Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of Architecture.
Since1889.
Jean-Louis
eohen
~
,
1
Introduction
in time
01 hegemonies
01 type
versus architects,
or the problem
S eds to rails:
e dominion of steel
01 inclusion
02
03
The search
for modern form
Domestic innovation
and tectonic expression
043 - Residential
re/orm
043 - Uni/ying
01 the Beaux-Arts
023 - Proqrarns
01 modernization
023 - Networks
01 internationalization
axis
to Russian "Modern"
concrete
053 - Concrete
07
08
09
In search of a language:
from classicism to Cubism
Expressionism in
Weimar Germany and
the Netherlands
090 - Anglo-American
classicisms
culture"
01 proportions
nationalisms
103 - Commemoration
111 - Dynamism
in architecture
117 - Hanseatic
Expressionism
science
and reconstruction
between
lr Kunst
13
14
15
Architecture and
revolution in Russia
The architecture
of social reform
Internationalization,
its networks
and spectacles
176 - Modernizing
165 - A pro/ession
renewed
condensers"
171 - Polemics
and rivalries
School
and propaganda
cities
developments
the suburbs
in Berlin
194 - Modern
as printed stage
architecture
Congresses
01 Modern Architecture
198 - Networks
exhibitions
01 in/luence
(CIAM)
and historical
narratives
04
05
06
American rediscovered,
tall and wide
New production,
new aesthetic
056 - Chicago
070 - An explosion
057 - Sullivan's
without
precedent
toolbox
migrates
to New York
city
Werkbund
and
metropoles
10
11
12
Architectural education
in turmoil
house
shelter"
or elegant
modernism
builds
161 - Innovative
to house design
schools
in the
16
17
18
The spectrum of
classicisms
and traditionalisms
North American
modernities
200 - A second
Futurism
215 - Modern
207 - Terragni's
216 - Traditionalism
geometries
208 - An ambiguous
209 - New territories
"Mediterraneanism"
classicism
217 - Opportunism
and selt-crttlcal
without
borders
modernism
236 - Industrial
between
- lertile ground
reloaded
products:
lactory
and market
relorm
immigration
19
20
21
Functionalism and
machine aesthetics
Modern languages
conquer the world
Colonial experiences
and new nationalisms
240 - Taylorism
and architecture
to
national
243 - Dynamic
lunctionalism
in
modernisms
to modernizing
in North Alrica
as Czechoslovakia's
brand
and Nelson
deleated
European
dimensions
255 - Northern
in Hungary
and Poland
279 - Chinese
pluralism
283 - Modern
hegemony
264 - Japanese
endeavors
in Palestine
experiments
265 - Brazilian
curves
25
26
27
Le Corbusier reinvented
and reinterpreted
322 - 01 palaces
359 - Socialist
345 - Wright's
359 - Khrushchev's
and houses
01 Ronchamp
346 - Research
326 - Invention
349 - Gropius
326 - Corbusian
and introspection
Brutalism
age
last return
out west
366 - Japan's
01 the Bauhaus
351 - Saarinen's
Iyricism
in Moscow
realism exported
critique
assimilation
mannerisms
330 - Anglo-American
skyscraper
position
new energy
and Johnson's
anxiety
01 invention
372 - Archipelagoes
01 Kahn
to commerce
31
32
33
lhe postmodern
season
The neo-Futurist
optimism of high tech
--
424 - Scarpa,
- From nostalgia
to play
urbanity's
ligures
turns postmodern
e uncertain
Iront 01 postmodernism
e city - composition
or the rediscovery
01 craft
or collage?
427 - Collective
endeavor
438 - Beaubourg
establishes
439 - Composition
according
439 - Experimentation
441 - Structure
445 - Architects
433 - Research
in South Asia
personalities
internationalism
a canon
to Rogers
according
according
to Piano
to Foster
and engineers
22
23
24
and renaissance
and destructive
292 - Imagining
01 military occupation
the postwar
294 - Converting
age
or radical
modernization?
and Ilexibility
292 - Architecture
294 - Memory
techniques
world
to peace
and memorials
unit" as model
at work
318 - Housing
and innovation
in North Alrica
309 - A modernist
triumph?
28
29
30
continuity
381 - Independent
together
385 - Technology:
ethos or icon?
394 - Research
cities 01 indeterminacy
395 - Venturi's
386 - Hovering
388 - Metabolism
in Japan
388 - Megastructures
389 - Technology
planning
35
Architecture's
outer boundaries
Vanishing points
469 - Strategic
- Koolhaas,
or lantastic
-- - Nouvel, or mystery
471 - Reinvented
materials
realism
471 - Sustainable
buildings
01 the collection
.:; - Deconstructivists
- Fragmentation
geographies
01 art
recovered
and rationalists
as horizon
473 - Hypermodern
474 - Persistent
city
to
34
-
the extended
405 - Observing
media
social expectations
476 - Notes
494 - Bibliography
506 - Index
526 - Acknowledgments
and credits
Architecture's
expanded field
consumption.
protagonists
by the novels'
including municipalities,
coop-
materials. Its new relations to technology, the arts, and the city
of new
ings making them up. Both cities and buildings have under-
gone fundamentaltransformations,
since 1900 has surpassed the sum total of that which existed
disciplinary
Not only did the population of urban areas exceed that of the
countryside
for the first time shortly after the year 2000, but
traditions ..
also the very forms of human presence on the face of the earth
reflected tharoughgoing
ture of architecture
definition in this
the cul-
ranging from
. 1
objects
begins with the period from 1880 to 1914. It finds its temporal
brackets between the "short century" that the British historian
Introduction
Architecture's
expanded field
surge in con-
and
and urbanization,
by the convergence
of
throughout
disciplinary
of the
Spain, completed
the triumph of
in
of processes
a digital age had the effect of modifying the division of profesMuseum in Bilbao,
leading-nations.
of architecture
of
firms, clients,
enjoying unprecedented
mobility,
World's Columbian
social policies that had developed over the course of the twen-
of the New
definition of architecture
addressees
relinquished
to developers
The span from 1889 to 2000 does not divide easily into tidy,
self-contained
sought to perpetuate
which culmi-
temporalities
throughout the
o new demands.
