You are on page 1of 11

THE NATURE OF MATERIALS AND

SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS 31


The Effect of Energy on the Atom. Metallic
Structure. Solidification. Grain Size. SOLID
STATE CHANGES IN METALS: Work Hardening. Plastic Deformation. Cold Work. RECRYSTALLIZATION: Recovery. Recrystallization. Grain Growth. AGE HARDENING.
ALLOTROPIC CHANGES. HEAT TREAT.
MENT OF STEEL: Approximate Equilibrium
Heat-Treatment Processes. Austenitization.
Annealing. Normalizing. Spheroidizing. Hardening of Steel. Tempering. CORROSION: Di
rect Chemical Action. Electrolytic (Electro-

MENT: Cupola. Crucible Furnaces. Pot Furnaces. Reverberatory Furnaces. Electric Arc
Furnaces. Induction Furnaces. FOUNDRY
MECHANIZATION.
95
THE WELDING PROCESS
BONDS: Nature of Bonding. Fusion Bonding.
Pressure Bonding. Flow Bonding. CoId Bonding. WELDING METALLURGY: Composition Efects. Effects on Grain Size and Structure. Effects of Welding on Properties. DISTORTIONS AND STRESSES.
10

WELDING PROCESSES AND DESIGN 105


HEAT FOR WELDING: Chemical Reactions.
The Electric Arc. Welding Equipment and Procedures. Arc Welding Electrodes. Modification
of Arc Welding for Special Purposes. Automatic Welding. Electric Resistance Heating.
SPECIAL WELDING PROCESSES: Electron-Beam Welding. Plasma Arc. Ultrasonic
Welding. Friction Welding. Electroslag
Welding. Explosion Welding. Diffusion Welding. WELDING DESIGN: Joints. Design Considerations. Weldability. WELD DEFECTS:
Fusion Welding. Dimensional Defects. Structural Discontinuities. Weld Metal and Base
Metal Properties. Basic Symbols for NDT.

11

r27
PLASTIC FLOW
EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION: Work Hardening and Recrystallization. Effects of Flow
Rate. Direction Effects. Temperature and Loading Systems Effects. Grain Size. RELATIVE
EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING:
Mechanical Properties. Finish and Accuracy.

chemical) Reaction. Corrosion Rate Dependent


on Several Factors. Types of Corrosion. Corrosion Frotection.

FERROUSMETALS

45

Choosing Metals and Alloys. Ferrous Raw Ma-

terials. CAST IRONS. STEEL: Wrought lron.


Steel Making. Plain Carbon Steel. Alloy Steels.
Low Alloy Structural Steels. Low Alloy AISI
Steels. Stainless Steels. Tool and Die Steels.
Cast Steels. MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEMS.
NONFERROUS METALS AND
PLASTICS
57
ALUMINUM ALLOYS: General Properties.
Wrought Aluminum Alloys. Property Changes.
Cast Aluminum Alloys. COPPER ALLOYS:
General Properties. Brasses and Bronzes.
NICKEL ALLOYS. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS.
ZINC ALLOYS. SPECIAL GROUPS OF
NONFERROUS ALLOYS: Heat- and Corrosion-Resistant Alloys. Other Nonferrous
Metals. NON-METALS: Plastics. Plastic Materials. Types of Plastics. Characteristics of
Plastics.

Process Requirements.

I2

THE NATURE OF MANUFACTURING 73


MODERN MANUFACTURING: Markets. Design. Processing. States of Matter. Shape-

The Process. SOLIDIFICATION

I27

T\rbe and Pipe Making. Extrusion. FORGING


AND ALLIED OPERATIONS: NDT of Forgings. Open Die Forging. Closed Die Forging.
Forging with Progressive Application of Pressure. Powder Metallurry. Pressing. Sintering.
Sizing and Postsintering Treatments. Application for Powdered Metal Products.

79

OF
METALS: Solidification. Shrinkage. POURING AND FEEDING CASTINGS: Casting
Design. Pouring. The Gating System. Risers.
Chills. FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY. SAND
MOLDING: Green Sand. Patterns. Flasks.
Sand Compaction. Cores. Green Sand Advantages and Limitations. Dry Sand Molds. Floor
and Pit Molds. Shell Molds. METAL MOLD
AND SPECIAL PROCESSES: Permanent
Mold Casting. Die Casting. Investment Casting. Plaster Mold Casting. Centrifugal Castings. Continuous Casting. MELTING EQUIP-

METALLURGY

MILLWORK: Hot Rolling. Cold Finishing.

Changing Processes. Summary.

THE CASTING PROCESS

MILLWORK, FORGING, AND POWDER

13

PRESSWORKING OF SHEET METAL L4I


Shearing. Bending. Drawing. New Developments in Sheet Metal Forming.

14

MACHININGFUNDAMENTALS

r47
The Machining Process. Chip Formation. Cutting Tool Materials. Abrasives. MACHINE
TOOLS: Machinabilitv. Finish. NUMERICAL
CONTROL.

66I

xapul

'uorlBJrJrtads acuJJns'?uaruernsBal^tr qsl


-urd ateJrns 'r{sTuI,iI ecsJrns 'so33c paxrd 'sJo?
-Br"dtuoC pue saEu5 Surlucrpul 'sloo; alqulsnt
-pV raqlo 'redqeg ratoruorcrry :JNgIAIdInbg

'luaurarnsuatr tr roJ srsug


'uoIlBIJuA luowaJnsPotr tr Jo saJJnos 'saJu?
-ralol'socuoraJou lBuorsuaturo :JNgINguns
-vgw do sgTdlcNlud 'suuqc Iortuoc
ssacord 'uorlaadsul ;o flrluun$ 'uorlcedsul ;o
uorlezruuEro :SgUnCgCOUd NOIJCgdSNI

NOIJCgdSNI

NOI.LCgdSNI

88r

LT

's8urleog aplxo 1urruraqC 'sEur1uo3 aleqd


-soq4 's8ur?eoC o?BurollC 'Sup1pouv :SNOIS

-UgANOC TVCIWSH3'Euqeldorlcalg'8ur
-fsld dIO 1og 'Eurzglulery unncen'Eurzqp1a141
'sloruuug snoorll1 'uorlucgddy 3ur1uo3 crueE
-.rg's.ranbceT'slaumug pue'saqsrurun's1uru4
'sEur1eo3 ro; uorlerudard :SCNIfy63 'Eugsr
-1odor1ce1g'Eugyng'Eu1qsqo4'Surqsnrg e.rr7y1
:CNIHSINI.q TgEUVg SAISVU gy'3ur1se1g
'sqleg ;oden pue pmbrl 'poq?antr Euruee13
Jo acroqC :CNINVST3 '8uruepre11 atuqg '8ur
-zrrnqrBc

ILI

:sTgg,ts do cNINgcIuvH gsvc


CNIHSINId gCVdUNS 9I

'Eurrrreg uorlcrJJ'Eur11n3
:SgSSgCOUd
qJJOI
NOITVUVdgS SSOUC
'3urur.ro;o.r1ca1g :SgSSgCOUd NOIIISOd
-go 'spoqlaw l?^oulau I"rralBW olqrssod raqlo
'8urur-qcetr41

Iecrruaqrorlcelg'Euru5qcetr41 aE.ruqc

-sIC lBrrr?ralg :sgssgcoud TVAOI If,U


Tv,tgw 'sornlxlw 'sa?Burru"T :sg,tlsodl loc

'CNIONOg SAISSHOV'suor?Braprsuog u8rs


-aq'Sururro;1so4'EuploIN crlsld pacroJurag
'uorsrulxg 'Eur1su3 'Eurp1o141 erq paso13 'Eur
-plo6 uorssarduroC :CNISSgCOUd CIJSVTd
L9l
SgSSgCOUd SNOSNV'ITSCSIW 9I

