
447.76 A
447.76 A
224 mV
45 V
500
447.76 A
EN 202 Electronics
Rload
447.76 A
Rajesh Gupta
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed of a metal-to-N junction rather than

a P-N semiconductor junction.
Schottky diodes are characterized by fast switching times (low reverserecovery time), low forward voltage drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4 volts for a
metal-silicon junction), and low junction capacitance. This makes them
well suited for high-frequency applications.
In terms of forward voltage drop (VF), reverse-recovery time (trr), and
junction capacitance (CJ), Schottky diodes are closer to ideal than the
average "rectifying" diode. Unfortunately, though, Schottky diodes
typically have lower forward current (IF) and reverse voltage
(VRRM and VDC) ratings than rectifying diodes and are thus unsuitable
for applications involving substantial amounts of power.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Tunnel diodes
Tunnel diodes exploit a strange

quantum phenomenon called resonant
tunneling to provide interesting forwardbias characteristics having peak
current (IP) Valley current (IV).
Able to transition between peak and
valley current levels very quickly,
"switching" between high and low states
of conduction much faster than even
Schottky diodes.
Tunnel diode
Anode
Forward
current
IP
IV
VP VV
Cathode
Forward voltage
Tunnel diode characteristics are also

relatively unaffected by changes in
temperature.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Light-emitting diodes
Some semiconductor junctions, composed of

special chemical combinations, emit
radiant energy within the spectrum of visible
light as the electrons transition in energy
levels.
Simply put, these junctions glow when
forward biased. A diode intentionally
designed to glow like a lamp is called a lightemitting diode, or LED.
Diodes made from a combination of the
elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus
(called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright
red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured
EN 202 Electronics
Light-emitting diode (LED)
Anode
Cathode
Rajesh Gupta
Varactor Diode
It is operated reverse-biased
so no current flows through it,
but since the width of the
depletion region varies with
the applied bias voltage, the
capacitance of the diode can be
made to vary.
or
Cmax
Symbol
Cmin
Varactors are commonly used in

voltage-controlled oscillators
EN 202 Electronics
Reverse voltage
Rajesh Gupta
Limiter
Limiter removes signal voltage above and
below a specified level
Useful for signal shaping, circuit protection etc.

Use of small signal diode at high frequency.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Positive Limiter
R
VP
0
VP
EN 202 Electronics
RL
VP
Rajesh Gupta
Biased limiter
R
V+0.7
VP
VP
EN 202 Electronics
+
-
RL
VP
Rajesh Gupta
Combination limiter
R
D1
VP
0
VP
EN 202 Electronics
V1
D2
+
-
V2
V1 0.7
RL
V2 0.7
Rajesh Gupta
Circuit protection limiter
Vin
Vout
Vin
Vout
1N914
+5 V
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistors
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Introduction
The invention of the bipolar

transistor in 1948 ushered in a
revolution in electronics.
Bipolar transistors consist of
either a P-N-P or an N-P-N
semiconductor "sandwich"
structure.
The three leads of a bipolar
transistor are called the Emitter,
Base, and Collector.
Difference between PNP and
NPN transistor is the proper
biasing of junctions. Current
directions and voltage polarities
for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite
EN 202 Electronics
Base
Emitter
Collector
P
B
Base
Emitter
Collector
N
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor Mode of Operation

Condition
Emitter junction
Collector junction
Region of
operation
FR
Forward-biased
Reverse-biased
Active
FF
Forward-biased
Forward-biased
Saturation
RR
Reverse-biased
Reverse-biased
Cutoff
RF
Reverse-biased
Forward-biased
Inverted
Biasing an NPN transistor for active operation

N
Base
Collector
C
Emitter
Space
charge
-
V EE S 1
EN 202 Electronics
Space
charge
S2
V CC
Rajesh Gupta
Only emitter junction forward biased

N
IE
Reduced
barrier
B
IB
EE
Larger current flow

~ 99 % of total current carried by electrons (moving from
emitter to base)
Emitter current and base current very large (IE=IB), IC=0
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Only collector junction reverse biased

N
Electron
C
Hole
IC
B
IB
VCC
Very small current flow (minority carrier current temperature

dependent current) called collector leakage current ICBO
ICBO signifies current between collector and base when third
terminal (emitter) is open
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Surprising action of transistor

If emitter junction forward biased and collector
junction reverse biased
Expectation
Both emitter and base current to be large and collector

current very small
Reality
EN 202 Electronics
Emitter current is large as expected, but base current

turns out to be very small and collector current turns out
to be large
Rajesh Gupta
Working of transistor
N
E
P
1
2
3
4
B
5
IE
B
IC
IB
-
V EE
V CC
Ratio of no. of electrons arriving at collector to no. of emitted electrons is

know as base transportation factor (typically ~ 0.99)
No. of electrons (like 3) and holes (like 7) crossing the E-B junction is much
more than the no. of electrons (like 5) and holes (like 8) crossing the C-B
junction. The difference of these two currents is base current.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Collector current is less than emitter current

A part or emitter current consists of holes that do not contribute to
collector current
Not all the electrons injected into the base are successful in
reaching collector.
Ratio of collector current to emitter current is typically 0.99 denoted
by dc
Collector current made up of two parts
Fraction of emitter current which reaches the collector

Reverse leakage current ICO
I C dc I E I CO
Total current equation
I E IC I B
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
An NPN transistor has of dc 0.98 and a collector

leakage current of 1 uA. Calculate the collector and
base current, when emitter current is 1 mA.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor amplifying action

iE
s ~
EB
CB
VEE
Rin 40
VCC
Ro 500 k
I c I e 0 .5 mA
Transfer + resistor = transistor

EN 202 Electronics
RL 5 k
- B -
20 10 3
Ie
0 .5 mA
40
iC
VO I c RL
(0.5 103 ) (5 103 ) 2.5V
VO
VS
2 .5
125
3
20 10
A
Rajesh Gupta
Different configurations of transistor

E
C
B
~
-
RL O
-
RL O
s ~
RL O
~
-
Figure shows three configuration from ac point of view.