Almost one century later - after decolonization,
of
of the Mediterranean
world.
metaphor of multidimensional
->
Braudel
"planes"
In twentieth-century
configurations;
iumph over the Soviet bloc in 1989 - the winding down of the
as
010
011
Introduction
Architecture's
expanded field
c. 1945
of major
allowing
century architecture
and architects'
continuously
changing
of
-> 6
-> 7
in 1932 in
In the following
of the new for newness's sake. From this point of view, it was
discussion,
interpretations
or traditionalist
of moder-
concepts, even if
modification,
consideration
tion of the vernacular are part of this bigger picture. Indeed, far
economic
from being a rigid category, and even less a sterile one, tradi-
-> 8
between architecture
was characterized
cal architects
- such as the
methods of form-giving.
al so proved indispensable
the changing
-> 9
systems of hegemony
-> 10
-> 11
The vocabulary
of architecture
faithfully reflected
012
013
supplemented
of the Moroccan
city of Casablanca
by French and
-> 12
of varying types,
for dominance
polemics in
order to consolidate
or xenophobic
homogenizing
internationalism,
nal and external forces. Long before the advent of air travel and
of ideas
reproduction
identity of archi-
->
conditions
architecture
into constructions
plan of Chandigarh,
nations.
-> 13
Architecture's
expanded field
The general
Introduction
developed
between imagined
assimilated
15
established
construction
Le
-> 16
site.
ing "postmodernism"
and technological
conceived
a perspective
by the Expressionists
structures dreamed of
architectural
industrially produced.
the ideological
forces that
previously in
Zevi, Henry-Russell
dictionaries
and encyclo-
ested in observing
in Words
highlighting
culture
modern architecture
episodes discussed
in this book.
of archi-
of modern architecture
auton-
Many of these
by a particular architect
014
015
appears all the more obsolete thirty years after the eruption
reflected an intellectual
position developed
in close contact
postmodernisms.
Without
I have ventured
their interpretations.
of incontestable
and Mies
-> 29
objective
dur-
of the "masters" of
careful reconsideration
of their ascendancy
their
architects who had less heroic careers but have been rediscovof a plethora of monographs
literally proclaiming
requirements
01 modernization
- the
of society -
in a single
plex trajectories.
I have frequently
the experimental
beginnings
oversimplilying
corn-
late periods, when their work often regressed or was simply fro-
considered
to the dubious
status 01 "pioneers"
ing of architectural
als and reform strategies lorged during the first decades of the
ment guaranteeing
theme in twentieth-century
of
maximum
architecture
ship of architectural
Introduction
Architecture's
expanded field
of
architects
Throughout
forms.
I have aspired to trace projects, alongside the dazzling accomplishments of the "rnasters" and their trailblazing
experiments
"e" according
categorized
projects.
016
017
Sheds to rails:
the dominion
of steel
languages pro-
from the baggage of historical styles, would give rise to the one
theoretical
accord of an art object wilh its genesis and with all the precondi-
wilh Romanlicism
lo
the result of the will to create a form, but rather the logical outcome
the demand for public policies that would satisfy the expecla-
workers.
In 1889 an international
are at the very least fine, acceptable pieces of work that can have
exposition
anniversary
11
in which three-hinged
prefabricated
elegance of its
of the industrial
objects it housed ..
decoration
had spurred
13
the preeminenl
"Caribbean
that would fuel Gottfried Semper's treatise Oer Stil in den technischen und tektonischen
Chapter 01
fully disguised
material of nineteenth-century
industry. Though
erected in Europe and North America in the middle of the century. Architectural
01 steel
6 ~
,-
1880-90
,It===~=
I el g
Caribbean
zecnniscnen
Knsten
11
sur I'architecture
Eugene Emmanuel
(Lectures on Architecture),
Viollet-Ie-Duc,
1872
Semper, 1860-3
Ruskin had
ing school in Europe and much 01the world. Among its stu-
-> 7
In a similar
sites.
unsttorm
(artform) in buildings.
-> 8
->
10
characterize nineteenth-century
In a clarilication 01 a
ever; contradictory
-> 11
~ ysiological processes."
->
suited to each project; in this respect they differed Irom both the
champions 01 a rigorous classicism and the hard-line rationalists. The Beaux-Arts "eclectics" olten proclaimed their allegiance
purpose and its lacade deduced Irom its plan. The Paris architect
z:
architects 01the 1889 exposition lor having "put aside senile and
=..1<1
Victor Laloux's Gare d'Orsay (1887-1900). The metal used
lhe case 01the Opra, were expertly decorated with sculp::...eand architectural ornament. These two buildings epitomized
lile that have the right to dictate the structure and to demand that
it provide rational exteriors, plans, and proportions."
->
12
018
019
Postsparkasse,
atto Wagner,
DIE KOMPOSITION,
IE KUNST 1ST, WIE SCHON
DAS
WORT
ANDEUTET,
ElN KONNEN,
SJE 1ST ElNE
FAHIOKElT,
WELCHE,
VON
WENIGEN AUSERwAHLTEN
VOLLENDUNG
ERHOSEN,
ZUR
DER
wAHREND
DIE
BAUKUNST
ES
VERS'I'EHT,
DAS
VERAR-
ZU
Architecture),
BlETEN.
