Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Albert Bandura
CHAPTER 1 - THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES (1)
People strive to control events that affect their lives.
o This need permeates everything that individuals do.
o Uncertainty in important matters is unsettling.
People's level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they
believe than on what is objectively true.
o Belief that one can produce desired effects provides incentive to act.
o Efficacy beliefs are, thus, a major source of action.
o Perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (3).
Efficacy beliefs influence:
o courses of action
o effort
o perseverance in the face of obstacles and failures
o resilience to adversity
o whether thought patterns are self-hindering or self-aiding
o stress and depression in taxing situations
o level of accomplishment realized
The Nature of Human Agency (3)
People can exercise influence over what they do. Agency refers to acts
done intentionally.
o Beliefs of personal efficacy constitute the key factor of human agency.
o One can intentionally originate novel, coherent thoughts.
Thought processes are emergent brain activities that are not ontologically reducible.
o Thought processes exert influence.
o Once formed, efficacy beliefs regulate aspirations, behavioral courses, effort, and
affective reactions.
o thus, people bring cognitive productions into being by intentional exercise of
personal agency
Dualism
o Social cognitive theory rejects dualism.
o There is one self, not subject/object.
o In self-reflection, individuals are subject and object.
Human Agency in Triadic Reciprocal Causation (5)
Personal factors, behavior, and environmental events interact and influence each other
bidirectionally.
o Influence of each varies depending on task.
Agency works within a sociostructural influence.
o Social structures are created by human activity.
o There is variation within social structures.
o Efficacious people enforce their will within these social structures.
o Inefficacious people are less apt to exploit opportunities.
o Human behavior must be thought of in terms of self and social influences.
Determinism and the Exercise of Self-Influence (7)
Because behavior is co-determined by many factors operating interactively, given events
produce effects probabilistically, not inevitably.
o freedom is defined as the exercise of self-influence to bring about desired results
Self-Influences operate on behavior the same way external influences do. Thus, some
measure of freedom is possible through
o Alternatives we consider.
people who judge themselves poor swimmers will visualize themselves drowning
if they jump in deep water" (21).
o Performances versus Outcomes
A performance is not an outcome. Performance is an accomplishment.
Outcomes follow from performances.
exercise: A, B, C, D, & F are markers for various levels of performance;
harassment, praise, etc. . . are outcomes
"When performance determines outcomes, efficacy beliefs account for
most of the variance in expected outcomes" (24).
Possible Selves.
o People conjure up specific self images of future successes and failures. These
possible selves are constructed from
personal experiences,
actual and symbolic models,
sociocultural influences that
provide a framework to interpret experience
influence how we think about potential and options
guide action
motivate us toward selected goals (25)
positive selves guide and motivate while unwanted selves block
action and prompt avoidance
Control Beliefs
o A control event consists of an agent using certain means to give rise to outcomes.
Three sets of beliefs about the exercise of control
Agency beliefs refer to whether one possesses the appropriate
means
Effort
Ability
Luck
Unknown factors
Means to ends beliefs refer to whether these means are effective in
producing desired events and preventing undesired ones
Control beliefs refer t whether one can produce desired events and avoid
undesirable ones independent of any means
*Means do not operate on outcomes directly, thus, this tripartite model is
missing performance. Means do not operate on outcomes directly, rather
they give rise to certain performances then produce outcomes (27).
Primary versus Secondary Control (29)
o Primary control - efforts to change existing realities.
o Secondary control - accommodation to environment.
Adapting to existing realities.
Ameliorating distress over realities.
o As in Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Cognitive incongruities are resolved by assimilation or accommodation.
Assimilation - people interpret reality in ways that fit their beliefs.
Accommodation - change beliefs to fit reality.
"in short, human functioning is not compartmentalized into changing the
environment or changing oneself . . . human adaptation and change are
better explained by the dynamic interplay of different coping strategies
then by categorizing them into types" (31).
Self-Efficacy in Individualistic and Collectivistitic Social Systems (31)
o Global classifications mask diversity within systems.
Individualistic cultures differ.
Collectivistic systems differ.
" There has been little research on how people process multidimensional efficacy beliefs;
there is every reason to believe, however, that efficacy judgements are governed by some
common judgmental processes" (114).
Integrations rules may vary
o Combine efficacy factors additively - the more indicants there are, the stronger
the belief of personal capability
o Relative weighting rule in which some factors are weighted more heavily than
others
o Multiplicative combinations rule in which the conjoint impact of factors on
efficacy beliefs is greater than simply their additive effect
o Configurally - particular factor is given different weight depending on other
available sources of efficacy information (114)
Serendipity/Synchronicity
"People are often brought together through a fortuitous constellation of
events that can shape the course of their lives" (163).
"The particular patterning of changes - interwoven with fortuitous occurrences contribute to the uniqueness of individual life."xx
Operative environments take three different forms
o Imposed
Physical
Social - The key here is viewing it favorably, neutrally, or negatively
o Selected
Potential
Actual - The selection of an environment changes it from potential to
actual
o Created
People create social systems
ORIGINS OF A SENSE OF PERSONAL AGENCY (164)
"The newborn arrives without any sense of self. The self must be socially constructed through
transactional experiences with the environment" (164).