6L6r

orootr I

uoo'H

'1eFaleru lxal aql Eull;pa uI pIB rot{ roJ'INSV


'sacl ros leuorlecnpg Jo roluulproo3 'uoqag SuBICI

o1

puB '?xol

aql tnoq8noql paraltuas sul-all ;q11i aq1 yo

d1

-Fofuru eql Eurdlddns roJ puu IBIralBIu aql EulzruuE


-ro puu Eurlceles uI aJuulslsse alqenle^ur Jloql JoJ

'JNSV'uollBcnpg Jo rolcarl(I'oEpaq4'1 aE;oep


puB'JNSV'ro1cerlq lucluqeaJ,'uosrepuy'J Faqou 01
'IBrralBru lxa? oql Jo oruos

roy eprnE B sB polres qcFlrr fdoc puu pasn suoll


-erlsnllr aql Jo fueur Eurprrro.rd JoJ sa{ols 'rl.uoura1 ol

'g/,6I

I 'q

f.rre11 Aq sassac
',{eqqly 'U p1euoq puu arootr
-ord puD sIDuapW :Euun4cotnuory Jo suorl.rod
e8rel asn 01 uolssrtuJad EurnrE ro; pelerodrotul plJC o?
:pesserdxa dqe.req sr uollurca.rddy
'uor?Bnlulo slr pue 1se1 fue yo ,(1pge,r eq1 Eut
-urruJolop uI prB u3 sI punoJ aru rteql qclqar uI sI"IJolB(u
aq? puu sleoJop Jo etrnos otll Jo aEpalmou4 :suoIlBlIIrII
s1r;o uollruEotar sI .LCN Jo esn ,(.ro1ce;srlus roJ spaau

Iur?uosse aql Jo auo 'suoll"aqdde oruos uI polutlpur


osIB aru spoqlau aql Jo suollEtTturl oql Jo a(uos 'uollBro
-prsuoJ ropun sleoJap Jo spuDl aql roJ alqBlrns aq 1qE1ur
lBq1 spoqlour JoN ur"lrac Io apBur sI uolluoul {ooq
eq1 lnoqEnorql'qEnoql'pcrlee.rd roloreqlysacrnos
pezqercads eroru Joqlo uror; aEpaynouq dressecau aql
arrnbcu ro lcafqns 1eq1 Eurp.ruEal paluroJul fpuequ aq
1xe1 srql Sursn suosrad leqt popuolq sI tI 'eEe.re,roc eq1

w papnlcu lou ore.LON Jo sanbpqcel eql 'ralarrroH


'IBlrol"ru aql Jo Eurpuuls.repun dolenep puu lsaralq u"
uruE lq8rru uollecnpa FurroJ Io lunorua luat8 e lnoqtl/'a
leuuos.red ;ON luql rapro uI n'o1 1der1 ueeq dluuotl
-ualq s"q luaruluorl yo qldep oq;, 'pasn slerralutu oql Jo
lsoru puu frlsnpul Eurrnlcu;nueru Jo sasuqd IIB apnlJul
ol q8noua porq lnq anle^ I"cruqcal ulBlor lltts ol alqls
-sod se lerauaE su 1dar1 uaoq s"q IBIJotBur lxal aq; 'sarnl
-cruls puu slcnpold ;o Euqsal alrlanr?sapuou Eurle
-nlela ro 'Eutsn'EuyrErsap ur paAIoAuI lauuos.rad {q asn
.ro; EugrnlceJnu"u Euyu.reauoa uollururoJur pleua8 ;o
ecJnos pue oJualaJar u su pelduroc uaaq seq {ooq sIqJ

ocBloJd

roaEporaou{"^oJf];JX:o:Ji:l"iT",];':dHfii::3

peorq B m 'qeru/r lueuaEpnl pooE q1r,u .raq1e8o1 acue


-1.redxa puno.rSlaeq pue ,1y4s ,aEpelmouq
Jo ?unowe

1ea;3 e a.rrnba.r o1 d1ar1p sr uorlcru?sap lnoqlyn d1


-tta4p pelso? oq louuer qc1l^r ouo puu flqunb alqe?sa?
s uoarrr?eq uorlulor oqt Jo e8ayrrou4 alurncce eprno.rd o1
stsfpuy'IInTIJJIO puy,tllsog eg.tulq uo4elerroC
'(sarlredord ro) {1rado.rd perns
-Bow aql pue ,(1lado.rd pa.rrsap aql uaa/{loq paqsllqB?
-sa aq lsnu uorlula.rJoc aIq"IIaJ ,ogel Ktaaa ur ,JaAa,noH
,saser ouros
'IInJIJJIp pue xaldwoc aq feur sraq?o uI
?nq
.poJlsap
u; aldurrs .r(re^rr eq deur 1sa1 oqJ
sr eEpayrrou4
qtllru lnoqB lPq? ol palBIoJ eq uBe qcH.,!r JrlsrrolcBruqt
.ro fl.redord aruos uo lsal olrlcrulsapuou e urro;red o1
r(.ressaaau sauocoq ?r aJoJoJaqJ .olr?rn.rlsap aq plnollr
'dltcar;p polsat JI 'qclqa lcnpord ro lerroluru u Jo crlsr
-ra?cpruqJ ro dlredo.rd e arou{ o1 luelrodurr dlluenbe.r;
sI ?I 'lceJrpuJ s.tu,n1y oJV s1se; earlrnr+sepuoN
'ururSo.rd ;CN B;o ped paJoprsuoe {luurou
lou aJe 'ssaJord 3ur.rn1au;nuuru B ur pe.rrnbar qEnoqllu
,ssaualalduroo JoJ uor?Bur
'sJaqlo puu'slsol

leuorlcunJ

-ruBxa IBnsrA's?uorualnsBaru
lBuorsuaurp sB qcns salnp
-ecord uorlcedsur due141 .slcnpo.rd puu slerra?Bru osoql

ol rursq lnoqlr/rr slcnpord pus s1eua?uru Burlsal ;o;


spoqlaur pcrsdqd Jo asn aq? ueoru o1 pa1a.rd.ra1ur fluru
-rou sr Euqsel alrlJrulsopuoN .spJo^t aldurrs rne; e fq
alqaurJop ?ou sr;,g111 'se.rnpeco.rd xelduroc lsoru a{rT

NOITINI.{ffO TON
'snorlsBsrp ro z(11soc aq plnoJ arnIIBJ
arnluurerd osorl.at surelsr(s Jo aeuuua?ureur pue ,soJrl
-Jas ur slcnpold ;o dlrnqurle.r,sessacord Eurrnlce;nueur
'slerreluru SurreaurEua;o z(1qenb Jo loJluoc JoJ lool IBI?
-uasse pue le?uauepunJ e sr Eurlsal olrlonJlsapuoN

CNITSST SAI.LCNUISSCNON

6uUnlcelnuEru

ol IoN lo uoltelou

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Decisions to accept or reject following a test result


must be based on a thorough knowledge of materials
and the properties, processes and their effect on properties, test techniques, design requirements, product

applications, service conditions, and suitable life expectancy. Clearly this much knowledge is seldom located in a single individual, and group decisions or consultations may be necessary.

NDT correlation may require the cooperation

be-

tween test supervisors, designers, metallurgists, manufacturing personnel, customer personnel, and test
personnel.

