Professional Documents
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i.
Cellular control
A. Genetic code
1. DNA
a.
B.
C.
D.
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2)
2.
ii.
Homeobox genes
a. Genes that control the development of an animals general body plan
1) Plants and fungi have them, but are not homologous (similar) to animals
b. Contains sequence of 180 base pairs called homeobox sequence
1) Codes for sequence of 60 amino acids producing polypeptides
a) Which are transcription factors that bind to other genes
i.
Switching them on or off initiating transcription
3. Apoptosis
a. Programmed cell death
1) Important during development
a) E.g. tissue needs to be removed between fingers and toes
2) Cells contents packed tightly and engulfed by phagocytes
Meiosis and variation
A. Meiosis
1. Nuclear division that produces 4 genetically different haploid cells from a diploid cell
2. Haploid gametes fuse together during fertilisation producing a diploid zygote
a. Meiosis I
1) Interphase
a) DNA replicated so each chromosome has 2 identical copies (sister
chromatids)
2) Prophase
a) Chromosomes condense and become visible
b) Homologous chromosomes pair up forming bivalents
i.
One maternal and one paternal
c) Non-sister chromatids can cross over each other forming chiasmata
d) Nuclear envelope breaks down and centrioles form the spindle
3) Metaphase
a) Bivalents pulled to equator by microtubules of the spindle attached
to centromeres
b) Bivalents randomly arranged, so maternal or paternal could be
facing either poles
4) Anaphase
a) Homologous chromosomes in the bivalents separate, pulled apart to
opposite poles by microtubules
i.
Halves the number of chromosomes
5) Telophase
a) Nuclear envelope reforms around each set producing 2 nuclei
i.
Each with half number of chromosomes (haploid)
6) Cytokinesis
a) Plasma membrane folds inwards to form 2 haploid cells
b. Meiosis II
1) Prophase
a) Chromosomes condense and spindle develops
b) Nuclear envelope broken down again
2) Metaphase
a) Chromosomes are pulled to equator and align randomly
3) Anaphase
a) Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
i.
4)
B.
Telophase
a) Nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes decondense -> nuclei
5) Cytokinesis
a) 4 haploid cells produced (half of original chromosomes)
i.
Has 1 chromatid/chromosome from each homologous pair
3. Produces genetic variation
a. Key terms
1) Locus
a) Location of gene on a chromosome
2) Allele
a) An alternative version of a gene
b) Code for different version of the same characteristic
3) Genotype
a) Alleles an organism has, the genetic makeup
4) Phenotype
a) Characteristics the alleles produce
b) Determined by genotype and can be observed
b. Crossing over
1) Non-sister chromatids exchange alleles during prophase I
2) They break and re-join at chiasmata
c. Independent assortment of chromosomes
1) Bivalents align randomly on equator
a) Either maternal or paternal chromosomes may face either pole
i.
Combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes
migrating to either pole is random
ii. Gametes that are produced contain a mixture of alleles
d. Fertilisation
1) Combining 2 sets of chromosomes, one from paternal one from maternal
Genetics and inheritance
1. Single gene inheritance
a. Key terms
1) Recessive allele
a) Only effects phenotype when dominant allele isnt present
2) Dominant allele
a) Effects phenotype whether or not recessive is present
3) Homozygous
a) Organism has the same two alleles of a gene
4) Heterozygous
a) Organism has two different alleles of a gene
b. Hardy-Weinberg principle
1) Used to calculate allele frequencies in a population
2) P is the frequency of dominant allele
a) p is dominant homozygous
3) q is the frequency of recessive allele
4) 2pq is heterozygous individuals
c. Codominance
1) No dominant and no recessive characteristic
2) Both alleles contribute to the phenotype
d. Sex linkage
1) X chromosome is much larger than Y chromosome
a) Has many genes not present on Y
i.