In all configurations, emitter-base junction is always forwardbiased and collector base junction is always reverse-biased.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor characteristics
Static characteristic curves to relate current
and voltage in a transistor.
Input characteristic
Output characteristic
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Common-Base Input characteristics

iE
RS
VEE
+ mA
+
R1
iC
C
- E
EB
CB
ri
EN 202 Electronics
mA
V
+
R2
V CC
EB
iE VCB Const .
Rajesh Gupta
Common-Base output characteristics

ro
CB
iC
hfb or
I E Const.
iC
iE VCB Const.
High output resistance can be good current source

Saturation region - collector current not remain same with change in
emitter current
Cut-off region- collector current is not zero even emitter current is zero
due to leakage current ICB0 OR ICO
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Summary of C-B characteristics
Current gain slightly less then unity (~0.98)

Dynamic input resistance very low (~ 20 ohm)
Dynamic output resistance very high (~ 1 M ohm)
Leakage current very low (~ 0.02 uA for Si transistor)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
C-E Configuration
I C dc ( I C I B ) I CBO
IB
VBB
+
-
(1 dc ) I C dc I B I CBO
C
B
IC
N
P
N
V CC
+
-
V CC
VBB -
IE
IC
1
dc
IB
I CBO
1 dc
1 dc
dc
dc
1 dc
I CEO
Mostly work in active region

EN 202 Electronics
I CBO
1 dc
I C dc I B I CEO
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
dc
dc
1 dc
dc dcdc dc
dc dc (1 dc )
dc dc
dc 1
IE IC IB
iE iC iB
iE
i
1 B
iC
iC
1
1
1
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
C-E input characteristics

IC
IB
mA
VBB
R1 V
VCE
VBE
VCC
- A + B
-
R2
ri
BE
i B
EN 202 Electronics
VCE Const.
Rajesh Gupta
C-E output characteristics
Current gain increase with Vce

Small base current produce large change in collector current
Large leakage current ICEO
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Comparison between CB and CE

Parameters
Common base Common

Configuration
emitter
Configuration
1.
Input dynamic resistance Very low (20 )
Low (1 k)
2.
Output dynamic
resistance
Very high (1 M)
High (10 k)
Less than unity (0.98)
High (100)
Very small (5 A for Ge, 1 A

for Si)
Very large (500 A for Ge, 20

A for Si)
3.
4.
Current gain
Leakage current
Leakage current lead to Thermal Runway
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problems
When emitter current of transistor changed by 1mA,

its collector current changed by 0.995 mA. Calculate
CB current gain
CE current gain
The DC current gain of a transistor in CE
configuration is 100. Find DC current gain in CB
configuration.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Why CE configuration widely used

A1
RS
Amplifier
stage 2
Amplifier
stage 1
RL
B1
A3
A2
B2
B3
A good amplifier stage is one which has high input resistance and low
output resistance
Current gain is more in CE configuration
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Common-collector configuration
C
E
S ~
VCC
RL
VBB
RL
Emitter current as a function of base current
I E I B IC
I C dc I E I CBO
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
I E I B dc I E I CBO
(1 dc ) I E I B I CBO
IE
1
1
IB
I CBO
1 dc
1 dc
1
dc 1
1 dc
I E ( dc 1) I B ( dc 1) I CBO
I E ( dc 1) I B
IE
( dc 1)
IB
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
CC characteristics
-
High input resistance (~ 150 k ohm)

Low output resistance (~ 800 ohm)
High current gain (~100)
Low voltage gain (less then unity)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor data sheet

Important parameters
Maximum power dissipation
Maximum allowable voltage
Current gain
Max frequency of operation
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Basic CE amplifier circuit

CC 2
+
CC1
RC
+
RB
V BB
V CC
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
DC load line
-
IC
RC I C RC
RB
VBE
VCE
VCC
VBB
VCC I C RC VCE
1
V
VCE CC
I C
RC
RC
(i )VCE VCC ;
(ii )VCE 0;
IC 0
IC
VCC
RC
y mx c
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Amplification and Q-point

iC
(7.3 4.8)103
(i) Current gain, Ai
125
iB
(60 40) 106
(ii) Votage gain, A
(iii) Power gain,
CE
7.1 4.9
110
BE
20 103
Output ac power I cVce
input ac power
I bVbe
= Ai A 125110 13750
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Selection of Q-point
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Logic Gate Using Transistor
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Current regulator
Transistors function as current

regulators by allowing a small current to
control a larger current. The amount of
current allowed between collector and
emitter is primarily determined by the
amount of current moving between base
and emitter.
In order for a transistor to properly
function as a current regulator, the
controlling (base) current and the
controlled (collector) currents must be
going in the proper directions: meshing
additively at the emitter and going
against the emitter arrow symbol.
EN 202 Electronics
= Small, Controlling Current

= large, Controlled Current
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor as a switch
Transistor's collector current is

proportionally limited by its base
current, it can be used as a sort of
current-controlled switch. A
relatively small flow of electrons
sent through the base of the
transistor has the ability to exert
control over a much larger flow of
electrons through the collector
When a transistor has zero current
through it, it is said to be in a state
of cutoff
When a transistor has maximum
current through it, it is said to be
in a state of saturation.
EN 202 Electronics
Switch
NPN
transistor
PNP
transistor
Switch
Rajesh Gupta
Inverter
V CC
IC
V CC
RC
Closed switch
RC
Open switch
Vout
Vin
RB
V CE
V CC
V CC
V CC
V VBE
I B in
RB
I C dc I B
RC
RC
Vout VCC I C RC
V out
V out
C
E
C
E
0 input = open switch = output 1

1 input = close circuit = output 0
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
NOR Gate
VCC
C
A
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
OR Gate
VCC
C
A
Q1
Q2
Q3
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
AND Gate
VCC
EN 202 Electronics
Q1
Q2
Q3
Rajesh Gupta
NAND Gate
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
XOR Gate
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor Biasing Circuit
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Stabilization of Q-point
Requirement of biasing circuit
Operating point in the centre of active region

Stabilization of collector current against temperature variations
Making operating point independent of transistor parameters
Different biasing techniques used for achieving these points

I CBO
Temperature
continues to
increase
I CEO
IC
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Fixed Bias
VBB
VCC
V CC
RC
VCC
RB
RB
RC
RC
RB
VBB
V VBE
I B BB
RB
VCC I C RC VCE
IC
VCC
RC
I C I B I CEO
I C ( Sat )
EN 202 Electronics
VCC
RC
Rajesh Gupta
Steps for calculating Q-point in fixed bias

1.
2.
3.
Calculate base voltage, in case VBE is known, use

more accurate calculation.
Calculate collector current from base current, make
sure its not greater than Ic(sat)
Calculate collector-emitter voltage
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Calculate the Q-point for the circuit given in figure

V CC 9V
300 k
RB RC
2 k
50
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Calculate
Q-point in circuit. Given RC=1 k ohm and RB=100 k ohm

If transistor is replaced by another unit of beta=150 instead
of 60. Determine its new Q-point.
V CC 10V
RB
RC
60
AC125
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Assignment (1 Mark)
In a given circuit, a supply of 6 V and a
load resistance of 1 k ohm is used.
Find the value of resistance RB so that
a germanium transistor with =20 and
ICBO=2uA draws an IC of 1 mA.
What Ic is drawn if the transistor
parameters change to =25 and ICBO =
10 uA due to rise in temperature ?
EN 202 Electronics
6V
RB
1 k
Rajesh Gupta
Fixed bias features

Advantages
Very simple
very few component
Easy to fix Q point by changing RB
Leads to thermal
runway
I CBO
Limitations
Thermal runway
Strongly dependent Q-point
I CBO
T
I CEO
I CEO
IC
IC
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Collector to base bias circuit