"As infants begin to gain behavioral capabilities, their understanding of agent causation
is fostered by experiencing and observing the results of action" (164)
To gain agency infants must learn that they can make things happen
Recognition That Actions Produce Outcomes (164)
Realization of personal agency requires observation that outcomes flow from actions and
that recognition that actions are part of one's self.
o "Infants who experience success in controlling their environment by their actions
become more attentive to their behavior and more competent learners than infants
for whom the same events occur regardless of how they behave" (164).
o Infantile experiences with agency can be long lasting and widely generalized
o During the initial months of life, the exercise of influence over the physical
environment may contribute more to a sense of personal agency tan influence
over social environments
Factors that can impede infants perception of control
o Hazy functional relations between event sun everyday life (no consistency)
Delays b/t action and outcome
Imperfect linkage b/t action and outcome
Multi-determination of outcome
Ambiguous environmental signaling of events that are controllable, and
Those that are not
Recognition and Differentiation of the Self (167)
Understanding that one is that agent of action shifts the perception of agency from action
causality to personal causality.
o "infants acquire a sense of personal agency when they recognize that they can
make things happen and they regard themselves as the doers" (167).
o They get their own names
o Differentiate themselves from others in verbal labeling
o During pre-verbal period of development, a sense of persona agency is perhaps
o Better reflected in evidence that courses of action are intentionally selected, selfmonitored, and self-corrected
FAMILIAL SOURCES OF SELF-EFFICACY (168)
Since children cannot do much for themselves, much of their influence is through the
exercise of proxy control
o Neonates depend on adults for food, clothing, comfort . . .
o Parents who are responsive to their infants, have infants who are advanced
socially, linguistically, and cognitively
o Self-management skills
o School can be a facilitator in this but "harried educators do not want the
additional responsibilities . . . they have enough problems fulfilling their basic
academic mission"
"The traditional style of health education provides students with factual information
without attempting to change social influences that shape and regulate habits"(176)
o School health education is long on didactic, and short on personal enablement
o Programs must equip youths with the means to exercise control over personal
habits
GROWTH OF SELF-EFFICACY THROUGH TRANSITIONAL EXPERIENCES OF
ADOLESCENCE (177)
Contrary to the stereotype of "storm and stress" most adolescents negotiate the important
transitions of this period without undue disturbance or discord
Sociocognitive Theory construes the positive contributors to adaptation within an agentic
perspective
o Protectiveness shields individuals from harsh realities
o Enablement equips them with personal resources to select and structure their
environments
Adolescents have to manage Biological, Educational and Social Role Changes
simultaneously
o Biological
Accelerated rate of physical development
Pubertal changes contribute to self-efficacy interacting with psychsocial
factors
Biological matters affect physical prowess and social status
Developmental lag is a personal handicap for boys but an advantage for
girls
Early blooming girls get into dating, sexual and drinking situations sooner
o Educational
Change inti more impersonal schooling environment
Reestablish efficacy, social status, and social connectedness
o Social
Close personal ties render everyday stressors more bearable
Isolations carries high risk of despondency/depression in adolescence
Supportive family and peer relationships serve as safeguards against
depression
Management of Sexuality (179)
"Adolescents must learn to manage their sexuality long before they are ready to take on
the functions of parenthood" (179).
o Social practices largely foster sexual ignorance and unpreparedness
o Teens are initiating sexual activity at younger ages
o Most teens pick up sexual information from peers and the media
o Information alone does not exert much influence on sexual behavior
o Sexual risk reduction calls for enhancing interpersonal efficacy rather than
targeting a specific behavior for change
In managing sexuality, people have to exercise influence over themselves as well as over
others
o Requires self-regulative skills over self and others
o Self-regulative efficacy form an integral part of sexual self-management
o Low self-regulatory efficacy in risky sexual situations spells trouble
o Educational aspirations delay initiation into sexual activity
Management of High-Risk Activities (182)
Experimentation with risky activities is not uncommon
o Alcohol use
o Visions of a future lacking variety and challenging new prospects give rise to new
strains
o Upward mobility decreases with age
o Employees who are assured of their learning efficacy are more receptive to
opportunities to expand their knowledge
Some pursuits call for heavy training for short-term careers (sports)
o Unemployment can come quickly
o Transition from sports to new career paths is difficult for athletes who have
invested their sense of efficacy and identity mostly in the sport
Even true for competitive amateur athletes
o Those who cultivate other interests during those years fare much better
The midlife crisis resides more in the rhetoric of popular media than in the actual
experiences of people in middle life
o Midlifers do not hold a monopoly on stock-taking
o Reactions to taking stock take many forms
Some people choose to expand competencies in areas around which their
lives are structured
Many scale down their ambitions and restructure their goals
People who remain in the same job increase their level of skill
"Most people navigate through the middle years efficaciously. Some do not . . . adaptation in
midlife is best predicted by the interplay of personal attributes and life circumstances rather than
by one's age" (198).
REAPPRAISALS OF SELF-EFFICACY WITH ADVANCING AGE (198)
The self-efficacy issues for older adults canter on reappraisals of their capabilities
o Loss of physical stamina
o Sensory functions
o Intellectual facility
o Memory
o Gains in knowledge, skills, and expertise compensate for some loss in reserve
capacity . . . older adults have many adaptive capacities
Heterogeneity of Cognitive Changes (199)
Intellectual development is multifaceted
o Attention
o Memory
o Time sharing
o Information integration
o Level of knowledge and expertise
Intellectual growth and decline exist together
The contributions that the elderly can make to society receive little
attention
o Wisdom
Advanced understanding
Keen discernment
Sound judgement
A theory of wisdom must be concerned not only with the forms that
wisdom takes but also with how to evaluate its usefulness.