[J
Architektur
1111
(Modern
Postsparkasse,
Programs of modernization
returned to the United States alter several years abroad and dis-
and dis-
-->
15
tals, schools, and universities. Above all, the dawn of the age of
beams, girders, and iron frames, were reaching their limits, and
Many contemporaries
12
up by the great iron and glass halls built to serve the agendas
01 the Industrial Revolution and the nation-state, Decades ear-
Networks of internationalization
lier, the Russian writer Nikolai Gogol had put forward a vision 01
a new transparent, vertical architecture derived from his anal-
trans-
height."
-->
work.
Joris-Karl
-->
16
Huysmans observed that the new iron edifices did not include
nal form, unachievable with stone, possible only with the metal-
titions, such as the one in 1898 for the campus of the University of
California, Berkeley, and those held between 1905 and 1914 for
-->
14
022
023
13
I-:--....,~~~JII!!!IIII'IIII..
-~
"
S.;..
ESTHTIQUE DE L'INGENIEUR
ARCHITECTURE
11
Victar Contamin,
Ferdinand
Dutert and
12
Loubaresse/Ruynes-en-Margeride,
France, 1881-4, page lrom Le
Carbusier,
(Towards an Architecture,
1923)
the design of new capital cities like Canberra and for extensions
lacked the structural rigor of the Galerie des Machines. Rare were
tallize the national forms for which the past century had constantly
searched. From this time on, the most successful experiments were
Lloyd Wright returned from his first trip to Japan with a collection
to take the form of houses and modest public buildings rather than
forward during this period between the two Paris world's fairs was
and the bridge in Asnieres ... 18 This acute attention to the met-
be shifted, and we must become fully aware that the sole depar-
ture point for our artistic work can only be modern life." ..20 After
1889 exposition
10 -
(Post Office Savings Bank; 1903-6) 9 was free of any such deco-
instance, the Far and Near East, which they could copy or adapt
the RingstraBe.
to their own purposes. The world's fair held in 1900 in Paris was
Chapter 01
01 steel
architects
had affirmed
a "Iawbreaker."
-> 1
eponymous
from the
John Ruskin and William Morris, which called for artistic crea-
and Jules Lavirotte. But the real starting point of the movement
Brussels beginning
that had been set lorth in the first issue 01 the periodical
moderne
who shared the realization that there were no longer any tradi-
example of this
past.
make it more elegant and more noble, more cheerful and more
Ludwig Uhland.
socia!."
The unification
between architecture
arts
-> 3
injunction to create
himself to the study of plant life, which inspired the motils used
a "total wark of art." The latter concept derived from the musi-
designs that allowed light to reach deep into the lots on which
his houses were set. Horta's masterpiece, which made his vision
intellectuals.
composition
each component
was accentuated
-> 2
by
Stone, brick,
of
1965)
16
in Brussels, a building
of this new
Jugendstil
in Russia.
Chapter 02
->
14
Sanatorium,
Josef Hoffmann,
Purkersdorf,
Austria, 1904-5
15
16
demolished
Zacherlhaus,
1965
028
029
17 Bloemenwerl
Uccle, Belgium,
18
Horta's compatriot
Museum 01 Decoralive
Budapesl,
Hungary, 1893-6
19
United Kingdom,
disseminated
1899
Bloemenwerl
House (1895-6)
central double-height
residencies
17 in Uccle, structured
-> 5
His
around a
that "ornamentation
01 lorm embodied
It is
lhe epidermis, the breath that makes Ilesh rise, the energy that
not expected to represent anything, it must be Iree to not represent anything since without this Ireedom it could not exist."
based on a conception
->
lifts our limbs." He added that the modern line had to transcribe
6
Europe gathered around Otto Wagner and saw their first works
-> 7
ists. Its pediment was inscribed with the slogan, "To the age its
art, to art its Ireedom." He also built houses that aspired to pro-
vide an architectural
interpretation
a decade 01 work.
language
Sanatorium
an orthogonal
(1904-5)
architecture
14
near
with white
els in the south 01 Italy. The Slovenian native .Joze Plecnik built
the Zacherlhaus
in 1903-5
Kunst (A
House
quickly diminished
15
the Secession's
21
trorn
designing
Chapter 02
22
1897, demolished
Germany,
23 ~
Mackintosh,
21
Ernst-Ludwig
1944
1897-1908
20
Germany, 1899-1901
designs
[true] architectural
psychology
est country houses." His own residence, The Orchard (1899) 19,
(form
designo According
to
in Chorleywood,
with a rectangular
. 8
intel-
dence commissioned
participation
organized
in the 1901
by the Zeit-
01the British
than rebel against it; he pointed out that in the "modern mechan-
tocracy working with great skill lor the very rich." ..12 Following
is nec-
tion in 1900, Ashbee's ideas were lelt all the way to Chicago.
Mysticism
to be a "syn-
live in perpetual
"Why should we
out doubt ... the ruins 01 the past might crumble to dust but the
in his 1901 book The Arts and Crafts of the Machine. Another
English designer, Mackay Hugh Baillie Scott, locused on the
interior space 01 houses, and his ideas met with such success
in Germany that he was invited to join Ashbee in litting out the
Grand Duke 01 Hesse's palace in Darmstadt (1897-8).
More spectacular, Charles Rennie Mackintosh's activity centered
on Glasgow, a city with a solid classical tradition. With Herbert
McNair and the sisters Frances and Margaret Macdonald, who
were close to the Symbolist
lounded
030
031
24
Helensburgh,
United Kingdom,
25
1902-3
La Samaritaine
Jaurdain,
Department
Store, Frantz
Society. Mackintosh
also designed
Glasgow, including
several tearooms
in
orthogonal
Wood." Mackintosh
on the Continent,-and
the
the preference
tical lines that was echoed in the high backs of the chairs,
while the use of white lacquer contrasted
The stained-glass
especially
inventive. Mackintosh
volumes
publisher
was particularly
home
W. W. Blackie's
remarkable
in Kilmacolm
(1900), a
designed
Commission
self intermittently
medieval fortresses.