VCC RC ( I C I B ) I B RB VBE
VCC
VCC RC I C ( RC RB ) I B VBE
IB
(VCC I C RC ) VBE
RC RB
RC
V VBE
I B CE
RC RB
RB
I CEO
IB
I CBO
IC
T
(IC I B )
IC
IB
VCE
VBE
IC
VCE
Rising tendency is checked
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
VCC RC I B ( RC RB ) I B VBE
VCC VBE [ RB ( 1) RC ]I B
IB ~ Vcc/(RB+Rc)
VCC ( I B I C ) RC VCE 0
VCE VCC ( I C I B ) RC VCC I C RC
Shift in Q-point due to change in is not much as
it occurs in case of fixed bias
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Features of collector to base bias circuit

Advantages
Check thermal runway
Q-point less dependent on value
Limitations
Base resistance also provide AC feedback, that
reduce voltage gain
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Calculate the minimum and maximum collector
current in the given circuit, if varied with in the
limit indicated.
20 V
RC
2 k
200 k
RB
50<<200
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Bias circuit with emitter resistance

VCC
VCC RB I BVBE I E RE
RB
RC
IC
IB
(VCC I E RE VBE )
RB
IB
(VCC I E RE )
RB
VBE
IE
RE
Rising tendency is
checked
I CBO
IB
ICEO
IC
IC
Rising tendency is
checked
EN 202 Electronics
IE
IC
IC
I E RE
I E RE
IE
IB
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
VCC I B RB VBE ( 1 )I B RE
IB
VCC VBE
VCC
RB ( 1) RE RB RE
VCC
VCC
IC I B
RB RE RE ( RB / )
VCC I C RC VCE I E RE
VCE VCC ( RC RE ) I C
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Features of bias circuit with emitter resistance

Advantages
Provide good stabilization of Q-point

against temperature and variation
Limitations
Emitter resistance provide a feedback

causes reduction in voltage gain.
For getting very good stabilization
RE
R
>> B
For large RE, high DC source is required

For small RB, low DC source is required
EN 202 Electronics
10 v
1 M
RB RC
2 k
100
1 k
RE
+ +
--
CE
Problem: Calculate values

of 3 currents
Rajesh Gupta
Voltage divider biasing circuit

A
R1
VCC
R1
Source
shortage
RTH
IB
RE
VTH
RC
R1 R2
R1 R2
RTH
R2
VCC
R1 R2
R1
R2
R2
V CC
RC
R2
VTH I B RTH VBE RE I E
VBE
IE
B
VTH I B RTH VBE ( 1) I B RE

RE
I B [ RTH ( 1 )RE ] VTH VBE

IB
VTH VBE
VTH
RTH ( 1) RE RTH RE
VCE VCC ( RC RE ) I C
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Find Q point
+12 v
40 k
5 k
60
5 k
EN 202 Electronics
1 k
- -
CE
Rajesh Gupta
Amplifiers
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
DC Behavior
VCC
R1
VCC I C RC VCE I E RE
VCE I C ( RC RE )
Rc
IC
R2
EN 202 Electronics
RE
1
VCC
VCE
( RC RE )
( RC RE )
Rajesh Gupta
Input and Output phase
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
AC Behavior
VCC
+
RC
R1
CC
+
CC
i ~
-
R2
RC RO
RO
RE
i ~ R1
O
R2
+ +
CE
- -
AC equivalent
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor Equivalent Circuit
Input
ib
B
ri
Output
E
ib
ro
E
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
ic
ib
ri
ib
ro
C
-
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
h-Parameter
Manufacture specify characteristics of a transistor in

terms of h (hybrid) parameters
Hybrid is used with these parameters because they
are a mixture of constants having different units
It becomes popular because they can be measure
easily
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transistor as two-port network

i2
i1
1
+
-
1
i1 2 0
i
h21 2
i1 2 0
h12 1
2 i1 0
h11
1 h11i1 h122
i2 h21i1 h222
h22
EN 202 Electronics
2+
-
= Input impedance (with output shorted) = i

= Forward Current ratio (with output shorted) = h f
= Reverse voltage ratio (with input open) =
hr
i2
= Output admittance (with input open) = ho
2 i1 0
Rajesh Gupta
Hybrid equivalent circuit
h fe ib
hre C
hoe
O
-
~
-
ib
ic
hie
hie ri , dynamic input resistance

h fe ,
current amplification factor
1 / hoe ro ,
dynamic output resistance.
EN 202 Electronics
hie 1 k
hre 2.5 104
h fe 50
hoe 25 s (or, 1/ hoe 40 k)

Rajesh Gupta
Amplifier analysis
hie
ib
i ~ R1
ic
hre C ~ h feib
R2
hoe
Rc
RO O
-
EN 202 Electronics
h fe i
E
R ac
O
-
hie
ib
Rac RC || RO
RC RO
RC R O
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Current gain , Ai
Output Current
i
c
Input Current
ib
h fe ib
ib
h fe
Ai
Voltage gain , A
A p Ai A
Z in R1 || R 2 || hie hie
h fe ib Rac
Output Voltage
Input Voltage
ib hie
Z o (1 / hoe ) || Rac Rac
h fe R ac
hie
Rac
180 0
ri
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
15 V
Current Gain 150, Rin=2 k

ohm
Calculate voltage gain and
input impedance
4.7 K
75 K
15 F
15 F
12 K
S ~
-
EN 202 Electronics
7.5 K
1.2 K
100 F
Rajesh Gupta
Multi-stage Amplifiers
s in
A1
n 1
An
n o
o 1 2
n1 o

s s 1
n 2 n1
A1 A2 An1 An
Numbers of bels =
EN 202 Electronics
A2
P2
Log10
P1
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Number of dB = 10 Number of bels = 10 log10
Gain in dB = 20 log10
P2
P1
V2
V1
AdB AdB1 AdB2 ... AdBn
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Why dB
Simple addition of gain
Permits us to denote very small and very large value
Our hearing power in logarithmic
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Coupling of two stages
Minimum loss of signal

Should not affect biasing of other stage
Typical Couplings
RC coupling
Transformer coupling
Direct coupling
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
RC coupling
Widely used
Makes DC biasing
independent
Not good for low
frequency applications
VCC
Rc
R1
R1
Rc
CC
CC
+
+
EN 202 Electronics
R2
+ +
RE
CE
- -
RL
R2 RE
+ +
- -
CE
-
Rajesh Gupta
Transformer coupling
DC isolation provided by
transformer
Bigger in size
Does not amplify signals of
different frequency equally
Suited for power amplifiers
and tuned voltage amplifiers
VCC
R1
R1
O
S
R2
EN 202 Electronics
CS
RE
+
-
CE
R2
CS
++
RE - - CE
Rajesh Gupta
Direct coupling
Required at very low frequency