o Every human pursuit presents dilemmas and problems of how to conduct one's
life to gain a sense of purpose and fulfillment (199)
Wise judgment has to do with pursuits around which people structure their
lives
Wisdom exists, in varying degrees, in all walks of life
Although it is founded on expert knowledge, it encompasses much more
o Wisdom requires superior judgment and broad social and temporal perspective
Memory Functioning (201)
Memory lapses can be construed differently; how one views them can have varied effects
on the quality of functioning
o Controllable skill - confidence in ability to improve it
Efficacious outlook accompanies low depression
Actually facilitates memory performance
Does a better job of remembering things
Predicts degree of improvement in memory functioning
o Shrinking biological capacity
Harbor doubts suffer depression
Believe they have limited memory capacity
Can do little to affect memory capacity
The more that individuals believe this, the poorer use they make of their
cognitive capabilities
o Efficacy beliefs can enhance memory performance by motivating deeper levels of
cognitive processing of experiences. These cognitive memory aids may include:
Organizational strategies
Mental rehearsal
Elaborative and associative coding
Physical and Health Functioning (204)
Declines in stamina and functioning health status are attributed all too often to biological
aging when in fact some of the decline in physical stamina reflects decrements in beliefs
of physical efficacy.
o Lowering perceived efficacy lowers endurance (204)
o Arbitrary social comparison diminishes physical stamina
o "How old would you be if you didn't know how old you was?" - Satchel Paige
o Weakens functioning of biological systems
Negative changes in cellular and metabolic processes
Loss in lean body mass
Cardiovascular decline
Diminished immunocompetence
"The major share of the decline in cardiovascular functioning with age
can be offset by regular exercise" (204).
o The mass media play an influential role in shaping images of reality
Elderly are often seen as insignificant contributors
Negative stereotypes as idle simpletons or leading impoverished,
debilitating lives
Thus, people with similar biological status but with varying belifs will
vary in how well they use the capabilities they possess
Aging and the Exercise of Control (205)
The issue of interest is not only what cognitive capacities the elderly have, but how they
use them to construct and manage their social realities.
o How they maintain agency (during a clearly transitional period)
o Maintain social connectedness
Retirement
Relocation
Loss of friends
Enabling function of social support supports enhanced coping
efficacy
o Institutional constraints on the exercise of personal control can take a toll on
psychological well being
Residents of nursing homes who are given opportunities to exercise some
control over events in their daily lives are
more active socially
more engaged in activities
happier
remain in better health
live longer
the loss of skills often brings on the need to exercise proxy control
Sociostructural Constraints (207)
It is easier to age successfully for those who experience little discontinuity in their major
life pursuits
o Writers continue to write
o Artists paint
o Professors profess
Environments affect how people age
o Monotonous environments that require little thought or judgement diminish
cognitive functioning
o More limiting the environment is, the more they decline in their socio-cognitive
functioning
o People are both products and producers of their environments
Today's elderly are aging more effectually than in the past
o Greater control of self-development
o More intellectually agile
o Healthier and more proactive
Thus, there is a mismatch
Society is slow in accommodating these expanded potentials
Role expectations
Social norms that curtail opportunity
affect work opportunities
retirement practices
educational pursuits
filling of unstructured leisure time
Maintenance of Self-Efficacy with Decline in Capacity (208)
An efficacious outlook is no less futile in old age than in earlier periods of life
o There are several ways older adults can sustain high efficacy in spite of reserves
in capacity
Social comparisons
they should use self-comparisons rather than comparing against
younger people
selective social comparisons with age-mates
shifting standards of self-appraisal
when skills stabilize or begin to diminish, self-satisfactions and
perceived efficacy are better served by selective social
comparisons
Exploiting age-norms (like John Glenn).
Selective integration of multifaceted efficacy information
multiple experiences using different skills
weighing heavily the domains of functioning at which they excel,
and minimize those at which they consider of lesser importance
Selective Optimization and compensation
simplifying activities
pacing activities
restructuring the physical environment to make it more
manageable
adopt new roles
instructional aids
Growing proficiencies are credited to expanding personal capabilities
(226).
Self-directed mastery experiences are arranged too strengthen and
generalize personal efficacy
Self-regulatory capabilities and higher efficacy are the ultimate goal
A focus of social cognitive theory is the development of personal agency
Self-Efficacy in Self-Regulated Cognitive Development (227)
As students progress in their education, they are expected to become more self-directed
in their learning - "this requires bringing self-influence to bear on every aspect of
learning experiences" (228).
there is a difference between possessing knowledge and being capable of
proficient action
students often know what to do, but cannot translate that knowledge into
proficient performance
o Social cognitive theory expands the concept of self-regulation in two ways.
Incorporates a large set of self-regulatory mechanisms governing
cognitive functioning
Encompasses social and motivational skills as well as cognitive ones
o Three main features [mechanisms] of motivation
Selection
Activation
Sustained direction of behavior toward certain goals
o Motivational facet of self directed learning includes
Self-monitoring
Self-efficacy appraisal
Personal goal setting
Outcome expectations
Affective self-reactions
o Barry Zimmerman's expanded view of academic self-regulation
people must develop skills to regulate
motivational
affective
social determinants of intellectual functioning
Students must learn to
select and structure the environmental settings
study strategies
mobilize ans sustain motivation for academic pursuits (over
outside distractions such as play and television).
"When self regulatory skills are lacking, people defer tasks to the last
moment and do them minimally or not at all" (229).