REQUTREMENTS FOR NDT SUPERVISORY


PERSONNEL
From the above it can be seen that supervisory personnel in charge of nondestructive testing operations
must have adequate background knowledge for resolution of complex problems in establishing tests and in'
terpreting results.
Background Knowledge. It is important that a
NDT supervisor be well versed in all the available
NDT methods, their applications and limitations. In
addition, the reliability of the methods and their correlation with desired material and product characteristics are very important.
Knowledge of the product design, purpose, and function together with process details may enhance appli'
cation of test methods by supplying information regarding the importance of the test interpretations and
possible sources of discontinuities, faults, and/or defects that could cause product failure.
Familiarity with all policies, local, industry-wide,
governmental, or safety and environmental agencies
may affect the inspection methods chosen. Although
these policies may be seemihgly unimportant at times,
they can have very strong implications and influences.
Ability To Communicate Is Always Important. The
ability to communicate in both written and oral manner
cannot be overemphasized in consideration of successful job accomplishment, particularly in supervisory
positions.
It is necessary for a NDT supervisor to direct, instruct, and manage the personnel of that group.
It is essential that cooperation be maintained with
other manufacturing or working personnel with whom
the projects are associated.
There is need for concise accurate reports to higher
rranagement. These reports, by the way, particularly
when written, are the principal evidence by which reputation and advancement are developed.
In addition, NDT supervisory personnel are often
called upon to interface with customer personnel in
solving proble'nq and interpreting tst results.

QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF


NDT LEVEL III TESTING PERSONNEL
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, in
its Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA entitled
"Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing" indicated the responsibilities and
capabilities of Level III nondestructive test personnel
in the following words:*

"An NDT Level III individual should be capable of


establishing techniques and procedures; interpreting
codes, standards, specifications, and procedures; and
designating the particular test methods, techniques,
and procedures to be used. The NDT Level III should
be responsible for the NDT operations for which quali
fied and to which assigned, and should be capable of interpreting and evaluating results in terms of existing
codes, standards, and specifications. The NDT Level
III should have sufficient practical background in applicable materials, fabrication, and product technology
to establish techniques and to assist in establishing acceptance criteria where none are otherwise available.

The NDT Level III should have general familiarity


with other appropriate NDT methods, and should be
qualified to train and examine NDT Level I and Level
II personnel for certification."

SOURCES OF TECHNICAL INFORMATION


AVAILABLE TO NDT PERSONNEL
Regardless of the sources of technical knowledge by
which NDT personnel obtain their positions, perpetual
updating and extension of that knowledge is essential.

Continual Improvement of Entire Knowledge Base


Needed. Additional knowledge of NDT techniques, par'
ticularly new developments, is very important. Accompanying this, however, should be broadening of knowledge, as well as keeping up with new developments, in
the field where the NDT techniques are applied.
Greater familarity with engineering materials, manufacturing processes, changing designs and service re'
quirements, management policies, government re'
quirements, environmental impacts, personal safety
and other areas can be vital to successful application of
NDT.
Many Sources of NDT Information Available. Personal ambition and expenditure of time permit informa'
tion to be gained in a variety of ways.
Activity (not simply attendance)in suitable technical
societies can be a good source of new methods and applications of both testing and manufacturing techniques.
*The statement of NDT Level III requirements is taken from the
June 1980 Edition of ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A,
as illustrative of general requirements. Note that future changes
may occur in SNT-TC-IA, and the current document should be referred to in a.ll cases.

asaqJ
Jo lmodql8uarls oqt uro{ pauEFop-ra o /(I
"r,al
-luoJoqu!
orB doq? lBql sluaruarlnbar rllEua.Ils naol qans
oABr{ Jo osn ur alr?BJocap fle.rnd aJB slcnpoJd euog

sflunllv.{ lvlufl.I-^I

'pornpul arB sarnlreJ Jo slcoJop qcqm Eul

..rnp 'sessecold .ra1e1 o1 slerraleru


Jo esuodse.r aql loJtuoc
sessaco.rd.rorrd eseq? ,sosec euos u1 .Eurssecord Jo uon

-cnpold pr.raluu;o seEuls ro sruroJ

ztl.rea u1

e11

s?coJop Jo

sosnuc or{? 'ualJo 's1.red uorlanpo.rd ruo.r; slcoJop osaqt


a?Burruqe ol JapJo ur r(resseaau {11uenba.r; sI slcaJop
Jo
osnBr ro oeJnos eq1 Eulu1urlelaq .suolte.redo {lquressu

puu 'EurrnlruJnueru ,Eursseao.rd Euprnp ztlurcadse ,qerr


-a?Bru Jo scrlsrJolre.reqa asuodsal poJrsapun Eurlur,relp
roJ spoqlau elqlssod;o lueureEeueur osr^pu ol parude.rd
aq p1norls osp l(eq; .3u11se1 alr?arulsapuou qtnorql
'acr,r.res.ro; ft{rqellns Jroql a?pnIBAa ol JapJo uI srqsrJa?
-rBJBqc IBrJalBru.r(uuur osaql qlur {1r.rur4ure; poou
Iau
-uosred ;,q1q'IBoIIFC uatJo scr+errelcurBqC p.rrolutrltr
'slBrralEtu rllBloul lsoru
Jo osoql uro4 roJJIp
deur sluaure.rrnbe.r lsol pue,suorlecqddu .oJnlcsJnueur
Jlaql os pue 'scrlsuolceruqc osuodse.r pue serlrado.rd 1ua
-JeJJIp elpb e,req slerJoleru crllBlaruuou
lsory .srr?srJal
,sorlrnur?uoaslp
-ca.r"qc
Jorllo pue
ecuasa.rd

l"rJolpru

Jo

'suor?rpuoa acBJJns,Euut.ro,lr lucruBqcotu,1ueu1ua.r1


FurJar{l 'uorlrsoduror lecnuaqa Jo uor?cunJ e su dlepyrr
z(.re.a uec oJrI aerlJas Jo .uorfcnJlsuoa ,ornlaBJnuuru
;o saEels snorJBA ol slerJa?Bru cIIIB?aur go asuodsa.r eq;,
'slBrJeferu EuueeurEue go fl11;quecrlJos pue ,uo4ca1o.rd
puu Eu1us1u.r; '{lquessu pue tu1p1e,u ur suralqo.rd ,Eurs

,sp
-secord Jo slcaJJo ,serlrado.rd
Jo loJluoc o1 Eurgqe.r
-rrolBru Jo suor+BnlB.1\e o^r?crulsapuou JoJ spoou aAIoA
-ur qcrqn d.rlsnpul
Jo slacey z(uuur aql o? uor?cnporlur ue
sluase.rd s.reldeqa Euyrrollo; oql q Iarroquru txa? aq;

sgssgcoud cNv s.Ivlufl.I,vnl


:cNIUnrcv.{nNvI I
'papaau qldap ralolBqa ur socrnos.dusu q punoJ
eq ztuur 1r 'pepeau sy eEpelaloul pallBtop arotu uoq/lt

'eEpelnoul puno.rtrlcuq pBorq B paau luql asoql ol

frJauaq runurrxBru ep.ra,o.rd III^I BaJB 1aefqns Eurssaco.rd


pue slurralBur orllJo luaruluorl oslcuoc ,ye1.rq u leql edoq
oql q?IrIr pedola,rep uooq sBrI ?xol sFIl ,suorlucqqnd a1d11
-Inur Jo asn oql ro ?uarulua4 go qldap laelE q1,ral ua?ryr^{
suorlecrlqnd dql8uel Jo uollupuoruruoooJ luerreld o;,
'serlrado.rd IEIJolBur uo sJolcBJ
lu?uaur
-uoJrlua snorJBA Jo s?aaJJa orll Jo Eulpuuls.rapun uB aleq
osIB ol oroJoraql luulrodurr sI lI .ornIIBJ roJ uosuar IBar
aql ouluralap ol arnlIBJ ra?JB sorurlaluos puB uollcluls
-uoa ralJe.roEul.rnp plalJ orl? ur paruroJradoqu sI
JCN
uI

pollolur suolle.redo pue

'sseco.rd Eugnlae;nuau or{l


,sarcrtod ,sluaure.rrnba.r ,sura1

-qord eq1 Jo aruos puulsrapun puu eErn8uq olqullns B


queds of oIqB aq Nnur ,uorle.redooc popoau aql ule?qo 01
'pue lauuos.rad8urrnpe;nuuur qtJlr ?celuoc osop u1 {q1s
-sanu Jo ere puuos.rad JCN ,ryo^r.r1eq1Eugr.ro;.red u1

turrnlce;nueill

01

JCN

Jo

uoqqag

..'lsnlur, ?