Affect biasing of other stage (consider this
while designing)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Frequency response of Amplifier
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
At low f
Provide low gain due to high reactance of

coupling capacitors
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
At high f
VCC
R1
Rc
C bc
CC
s ~
-
EN 202 Electronics
R2
Rc
C bc
CC
C ce
Cw1
C ce
Cw2
C be
CC
R1
RE
++
C
- - E
Cw1 C be
R2
RE
+ +
- - CE
Cw2
o
RL
-
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Bandwidth
0 . 707 A m 1 /
EN 202 Electronics
2 A m
Rajesh Gupta
Effect on band width with no. of stages
Bandwidth decreases with increase in no. of

stages
Because greater no. of capacitor in the circuit
Voltage gain
A ( Am )
Upper and lower cut of frequency

1
f 1
(2
f 2
EN 202 Electronics
1/ n
f1
1)
( 21 / n 1) f2
Rajesh Gupta
Two-stage RC-coupled amplifier

VCC
RC 1
R1
CC
RC 2
R1
CC
CC
+
+
R2
RC 1
S
-
RE
R1
EN 202 Electronics
R2
++
- -C E
R1
R2
R2
RE
RL
++
- -C E
O
-
RC 2
RL
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
ib 1
S
B1
C1
B2
C2
ib 2
+
RC 1
h ie
h ie
hie i b 1
h ie i b 2
R ac
R B R1 || R 2
A2
R1 R 2
R1 R 2
h fe R ac 2
EN 202 Electronics
hie
Am A1 A2
hie
Rac 2 RC 2 || R L
A1
h fe R ac 1
RC 2 R L
RC 2 R L
A1 is always less than A2, because

of lower Rac1 due to loading effect
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
V CC 20 V
Calculate
input impedance
output impedance
56 k
voltage gain
5F
both transistor
hfe = 120
+
hie =1.1k ohm
S ~ 5.6
-
EN 202 Electronics
6.8 k
3.3 k
56 k
5F
0.5
k
5.6
+ + k
- 500
F
5F
+
2.2
k
0.5
k
++
- 500
F
O
-
Rajesh Gupta
Distortion in Amplifiers
When wave shape of the output is not an exact replica of
input wave
Caused by
Reactive component and non-linear characteristic of transistor
Frequency distortion
Caused by electrode capacitance and other reactive components
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Phase distortion
Delay introduce by the amplifier is different for various

frequency
Reactive components of the circuit are responsible for this
distortion
Harmonic distortion
Output contain new frequency components that are not

present in the input. New frequency are harmonics of
present in input
Happen due to non-linearity in the dynamic transfer
characteristic curves
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
i
AMPLIFIER
Input
f1 f 2
EN 202 Electronics
Output
f1 f 2
2 f1 2 f 2
3 f1 3 f 2
Rajesh Gupta
Operational-Amplifiers
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Introduction
The operational amplifier is most useful single

device in analog electronic circuitry.
With only few external components, it can perform a
wide variety of analog signal processing tasks.
One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in
the engineering principle of feedback, particularly
negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation
of almost all automatic control processes.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Single-ended
A "shorthand" symbol for an

electronic amplifier is a triangle, the
wide end signifying the input side
and the narrow end signifying the
output.
General amplifier circuit symbol
V SUPPLY
input
output
V SUPPLY
To facilitate true AC output from an

+V
input
amplifier, we use a split or dual
power supply, with two DC voltage Vinput
sources connected in series with
-V
the middle point grounded, giving a
positive voltage to ground (+V) and
a negative voltage to ground (-V).
EN 202 Electronics
output
15 V
Rload
+
15 V
-
Rajesh Gupta
Differential amplifiers
Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential

amplifiers have two inputs and one output, the output signal being
proportional to the difference in signals between the two inputs.
The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the
following equation: Vout = AV(Vnoninv - Vinv)
Differential amplifier
VSUPPLY
input1
input2
() Input1
() Input2
Output
2.5
-3
-2
2.5
-7
10
28
-4
-10
-28
24
-20
output
Voltage output equation =
Vout AV ( Input2 Input1 )

OR
VSUPPLY
EN 202 Electronics
Vout AV ( Input ( ) Input ( ) )

Rajesh Gupta
The "operational" amplifier
High-gain differential amplifiers came to be known as operational

amplifiers, or op-amps, because of their application in analog
computers' mathematical operations.
Op-amp have extremely high voltage gain (AV = 200,000 or more).
Long before computers were built to electronically perform calculations
by employing voltages and currents to represent numerical quantities.
dv
dv
ic C
F m
dt
dt
Where,
ic = Instantaneous current through capacitor
F = Force applied to object
C = Capacitance in farads
m = Mass of object
dv = Rate of change of voltage over time

dt
Where,
dv = Rate of change of velocity over time

dt
Op-amps typically have very high input impedances and fairly low
output impedances.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Op-amp electrical model
NONINVERTING
V1
rOut
rin
V2
INVERTING
EN 202 Electronics
VOut
A(V1 V2 )
Rajesh Gupta
Comparator
VCC
Vin
Vout
Vsat
+
Vout
Vin
Vsat
VEE
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Moving trip point

V CC
VCC
Vin
V in
V Out
VOut
ref
VCC
VEE
R1
R2
VCC
R1 R2
VEE
V EE R 1
CBY
R2
R2
V out
Vout
V sat
Vsat
V ref
Vsat
EN 202 Electronics
C BY
V ref
Vin
V in
V sat
Rajesh Gupta
Schmitt Trigger
Comparator contain noise, output may be

erratic when input voltage is near to trip point
Noise causes output to jump back and forth between

low and high states
Noise triggering can be avoided by schmitt trigger
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
VCC
Vin
R2
R1 R2
Vout
Vsat
VOut
ref BVsat
VEE
R1
R2
BVsat
BVsat
V in
V sat
ref BVsat
UTP BVsat , and LTP BVsat

Difference between UTP and LTP is called hysteresis,
required to prevent false triggering due to noise
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Moving trip point of schmitt trigger

VCC
V in
V in
Vsat
Vout
VCC
R1
R2
cen
R2 R3
VEE
R3
Vout
Vout
R1
R2
VCC
R2 R3
EN 202 Electronics
LTP
R2
VCC
R2 R3
R2 || R3
R1 R2 || R3
V in
UTP
V sat
UTP cen BVsat

LTP cen BVsat
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Find UTP and LTP

Given
Vcc= 12 V, Vee=-12V, R2=R3=2 k ohm,
R1= 100 k ohm
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Sine to square waveform

UTP
VCC
LTP
V sat
0
+
V sat
Vout
VEE
R1
Vsat
R2
LTP
UTP
V in
V sat
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Relaxation oscillator
TOWARD V sat
UTP
R
CAPACITOR
VCC
LTP
V sat
VOut
OUTPUT
V sat
VEE
R2
R1
T 2 RC 1n
EN 202 Electronics
1 B
1 B
T period of output signal

R feedback resistance
C capacitance
B feedback fraction,
Rajesh Gupta
Counter based A/D convertor

Start
Clock
Gate and
control
Counter
N lines
Level amplifiers
Comp.
Analog
input
voltage
Ref.
voltage
N lines
Binary ladder
N lines
Digital output
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
OP-AMP ICs
Most popular 741