"In self-directed pursuits, people must exercise personal discipline
if they are to accomplish what they seek" (229).
o The strategic skills needed to exercise control over one's learning include
Information processing skills needed for identifying important
information, transforming it to improve its meaning, and organizing it into
generalizable forms
Cognitive operational skills for structuring problems in ways that specify
goals and possible routes to them, selecting appropriate strategies, and
applying them effectively to solve problems
Metacognitive skills - thinking about the adequacy of one's own thinking
monitor regulative thought
evaluate its adequacy in solving problems
make corrective adjustments
o It is a common finding that people who learn rules in abstract do a poor job of
applying them to particular situations
Metacognitve training must include applying cognitive strategies
Transference of cognitive skills takes experiences
Instructing people in the self-regulative process does little
Self-regulatory development is often social in nature
o Parents ought to do two things
Set high goals
Develop the efficacy beliefs needed to achieve those goals
o Writing presents special challenges to self-regulation
The higher their self-beliefs, the
less apprehensive students are about writing,
more useful they regard writing, and
the better they write (see Pajares & Valiante, 1997).
o Writing beliefs
Self-efficacy is weakest for taking first steps into writing a piece
Efficacy to regulate writing activities affects writing attainments by
strengthening efficacy beliefs for academic activities,
raising goals for mastering writing, and
heightening writing aspirations
Peer Influences in the Social Construction and Validation of Self-Efficacy (234)
Peers contribute to the social construction of intellectual self-efficacy
o Comparative information from teachers and grading
o Students publicly label, rank, and discuss how smart classmates are.
o Ability groupings stabilize (for good or ill) peer evaluations
o Peer models for academic efficacy (success and failure) (234)
o Influence interpersonal affiliations
who one associates with
selective orientations with certain peers who set examples
"efficacy beliefs are both products and determiners of peer affiliations"
(235).
Perceived Self-Efficacy and Academic Anxiety (235)
There is a lot to be anxious about in scholastic life
Students who are inefficacious
o don't concentrate on mastery, but on the difficulty of the task
o focus on personal inadequacies
o ruminate about past failures
o worry about the consequences of failing
o think themselves into emotional distress and faulty performances
The impact of past performances in math is mediated entirely through their impact on
effect on beliefs of personal efficacy
The full impact of perceived self-efficacy on academic anxiety is best revealed by
assessing belief in one's efficacy to
o Fulfill academic demands
o Exercise control over intrusive thinking
o Ameliorate experienced distress
o Regulate one's study activities
Impact of Cognitive Self-Efficacy on Developmental Trajectories (237)
Children's intellectual development cannot be isolated from the social relations within
which it is imbedded or from its interpersonal effects.
o A secure sense of intellectual and self-regulatory efficacy not only promotes
academic success, but also is influential in fostering satisfying and supportive
social relationships and positive emotional development.
o Students who doubt their intellectual efficacy gravitate toward students who
devalue academic pursuits
Self-Efficacy in Advanced Cognitive Functioning (239)
Efficacy beliefs are even more critical at advanced levels of cognitive functioning where
pursuits demand high levels of self-directedness
o In college, students must choose which educational level to pursue and assume
responsibility for their learning
o Self-efficacy plays a large role in career choice
o Predicts academic grades
o By influencing preparatory development and occupational choices, efficacy
beliefs partly shape the courses that lives take.
Perceived self-efficacy figures prominently in scholarly productivity
o Mediational role of self-efficacy is stronger for males than females
o Affects graduate students in several ways
mastery experiences
modeling of research strategies
supportive feedback
o "research, by its very nature, requires resilience and a firm sense of purpose"
(240)
TEACHERS' PERCEIVED EFFICACY (240)
Teacher beliefs in instructional efficacy influence students academic development.
o Teachers with a high sense of efficacy operate on the beliefs that students are
teachable through extra effort and appropriate techniques.
They devote more class time to instructional activities
Provide guidance more to students who need it.
Praise their academic accomplishments more.
o Low efficacy teachers feel there is little they can do if students are unmotivated
or there is environmental opposition.
Spend more time on non-academic pastime
Readily give up on students if they do not get quick results
Criticize students for their failure.
Teachers' beliefs in their efficacy affect their general orientation toward educational
processes as well as instructional activities (241).
o Low efficacy
Pessimistic view of students motivation
Classroom control through strict regulations
Use negative sanctions to get students to study are mired in classroom
problems
Distrust their ability to manage a classroom
Are stressed and angered by student misbehavior
Pessimistic about students improbability
Take a custodial view of their job
If they had to do it all over again, would not choose teaching profession
o High efficacy
Regard their students as reachable and teachable.
Beliefs about efficacy predicted student achievement.
o The early years of schooling are critical for students
Beliefs about efficacy are socially constructed by
Appraisals of performance
Repeated social comparisons with attainments of peers
Construal of academic expectations and ability evaluations
Teachers efficacy is especially influential on young children
because
o "In short, educational systems are strewn with conditions that can easily erode a
teacher's of efficacy and occupational satisfaction" (244).