(1907-8)
Built considerably
had a fundamentally
and
much of the
he had proposed
initially. Mackintosh
of its
and abandoned
any vertical or
horizontal alignment.
It was rare far Guimard's
for the ceramicist
to sit
studios. But his majar focus was on the library, which occu-
Sevres (1899-1903,
building's
masonry envelope ..
of wooden elements,
Chapter 02
illuminated
13
demolished
in Villemoisson-sur-Orge
(1900-3)
assembly
of
26
27
International
Exposition,
28
France, 1894-8
Ren Binet,
blotting paper
cylindrical
enclosed
to
anamorphosis
Jourdain (the son 01 Frantz Jourdain) and Henri Sauvage lar the
playful
of hered-
He confirmed
it with his
(Lectures on Architecture)
twenty-five
cabinetmaker
unencumbered
01 Viollet-Ie-Duc's
rational-
this same respect lor truth to his decorative work, which proves
to be impeccably
in place by branching
impression
the philosopher
building on Avenue
comparable
to
by eclecticism,
01
Lavirotte's extravagantly
particularly
Frantz Jourdain
elegant examples ..
houses
17
Beaux-Arts
lounded
pher lyse Reclus and who later built two elementary schools
1903 he lounded
monument
entilic investigations
Alfred Dreylus
German biologist Ernst Haeckel, the author 01 a series 01 sciillustrated with brilliant color plates show-
He supported
accusers
in 1902. In
the principal
show-
oflice buildings
with
of its
evoked the
01 Chicago.
034
035
29
Riabushinsky
30
d'Aronco,
Constantinople
(Istanbul), Oltoman
Empire
(Turkey),1900-1
development
Muscovite bourgeoisie
cipation already underway
spread throughout
ideas manilested
01 Viennese
reflections on a national
restless, impulsive"
Marcello
spirit.
His
-> 18
by
lor its inventiveness and its coloration. In Moscow he organized the 1902 Exhibition 01 Architecture
with a sculp-
metallic components.
Giuseppe Sommaruga
and historicist
Sommaruga's
31
Palazzo
caused a
01 the
painter Konstantin Korovin. The Modern approach was not limited to big cities like Moscow and Saint Petersburg. It was also
were invisible, but because 01 its rough lacade and its anatomi-
-> 20
composition
01 materials and
described
renaissance,
constructed
objecl."
-> 19
a renaixensa, or
history and the adoption 01lorms from the Orient. Several vari-
to the city 01 Palermo, the Villino Florio (1900.,..2) and the Villa
Chapter 02
31
Palazzo Castiglione.
Sommaruga.
Giuseppe
036
037
32
of Parisian Art
decoration
Casa
sculptural inventiveness
in the Palau de la
built lor
01 the
Palau is even more vivid in Gaud's buildings. A genius inventor of structural and ornamental
21
038
039
33
Cadatalch,
Barcelona,
strong neo-Gothic
Spain, 1903-7
and neo-Moorish
inlluences
(the latter
Throughoul
and sometimes
structures based
was lundamenlally
distributing
modaling
and successlully
challenged
lo Iheir movements'
initially individualistic
slrelching
frorn the Casa Battl. Known as the "Pedrera" (quarry), the Casa
privileged
column-and-beam
abandoned
replacing
curvatures
construclion
Chapter 02
he
episodically
ongoing loday.
grouping
Iyrical lan-
34
35
Spain, 1900-14
i Montaer, Barcelona,
Spain, 1905-8
040
041
Domestic
innovation
and tectonic
expression
The collective search for a new "style" would never have begun
countryside
underway.
ber of guest rooms. Often nestled against stone walls and fea-
unprecedented
construction
technologies.
of new
exercised contradictory
environeffects
(1899-1901),38
landscape is picturesque
the solid walls enclosing it. At the Bois des Moutiers (1898) in
Varengeville, on the French side of the Channel, commissioned
by the banker Guillaume Mallet, the garden descends to the
sea as if in an idyllic landscape
"English"
and Paul
37
modernization
established
there
Britain's
preeminence
Chapter 03
in the English
in the production
ENGLISCHE HAUS
36
Das Englische
ermann Muthesius,
1908-11
37
Freudenberg
38 ~
House, Hermann
Tigbourne
Muthesius,
1899-1901
tectural developments.
Mimicking
and
39
as
reinforced-concrete
on Rue Carnpaqne-Prerniere
in
Residential reform
in pro-
cess. The reforms that took place in the United States, France,
the Einkchenhaus,
technological,
architectural
or communal-kitchen
building; in 1909
urban landscape
composed
ing the facades of the year's most original buildings. The unified
were reward-
of Haussmann's
model
pal improvement."
of 1902,
living into the night and modified the use of every type of room.
40
established
a break with
042
043
41 Automobile
Garage, Auguste
Perret,
39
40
Drawing illustrating
1971
The preoccupation
more lar-reaching
01 bank-linanced
ization 01 the very lorm that buildings should take. The building
the Netherlands
and courtyards
the enlargement
01 air shafts
employees as well
or cooperative
sponsorship,
01 dwellings
mandating
New York State Tenement House Act 011901 not only modilied
walls, but al so
eventually linanced,
larger court-
specialized
Foundation
after wind-tunnel
tem lor apartment
tests determined the optimal ventilation sysbuildings, clearly displayed this concern ..
and
combined
government
system
11
also had
Construction
place at every
specialized
duction 01 reinforced
underneath
1971),41
and
particularly
01 building
by combining
construction
theory.
reinlorced
was considered
in both chemistry
ics ..
to such a way
13
material - originally
Chapter 03
i'".:
01 this
concrete
material,"
and mathemat-
present no obstacles."
took
the proportions
01 the concrete
methods
ingredients
with
A u guste
ent Buildmg,
Apartm
1903-4
::>erre,
t Paris , France,
42
43
Hennebique
Headquarters,
44
Chureh of Saint-Jean
de Montmartre,
Mareel, Heliopolis,
rigorous
precision
construction
competed
Alexandre
of patent-licensed
and architects
concrete
imagination.
to the constructive
(Architecture:
in the construction
adventurous
torrns.