aroJaraql sI uraql uaa^rlaq suol?curalur alqrssod oq? pue


'sassaco.rd eq1 'qerreleu aql;o EurpuelsJapun uV .slsl
,palBcol
-xo ouo Jo dlurqrssod aql leqt
lou s} IInBJ
^rou{
B uaq/r ualo ro 's?srxa ?I uorl/{
urelqold eq? Jo arJnos

aql olerol o? alqe aq o? rolcodsul;q111 aql roJ tu"l


-rodur sr lr sesua ?soru uI 'osoq? Jo uolleurqruoc aruos
,pasn
Jo llnsa.r B aq Jo '.roua uuurnq euros dq poluoJc
Eursseco.rd aql fq pasnuJ '1u1.ra1eur purEl.lo oq? uro4;
llnsor e eq feur uorlcedsur fq peluaol aq {utu ?Bql suon
-ce;.radurr .ro 's1ce;ep 's/hBIJ

eq;

'ee.r8ep oruos ?sBaI lB

o? possocord uaeq orreq ?Bq? spnpo.rd pue slurralBru m


slInBJ snorrel alurol ol sI JCN Jo osn u1 esodlnd eq;,

.s1eefqns asaqt

oluq .III la^arl lB l(1Jsl


-nap.rud'leuuos.red ;,CN aqt luelrodurr sI lI .teql uro{I
aprse lsruelqold alpceds 8ur,r1os uI pIB .ro; leuuos.red
JCIN ol luulrodurr oq p1noc socrnos aql Jo duy .Eurssac
-o.rd rreql pue 'sar1.rado.rd .r;aq1 's1ur.ra1eru qlrrn Eugaap
uorleruJoJur Jo sarJnos luugodurr aq? Jo IIB lsll Jo oruBu
o1 elqrssodun z(1pn1rpr aq pFo/n lI .oIqBIIB^V uoJt

;o EurpuelsJopun puoJq 'arseq

-BruroJul se4.redo.r4 puu slurra+utr tr JO secrnog

fuulq

'TZZSV

orqo 'snqurnloc
'oAuq oplsrolrg 00Zg'(;NSy) Eurlse;, onr?crulsopuoN
.ro; dlelcog uuclrorrrv orl? Jo s.relrunbpeeH 1euol?BN
eql qEno.rql oIqBIIB^u sI ralluru lcafqns palBlar pue Eu1
-lsal o^r?crulsapuou 01 palBIoJ IBrJalBru Jo tsI a^rsuorl
.e.rduroc V 'slBrralury puu Eu11se;,.ro; {leycog uuorroruv
aq1 qEno.rql oIqBIIB^B sr slaualuru ;q51yo f1a1.run y .Eur
-?sal alrlcrulsopuou uo luuelsur pe.rude.rd e.taq z{larcog
Eup1e6 uurrre(uv aql sB qcns suor?Bzruu8.ro Jar{lo
'Iouuos

Euqsel olrlcnrlsapuou IIB ol alqsnlu^ aq p1norls


'9/,6I uI slBlotr4tr.ro; .r(lercog uBcrroruv oql fq peqsqqnd
'IorluoC d11pn$ puu Eurlse;, alllctulsopuoN uo ryooq
-puog sIryaW oqt Jo uoqrpa qlqElo oqt Jo II aurnlo1
pu" '/,L6I puu g96l ul pa1ur.rde.r pue 696I ur peqsqqnd
(saunlon d qooqpu0H Eupsag aaprn4sap?oN INSV
sB r{cns sacua.roJa.r pJupuuls Jo osn puu dpnls aq;
'srarnlceJnuuu lueurdrnbe ;o
salrluluosolder q?pu suorssncsrp peSuur.re z(q puu ,sEur
-1aaur dlercos lucruqcoq leuorluu pue ,puoa.r ,1eco1 1e
-.red

acuupuolle Eulmp epuur slcutuoc q?rm ,esod.rnd clgceds


B roJ suorlezruBE.ro raqfo ol slrspr fq paqsydruocce lsoq
sr ualJo oJoru 'lnq 'suorlezrue8.ro eE.ru1 ur f1eco1 poqsl
-qqsa aq saruqatuos uec dlqsuor1u1a.r puos.red srg;,
'p!o^B
ol paurBel oABq sJarllo leql sra?szslp pue srorra {psoe
1ue,re.rd

oqe r(uur eEpelmourl ;o aEueqc.ralur lBuosJad

'suo1quc11dde AAau o1 .ro sr(en aneu f1ar11ue ur sanbruqcel

uraou{-na^r Jo esn o1 ro sanbruqrol lsa? ,nau dlarrlue


Jo suorteclldda o1 puel duur lerll uoI?BurJoJuI Jo ecrnos

I??r^ B sr leuuo.red JCIN rarllo q?rna peluoc leuosrad


'suollucuddu rrrau JoJ spuol seppro.rd uego ,tursrlrel
-pu Eqpnlcul 'orn?Brol1 lprpqca? luarrnr Eup(pn1g
'uorleruroJul elup-o1-dn poo8
sellddns ua?Jo sorlrsralrun {q perego sosrnoc Uorls

puu sasJnoc Eurup.rl ,sJoJnlJBJnuBru ?B aruepuollv

}
Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

may require inspection to be certain that they will main-

tain their as-manufactured qualities such as color,


polish, stability, etc.
Products more likely to need careful testing and evaluations are those used in load carrying applications
where failure may involve loss of use, expensive repair,
or danger to other products, structures, and even life.
Although the manufactured item is a product, it is the
material of that product that may fail, so material failure types and causes are of interest.
Material Failure Definition. The simplest definition
of failure is that the item of interest becomes unusable,
but there are several ways in which a product may be'
come unusable. It is usually important to know the type
of failure that might be expected in order to know for
what to inspect, how to inspect, how to eliminate the
fault, and how to assess the risk of failure.
Complex units with moveable parts may become inoperable because of failure of some minor element. An
automobile, for example, may not run for lack of fuel, a
tire goes flat, or the ignition is out of adjustment.
There are two generally accepted types of material
failure: one is the easily recognized fracture or separation into two or more parts; the second is the less easily
recognized permanent deformation or change of shape
and/or position.
Although complete fracture is unmistakable, an inci'
pient type which will be discussed in connection with
"fatigue failure" with suitable inspection methods can
be determined before complete failure occurs. Fracture
failure in some complex structures may also become
progressive. An example of progressive failure would be
the release of load by some weak component in a structural configuration such as a large bridge. The released
load must be absorbed by neighboring structural elements. Unless these neighbors can spread the new load
and become stabilized, they will become overloaded
and, if stressed above their elastic limit, will deform,
crack, or fracture, causing additional load to be passed
along in a way that causes the entire structure to collapse almost immediately.
A simple example of progressive failure would be the
breaking of a gear tooth in a mechanical power system.
The following gear tooth is then subjected to shock (impact) loads which increase the stress levels so that failure is more likely. In this case also it is probable that if
power is maintained, all the gear teeth will be broken off
in a short period of time.
Material Failure Causes. Products and structures
may be subject to a number of service conditions. Imposed loads may be static (stationary or fixed) or dynamic (varying). The use environment may contribute corrosion, vibration, or temperatures and pressures higher
or lower than normal. The product may also be subject
to abuse. Mechanical failure is always a result of
stresses. above some critical value for each material
that cause deformation or fracture. Such excessive
stresses are set up by some combination of material defect, excess load, improper type load, or design error.