Measuring school efficacy
o Identifying effective schools is not easy
Control for background
Ethnic and socioeconomic composition
Otherwise differences may reflect what students bring to the school
o Traits that contribute to effective schools
Strong academic leadership by the principal
High academic standards
Mastery oriented instruction
Classroom management skills
Parental support and involvement
Attributes of Efficacious Schools (244)
Principals
o Highly efficacious schools - educational leaders who seek ways to improve
instruction
o Low efficacious schools - administrators and disciplinarians
Tracking
o Determines level of intellectual challenge and career guidance
o In efficacious schools, only used to accelerate students so they can become part
of regular instruction
o Once tracked, most students remain there
o Rewarded for substandard performances or merely for effort
o Affects high ability disadvantaged minorities
o Often fosters affiliation with low achieving peers
o Affects teachers efficacy which, in turn, affects student efficacy
Family - "parents are the first teachers, and the home is the first school"
o Efficacious schools heavily involve parents as partners. Parents:
Prepare children for school
Place a value on education
Set beliefs about scholastic abilities
Set standards of excellence
Establish regular homework habits
Help with schoolwork at home
Encourage language development
Keep track of academic progress
Reward efforts
Support school related functions
Assist with school activities
Parental involvement increased the likelihood of high academic tracks
Supplement education with after school programs
informal social networks spawn a lot of learning outside school
Teacher
Determines level of parental participation (by being more inviting)
Stronger teachers instructional efficacy, the more parents seek
contact with them
Family involvement is critical
An effective efficacy building program would include videotaped
modeling of family tutoring skills as well as guided practice
Schools
o Learning activities promote a sense of personal capability and scholastic
accomplishment
The same intensity of pain stimulation can give rise to different levels of conscious pain,
depending on
o How attention is deployed
o How the experience is appraised cognitively
o Coping strategies used to modulate pain
o How others are observed to react to painful stimulation
Pain control techniques
o Attention strategies
o Cognitive distractions
o Cognitive reconstrual
There are several ways that coping efficacy can reduce pain
o People who believe that they can alleviate pain enlist ameliorative skills and
persist to reduce discomfort
o Altering consciousness because if pain sensations are supplanted in
consciousness they are felt less
o Engrossing activities that are attentionally demanding are better than trivial
thoughts
Perceived efficacy mediates analgesic potency of various psychological procedures
o Less pain in later cold-presser tests
o Higher pain threshold
o Higher pain tolerance (268)
Self-efficacy and back pain
o Patients judged their efficacy for lifting, bending carrying pushing, and pulling
Expectation of pain and harm are largely products of perceived inefficacy
Gains in efficacy increased physical functioning and patients suffering
from degenerative disk disease
Helplessness theory and self-efficacy theory appear to be at odds
o Pain endurance
Helplessness theory - deficient control over stressors
Self-efficacy theory - control over stressors
Increased pain endurance through non opiod cognitive
mechanisms
Differing consequences of control it types of coping situations
Pain Regulatory Efficacy in Placebo Analgesia (272)
The purpose of placebo is to separate the contribution between
o Psychological action
o Pharmocological action
People sometime begin to behave in ways that produce benefits (M*A*S*H*)
Strength of placebo analgesic is predictable from placebos affect beliefs in efficacy to
endure pain
o Placebos work because they are efficacious in their ability to withstand pain
o Efficacy beliefs to ameliorate pain are enlisted by placebo based on past
experience with medicine to relieve pain
Combining Medications with psychosocial Treatment (273)
A Perceived efficacy that rests entirely on medicinal aid will not survive withdrawal of
medication
o Smokers and obese people who had placebo pills withdrawn lost their effect
quickly and reverted to old habits
o Those told they succeeded though their own efforts achieved further reductions in
wight loss and smoking
Combining medicines and development of self-regulatory skills can enhance perceived
efficacy
o Medication that enable people to develop self regulatory skills can enhance
perceived efficacy
o Medication facilitates skill development and skill development enhances
perceived efficacy
o Medication can undermine efficacy if coping successes are ascribed to
medication rather than improved capability
Perceived Coping Self-efficacy and Immunocompetence (274)
Psychosocial factors modulate the immune system in ways that can influence
susceptibility to illness
Immunoregulatory influence operates through
o Neuroanatomical
o Neurochemical
o Neuroendocrine . . . links of the central nervous system.
Three way perceived self-efficacy can affect immune functioning
o Stress mediation
Self efficacy to control stressors mediates their impact on immune
functioning
Immune cells have receptors for opiods
When opioids are blocked the stress of coping inefficacy loses it
immonosuppressive power
Exposure to stressors is accompanied by impairment of the immune
system
Decreased lymphocyte proliferative response to mitogen
stimulation
Reduced number of helper T lymphocytic and natural killer cell
activity
Weaker immunological control over latent herpes viruses
Depressed interferon production
Poorer DNA repair in lymphocytes exposed to X-radiation
Acquisition of perceived efficacy to control stressors produced changes in
immunity
Generally sustained changes over time
Mastery of choice stressors instills strong sense of efficacy and
leaves long lasting protective changes
Efficacy gained commandingly often conveys more generalized
sense of coping than efficacy gained laboriously
Laborious achievement of efficacy can leave on "sensitive"
Stress management skills
Decrease immunological vulnerability in healthy individuals
Increase immunofunctioning in metastic cancer patients
Enhance cellular and humoral immune functioning is seropositive
men in asymptomatic stages of HIV infection (Magic Johnson)
o Depression Mediation
Depression has been shown to reduce immune functioning and heighten
susceptibility to disease
Increased incidence of infectious diseases
Development and spread of malignant neoplasms
Accelerated rate of tumor cell growth
Efficacy to develop social relationships influences indirectly b/c
supportive relationships lessen the impact of adverse life events
o Control Mediation (277)
The central nervous system can exert regulatory influence on immune
functioning
o Each mode for enhancing perceived efficacy helps develop a resilient sense of
efficacy
Enactive mastery -- structured demonstrations trials exercising control
over progressively more challenging tasks
Modeling - patients demonstrate how to cope with and reinstate control;
they make clear that success requires tenacious effort.
Persuasion - verbal persuasions - construing a slip as an occasion for
improvement supplants self-debilitating thoughts with constructive
problem solving
Long-term success in altering and maintaining health habits depends on self-regulatory
skills.
o Perceived self-efficacy is a good predictor of how well people stick to healthful
behavior
o Hypertension - the more firmly people believe in self-regulatory efficacy, the
more they practice relaxation
o Efficacy beliefs predict adherence to habits that enhance cardiovascular
functioning
o Predicts likelihood that organ transplant recipients will stick to immunosuppressive medication
o Self-management of diabetics regiments
Relapse Prevention and Management (289)
Relapse process is the same for
o Heroin addiction
o Alcoholism
o Smoking
Common pre-cipients include inability to manage negative emotional states like
o Stress
o Loneliness and depression
o Boredom and restlessness
o Social pressures
o Personal conflict
Mechanisms through which situational reminders prompt relapse
o Produce biological and cognitive change
o Familiar settings trigger biochemical reactions
o Familiar settings trigger positive or pleasurable outcome expectations
Courses of behavioral change include
o Improvements
o Plateaus
o Setbacks
o Recoveries
o "People often must go through several cycles of mastery and relapse before they
finally succeed" (p. 290).
o "Because serious attempts to quit are usually followed by lapses and relapses, the
mastery process is better viewed in terms of relapse management rather than
relapse prevention (p. 293).