Typical 8-pin DIP op-amp
Integrated circuit
No Connection +V
8
7
Output
6
Offset null
5
+V
8
Dual op-amp in 8-pin DIP

7
+
-
+
-
1
Offset
null
EN 202 Electronics
4
-V
4
-V
Rajesh Gupta
Comparator
To compare two voltages
Op-amps are used as signal comparators, operating in full

cutoff or saturation mode depending on which input
(inverting or non-inverting) has the greatest voltage.
+V
LED
Vin
-V
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Pulse width modulation by comparator

One comparator application is pulse-width modulator, and is made by
comparing a sine-wave AC signal against a DC reference voltage. As the DC
reference voltage is adjusted, the square-wave output of the comparator
changes its duty cycle (positive versus negative times). Thus, the DC reference
voltage controls, or modulates the pulse width of the output voltage.
+V
Vin ~
+V
Vout
Vin
EN 202 Electronics
Vout
-V
-V
Vin Vout
Vin
Vout
Rajesh Gupta
Analog to digital convertor

+V
Simple bargraph driver circuit
LED 4
+
-
LED 3
LED 2
+
LED1
+
Vin
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Analog to digital convertor

Analog input voltage
C7
7V / 8
Input voltage
C6
C5
5V / 8
V/2
9318
A2
22
A1
21
A0
Digital
outputs
C2
C3 C4 C5
C6
C7
21
20
Low 0
V/ 8 toV/ 4
High Low Low Low Low Low
Low
V/ 4 to 3V/ 8
High High Low Low Low Low
Low 0
3V/ 8 toV/ 2
High High High Low Low Low
Low
V/ 2 to 5V/ 8
High High High High Low Low
Low 1
5V/ 8 to 3V/ 4
High High High High High Low
Low 1
3V/ 4 to 7V/ 8
High High High High High High
Low 1
7V/ 8 toV
High High High High High High
High 1
V/4
C1
C2
Low Low Low Low Low Low
C3
3V / 8
C1
0 toV/ 8
3V / 4
C4
Binary output
Comparator for level
V /8
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Negative feedback
Connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called negative
feedback.
When the output of an op-amp is directly connected to its inverting (-) input, a
voltage follower will be created. Whatever signal voltage is impressed upon the
noninverting (+) input will be seen on the output.
An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage to whatever
level necessary so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is practically
zero. The higher the op-amp differential gain, the closer that differential voltage will
be to zero.
The effects of negative feedback
29.99985V
Vin
EN 202 Electronics
V out
+
5.999970000149999V
6V
Rajesh Gupta
Divided feedback
Non-inverting Amplifier
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the
noninverting (+) input is called a noninverting amplifier. The output
voltage will be the same polarity as the input. Voltage gain is given by
the following equation: AV = (R2/R1) + 1
R1
R2
1K
1K
- V
out
+
Vout
Vin
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Inverting Amplifier
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going
to the "bottom" of the resistive voltage divider, with the
noninverting (+) input grounded, is called an inverting amplifier.
Its output voltage will be the opposite polarity of the input.
Voltage gain is given by the following equation: AV = R2/R1
R1
R2
0V
1K
Vin
1K
Vout
0V
+
All voltage figures shown in reference to ground
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Average circuit
Passive averager Circuit
R1
R2
R3
V1
V2
Vout
V1 V 2 V3
R
R 2 R3
1
1
1
1
R1 R2 R3
With equal value resistors:
V3
Vout V1 V2 V 3
3
R1
R2
R3
V out
V1
EN 202 Electronics
V2
V3
V1
V
V
2 3
R1
R2
R3
1
1
1
R1
R2
R3
Rajesh Gupta
Summer circuit
A summer circuit is one that sums, or adds, multiple analog voltage
signals together. There are two basic varieties of op-amp summer
circuits: noninverting and inverting.
Summer circuits are quite useful in analog computer design.
1 k
V1
V2
V3
2 k
-
V1
Vout V2
V3
I1
0V
I2
R
I1 I 2 I 3
Vout
I3
0V
Vout 3
V1 V2 V3
3
Vout V1 V2 V3
EN 202 Electronics
Vout (V1 V2 V3 )
Rajesh Gupta
Differentiator circuits
Differentiator produces a voltage output proportional to the
input voltage's rate of change.
Applications: analog computation, process control
Differentiator
Changing
DC
Voltage
Vin
0V
0V
Vout RC
dv
iC
dt
EN 202 Electronics
0V
Vout
dvin
dt
Rajesh Gupta
Integrator circuits
integrator produces a voltage output proportional to the
product (multiplication) of the input voltage and time
Applications: analog computation, process control
Integrator
R
0V
dv out
V
in
dt
RC
Vin
OR
0V
0V
Vout
+
Vout
Vin
dt c
RC
Where,
C=Output voltage at start time (t=0)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Voltage-to-current signal conversion
Voltage signals are relatively easy to produce directly from transducer

devices, whereas accurate current signals are not.
DC current signals are often used in preference to DC voltage signals
as analog representations of physical quantities. Current in a series
circuit is absolutely equal at all points in that circuit regardless of
wiring resistance, whereas voltage in a parallel-connected circuit may
vary from end to end because of wire resistance.
4 to 20 mA
250
Rload
+
Vin
4 to 20 mA
1 to 5 volt signal range
Current independent of load resistance

EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Slew rate
Maximum rate of output voltage change

dv
iC
dt
dvout
I
max
dt
Cc
EN 202 Electronics
dv
i
dt
C
dvout
60 A
2 V / s
dt
30 pF
Rajesh Gupta
Slew rate distortion

Slope
+10 V
SR
+10 V
0
-10 V
-10 V
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Directly coupled amplifier

Gain bandwidth product constant
OPEN-LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN
Frequency response of Op-amp

f OL
100,000
70,700
10,000
1000
100
10
f unity
1
1
10 100 1 10 100 1
HZ
kH Z
MH Z
FREQUENCY
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Op-amp Models and circuits

+V
Q2
Q1
Input(+)
Output
Q3
Q5
Q4
(-)Input
Q6
A simple operational
amplifier made from
discrete components
-V
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
555 Timer
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
555 Timer
Versatile IC, have so many application

VCC
THRESHOLD
CONTROL
8
5K
7 DISCHARGE
5K
+
TRIGGER
3
OUTPUT
5K
RESET
GROUND
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Monostable Operation
8
V CC
VCC
5k
+
-
5k
TRIGGER
+
5k
1
VOut
555
3
V out
0.01 F
TRIGGER
TRIGGER
V CC
3
2
V
3
CC
THRESHOLD
V
EN 202 Electronics
VCC
W = 1.1RC
CC
OUTPUT
Rajesh Gupta
Astable Operation
8
VCC
V CC
RA
RA
RB
6
5k
+
-
RB
5k
+
5k
1
3V
out
5
2
2
V CC
3
f
O VO
D
T
0.01 F
1
V CC
3
VOut
555
EN 202 Electronics
W
100%
T
1.44
( R A 2 RB )C
R A RB
100%
R A 2 RB
Rajesh Gupta
Voltage control Oscillator