Said to be sex-linked because inheritance of the genes
depends on gender
b) If gene has recessive allele, condition is more common in males as
only 1 recessive allele is needed on X chromosome as males only
have XY instead of XX
2. Dihybrid inheritance
1) Looking at inheritance of two genes at the same time
b.
c.
d.
C.
Variation
1. Discontinuous
a. Phenotypes fall into one of a few distinct categories, e.g. blood groups
b. Caused by presence of dominant allele producing one phenotype
c. Influenced by one gene or small number of genes
2. Continuous
a. No distinct categories, a continuous range of values between 2 extremes, e.g. height
b. Involved a number of genes interacting together
c. At least 2 alleles for each gene and a number of genes affecting the phenotype means
its likely a lot of variations occur
3. Environmental causes
a. Variations in exposure to certain environmental conditions
b. Not inherited or passed on, and cause continuous variation, e.g. body mass
4. Genetic causes
a. Differences in the sequence of DNA caused by random mutations
b. Passed onto future generations and cause discontinuous, e.g. eye colour
5. Natural selection
a. Without variation between individuals, none will be better adapted to survive and
reproduce passing their genes on, and selection doesnt occur (no evolution)
b. Gene pool
1) The range of all the alleles in a population
c. Stabilising selection
1) Environment stays constant there will be no evolutionary change
a) Any change away from the well-adapted form is unlikely to be
successful and pass on the alleles
d. Evolutionary selection
1) Environment changes and places selection pressure on a species
a) Favours certain alleles giving selective advantages to them
i.
Better adapted, higher chance of passing on alleles
1. Higher proportion of next generation have allele
a. Increasing allele frequency
e. Genetic drift
1) Allele frequencies change (evolution) by chance instead of natural selection
2)
3)
4)
D.
E.
i.
Speciation
1. Formation of a new species through reproductive isolation
a. Members of same species no longer able to interbreed freely
1) Genetic changes do not spread throughout the whole species
a) One population has changes no seen in other
2. Isolating mechanisms
a. Geographical (ecological) isolation
1) Organisms separated by physical barrier, e.g. mountain range or river
a) Prevent populations from mixing and breeding together
b. Seasonal (temporal) mechanisms
1) Variation in timing of breeding season so populations are not synchronised
2) Not active at the same time of day
c. Reproductive mechanisms
1) Changes in courtship rituals
2) Different sizing of reproductive organs
3) Slight biochemical change making sperm and egg not compatible
3. Species concepts
a. Biological species concept
1) Group of organisms that can interbreed freely to produce fertile offspring
2) Cannot be used for asexual organisms or with fossils
b. Phylogenetic (evolutionary) species concept
1) Group of organisms that share many characteristics (morphology,
physiology, embryology and behaviour)
a) Uses many sources including DNA sequencing
2) However, can be significant variation between individuals in a species
a) Males and females make look different
b) Caterpillar looks different from butterfly
Selection
a. Selection pressure causes allele frequencies to change
2. Natural selection
a. Alleles giving selective advantages to individuals make them more likely to survive
and breed
1) Passing on alleles to next generation
b. Selective forces are abiotic and biotic aspects of the environment
c. Takes a long time unless environment changes dramatically
3. Artificial selection
a. Individuals with desirable alleles selected to breed
1) Passes on desirable characteristics to future generations
a) Only 1-2 characteristics chosen and proceeds quickly
b. Selective forces are humans
4. Modern dairy cow
a. High milk yielding females selected and bulls that have high yield female offspring
b. Sperm from bull delivered to many females by artificial insemination
1) Only a few bulls needed, and sperm can be frozen
c. Repeated with offspring and milk yield increases
B.
C.
D.
E.
e.
ii.
Biotechnology
1.
B.
a.