Ecological Perspective on Efficacious Self-Regulation (p. 293).
Each of the three classes of interactants - environmental factors, self-system, behavioral
competencies - contribute to the long-term control of substance abuse. (Include little
triangle here)
o Social support and guidance during difficult times bolster the maintenance of
abstinence
o Environmental orientated approaches create social structures that enable people
to exert satisfying proactive control over their family, occupational, and
recreational lives.
o Biological factors
o Social factors and influences
o Self-beliefs of patents
Psychological recovery from heart attack is a social rather than individual matter
o Spouses judgements have a strong impact
o Treadmill activities raised patients and spouses belief in patient ability to
withstand cardiovascular strain
Mode of conveying prognosis information (316)
o It is good to use verbal tasks, but add performance tasks as well
Self-Validating Potential of Prognostic Judgements (317)
Diagnostics not only foretell the course of recovery but may partly influence it
o They form expectations about probable courses of a disease
o These beliefs are conveyed to patients
o People whose beliefs were raised by bogus information exhibited functional
improvement in physical stamina and pain management
CHAPTER 8 - CLINICAL FUNCTIONING
ANXIETY AND PHOBIC DYSFUNCTIONS (319)
Most people admit to some phobic tendencies of varying intensity
o They have acute misgivings and suffer chronic distress
o They can't do things they find subjectively threatening (but which are objectively
safe)
o They shun easily manageable activities
For example, snake phobia inflicts suffering on human lives
o People abandon recreational activities
o Affects job
Firemen who won't fight grass fires
Biologists/geologists who avoid field work
Plumbers who cannot work outdoors
Often plagued by ruminating thoughts and nightmares
Spider phobia
o Affects marital relationships
o People are unable to enter places they perceive have spiders
o They constantly want to take baths
o They suffer from physiological reactions such as vomiting, shortness of breath
Some human debilities stem not so much from perceived inability to control the
environment as from one's self (mental functioning)
o Actors forget lines
o Singers forget lyrics
o Soloists forget well rehearsed sequences
o inefficacy can lead to memory lapses
Traumatic experiences - severe stress in relationships long after trauma
o Re-experience traumatic events in flashbacks
o Recurrent nightmares
o Hyper vigilant arousal
o Depression
o Self-devaluation
o Emotional detachment from others
o "The experience of powerlessness exacts a heavy toll on a sense of personal
efficacy" (321)
Social anxiety - overly concerned about what others think of them
o Shy away from social activities
Feared activities are first modeled to show people how to cope effectively
with threats
Modeling aids that cultivate competencies are especially important
Modeling alone produces some heightening of perceived self-efficacy
o Difficult or intimidating tasks are broken down into subtasks of readily mastered
steps
At any given point people are asked to do what is in their capabilities with
extra effort and perseverance
o Example: driving phobics
Start with brief trips on secluded streets, then advance to longer drives on
more active routes, and culminate with lengthy drives on the freeway
if phobics fail, they are quick to ascribe their difficulty to inherent
capability. The therapist must then ascribe the difficulty to the size of the
task demand. More easily achievable tasks are selected and attempted
o Joint performance of intimidating activities with the therapist can aid in several
ways
Presence of familiar persons reduces stress reactions and increases
boldness
People are not always aware and attentive when strategies are modeled in
safe settings
they benefit greatly from ongoing corrective modeling specifically
focused on the problematic aspects of their capabilities
Rituals often increase exercise of control over outcomes - therapist ought
to get rid of them
Modification of faulty thought patterns
Clients may adopt different thought patterns in benign interview
settings
In the participant arrangement the therapist is present to identify
and correct dysfunctional patterns of thinking as they arise in
taxing situations and suggest strategies to foster successful
performance
Graduated time
Enduring stressors in short bursts to develop coping efficacy
Gradually increasing durations
Mastery aids are useful here too
Facets of Personal Change (332)
There are four processes of change
o Acquisition - development of knowledge, skills, and self-beliefs that govern
human though, affect, and action
o Generality - how widely acquired capabilities are used
Generality across situations
Toward different persons
Across modalities of thought, affect, and action
o Durability - how well changes are sustained over time
o Resilience - ability to recover readily from aversive experiences
Social Cognitive Theory asks analytic questions
o What is the power of treatment to produce personal change?
o Do the changes generalize or are they narrow in scope?
o How well are they maintained over time
o Does treatment build resilience to adversity?
the goal is to create treatments that realize all four facets of personal
change
o How the treatments affect vulnerability to aversive experiences
Bulemia (354)
The preoccupation with thinness has seeped down to preadolecence breeding eating
disorders that often plague later life
o 1/3 of young girls resort to unhealthy dieting or purging
o Bulimics hold a distorted view of themselves as portly
o Emotional states often trigger binges and purges
o "It is not emotional distress per se, but perceived inefficacy to mange emotional
distress that gives rise to overeating" (p. 354)
o "A low sense of efficacy to manage stressful events and to resist urges to eat was
predictive of bulimic behavior" (p. 354)
Bulemia is part of a larger life-management problem
o Rooted in dysfunctional personal relationships
o High standards of performance
o Stereotyped sex-roles
o Excessive investment of self-worth in physical appearances
o In studies, the more individuals raised their perceived self-regulatory efficacy the
less they purged
Socially Oriented Initiatives (356)
Part of the effort to ameliorate the epidemic problem of dieting and eating disorders
should be directed at raising collective efficacy to alter sociocultural values and
standards of physical attractiveness that breed health problems and self-devaluation.