-> 15
The company
(1907-10),
45
and totally
for
striated, stuccoed
concrete
Beaux-Arts
served as cladding
for the building. The material was put to its most spectacular use by Anatole de Baudot in the Church of Saint-Jean
Montmartre
(1894-1904).
44
Chapter 03
authorities
de
sus-
-> 17
the primacy of
Its concrete
critic
Full-Iledqed
members
participated
in the activities
rather as the
product."
->
19
-> 18
Sbastien
not aes-
Apollinaire
"As
reinforced
building
poured concrete
/e pass, /e prsent
were experimented
the power
an experiment
- and
halls;
had envisioned
book L'architecture,
to be striving to rediscover
own villa in
- washed, aggregated,
meeting or concert
by Alexandre
nature
to develop numer-
method, based on an
decorations
and light of the great Gothic naves and to realize what his
mously published
company
apparently
mentor Viollet-Ie-Duc
-> 14
architects
ous theoretical
in these he appeared
ket that quickly became global. Just at the moment that iron
structures
Bigot's exposed
Duchamp-Villon;
"""-e.'
~.~,.,.,-,--.~~~~.
46
USA, 1912-13
In 1913 Auguste Perret made his name in Paris with the Champs
1902, and he laid the first concrete road, Route 57, in Warren
failure.
able on the facade in the design of the stone facing by the sculp-
Germanophobe
beginning
with the bridge over the Inn at Zuoz (1900) and the
His curved and taut forms went
method; as he explained
introduced
Postal Administration
exchange
buildings
Building
Faubourq-Poissonniere
of
shapes designed by
entered the public domain, and its use fascinated all types of
bridge in Ferrieres-sur-Sichon
inven-
Chapter 03
47
48
Champs-Elyses
Concrete
1905
050
051
49
Seaplane
50
Dom-ino
Chapter 03
Jeanneret
(Le Corbusier),
France, 1914
51 ~
Centenary
Concrete nationalisms
on concrete into
It was soon in
a construction
principie
and H. Forschammer
the words domus (house) and innovation and also evokes the
-> 24
game of dominoes - was the most striking example 01 an arcnitecture based on the building skeleton.
-> 26
the conception
"Germanic"
by conserva-
01 civil engineering
relationship
expectations
mental constructions
preference for the "plain old recipes" 01 the first concrete formulas.
-> 25
in what is
regarding the "truth" 01 the structure, the experipoured in concrete promised a new tec-
material."
-> 27
to outdo the Roman Pantheon's 43 meters (141 leet). The structure consisted of four large arches bearing thirty-two radial ribs
plus additional concentric
Max Du
052
053
America
rediscovered,
tall and wide
In Oemocracy
in America
solely concerned
char-
as being
-> 1
as the Japanese
He-o-den,
of Burnham's monumental
power.
-> 2
they
sublime linked
giant slaughterhouses,
"cloud-pressers"
with an imperialist
scale.
and "sky-scrapers,"
of carcasses,
-> 3
But even
from that given to the tallest sail on a ship. The Parisian novelist
Paul Bourget described these structures ayear after the fair in
anticipated
models, as in his
of
-> 4
concentration,
the development
ence and to the fair's many foreign visitors. Built under the
non-bearing
authoritative
direction
designed
Chapter 04
America rediscovered,
demolished
and management
archi-
tectural firm the most modern in the world, to the point that the
11
OO!J
53 Auditorium
Building,
. 1" 11
m ~~
54
Auditorium
55 ~
World's Columbian
Home Insurance
-ET
Exposition,
Daniel H.
Burnham,
::=-:lOlished 1931
:3
-> 5
==
5-
the culminating
wall construction;
achievement
01
dense yet
himsell in favor 01 a
moratorium on ornament, "in order that our thought might concentrate acutely upon the production 01 buildings well lormed
and comely in the nude." Yet this nudity was not to be total, and
aended trorn the steel skeleton rather than carrying their own
ad. These structures and those by the prolilic lirm 01 William
Flore ornementale
888) and the Old Colony Building (1894), were largely clus-
innovation
vhere the final break with the "dry goods box style" occurred
as a result 01 the need lar the best possible lighting tor the
ices. The first buildings were heterogeneous,
-> 7
(Ornamental
to a metapharical
principie 01
-> 8
considered."
Some 01 his
contemporaries:
->
tations 01 the head, 01 the heart, 01 the soul, that the lile is
recognizable
01 all
how to
Sullivan's inventions
"proclaim
01 a higher lile?" The solution was simple: "It must be tall, every
inch 01 it tall. The toree and power 01 altitude must be in it, the
and embellished
orchestralion
oi
056
057
56
Transportation
Exposition,
57
Louis Sullivan,
Schlesinger
58
Guaranty
Building,
unin-
Building
playful interior volumes. But Wright was also taken by-all things
the lessons of
1893 world's fair. Through his contacts with the Japan scholar
11
tion between the floor and the roof and the central place of
struc-
which Wright
him from the gardens he saw on his first trip there in 1905 to the
primitive temple ..