1. As far as failure is concerned. static loads sometimes include dynamic loads that are slowly applied.
The principal reasons for failure under static loads include large discontinuities (both internal and external),
poor dimensional control during manufacturing, massive overloading during use, and unsatisfactory original design or combination of these factors.
2. Dynamic loads are varying loads that can be
single-directional or multi-directional with multidirectional loading being more serious as a cause for failure.
When the cycles of loading become high (usually millions but dependent on the material), failure can occur at
stress levels far below those determined by static load
tests. Although millions of cycles seems high, there are
many applications, such as a rotating shaft under bending load, where millions of loading cycles can be reached
in a relatively short time.
As pointed out, slow or low frequency dynamic loading is similar to static loading except that even low frequency loads applied suddenly create a condition of
shock which can cause failure at a level lower than normally expected.
3. Service at high temperature reduces most of the
desirable material properties of metals including the
ability to support load. The tendency for creep also increases with increased temperature. The temperatures
at which property values become critical depend upon
the particular material and the previous treatment it
has received.

Most metallic materials also exhibit a brittle characteristic (much like cold glass) through a transition temperature range usually at lower temperatures.
4. Pressure creating stress above a material's elastic
limit may cause material flow (plastic flow), distortion,
and cross-sectional weakening, effects that would be intensified at elevated temperatures. Fluctuating pressures of high frequency create dynamic loading that
may decrease safe operatinglevels. Itwas reported that
several early day pressurized cabin aircraft failed by
fuselage skin failure due to this cause.
5. Corrosive environments or a combination of materials that cause corrosion can produce failure in two
ways. The corrosion may actually reduce the amount of
material available to carry load, but even more important in many cases is that the corrosion may create
small discontinuities which serve as stress risers that
become the nucleus for fatigue failure.
6. Many structures and systems are subjected to vibration during service. Included are transportation
equipment, machines, and devices that have moving
parts. In addition, some structures may vibrate because they are excited by some outside influence.
Stresses from vibration may be superimposed on
stresses from other loading sources. The principal problem created by vibration is the introduction of cyclic
loading leading toward fatigue.failure.
7. Excess loading from abuse may be accidental but
nearly always has the human element as a source. Control is attempted by use of design factors of safety,

slBur aql Jo uoTlcBar aql puB uorlJunJ rlaql rrroJrod

()1

srxrJoJ uorlBruroJap Jo/puB lEoq


Jo osn so{Bru EulunlcBrrr

pua 'EuruuoJ ,Eurplan ,Eurlsec sB qans

sasseco.rd

roq?O'serlredo.rd pr.raleur EunJeJJB esod.rnd passard


;o
-xa oql roJ ore Eur1ua.r1 laaq sp qcns sossocord aurog
'I?rral"Iu IBu.rJ oqt Jo scrls.rralcBrBrlJ aqt uo oruonu
-u1et.re1 B szq pnpord pelalduoc aq? o? q8no.rq1e1e1s
aql ruo{ slurJaleur osog? yo Eurssaao.rd aq1 1eq1
^rBJ
poraqruaruar
oq $ntu 1r ?eq1 ldecxe,on.r? sr sg1
;qp Eu;
-p.ruEeg 'serlredord rroq? pue ,e.rn1cn"r1s rreql ,qurraluur
uo oq plnoa srsuqdure eql lIB lBrI?leedde pporrr ,1u;od
1J
sF{? o.L 'sep.rado.r4 slBlrelutr{ stceJJV Eursseco.r;
'slaoJap aJnIIBJ olur dola,rap z(uur
sorlrnurluocsm lurus f.ra,r llqErejlr ulrrop deaq o1 srol
-cu; z(1a;es /ilol puB sla ol ssor?s qEH qll,r{ pau8lsap e.ru
z(eql esneaeq uorlenlele pue Eurlsel alr?cnJlsapuou
InJ
-e.rec ernbe.r slred 1;u.rc.rru {uu141 .196l uI BIuFrtn
f."lt
'luuseold lurod ?B JoArU oFrO aql ssorcu aEpgg.rar.gg
oqt Jo esdelloc aq? sr ornlrcJ addl sq1;o elduruxe uy 'sJncco uaql
ornlcer; dq a.rnlruy IBlo? uoppns .puol eq1 {.rruc o1 p
-rro?Bur plos luonrJJns .re8uol ou sr ororl?
Flun aurn qtl.rt
seleEodo.rd ,speol Eurrtrurr Jopun ,lurll uorle4uaruoc
ssoJls eql worJ {JBJa B o1u1 dole,rep ltuur ,lerreluur eq1 ur
luaJaqu s! teql {lrnurluocsrp B Jo ,qa1e.rcs lqE1s e ,uors
.Eurpuol cqcr(c
-oJJoc fq pe1.ru1s ztlrnulluocsrp
IIBurs y
z(q peluudurocce uaqna ztlulcedse ,uorso.r.roi ,o
-BJ
Jo slcoJJo aql Jo asnBcoq oq plnoa puB suor?lpuoa"nSr1
orr^
-ros rapun rncco ol dlerlrl lsoru q sFI;, .ornlpJ snorlsesrp
osn"c uuc leql slroJop sno.rJas olur eEuuqa uea ssaluJeq
oq ol polollaq sor?multuocslp ,suorlrpuoc eruos Japun
leqt lno pelulod aq pFoqs 1r ,sluaurelets aloqe or{l
yo 1qE11u1 'epeJeq olul ,rlor5 ,te141 seppultuocsrq

jTl##;

.raqloz(ueuBqrs^rBIJr""r"r"rtt"tj;#:t"i""rT"
1t qEnoqlp ';,CIN Jo en11ca[qo oql tuoplas sr ,selracar lr
asn Jo puq oq? Jo osnuraq ,uo.rr lsug .anrsse.rduroc flud
-1cuy.rd arc spuol oqt aroqna suorlecqdde {uuur ur iiol
-cBJsrlas f.ran eq o1 punoJ sI lnq ,(peo1 Eqouaq B
Jo ?lnsor
eq1 {lensn ueql) Surpeol agsual
luurs dleartulor ueql
oJoru Jopun pasn ztluuor?ua?q Ja^au sr
IBrJalBru aql
'e.rn1cn r1s luuralq sFl? Jo asnprog .pele.redas f1a1e1d

-tuor sr oJn?cnJls rltuolB erll alaqna sJBal JO S{ABJ' sorurl


-aruos puu '(crdocsoJczru pue erdocso.rcrur qloq) sproa
'sa{BIJ e1rudu.r8 aoJJ Jo Eurlsrsuoa saqmur?uorslp rl?I/!il
,,popBol, sI luq? IBrJo?"u B sr uoJr lsec .eldruuxa Jod

'uo11ecJ1ddu tuoroJJrp B uI
InJurrBrI lou sI leql
rflrnurluocsrp a1du1s e dpo aq fuur suorllpuoc
Jo las
ouo Jopun ?coJap u sr ?Eql IInBJ B leql ,Je^afioq ,poo1s
-rapun oq lsntu lI .JCN
Jo se,rrlaefqo luanber; ?soru orll
Jo ouo sr slce;ep EuIpuId ...lcaJap,, B poIIBc.fluounuoa sr
1r 'ocr^Jas ur oJnIIBJ IBrJa??ruJo acuuqc lBrluplsqns p sole
-a.rr lr leql uorlurol pue .edz(1 ,eduqs ,azrs qcns yo sr ,e1d
-I?1ntu .ro_alEurs 'r(lrnurluocsrp ltuu uaqll .speJeq
'Eupsecord Jo spuDl aruos ur
aq ,(iur-.ro