The media must be sensitized to the fact that the svelte models of beauty they propagate
create severe pressures on young women to try to conform to this ideal of femininity
ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE (357)
Studies of the life course of alcohol abuse reveal that it develops gradually over a long period of
social drinking rather than abruptly as the disease model would lead one to believe
In the biopsychosocial interactional model
o Alcoholism is a multidetermined behavior pattern that varies across individuals in
severity, patterns of causal influence, and amenability to personal control.
Treatment strategies must be tailored to the particular constellation of
determinants operating in any given case.
Whatever treatment is selected, it must address the client's sense of
efficacy to control their drinking and their outcome expectations
Genetic factors may operate indirectly thorough their influence on
temperamental personality characteristics that predispose some youngsters
to drinking as well as other problem behaviors
Social models are powerful sharers of alcohol consumption
Televised modeling of drinking increase pro-drinking attitudes
Societies where alcoholic beverages are used as a food and not a drug are
less plagued with drinking problems
Self-Regulatory Efficacy in Alcohol Abuse (p. 358)
Alcohol is used by adults as a social facilitator and drinking is a significant part of social
activities
o A low sense of efficacy to regulate drinking in situations of social pressure is a
strong predictor of alcohol consumption
o If heavy drinkers are to manage their alcohol consumption, they must exercise
control over where and with whom they hang out.
People base their actions more on what they believe than on what is objectively the case.
o Males believe that liquor incenses sexual prowess when in fact it impairs
physiological sexual response
o It is a widely shared belief that alcohol reduces tension but that may work
because of the belief that it reduces tension "individuals who have learned to
respond to stress and dysphoric mood by heavy drinking need to develop more
effective ways of managing stressors" (p. 359)
The types of treatments that have been shown effective include
o Training in interpersonal skills
o Counteracting social pressures to drink
o Stress management
o Developing positive peer relations
o Cognitive skills for managing stressors
Self-Efficacy Mechanisms in Treatment Effects (361)
Perceived self-efficacy is an important operative factor in initiation, attainment, and
maintenance of changes in drinking behavior
o Those with low efficacy will not even try
o Those who enter treatment with nagging doubts give up quickly
The benefits from drinking have been considered one of the factors that maintains
drinking behavior
o Positive and negative consequences
o Contributes to
Health
Self-respect
Better future
o And may lead to
Loneliness
Reduction in expressiveness and outgoingness
Increased boredom
Drug Dependence (364)
Scope and Use of Self-Efficacy Analysis in Addictive Habits (367)
The overall findings provide converging evidence that perceived self-efficacy partly
determines success in altering detrimental addictive and consummatory habits and in
adhering to altered habits over the long term
o Most people who enter treatment do not do so with a robust sense of confidence
o They are not gladdened to hear that therapists an provide guidance but that they
will have to serve as the main agents of their own change
There are several sources of motivation that drive people to seek help with detrimental
habits
o Aversive effects of such habits
o Social pressures to alter them
o Self-dissatisfaction with ones life
o Anticipated benefits of eliminating injurious habits
These may bring people to treatment but will not keep them there for long
Self-efficacy theory accounts for
o initiation of self-change
o Level of behavioral changes
o Rate of change during the course of treatment
o Variations in behavioral changes achieved by individual receiving the same
treatment
o And provides explicit guidelines for how to structure and implement powerful
treatments
There are many facets of athletic skills that can be the focus of attention
o Cognitive
Plans
Strategies
o Motor - regulation of action patterns and accompanying sensations
o Emotive - stress management and reduction of tension
Impact of Model Attributes on Self-Efficacy and Performance (379)
The impact of athletic models
o Assumed similarity carries a heavy weight
o Women are especially inclined to act on their belief if the models voice belief in
themselves
o Of special interest is power of a presumably superior athlete to undermine the
efficacy beliefs of uncertain people
o Given a choice individuals are likely to select models with similar attributes and
ignore those with whom they have little in common
o Results clearly show the strength of self-modeling proficiency
Self-efficacy's Contribution to Acquisition of Motor Skills (380)
Most people regard athletic skills as depending on innate endowment
o Aptitude is converted to mastery through effort
o Ought not view physical ability as an inherent aptitude
Efficacy differs from confidence
o Confidence is a non descriptive term that refers to strength of belief
o Perceived self-efficacy is given powers of attainment
The field of sports psychology is heavily invented in personality trait measures
o They do not have predictive power
o They provide little guidance for how to structure training
o Efficacy beliefs and goals were more predictive of athletic functioning than was
"competitiveness"
Self-Regulation of Athletic Performance (383)
Cognitive Aspects of Athletic Ability
A common mistake is to judge ability by physical skills alone
o Perceived self-efficacy emerges as the sole determinant of overtime performance
o Athletic performance is co-determined
o "Can he win when he doesn't have his good stuff?"