VCC
RA
4
RB
VOut
555
5
2
R
+
Vcon
-
Vcon
1
Vcon
2
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Active Filter
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Active filters
Frequency selective switch that passes a specified
band of frequency and blocks/attenuates signals of
frequency outside
Analog or digital
Passive or active
Audio (AF) or radio frequency (RF)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Analog Active-RC (audio) filter
Active filter advantage
Gain frequency adjustment

No loading problem
Cost
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Commonly used filters
Low pass filter

High pass filter
Band pass filter
Band reject filter
Gain,
Vo
Vin
Gain,
Vo
Vin
Ideal response
Ideal response
1
Pass
band
Stop band
Stop band
Frequency
fL
fH
Gain,
o
in
Gain,
o
in
Ideal response
Ideal response
1
Stop
0.707 band
Passband
fL
EN 202 Electronics
Stop
band
fC
fH
Pass band
1
0.707
Frequenc
y
Stop
band
Passband
fL
fC
Passband
fH
Rajesh Gupta
Classification of active filter
Butterworth
Chebyshev
Flat passband and flat stopband

Ripple passband and flat stopband
Cauer
Ripple passband and ripple stopband
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
First order low pass butterworth filter

R1
RF
V2
10K
10K
V1
VCC
V1
R
+
Vin
20-k pot at
15.9 k
+
C
0.01 F
1
j 2fC
Vin
1 j 2fRC
+15 V
741/351
jX C
1
in
R jX C
EN 202 Electronics
1 and jX C
VO
VEE
RL
-15 V
10K
R
Vo 1 F V1
R1
R
Vin
Vo 1 F
R1 1 j 2fRC
o
AF
in 1 j( f / f H )
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
RF
passband gain of the filter
R1
f frequency of the input signal
1
fH
high cutoff frequency of the filter
2 RC
AF 1
o
AF
in
1 ( f / f H )2
1. At very low frequencies, that is, f f H ,
Voltage gain
o
AF
in
20 dB (= 20 log 10)
2. At 3 dB ( 20 log 0.707)
o
A
F 0.707 AF
in
2
3. At f f H ,
-20 dB/decade
AF
0.707 A F
o
AF
in
Passband
Stop band
fH
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Design a low pass filter at a cut off

frequency of 1 kHz with a pass band
gain of 2
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Second order low pass butterworth filter

20-k pot at
15.8 k
R1
Voltage gain
o
AF
in
1 ( f / f H )4
RF
27 K
VCC
-
R2
33 K
Vin
741/351
R3
33 K
C3
C2
0.0047 F
-40 dB/decade
AF
+15 V
VO
0.707AF
fH
RL
VEE
1
R2 R3C2C3
fH
Frequency
10K
-15 V
0.0047 F
AF 1
RF
R1
f frequency of the input signal (Hz)

fH
Gain for butterworth response = 1.586

EN 202 Electronics
1
high cutoff frequency (Hz)
R2 R3C2C3
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Design a second order low pass filter at

high cutoff frequency of 1 kHz.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
First order high-pass butterworth filter

RF
R1
Voltage gain
10 K
10 K
VCC
+15 V
20 dB/decade
741/351
0.01 F
+
C
Vin
20-k pot at
15.9 k
VO
-15 V
RL
VEE
10 K
AF
0.707A F
Stop band
fL
RF
R1
AF 1
j( f / f L )
o
AF
in
1 j( f / f L )
EN 202 Electronics
Passband
fL
1
low cutoff frequency
2 RC
o
AF ( f / f L )
2
in
1 ( f / fL )
(Hz)
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Design a high-pass filter at cutoff
frequency of 1 kHz with a pass-band
gain of 2
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Second order high-pass butterworth filter

20-k pot at
15.8 k
R1
Voltage gain
RF
27 K
VCC
0.0047 F
Vin
+15 V
741/351
0.0047 F
VO
C3
C2
R2
33 K
40 dB
R3
33 K
-15 V
RL
VEE
10K
o
AF
in
1 ) f L / f ) 4
AF
0.707A F
Stop band
Passband
fL
Frequency
Where AF 1.586 Passband gain for the second order Butterworth

f L low cutoff frequency (HZ)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Higher order filter: Third order low pass

First-order lowpass section
Second-order
low-pass section
R1
RF
27 k
27 k
VCC
VCC
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
+
~
-
C
0.01 F
EN 202 Electronics
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
A1
15V
15V
VEE
R
C
0.01 F
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
A2
C
0.01 F
15V
VO
15V
VEE
RL
10k
Rajesh Gupta
Fourth order low pass

SECOND-ORDER LOW-PASS SECTION
SECOND-ORDER LOW-PASS SECTION
R' F
R'1
R1
18 k
RF
22 k
VCC
2.2 k
15 k
VCC
15 V
20-k pot at
15.9 k
R
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
+ 0.01 F
15 V
VEE
VO
A2
R
A1
15 V
20-k pot at
15.9 k
0.01 F
20-k pot at
15.9 k
15 V
VEE
C
RL
10 k
0.01 F
0.01 F
Size increase
accuracy decrease
gain fixed limitation
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Gain,
o
in
AF
Third order (-60 dB/decade roll-off)
0.707A F
Fourth order (-80 dB/decade roll-off)
fH
EN 202 Electronics
Frequency
Rajesh Gupta
Band pass filter
Two types (based on Q factor)
Wide band pass (Q<10)

Narrow band pass (Q>10)
Q
fC
fC
BW
fH fL
fC
EN 202 Electronics
fH fL
Rajesh Gupta
Wide band-pass filter

First-order Highpass section
First-order lowpass section

RF
R1
10 k
10 k
10 k
10 k
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
A1
+
Vin ~
-
15 V
0.05 F
15 V
VEE
R
R
0.01 F
-20 dB/decade
VO
15 V
VEE
RL
10k
20-k pot at
15.9 k
f L 200 H Z
+20 dB/decade
0.707A FT
15 V
A2
Vo
Vin
A FT
VCC
VCC
Gain,
R' F
R'1
Stop
band
Passband
fL
fH
Stop
band
Frequency
f H 2 kH Z
o
AFT ( f / f L )
in
[1 ( f / f L ) 2 ][1 ( f / f H ) 2 ]
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Design a wide band-pass
filter with fL= 200 Hz and
fH = 1 KHz, and a pass
band gain of 4. calculate
value of Q for the filter.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Band reject filter
Two types (based on Q factor)
Wide band reject (Q<10)