^ eq1 ur popoou oq sarurloruos uerre zturu


u8tsap
pu snopJa
-zeq ro peq sfump lou aru aroJaraql sallpulluocsr(J
'seruanlJur oprslno {q pelcegu Eqeq.rleql
{lgrqeqo.rd
f"lAflq
1o

aBIII sI araq? uoq^r puu.rauErsap oq? ltq pelcedxa slIurTI

tmrnlcegnue4

01

JCN

Jo uorl"IolJ

aql uTrIlI/lI

sorlmurluocsp oql uaqa aq plnox


deu poJJa slr oulruJolep trl
Eu11sa1 'z(1rsualur puu ,uorlnqrrlslp .ozls q qcnu os i.ru,,,,
uuc {11nul1uorsrp adfl s1q1 osnecag .a.rnsodxe
leluatu
-uorrluo sll puu ,(Izluoprcq ro
luuorluolur) pe,rrecar suq
,pr.ralerrr
l-l luowlar1eq1
relnerlred eql uo Eulpuadep
z(1epJal l(.ru,r uea dlrnurluocsm yo edr(1 slq; .?srxa sIBrJ
-e1eur SuJ.reauue roqlo puB slBlaw pqos r{clqllr ur
fuoru
-eEue.r.ru Jnuole leuolsuaurp-oarq? oq? ol sJaJor oJnl
-cruls 'oJn?cn.rls pue dn-erleru lecrruor{c slr asn"caq
Jo
Iurro?Bru oql ul luoJaqrn eq {uu sorlmurluoJslp Jaq?O
IIa.^a nEJ

uorldacxa uV .Jopro u1 aq

+edxauaeq s'q orqnorr ro suoqrpuo"

t""illT::oTfi:::

Sureq sI Flreleur aq1 ssalun Eurlsal e.rrnba.r


lou op z(1pu

-Jou osag; .reu8rsep

uoo_q

oql ,(q uorleJoprsuoc 1n;

ol"q pForls pue peu8lsep

uazrrE

{1auo11ue1ur eq rtetu
'seduqs acuJrns relnEe.rrr .ro ,se1oq p"Ulrp sB r{cns sor?r
-nurluoJsrp oluos .soruedo.rd .ro,uorgrsoduroJ .eJnlcnJ?s
's{ceJc 'sarlrAuc ,se1oq ,r(.rletuoeE ur a8ueqe Bupnlc
-ur d1pul1uoc lerroluru ur uor?Brrul paol ,(uu eqrijs"p
01 posn sr .,r(1rnur1uoJsrp,, urJa? oqJl .seqmuquocsrc
'olqulrns lou eru serpado.rd s11
1eq1 fe,u
p qcns ur pa?Ba.rl uooq saq
leql Jo ,1co.r.rocur flucruraqc
sI ?Bql l_Blralstu B oq pFor 1r.ro ,.r(lrnurluocsrp e aq z(uur
uralqo;d aql Jo acrnos aq;, 'sl"lraluru Jo dno rb pr.r
-alutu al8urs u;o ,crlsr.ralcuJerlJ oruos oJnseaur .ro ,11nu;
JoIJa?xa Jo JorJolur Jo puH oruos
Jo uol?rofap llrollB ot
peuE;sep ore sornpaco.rd 1se1 lsotr .uosrod Euqsal-aar1
[
-cnr?sapuou t(uu o1 luulrodurr eq pFoqs sell.radord.rraql

puB slurralBur ;o eEpelmou{


'sIBrJe+BW uo

terlt snonqo raq?Br sr ?I


peuroJrad erv slseJi ea4rnr+sapuoN

'aEeurep alquuoglcafqo ro sornlrpJ a.rnluura.rd


1noqry^
acl^Jos zt.rolceysllus o1 Eurpuel ,slcnpo.rd pu8 slBrrolBru

Jo Iorluoc olrlcoJJo aq pForls uoJlealldde pue uElsap

lsa? a^qcnJ?sopuou aql30 asodrnd eqJ, .sasnBc Jroq? puB


srusruuqeatu arnIIBJ oql Jo eEpeyrroul prIBA
Jo srsBq oql
uo pue a.r"c rllrllt peleld.ralur pue ,paqddu ,pe1ce1es eq
lsnur s?saf asoql .slsol olr?cnrlsapuou Jo esn dq paluol
.IBquessq s+so; aIqBtInS
-e;d eq o? ar" sarnlreJ

JI

'6u1puo1{aoqs rapun

ornll"J o1 elqlldecsns f1.re1nc;1.rud aurocaq puu tulEu


IBrnlBu rIlJ r rllslrafcereqc al??Fq u dole,rep uB, sleloru
aruos puB 'ssu1t lsour .sar1su1d fuutr41 .e.rnleredural
Jo soseomur leurs z(1e,rr1BloJ r1?rrrr sa?"JaIocJB uoIlBJoIJal
-ap luql puu aEu qlr^l oleJorJalop slerro?Btu auros .0I
'upeq o? uorsoJJoc
lruued,turu qcp{rtr Eurqspg puu Euruealc iado.rdtur puu
's1rud Euraour Jo uor?ucrrqnl olqelrns Jo {cEI Eurpnicur
'acuuualururu redoldun sr asnqe Jo ruJoJ Joq?ouv .6
'1anpo.rd oql Jo serlredo.rd rrlaqlsau orll osuoJrap ,urnur
-Flrrr B sB'ro .aJnIpJ e?BIlIq duur qcrgal suor?rpuoa alrs
-oJJor puu r{18ue.qs IBrJolBru aseoJJep z(eur qcryrrr a.rn1

-u.radurel q8lq a.ru pacuarledxe sualqord ururu aq; .aIqB


-prol"un sorur?oruos sI lnq osnqe;o adfl B peJaprsuoc
aq feur lueuruo.rrlue.radordurr ur lueurdrnba;o asn .g

'rolcBJ d1e;us aq? dq


larro?Bru aqt Jo q1Eue.r1s alqu
Isurruou eql EupJalp uElsap Euynp pepdde e.re
f1a;es;o sJo?red .oJoru Jo aArJ 01 auoueql e.rour rtllqEls

-torc

wor; EulSuBr pue qlEuarls plau( uo pasuq rjldnin

\Iaterials and Processes ior NDT Technology

rial is the same as though the procedure were carried on


rg6 shnnge the material properties
To some degree, knowledge of the processing is therefore necessary in order to understand the effect on the
noaterial. to evaluate the material properties, and to
crace down the source of problems.
PURPOSE FOR USE OF NDT
A critical task for persons responsible for nondestructive testing operations is often the determination of the
true reasons why nondestructive tests have been requested, specified, or needed. The interpretation of test
indications depends critically upon the purpose of the
tests, and this often determines the stage of manufacturing or assembly at which tests should be done.

Ultimate Purpose-Reliability, Serviceability. In


the preceding paragraphs, the common assumption has
been made that the tests are to be used to assure relia-

bility and to prevent premature failures of materials,


parts, or assemblies during their intended service. In
general, this serviceability is the ultimate purpose of
most nondestructive tests. However, it is often the case
that the test itself does little to predict the serviceability or safety of the final product, assembly, structure, or
system. In this case, there is no way to determine that a
discontinuity or material condition constitutes a dangerous "defect" which may lead to premature failure in
service. This by no means invalidates or countermands

the need for the nondestructive test. Other valid reasons for nondestructive testing may include the following.
Specific Purposes for NDT.
1. Identification or sorting of material.
2. Identification of material properties and the reliability associated with their existence.
3. Indication of proper material and suitable quality
control during processing in order to prevent further
costly processing.
4. Tests to assure completeness, proper dimensions
and geometry, and proper relationships among assembled components.
5. Tests during service to discover initiation of possible failure before it actually occurs.
6. Diagnostic tests after failure to determine the failure reason. This knowledge might be useful for product
design change, test method change, quality control records, and for records to combat possible product liability suits.