Primary
1) Substances produced by an organism as part of its normal growth
a) Proteins, enzymes and alcohol
b. Secondary
1) Produced by organisms after main population growth
a) Not essential to survival of organism
b) Not all produce them
c) Produced when nutrients in short supply and growth slows down
d) Antibiotics, penicillin
6. Manipulation of growth conditions in fermentation vessel
a. Temperature
1) Optimum to maintain metabolic rates
a) Not too hot or it denatures enzymes
2) Cold water used to cool down exergonic reactions producing heat
b. pH
1) Kept at optimum to ensure enzyme action continues as required
a) Too high/low reduces activity of enzymes
c. Oxygen
1) Sufficient supply needed for aerobic respiration processes
2) Products achieved through anaerobic respiration have no oxygen supply
a) Alcohol
d. Nutrients/substrates
1) Correct nutrients added at the right times
a) Depends on whether its batch or continuous and if primary or
secondary metabolites are needed
e. Agitation
1) Stirring or mixing to prevent microorganisms settling at bottom of fermenter
a) This would reduce activity and growth rate
2) Rotating paddle or bubbling of oxygen from base
7. Asepsis
a. Stops contamination of unwanted microorganisms in culture
1) Kill culture microorganisms
2) Use required products for their own metabolism
3) Spoil end product with toxic by-products
4) Compete with culture population for nutrients and space
a) Reducing growth rate and yield
b. Methods
1) Washing, disinfecting and steam cleaning all equipment
2) Polished stainless steel fermenters that prevent microbes sticking to surfaces
3) Sterilisation of nutrients before they are added to fermenter
a) Steam or heat treatment
4) Oxygen need to be free from microbes using filters
C. Immobilising enzymes
1. Enzymes fixed in place
a. Do not mix freely with substrate and are not lost in the process
b. Do no contaminate end product and can be reused many times straight away
c. Damage by extreme conditions unlikely as theyre protected by immobilising material
2. Adsorption
a. Enzymes held in place on a surface (glass or carbon) by hydrophobic/ion/covalent
bonding
3. Entrapment
a. Enzymes trapped in gel beads or between cellulose fibres
b. Substrate and product molecules can pass through material to reach enzyme
1) Enzyme cannot pass through into solution
4. Membrane separation
a. Physically separated from substrate by partially permeable membrane
b. Substrate/product pass through barrier, but enzymes cant
iii. Genomes and gene technologies
A. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
1. Mixture of the DNA sample, free nucleotides, primers and DNA polymerase is set up
a.
B.
C.
D.
Primers are short pieces of DNA complementary to bases at the start of DNA
fragments
b. DNA polymerase is an enzyme that creates new DNA strands
2. Heated to 95C to break hydrogen bonds in DNA forms single strands
a. Cooled to 50-65C so that primers can bind (anneal) to strands
1) Forms double stranded section allowing DNA polymerase to bind to
3. Heated to 72C so DNA polymerase can line up free DNA nucleotides along template strands
a. Complementary base pairing means new complementary strands are formed
1) 2 new copies of DNA fragment are formed
a) Each PCR cycle doubles amount of DNA
Restriction enzymes
1. Restriction endonuclease enzymes are specific to DNA
a. Wide range of them, each with different active site thats specific to a particular
sequence of nucleotides (restriction site)
1) Usually palindromic sequences that consist of antiparallel base pairs
2. Shape of restriction site is complementary to enzymes active site
3. If restriction sites are on either side of DNA fragment needed, restriction enzymes can separate
it from rest of DNA
4. Enzyme catalyses hydrolysis reaction
a. Breaking sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA
5. Sequence of unpaired and exposed nucleotides are left after cutting, called sticky ends
a. Can be used to bind (anneal) DNA fragment to another length of DNA with
complementary sticky ends
Gel electrophoresis
1. Technique of separating pieces of DNA according to their length
2. Gel contains wells
a. Sample of DNA is placed into these
1) Covered in buffer solution to conduct electricity
2) Florescent tag added to all DNA fragments so they can be viewed with UV
b. Electrical current passed through the gel
1) DNA fragments negatively charged
a) Move towards positive electrode at far end of gel (anode)
i.