Narrow band reject (Q>10) (notch filter)
Q
fC
fC
BW
fH fL
fC
EN 202 Electronics
fH fL
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
R1
RF
10 k
10 k
VCC
A1
0.01 F
10 k
VEE
R
20-k pot at
15.9 k
20-k pot
at 15.9 k
Gain,
R4
o
in
Reject
band
Passband
10 k
10 k
15 V
VO
A3
VEE
R OM
A2
15 V
3.3 k
Passband
AF 2
1.414
VCC
R3
VCC
R
0.05 F
R2
15 V
+
Vin
15 V
15 V
RL
10 k
fH
fC
fL
200 H Z
f C f H f L 447.2 H Z
1k
Frequency
V EE
15 V
R'1 10 k
R' F 10 k
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Wide band reject filter requirement
Low cut of frequency of high pass filter must

be larger than high cutoff frequency of low
pass filter
Pass band gain of both high pass and low
pass must be equal
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Design a wide band reject filter with fL=
1 kHz and fH = 200 Hz
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Introduction
Developed in 1960s
Operation depend on majority carrier (unipolar transistor)
Category
Advantages
Junction FET (JFET)

Insulated gate FET (IGFET)
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFET)
High input impendence (~100 M ohm typical), where BJT typical value 2 k ohm
Easier to fabricate (suited for ICs)
Provide greater thermal stability compared to BJT
Less noisy than BJT and thus more suitable for input stage of low level amp.
Relatively immune to radiation, but BJT is very sensitive
Disadvantage
Small Gain-bandwidth of device compared to BJT

Greater susceptibility to damage in handling
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
JFET
S
N- type
Source
Drain
D
G
P N P
G
S
S
N- Channel, JFET
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
JFET biasing
-
VDS
Back-biased
depletion region
+
P
ID
ID
P
P
D
ID
ID
ID
P
VGS
Current through
n-channel
VDD
ID
+
+
ID
V DD
V GS 0V
Constant current
through n-channel
VGG
Pinch off of n-channel

Slope due to resistance
of n-channel
0
EN 202 Electronics
VD
Rajesh Gupta
Drain source characteristics

VDD
ID
I D (mA )
I D (mA )
VGS 0 V
I DSS
VDD
I DSS
I D I DSS
-1 V
VDS
VGS 0 V
EN 202 Electronics
VGS -1 V
VDS (volts)
VDS (volts)
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Transfer characteristics
I D (mA)
I DSS
Curve represents
V
I D I DSS (1 GS ) 2
VP
Vp
V
I D I DSS 1 GS
VP
VGS 0 V
I D I DSS
I D 0 , V GS V P
0 VGS
(Volts)
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Determine the drain current of an n-channel JFET

having pinch off voltage Vp = -4 V and drain-source
saturation current IDSS =12 mA at the following gatesource voltages
VGS = 0 V, -1.2 V and -2 V
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Plotting JFET Characteristics

I DSS
VGS 0V
I D 0 mA
+
VDD
-
EN 202 Electronics
D
+
VGG
+
VGS
VDD
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
I D [ 10 mA(1
VGS
(V)
VGS 2
) ]
5V
V
I D I DSS 1 GS
VP
I D (mA)
(mA)
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
10
10
6.4
3.6
1.6
0.4
0
I DSS
8
6
4
2
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
VGS (Volts)
VGS
ID
I DSS
0.3VP
I DSS
2
0.5VP
I DSS
4
VP
VP
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
JFET Parameters
Drain source saturation current (IDSS) current at which the channel

pinch off when gate-source shorted (VGS=0)
Pinch-off voltage VP=VGS(off) gate source voltage at which drain source
channel cut off or pinched off resulting no drain current
Dynamic drain resistance (rd): ratio of small change in drain voltage to
the small change in drain current, keeping gate voltage constant
rd
DS
iD VGS const
Mutual conductance or transconductance (gm): ratio of small change in

drain current to the small change in gate voltage, keeping the drain
voltage constant
gm
EN 202 Electronics
iD
GS
VDS const.
Rajesh Gupta
JFET Fixed Biasing

VGS VG VS VGG 0 VGG
VDD
RD
VO
C
RG
V
+ GG
EN 202 Electronics
VGS
ID
VGS
I D I DSS 1
VP
VDS
VD VDD I D RD
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Find drain current

and drain source
voltage
+12 V
ID
1.2 k
D
VDS
I DSS 12mA
VP 4V
1 M
1.5 V
+
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Graphical approach
VD VDD I D RD
ID 0
VD VDD
0 V VDD I D RD
VD 0 V
EN 202 Electronics
VDD
ID
RD
Rajesh Gupta
JFET with self bias
With single supply voltage supply

VDD
ID
RD
VS I D RS
IG 0
VG I G RG 0 V
VD
VG 0V
VDS
VGS VG VS 0 V I D RS
RG
VS
VGS
VGS I D RS
ID
EN 202 Electronics
RS
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
For I D 0 : VGS (O) RS 0 V
For VGS VP : I D
EN 202 Electronics
VP
RS
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Determine the value of VGS and ID

VDD (24 V)
6.2 k
I DSS 10 mA
VP 4 V
1 M
EN 202 Electronics
1.5 k
Rajesh Gupta
Ans
VGS (V)
I D (mA)
10
[0.3VP ] -1.2
I DSS
2
[0.5VP ] -2.0
[VP ]
-4.0
2.5
I DSS
4
I D (mA)
VGS (V)
VP

RS
2.67
-4
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Voltage divider bias

VDD
RG1
RD
RG 2
VDD
RG1 RG 2
Vo
VGS VG VS VG I D RS
Vi
RG2
EN 202 Electronics
VG
RS
Rajesh Gupta
Problem
Determine the bias current in the circuit

+16V
2.4 K
2.1 M
Vo
VP 4V
I DSS 8 mA
Vi
0.1F
270k
EN 202 Electronics
1.5 k
20F
Rajesh Gupta
Ans
VGS (V)
I D (mA)
[0.3VP ] -1.2
VG
I DSS
2
I DSS
4
[0.5VP ]
-2
[VP ]
-4
270 k
(16V) 1.82 V
2.1 M 270 k
VGS 1.82 V I D (1.5 k)
ID=0, VGS = -1.82V

For VGS 0 :
ID
VGS
1.82 V
1.21 mA
RS
1.5 k
EN 202 Electronics
I D (mA)
0
1.21
VGS (V)
1.82
0
Rajesh Gupta
Oscillators
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Sinusoidal oscillator
Oscillator is an amplifier which have positive
feedback to supply own inputs voltage
Requirement
Need a positive feedback (with a resonant circuit)
Loop gain should be unity
x y
+
AB V in
-
Vout = A vin
V in
V out
Vf = AB vin
B
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
A
Vout
AB<1
AB>1
AB=1
Initially, AB greater than one, as voltage build up, AB automatically decrease to 1

Starting Voltage : Noise
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Wien bridge oscillator
For low to moderate frequencies (5Hz to 1 M