NDT IN FRACTURE CONTROL


Fracture Control Design Philosophy. When using
factors of safety in design, it is assumed that competent
judgement in providing a safety factor can provide high
assurance of the safe life of a product or structure. At
the same time, consideration must be given to conservation of material. Historically, many complex structures

and machines have survived admirably under such design concepts. However, others have failed from seemingly inexplicable causes, some with costly and disas-

trous consequences.
Most design procedures still are based upon over two
and a half centuries of using Hooke's law which relates
stress and strain in elastic bodies. The safety factor is
applied to a value of strength that the material used in a
design is presumed to possess. The value of .strength is
that which is hoped to be representative of the material
used under the assumption that the material is continuous and has uniform properties throughout. In this design process, discontinuities can be accounted for , if it is
h,nown they exist, by their effect on reduction of crosssectional area available to sustain the applied loads, or
their effect on the local volumetric strength of the material.
Conventional design practices incorporating safety
factors ordinarily will succeed if:
1. the material used will not be accidentally or otherwise overloaded,
2. the variations in ordinary loads will be as intended,

3. the environmental factors are properly anticipated,

4. unknown or undetected discontinuities will not


grow to a critical size.
Notable catastrophic failures have been analyzed and
invariably found to involve an oversight in one or a combination of the above factors that caused failure. Sudden, complete, and unsuspected fracture failures occur
in components and structures when a crack or other defect reaches some critical size and rapidly propogates.
Where the consequences of unexpected failure are unusually expensive in terms of public safety and/or
money, more and more designs of such critical nature require consideration of fracture-resistant qualities in
materials selection and usage. Implicit in frature control design criteria is the need, by some means, to assure
that unexpected flaws of some specific critical size are
not present when the product is introduced into service.
Nondestructive testing and proof testing are the principal means upon which such assurance is based. Proof
testing always involves some risk that the test itself
will either cause immediate failure during the test, or
cause flaw growth to a point below actual failure but beyond the point where additional flaw growth can be
safely sustained during the service life of the component in question.
Nondestructive testing is heavily relied upon as the
basis of assurance against the presence of flaws large
enough to either cause immediate fracture or to grow
large enough to cause later premature fracture. Often,
the successful implementation of'a fracture control design depends solely upon the reliability of nondestructive testing to detect flaws in otherwise sound com-

'prle4sra^o

uor.lcoqop Io

s-r

o606

aql IRII? rq$qeqo.rd 069 e sl oraq? lBr{l sr^lTgqqord


oruop$uoc ohg6
t{qa uo.r?rslap;o dlmqeeo.rd o696 e pacnpold luaurrred
-xa relmr1Jed u tsql tuarualuls B Jo uorle?ald.ralur aq;,
'pge,r fp.q sr ocuoroJur {lrTrquqord uorlcelap 0/.,06 aql
luttl flglqeqord eq1 ol sJoJoJ .,ocuoprJuoc Jo IaAeL, ruJol
aq1 'sasfpue lucr?sr?Bls ul .oh06 s1 z(lpqeqo.rd uorlcel
-ap oq?

lerll acuaraJul oql

on4 dlasrce.rd aroq


ol
^rou{
,e1d
eq
plnoa
'pa?sal
arallr
slrun
dpo
e.reqn
InJasn
?r
691
-tuuxo purEllo aql ul 'uoqelndod.re8.rq u roJ uorlca?op
go z(1;nqeqord aql ezrs elduras pa?1urll B ruo{ o?Brurlsa
ol 'Jolaa\oq 'alqrssod sr 1I .poapu ,aldures snorJnxnl B aq
plnoar slueurrceds paaBIJ 00I .suor?En1;s pcrlcurd u1
'0/.06 sI uorlra?op yo {llgquqord en.r1
aq? leql pasuorcut aq plno^r aouaprJuoc oqt ,pa?Je?op
ara^r saBIJ 000'0I Jo lno 000,6 JI .polsa? aq plnor 000,0I
uala ro 000I 'pouprexe Sureq sueurrceds potrBIJ 00I
Jo pealsuJ 'pelcnpuor aq pFor suerurcads paa"IJ leuoll
-rppe uo slueurr.redxe paleada.r ,eldurexe srul uo pasug
sr

'01106

uorlrelap 3o /t1;
x
-pquqo.rd aql lurll po?Bls aq ppoc 1r luaurrredxo rulncrl
-.rud sq1 Jo soeuBlsunrJrc oql ro; ,pe1ce1ep a.raar 06 pu"
lueserd oJaar ezrs orues aq? Jo stteg 961 g ,alduBxa Jod
'uollcolop Jo dlryquqord oql alntl?suor plnollr roJ pa{ool
sar"lJ Jo raqrunu IB?o? 01 polcalop s^rBIJ Jo ollBr aql .ornp
-ecord uorlcedsur uerrrE B o1 pelcelqns a.rolrt IIB puB ozrs
arues oq? Jo llrug B pauruluoc qcua suarurceds;o Jaqrunu
aErq u;1 'surrel eldrurs uI 'sezrs uallE;o sttBIJ lcolop
(1ou ppo,ta;o)ppom e.rnpeco.rd relncp.rud e 1uq1{1;gq
-eqo.rd oql alurlsuotuap ol posn aq pFoa spoqlaru IBcr?
-srlBls plern.ro;1qErcrls 'suarurceds pemug qlra patso?
aq ppoc e.rnpaco.rd uorlcedsur qcBa ,sac.rnosor IBIcuBu
-rJ lerluB?sqns qlra Euop lsa.relur
Jo slerraluur eq? IIB
ro; seduqs pue sazrs
runnurluoc
olqrlsnur{xaur uB
Jo
^IBIJ
uo^rc'Ie^arl eJueprJuoc/uol+celac
;o r(1nrquqo.rd
'z(1yrqe11er uorlcadsur ourJap o1 dEolopo
-qlaur 1ucl?srtB?s sesn peldacae r(11uasa.rd qceordde uu
'.rerrau,o11 'sldacuoc srrueqrau aJnlcerJ osn ol Euyqsrrlr
s.reeurtue uE;sap fq pa.rrsap uorsrce.rd aql ql;lrr poraars
-uB aq louupc suorlsanb esaql ,eu11 orn?nJ allulJap
-ur oruos roJ pu" ,LCIN Jo lre-Jo-o?els luasa.rd aql qll1t
lelnpecord uorlcedsur relncrlrud e Eursn
uorlcelap educse uuc leqt m.eg lse8rel oql sI leq71t .Z
apalrat
-ap aq ilr.tr ozrs lecrlrJc aruos uurll relea.r8 sirlieg
IID ryqI
aaluo.nn? pasn oq o? e.rnpeco.rd uorlcedsur eq? IIIAT .I
Jo 6'0 sl lBrJaleur ue,rr8 u ur

ozrs asIJ Jo

:sldeauoc

scruuqcou aJn?JB.r; Eursn s.reeur8ua dq pasod suorlsanb


ar1l rorrsuu o1 pe8ualpqc {1ru1 oru lauuosred Eu11se1

o^rlcrulsopuoN'sar?mu4uocsrp lBnlr? Jo suor?uclp


-ur 1ce;rpu1 z(1uo apr,ro.rd s?sal olr?crulsapuou lsour ,1cu;
'IoJluoa sseao.rd puu uorlcedsur uI 1oo1 e,rrlelqunb

uI

-Iruos Jo enpelqunb u Jaqlra su peqddu sr Burlsal azrrl


-trulsopuou 'sosua lsoru uI .lcatqo ?sal e ur luasard 1ou
ars azrs ure?JoJ u Eurpaacxe sllrug ?BrIl ocuuJnsse oprl
ord o1 uodn pelec i(1aur1nor 1ou sr .o.ruc prceds ?noqll^{
'pue aarsuadxa aq osIE uuc Eurqsel alr?JnJlsapuoN .alrs