Small DNA fragments move faster and travel further
1. DNA separates according to size
2. DNA fragments can be viewed under UV light
Genetic engineering
1. Transformed/transgenic organisms
a. Have recombinant DNA
1) DNA formed by joining together DNA from different sources
2. Fragment inserted into vector
a. DNA fragment containing gene required is isolated by using restriction enzymes and
inserted into vector DNA
1) Vector is something used to transfer DNA into a cell
a) Plasmids found in bacteria, bacteriophages are used
b. Same restriction enzyme used to cut open vector DNA
1) So that sticky ends of the vector are complementary to stick ends of DNA
fragment
c. Vector DNA and DNA fragment mixed together with DNA ligase
1) Joins up sugar-phosphate backbone through ligation
d. Leaves recombinant DNA (vector dna + dna fragment)
3. Vector transfers gene into bacteria
a. Vector with the recombinant Dna is used to transfer the gene into bacterial cells
b. Plasmids
1) Bacterium placed in calcium chloride to increase cell wall permeability
a) Plasmids added to mixture and heated to encourage cells to take in
vector
c. Bacteriophage
1) Infects the bacterium by injecting its DNA into it
a) DNA of phage integrates into the bacterium DNA
d. Bacteria become transformed or transgenic
4.
i.
Ecosystems
A. Key terms
1. Biotic factors
a. How living organisms in an ecosystem affect each other
1) Food supply, predation and disease
2. Abiotic factors
a. Effects of non-living components of an ecosystem
1) Temperature, pH and soil type
3. Niche
a. Role that each species plays in an ecosystem
4. Habitat
a. Place where an organism lives
5. Population
a. All the organisms of one species that can live in the same place at the same time
b. Can interbreed freely
6. Community
a. All the populations of different species living in the same place at the same time
Ecosystem
a. Group of living organisms and non-living things occurring together and the
interrelationships between them
b. Always changing, not static they are dynamic
B. Trophic levels
1. Stages in a food chain occupied by a particular group of organisms, a.k.a feeding levels
2. Producers
a. Autotrophs converting energy from environment and inorganic matter into chemical
energy in the form of complex organic molecules
1) Used in growth or as substrates for respiration
b. Phototrophs
1) Plants using suns energy to convert inorganic matter into carbs
c. Chemotrophs
1) Bacteria using chemical energy and heat to convert inorganic into complex
3. Consumers
1) Digest complex organic molecules made by autotrophs, using to growth or
respiration
b. Primary consumers
1) Herbivores that feed on plants
c. Secondary consumers
1) Feed on primary consumers
d. Tertiary consumers
1) Feed on secondary consumers
4. Decomposers
a. Organisms that feed on waste or dead organic matter
1) Gain energy through digesting and respiring complex molecules in the matter
a) Cause decay and food to go off
MODULE 4 RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Plant responses
A. Why do plants need to respond?
1. All organisms need to respond to changes in their internal or external environment
a. Changes are stimuli and responses are to increase survival chances
1) Avoiding predation
2) Abiotic stress
a) Not enough water or light
B. Tropisms
1. A tropism is a directional growth response
a. Direction of response determines by direction of external stimulus
2. Phototropism
a. Response to light
1) Shoots show positive phototropism and grow towards light
3. Geotropism
a. Response to gravity
b. Shoots show negative geotropism and grow away from gravity
c. Roots show positive and grow towards
C. Plant hormones
a. Coordinate plant responses, also called plant growth regulators
b. Do not have endocrine glands and have different effects on different tissues
2. Auxin
a. Coordinates response to light
b. Produced in tip of growing shoot
c. Increases growth by promoting elongation of the cells
1) Hydrogen ions are pumped into the cell wall to lower pH
a) Softens the cell wall allowing extra stretching
d. Shoot bends towards light source
1) Auxin in higher concentrations on shaded side of shoot
a) Cells on shaded shade elongate more making it grow more and bend
D. Apical dominance
1. Refers to inhibition of lateral shoots further down the shoot by the apical bud
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