o A capability is only as good as its execution
Level of perceived self-efficacy is the one psychological factor that most consistently
differentiates successful from less successful athletes across a variety of sports
o Raising efficacy beliefs : competitors outperformed opponents
o Beliefs in efficacy contribute to resilience against the adverse effects of defeat
o In some, mere sight of a formidable opponent instills lower efficacy beliefs
o Athletes of comparable abilities but differing self-assurance do not perform at the
same level
Efficacy Beliefs in Performance Regulation by Goal Challenges (386)
Personal challenges through goal setting contribute to athletic skill
o String motivators
o Combine proximal with distal goals
o Self-respect operates as a powerful motivator
o The higher the self set goal, the better the performance
o In accord with goal theory, performance attainments are better predicted by
personal goals than by assigned ones
The form that goals take affect motivation
o Poor goals are
Vague
Distant or remote
Easy to fulfill
Goals without feedback
o Better goals are
Set high
Include achievable sub goals
Feedback allows foe adjustments
Goals + efficacy to reach them = performance
Perceived Efficacy in Management of Competitive Stress and High Risks (388)
Relation between anxiety and impaired performance
o In social cognitive theory, anxiety and impaired performances are coeffects of a
low sense of efficacy to meet competitive demands
o In basketball, efficacy accounted for 40% of anxiety
o A common assumption in sports psychology is that anxiety arousal debilitates
performance. "Whatever effects physiological arousal might have are likely to
depend more on
How much attention is paid to it
Whether it is interpreted as being psyched up or distressed
o To the extent that perceived arousal affects performance, it does so through the
influence of efficacy belief
Thought Control Efficacy in Managing Stressors, Failures, and Slumps (391)
Consummate athletes have a remarkable efficacy to block out distractions and control
disruptive, negative thinking
o "I don't worry about who's on base, who's at bat . . . I just concentrate on the next
pitch"
o "It is me and the shot."
o Athletes must develop the efficacy to cope with failure because it is visited upon
them unmercifully often (391)
A lot of stress is self-inflicted
Dwelling on failures rather than savoring successes
All athletes make mistakes
o People can better rid themselves of disruptive thinking by concentrating their
attention on the task at hand
In athletes, weak efficacy heightens vulnerability to adversity
o Get down on themselves
o Brood over mistakes
o Conjure up disastrous mistakes
o Inefficacy feeds on itself
Efficacious athletes do not exacerbate performances problems by disruptive emotional
patterns and disruptive thought patterns
o Cognitive restructuring help "one shot at a time"
o Relax performance standards - more things are viewed as successes
o Good old fashioned "short rest" and break from the game
o Conquering a slum is not entirely an individual matter
Self-Management of Pain and Recovery from Injury (393)
Athletes do not come equipped with fewer pain receptors than non athletes
o They must learn to play through pain and fatigue
o The belief that pain is controllable makes it so
o Efficacy beliefs aid in recovering from injury
Self-Efficacy enhancement of Athletic Performance (394)
Past Performances
o Performance is not a cause of performance
Perceived obstacles
Perceived efficacy emerged as the only significant predictor of
subsequent preemployment (429)
Betz and Hackett have identifies a number of skills that relate to success in occupational
roles
o Ability to communicate well
o Relate effectively to others
o Plan and manage demands of one's job
o Exercise leadership
o Cope with stress effectively
Gender Differences in Occupational Self-Efficacy (430)
Although women make up approximately 50% of the total work force not may choose
technical and scientific careers
o They typically maintain clerical, service, or sales jobs
o Largely employed in traditionally female fields
Women's beliefs about their capabilities and career aspirations are shaped by
o Family
Parents expectations often differ by sex
o Educational system
o Mass media
o Culture at large
o Boys tend to inflate their sense of competence, girls generally disparage their
capabilities
Eccles (1989) found that parents generally subscribe to the stereotype that girls are less
talented in mathematics than boys, despite equal grades.
o Although boys and girls do not differ initially in their perceived mathematical
abilities, girls begin to lose confidence and diverge increasingly as time goes on
o They avoid math activities and classes creating the very gender differences
parents originally presumed to exist
o Current studies reveal a smaller disparity between male a female beliefs in pursuit
of occupational careers
Ethnic minorities are also under represented in the science and engineering
o %age of non-Asian minorities has been decreasing
o Minority students generally have a low sense of efficacy for scientific and
technological careers
Enhancement of Occupational Self-Efficacy (438)
Solutions to restricted aspirations require personal and social remedies
o Programs to support minorities in occupations
o Exposure to appropriate models
o Eliminating self-belittling biases
MASTERY OF OCCUPATIONAL ROLES (439)
Development of Competencies through Mastery Modeling (440)
Humans have an advanced capacity for observational learning
o Direct experience (tutorial) is often overused
o Models portray values, thinking patterns, and behavior
o Skills can be
Fixed
Generative
Instructive Modeling (441)
Modeling is the first step in developing competencies
o Skills are broken down into subskills
o Skills are then modeled on videotape
o Modeling ought also include the development and articulation of requisite beliefs
in personal efficacy
o "Mastery modeling works much better than lectures" (441)
People learn thinking skills by observing models think aloud
o Verbal models verbalize their thought processes as they evaluate the problem,
seek information, and generate alternative solutions
o Verbal models hold attention better
o Produce faster learning
Guided Skill Perfection (443)
Practice and role rehearsal
People need feedback how they are doing
o Videotape replays combined with instructional feedback are useful to show
people how they are doing
o Performance feedback mus include corrective changes that need to be made
o Corrective modeling is most informative and achieves the greatest improvements
An important aspect of occupational training includes training to be resilient to difficulty
Transfer Training by Self-Directed Success (444)
New skills are unlikely to be used for ling unless they are put into practice (444)
o New skills ought be tried in job situations likely to produce good results
o These successful experiences are followed up by discussions about difficulties
and successes
o Training programs ought to provide ample practice and success experiences to
gain proficiency
o "When instructive modeling is combined with guided role rehearsal and a guided
transfer program, this mode of organizational training usually produces excellent
results" (444)
Self-efficacy in Occupational Socialization (445)
Newcomers come with varied beliefs in personal efficacy
o Training strategies ought to be focused on confidence and competence
o Reduces anxiety
o Structures guidance lowered anxiety whereas self-study tutorials made them more
anxious
o Training contributed to growth of occupational self-efficacy