10
of skyscrapers,
Wright established
(1899-1904,
ing's overall volume and the modular grid of the facade, which
approached
-> 13 59
Though
on the oppositions
symbolizing
added complexity
imagination.
designed
America rediscovered,
to the house
of sociability and
His houses in Oak Park and nearby River Forest reveal Wright's
extraordinary
Chapter 04
ninety buildings
59
Frank Lloyd Wright House and Studio, Frank Lloyd Wright, Oak Park, IIlinois,
60
William H. Winslow House and Stables, Frank Lloyd Wright, River Forest,
USA,1889-98
usines d'architecture,"
American architecture
and created a system based on a logic 01 growth and variation using a square-room
generous
tal juxtaposition
-> 14
module.
-> 17
The continuity
between
like the
IlIinois; the
61
in Springlield,
modest buildings
houses in Oak Park (1901 and 1904) and the Isabel Roberts
-> 15
With its
spectacular
remarkable
coherence
not only tor its almost absolute absence 01 dividsupports, but also lar the
niture to the rooms themselves and out into the garden. The
continuity between the library, the living room, and the dining
"A Home in a Prairie Town" and "A Small House with 'Lots 01
himsell
industrialists.
The architecture
he elabarated
this
proposed
Chicago
provided
low proportions,
noted.
private gardens."
-> 16
Chapter 04
heavyset chim-
to Harold McCormick
-> 18
62 in
to build a kind 01
62
63 ~
Frederick C. Rabie Hause, Frank Lloyd Wright, Chicago, IIlinois, USA, 1906-8,
drawing
Unity Temple, Frank Lloyd Wright, Oak Park, IlIinois, USA, 1905-8
second-floor
billiard
Sunday school interact with one another like the formal components of Wright's domestic designs. The concrete mass of the
walls, into which all the ducts and pipes were integrated, recalls
instead he
configura-
Wright carefully studied the path leading into the house 01 wor-
windows) had
about this seem-
ship from the street, and in his eyes it too became a "meeting
place." The articulation
20
Wright's principies
architects
by a glassed-
appear-
buildings
it as "a
Marion Mahony, and Walter Burley Griffin and known collectively as the Prairie School. Their form of homage or excessive
imitation aroused Wright's pique. Their inspirer spent 1909 and
1910 in Europe, having Iled there with his client (and lover)
Mamah Cheney. He visited Josef Hoffmann's and Joseph Maria
:: ear of the poisonous gases in the smoke Irom the New York
in the work of Franz Metzner, who was responsible for the sculp-
01 architecture with a
it represented
cipies of his houses. The square masses of the church and the
From observing
in Leipzig
Metzner
a theory of "conventionalization,"
or the trans-
America ..
21
062
063
64
Larkin Company
Administration
..,
66
Berkeley, California,
USA,191O
--"
~'e visibly
1929),
He gave a lecture in
of Viollet-Ie-Duc's
theoretical projects.
-::a
house released a
=" a limited-edition
->
22 Richardson
';:,~ ory built by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer lor the Cologne
erkbund Exhibition 01 1914.
->
works
->
01 the Tower
1914),
the steel skeleton became the rule tor skyscrapers. The cornpletion 01 the Flatiron Building
The Craftsman
Richard Morris
contractor
periodical
including
was
Unlike
skyscrapers.
Chicago, New York did not pass any regulations limiting the
-,
incontestable
s -lHul composition
Haussmannian
tion 01 Broadway and Filth Avenue, the Flatiron had such iconic
--e assembly 01 the wood Irame and walls, using visible dow-
066
067
69
by
Alfred Slieglitz
67 Woolworth Building,
68
Equitable
and Probst,
USA,1910-13
ocean steamer" that "it is not hideous, but the new America.
The Flat lron is to the United States what the Parthenon was
a zoning regulation that controlled the bulk 01 the tall building but
did not restrict its height on up to 25 percent 01 the site. The new
demolished
Company's
to the Singer
Lile
relerence
novelist Louis-Ferdinand
Cline put it . 27
01 these buildings,
straddling
of Chambers
Municipal
Building symbolized
administration.
01 the city's
in the next victor in the ongoing race for height, the Woolworth
as
Lile build-
soaring appearance
by gilt mosaics.
. 26
individualism
of high-
Chapter 04
America rediscovered,
The challenge
of the metropolis
01 the
Scnonneit
imagination ..
Endell discovered
a new aes-
syshad
Paris, Berlin, and New York that it was becoming a threat to the
social arder. 70 Urban relorms related to housing, transportation,
hygiene, education, and leisure were put in place during the
last decade of the nineteenth century. During this era, munici-
the great city, which is the great swill room where all the swill
spumes together,"
-> 1
and engineers
beauty"
01
and labor.
that translormed
raised by physicians
industrialization,
and
the emergence
01 new
place in philanthropic
epidemics
An issue first
out studies in
boundaries
(munici-
tural thought until almost the last third 01 the twentieth century .. 5
circulation
authority in warld
washed - transformed
Chapter 05
with communication
The challenge
of the metropolis
designed
by
'~
v.J--Io:J"-
...L_ . K....-li.
n.1'taot_~
n. __
-}o_
71
Raymond
1\'."-
in Practice,
Unwin, 1909
72
YlL
__
I&"'- __
.. ,....
._. a..,..Do ~
"-114001_".
. r. ,..-.
lo Artistic
73 ~
Principies,
"Hygienic"
set-back
70
Compared
St8dtebau
1910
73
Town-Planning
Stadtebau-Ausstellung
housing with
Conlerence
(General Urban-Planning
Exhibition) in
01 cities
something
resembling
a collective,
technicians
needs. As a
71
edited by Josel
prolession ... 10
in
and exhibitions.
and
barderless
process 01 providing
real
the luture
tion lacilitated
The very instruments
to com-
symboliz-
was
meth-
theories proposed
term zone in both French and German was derived Irom military
Grundstzer.