Suunlrelnrrery

01

JCIN Jo uorlelag

-rradxa elnb sr uego Eur.1se1 ;oord 'uorarppe ul '.peuorl


-ueru .rtlsnor,ra.rd ueeq arruq Eurlsal;oo.rd uI s{srJ aqJ

'Eul1se1Jo ruroJ qc"e


seEeluu,rpBslp
pue
seEeluuzrpu
orB a.IoqJ/'s^ruu lrat
;o
-ap 01 suporu alqeldepe lsour aqq ere 3ur1sa1 a^Brnrlre?
-uou pue Eu;1se1 Joord 'lcnpord aql o1 paqddu aq lsnru

ro uorlcedsur Jo ruJoJ auros 'srsr(1euu uB qcns


uror; aEuluelpu ue ozrluoJ 01 repro uI 'sp"ol crpfc.rapun
3ur1se1

ozrs lBcrlrJe o1 rrrorE uBc

lBrll /rr?u JalI?uIs B sB Jo llrBIJ


pezrs-{lucrlrrc lurlrq uB sp req?ra ornlrcJ ol?llrq asne,
uec qcru^{
Jo azrs aq? slcrpa;d scrueqcoru a.rn?re{
^reIJ
puu
srsfpue
qEno.rql 'a.rourreql.rnd .slueur
'Eur1sa1
-ala lurnlcnJls paqsrulJ ur slrrug;o acuasard oql sauns
-erd scruuqcaru oJn?ceJd',{lqrquqeg uorlcadsul
'Eurlsel alrlrn.rlsopuou dq palcolop z(1qu;1e.r uaaq aABg
plnoc uBrll rall?Ius oJ.&\ s^r"IJ IBIIIuI aql 'sacuB?sur aruos
uI 'ozrs 1ucllrJc o1 pale8edo.rd Eurnuq 'ernle; ;o su
-rJo oql s" punoJ aJallr ozrs ur IIBrus ,(IIBIIIq srrsld 'spBol
i*o1 d1a,rllalor rapun papl z(11gqudea q1Eue.r1s q8g
Jraql JoJ palcalas slBrJolBru aruos'scruBr{Jotu aJn?cu4 ()1
uenrE serrr uorleJaprsuoc snorJas ?eql aurrl aql of JorJd
'arn?rury a111uq ra8
-Ertquec azrs sq? uugl reE.rel meg e 'ssoJls uErsap eq1 1y
'ozrs thEIJ Iurr?rrJ oql a?u1nclec o1 .rauErsep oql salquua
suorlrpuoc Juparlred.repun lurJaleru .relncruud e JoJ 'Iy

Euvnouy 'cly 'JolcBJ flrsuelur ssa.rls auqd


IerrlrJr eq? sI lsorolur;o {1redo.rd aq1 'suorlrpuor qcns
JApun 'lur?J?suoc oFsua? a.Io^as Japun sr {cBJc paulEl
-uoc aql pue azrs {aBJJ rlqar pe.reduroc 4crq1 {1enr1e1e.r
sr IBrra?Bu aql uaqa sllnsoJ uorlrpuoc SFIJ/ .uorlcoJlp
ssau{Jlrll-qEnorql oq? q oroz sr dr1 4cerc aql Eurpunol
-Jns uraJls aJoqr uorllpuoJ aql sl urBJ?s auBld .ururls
auuld;o leq? sI palaprsuor sr 'roleuJ f1rsue1u1 ssaJls
aql 'X qcH.,!l Japun uollrpuoJ uoruruoJ ?soru or.lJ/
'dleeqdo.rlsulue ualJo'fpep
-pns pu" flalalduroc spu; lrud aql puu pasrurorduroc s1
d1ryqu1s lernlcn.lls '1urod sql lV 'rauuuru pollor?uocun
'prdur u ur onur?uoc o1 ssaao.rd aq1 lrur.rad o1 uoe.r dr1
{tBJc lrl'au oq? olur f8leua qEnoua'esualer z(eur arnldn.r
-ssoJls 11utus 'uappns sql ,sleua?Bru allllJq uI .dll
{carc aql Jo puaqu 1sn[ pr.raluu eq? Eur.rngdnr-ssarls
z(q acuerrpe u"c {ruJJ aql 'peol pasuarcur ol anp papaat
-xo sr ssorls slqt Jo anIBA lurrlrrc B JI 'sBaJB pallrBuun
ur ssa.r?s aq? uBql.raleerE s1 dq qcerc oql lB ssaJls IBroI
eq;,'auu1d {cBrJ aql ol lerurou pesodurr spuol fq pedu
pelpd are soceJ {c"rc orll uaqm dr1 {Jere aql Surpuno.r
-Jns arunlol pozrlucol'11urus aq1 ur fplde.r sasaa.rcur z(lrs
-uotq ssaJls aq;,'lurJelutu crlsula JBaurI e w 4ce.rc druqs
Ieapr uB Jo dr1 eql EurpunoJrns plarJ ssarls aq1;o z(1rsua1
-q aql Jo aJns"oru B sl y 'y 'ro?eeJ dlrsuelur ssoJls aq?
Jo srurol ur d1alr1u1l1uenb passerdxe sr ssauq8nol a.rnl
-c"{ Jo dlredo.rd aq; 'IBIro?Bru e Jo ssauqEnol arnlc"q
aq1 fll1uenb o11due11u Eurlsol scluuqJaru ornlJeq puu
sarpnls pcrldpue scluurlraur a.rnlceJd 'srrueqaaru oJnl
-JB.r; sr aauelsrsoJ aln?cu.r; o? palEIoJ fpadord lurJaleru
u;o uorldr.resap puu fpnls aq; 'scluuqcetr{I arnpurd
Jo onle^ eq1

u'c sarns'aru a^rrrarroc raqro ro s.rrudar 1uq1";:"J:Hl

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

NDT Demonstration Programs. Pioneering efforts


to include meaningful fracture control criteria into
structural design first appeared in the specifications for
military aircraft in the late 1960s. Since then, fracture
control criteria have been applied to aircraft, spacecraft, nuclear components, pipelines, and pressure vessels. The most ambitious programs to date have included several military aircraft and NASA's Space
Shuttle. Typically, the overall vehicle specifications
have required the contractors involved to demonstrate
inspection capabilities to detect certain size flaws in
components designated fracture critical at90Vo proba957o confidence level.
Several approaches have been used by the contrac'
tors to provide the required demonstration. Generally,

bility of detection,

some economically practical numbers

of

fatigue

cracked specimens are prepared and intermingled with


unflawed specimens. Well-defined procedures are used
by inspection personnel under production conditions.
The parts used in the demonstration are usually entered
into the normal sequence of inspection so that the in-

spection personnel are not biased toward particular


awareness that a demonstration is being conducted. In
other cases, only certain inspection personnel have been
classified as being qualified to inspect fracture critical
components. Such components are clearly marked and
channeled specifically to their selected inspectors. In
any event, through experiment design and statistical
analysis, the outcome of NDT demonstration programs
is intended to provide a workable interface between the
needs of fracture mechanics and the realities of the applications and limitations of NDT.

You might also like