Hz)
Uses a feedback circuit called lead leg
network
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Lead-lag network
R
Vin
Vout
Vout
R || ( jX C )
Vin
R jX C R || ( jX C )
1
9 ( X C /R R / X C ) 2
XC / R R / XC
arctan
3
1
R
2frC
90 o
0o
90 o
f
fr
when X C R
fr
EN 202 Electronics
1
2RC
Rajesh Gupta
Practical circuit
Initially tungsten lamp has

low resistance
As oscillation build up
resistance increases and
gain reaches to 3, then
oscillation stabilize which
stablize tungsten lamp
resistance
VCC
POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
+
Vout
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
V EE
R1
2 R
1
1 3
R2
R
EN 202 Electronics
2 R
TUNGSTEN
LAMP
ACL
RL
Rajesh Gupta
Bridge
R
2 R
V CC
Verror
- -
RL
R
EN 202 Electronics
V EE
Rajesh Gupta
Regulated Power Supplies
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Introduction
Requirements
Output voltage constant despite relatively large

changes in line voltage and load current
Temperature stability
Variable level of voltages
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Voltage feedback regulation
Use Zener diode as reference

Keep the voltage constant
Series regulator
even input voltage and load
current change due to
R
feedback mechanism
V+
Vin
R3
Q2
Q1
+
-
Vout
BE
R2
R1 R2
Vin
VF VZ VBE
VZ
R1
+
-
VF
BVout VZ VBE
Vout
VZ VBE
B
EN 202 Electronics
RL
R2
VZ zener voltage
VBE base - emitter vo ltage of Q1
Vout regulated output vol tage
Rajesh Gupta
Power dissipation in pass transistor

PD VCE I C
VCE collector emitter voltage, Vin Vout

I C load current plus divider current
When load current is heavy pass transistor has to

dissipate lot of power
Sometime cooling is required
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Current limiting
R4
Q2
Series regulator has no

short circuit protection
If accidently short the load
terminals, we get an
enormous load current
that will destroy the pass
transistor or a diode
R3
Q3
RS
R1
V in
V out
V BE I SL R4
I SL
VBE
R4
RL
Q1
R2
where I SL short circuit load current

VBE base emitter voltage, 0.6 to 0.7 V
R4 current - sensing resistance
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Power supply characteristics
Load regulation
Source regulation
Output Impedance
Ripple Rejection
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Fixed Regulator in market
Vin
LM340-5
3
EN 202 Electronics
Vout Vin
C1
LM340-5
Vout
C2
Rajesh Gupta
Modulation
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Introduction
Possible way to transmit speech and music
Convert speech or music into electrical signal and transmit

with a help of antenna.
Receiver antenna can pick these signals and fed them to a
loudspeaker to reproduce speech or music
Problem
Energy of audio signal is low and can not be efficiently

radiated. It will die out after covering even a small distance
If different transmitting station make transmission
simultaneously, receiver antenna will pick all the singnal and
it will lead to confusion
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Contd.
Solution
Audio signal superimposed on the high frequency

carrier wave and then transmit. This process is
called modulation.
The audio signal is called modulating wave and
the signal obtained on superimposing it on carrier
waves is called modulated wave, which is of
high frequency
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Modulation types
Signal
Carrier
Amplitude modulated
Frequency modulated
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Simple Amplitude Modulation

VX
Vout
UPPER ENVELOPE
LOWER ENVELOPE
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Example of amplitude modulated RF stage

V CC
R1
RC
COUT
Cin
RL
fx
VX
~
R2
RE
Vy ~
EN 202 Electronics
CE
fy
Rajesh Gupta
Percent modulation
Sinusoidal modulating stage produce sinusoidal
variation in voltage gain expressed by
A A0 (1 m sin y t )
A instantaneous voltage gain
A0 quiescent voltage gain

m modulation coeffiecient
Voltage gain varies between
A0 (1 m) and A0 (1 m)
Amin 100(1 0.5) 50

if A0 100 and m 0.5
Amax 100(1 0.5) 150
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Modulation percent
Percent modulation m 100%
V
2Vmax
Vmax
16
2Vmin
Vmin
EN 202 Electronics
2Vmax 2Vmin
2Vmax 2Vmin
8
2
16 4
0 .6
16 4
Rajesh Gupta
AM spectra
out A x
out AVx sin x t
out A0 (1 m sin y t )(Vx sin xt )
out A0Vx sin xt mA0Vx sin y t sin xt

mA0Vx sin y t sin xt
mA0Vx
mA V
COS (x y )t 0 x COS (x y )t
2
2
Vout
UNMODULATED CARRIER
A0 V x (1 m )
A0 V x (1 m )
A0Vx
t
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
out A0Vx sin x t mA0Vx sin y t sin xt
mA0Vx sin y t sin x t
mA0Vx
mA V
cos (x - y )t- 0 x cos(x y )t
2
2
SUM COMPONENT
DIFFERENCE COMPONENT
mA0Vx
2
EN 202 Electronics
mA0Vx
2
Rajesh Gupta
Spectral components
Vout
Vin
Vy
A0 V x
Vx
mA0 V x
2
fy
f
( fx fy ) fx ( fx fy )
fx
AM SIGNAL
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
Demodulation
Envelop detector
Peak detector by diode
Vin
Vin
Vout
RC time constant
function of m
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta
THE END
Wish you all the best
EN 202 Electronics
Rajesh Gupta

Digital Electronics by Rajesh

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Digital Electronics by Rajesh

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EN 202 Electronics

Background of electronics and electrical

What you expect from this course

Troubleshooting, understanding and making of

Understanding of basic terminology of electronics

For laboratory experiments

Minimum electronics knowledge which help in understanding

A.P. Malvino and D.P. Leach, Digital Principles and

NOT Gate OR Inverter

Logic - Opposite of input

Logic output is 0 if there is any input 0

Logic output is 1 if there is any input 1

Logic output is 1 if there is any input 0

Logic output is 0 if there is any input 1

Logic output is 1 if there are odd number of 1s in input

ICs of logic gates

Construct NOT, OR and AND function

Construct NOT, OR and AND function

Acceptable input & output voltage

Binary number system

Why binary number system is required in digital electronics ?

Weigh of digit in decimal system

Weight of digit in binary

A number 7 is required to electrically transmit

OR and AND operation

NOT, NAND and NOR

Basics of boolean algebra

Boolean rules for simplification

Truth tables should match

Circuit simplification example

Realize with less number of gates

Converting truth tables into Boolean

Logic simplification with Karnaugh maps

Larger 4-variable Karnaugh maps

Don't Care cells in the Karnaugh map

R-S Flip-flop or R-S latch

Gated S-R latch

Edge trigger realization

Edge triggered RS flip-flop

Preset and Clear in flip-flop

Up and Down counter

Propagation delay in asynchronous counter

Shift registers produce a discrete delay of a

Shift Register Types

Serial-in, Serial-out shift register

Parallel-in serial out

Parallel-in parallel-out circuit ?

The basic goal of digital memory is to provide a

The most evident advantage of digital data storage is

Magnetization method of storage

Digital data storage also complements digital

Random access and sequential access

Random access means that you can quickly and

A vinyl record platter is an example of a

Writing and Reading

The process of storing a piece of data to a memory

ROM (read only memory)- Some devices do not allow

Example: vinyl records

Read-write memory Memories allow reading and

Example: Cassette audio and video tape

Memory with moving parts: "Drives"

Magnetic tape (sequential

Magnetic storage drives