070
72
071
74
Plan 01 Chicago,
Daniel H. Burnham
75
76
lllinois,
USA,1909
->
13
the city in its "Sunday best" - that is, on the city center -
and Renaissance
renovated on the basis of his 1902 plan, and his plan lar San
campositions
-> 11
An immediate
images
bestseller,
Monument
Platz und
by the art
-> 12
al a large
found application
in independent
city
-> 14
Burnham's vocabulary
was
inten-
contrasting
lorms to which
75
designed in
->
15
During this same briel but fertile period extending fram 1890
cannecting
vast
01 the big city put lorward a third set 01 principies that avoided
both backward-Iooking
rhetoric. The
01 met-
phantasmagoria
Future,'
77
Conlerence
01 Europe's historical
in 1910, elabarated
les transformations
Chapter 05
The challenge
01 the metropolis
F(0E
FUTUI1E.
78 Vienna as an unlimited metropolis, from Die GroBstadt, eine Studie ber diese
(The Development 01 a Great City), Otto Wagner, 1911
77
cities-
uments surrounded
Schumacher,
16
Harvey
which
designer
Wiley Corbett took the fantasy a step further and imagined the
76
to skyscrapers
scale decentralization.
Jean-Jacques
Bellamy. He didactically
for broad-
Rousseau and
19
cable to the cities of antiquity. But he argued that the city must
Architektur,
cities ..
ribbons connecting
one
homologous
neighborhoods
in compact orthogonal
blocks, it
17
21
capitalists or cooperatives,
described
experiments
in apocalyptic
could come ..
Chapter 05
18
I!H[PEO~\.~
WIUU
WU.1.1Htf
GO?
81
Hampstead
82 ~
Unwin,
1905-7
Tony Garnier,
France, 1917
80
A Peaceful
of Chicago's
nicknames
vanized associations,
municipalities,
cooperatives,
reformers,
the founding
Association
01 the Garden-City
in Great Britain
24
An autonomous
entity in opposition
in
in mile
-> 22
gave it canonical form with his designs for the first English
a private commission
Garden
were
conceived
in 1913
Poete.
advocated
British experiments
up interest in the
-> 25
surgery"
the
->
26
sociologist
-> 23
A rare exception
at the height 01 their power, and the dominant nations set about
076
077
83
Patrick Geddes,
1915
84
Extension
85
project,
Morocco,
1914
Petersen, 1910
situated near
01 clerical workers ..
combining
27 86
29
London and Paris had been tor previous generations. Site 01 the
mass production
neighborhood
85
that
Other capitals
01 manulactured
on
28
Some
84
an approach that
01 the metropolis"
should be, determined that it was only in the very large city Ihat
Chapter
05
01 modernismo
COMMOI'\WEALTH cr AVSTRALlA
FEDERAL CAPITAL CO!\PETITIOti
<::.ITY A~D
~-
EfiVIROI1S
':'CALE
87
86
1911
080 I 081
New production,
new aesthetic
architecture
productivity
developed
as "neotechnic"
in opposition
to the "paleotechnic"
A variety 01 relationships
age 01 coal
between
quickly became
devices - with designs so definitive that they remain practically unchanged to this day. The company's visual communi-
mental scale, Behrens was involved in the design of all the AEG
independent
buildings throughout
complete
integrafion
At a more monu-
handling.
and derivative.
Elektrizitatsgesellschaft
with a paradoxical
ency. The corner pylons, which look like stone piers, are made
Chapter 06
New production,
new aesthetic
Crematorium,
-306-7
89
Bernhard,
90
Germany, 1910
->
In Saint
tney rise. The glass plane, on the other hand, tips at an angle
:0 the
by the underlying
steel-trarne structure.
by a series 01
Factory as inspiration
a more complex structure, in which the main halls were sandiched between two taller volumes containing additional work
areas. Here the study, coordination,
91
wood shoe lasts, the factory was begun by the architect Eduard
Werner in a Neo-Gothic
and neighboring
transparent
countries.
90
corners contributed
lacade. In contrast
to dematerializing
the building,
outlines
lactories were no
the formidable
the sleekness
Nietzschean superman.
-> 4
braught him
palace. In
of the products
manufactured
within them.
had-shown
92 Gropius enthusiastically
01 Modern
pre-
monumentality
01
01 the
bays, on the basic unit 01the office. With its metal structure cov-
Canadian and South American grain silos, the coal silos built
082
083
~yus
DACO"rA
EUWATOR
=-=---cllY,1911-13
OETii.ElOES'l.O
BUNonyDORN
92
Architecture"
in the Deutscher
01 Modern Industrial
Werkbund
annual,
~;
is so
r rnistakable that the meaning of the structure becomes over~elmingly clear to the passer-by."
--ough
Other connections
-> 6
networks par-
~n
=>ark ter the Ford Motor Company, achieving the ideal of the
oaylight lactory."
->
Kunstgewerbes
in its orientation.
-> 9
1906 Kunstgewerbeausstellung
Deutscher Werkbund
industrialists,
building
lad in stone, implicitly asserting that modern networks like railroads demanded
a monumentality
objective
the alienation
Irequently
then a prolessor
01
conllicted,
in Dresden,
me
in
year 01 the
-> 10
01 the Kunstgewerbe
identilied, the
capitalist lirms 01 the day. Instead, they tried to ligure out a way
physical mass while their richly patterned brick surfaces revealed . Berlin, and Irom the relormer Friedrich Naumann, an advocate
to the attentive observer the difference between the supporting
and supported
->
quality production
084
as
085
VER.ACCUS'fAV
AMMERSMiiHCHEH
L.
93
.&
I1'1I1OPIRQ1oION
Ingenieur-aesthetik
(Engineering
94
95
Chemical
"The
(Poland), 1911-12
social needs of the working class can be united with the need
by replacing a
->
11
The
-> 15
The organization
increasingly
01 its Jahrbcher
(yearbooks),
lounded
in many ways of the City National Bank and Hotel built by Frank
companies
metrical composition
and manufacturing
and overhanging
in its sym-
roof.
Ludwig Troost and Bruno Paul, who designed tour ships, while
the Hamburg-Amerika-Line
and to modernize
standardized
and continuous
homogeneity."
Lux,
-> 13 93
->
17
to any Kulturpolitik
cal stance given that he was in the employ 01 the Grand Duke
Chapter 06
New production,
new aesthetic
of French
96
Exposition,
97
Exposition,
1914, exterior
1914, interior
architecture
or the applied arts, and those who wished to place design in the
service 01 production, a concept at the heart 01 industrial designo
Futurist mechanization
rebels hostile to
aimed to demonstrate
96,97
glass mosaics ..
18
discourse
01 a Behrensstil
perimeter
without glass,
author was the poet and novelist Paul Scheerbart, whom Taut
to the translormations
provoked
had belriended
growth 01 metropoles
in 1913 ..
entitled G/asarchitektur
lar ideas, enumerating
promising
19
In an aphorism-lilled
(1914), Scheerbart
publication
expressed simi-
"Manilesto
pro-
sensations and
by industrialization
and the
and polyphonic
tides 01 revolution
the
serpents; lactories
that stride the rivers like giant gymnasts, Ilashing in the sun
on lakeshores ..
20
The
began
01 urban events,
expressing
the experiences
01
prom-
tectonics
Chapter 06
New production,
new aesthetic
01 an "architectural
impres-
performance,
99
e a motor." He announced
sm lile will necessarily
needs 01 mod-
- ey have encountered,
e expression."
their architecture
by mechanics
in the construction
he published
and railroad
letely neglected
In the manilesto
to the needs
as deeply
01 build-
ings: "Elevators must not be hidden in stair corners like solitary worms; rather, having become useless, staircases must be
abolished, and elevators must climb like iron and glass snakes
possibilities
01 the eleva-
:or ... and the spirals 01 the airplane and the dirigible."
-> 22
orcphetic
rellections
<esto "L'architettura
A colounder
Dudreville,
3rooklyn
structures
accompa-
->
24
industrial
milieu of modernization
constituted
a precedent
of the 1920s
a series 01 theoretical
published
his ideas
also undertaken
He also expressed
horizontal
-> 23
constructions
as the
in L'illustrazione
cities designed
like an "immense,
tumultuous,
agile, mobile
basements
"Rools
01
facades diminished."
088 I 089
In search
of a language:
from Classicism
to Cubism
Anglo-American
classicisms
talgia tor the classical to a radical rupture with all existing codes
shifted trorn Paris to the United States by the end 01 the nine-
whether
tor the first two decades 01 the twentieth century. In tact, the cole
visually identilied with the Capitol and the White House. In New
->
was reinlorced by the school's location in a city that was still the
->
a neighborhood
1964), which
100
->
had been
nearly a thousand
buildings. They
(1900), a grandiose
Chapter 07
palazzo in
Charles Lemaresquier,
102
Heathcote,
1906
103
composition
Ulm (1905-10).
(1895-7).
dominated
101
107
professional apprenticeship
having previously
extravagant
metropolitan
in the service
103
A classical
eighteenth-century
Beginning
vanity of "villa-dom,"
the
a return to Christopher
prior to 1914
of nostalgic images of
esty and formal restraint found in Germany's rural and bourgeois constructions
particularly
emphasized
ments, decoration,
refer-
in 1903 ..,4
Heathcote (1906)
102
(1904-9).
in Taplow,
el e-
and furniture.
and bourgeois traditionalism
was
(hostility toward
the big city) that took hold among the German intelligentsia
distressed about the erosion of cultural values brought on by
urbanization
and internationalization.
ter had two different facades - one in exposed stone, the other
in stuccoed
book Rembrandt
a/s Erzieher
affecting modern Germany and proclaim art the only possible force for resistance and renewal. The Drerbund
German nostalgia
Association),
There was no shortage of proponents
of classicism
in
(Drer
Heimatschutz
Chapter 07
..
-_._
...
"."
..
"'-
IDAS
W1ANERE I
AND
GOLDMAN
l.
OUTPITTERS
&:SALATSCH
u.1t.KOF_
~Y::~~llJI".
School 01 Rhythmical
-=ssenow,
Gymnastics,
MOBELSTOFFE'
LYONER SElDEN- UND
.$
Heinrich
~~
$<.11I.
~~
__ _.""
]OM:l
WIEN, l. GRABEN
SAMT-BROKATR
'0.
J.
SIodt
Socit Franco,..Autrichienne
(House
Rhythmic Gymnastics
z: dscapes,
='Tl
of endangered
of
Wohnungsbau
dergleichen
house. Thanks
es of Heimatschutz.
-> 7 105
Adolf Loos was another architect focused on the early architecture of the nineteenth century, particularly on the Viennese
and "counterexamples."
"examples"
the ephemeral
on a three-year
of his
of the Secession,
its
he wrote essays in the spirit of the satirist Karl Kraus. Das Andere
between
-> 6
monumental
styles
architecture
through a geometric
achievement
->
8 Loos
and
in 1913 in Paris),
(The Principie of
092
093
107
1905-10
094
095
't .
108
Goldmann
Chapter 07
.(.
ti.
.'
109
(Ladies' Fashion;
rete
qualities of English
110
-> 10
~shion, the ideal of which was to make the wearer totally invis-
--DOS'S
-> 9
(1903-6),
Store (1909-11)
108
and Salatsch
on the Michaelerplatz
in Vienna.
01
->
11
of its lacade on the upper levels, a quality all the more striking
House (1910)
i1y; the two lower levels, easily visible to passersby, are clad
composer
an architectural
109
Arnold Schonberq,
in which "every-
110
in Vienna
tions and breaks; directly, as if all the structures were transparent; as if the eye 01 the spirit were conlronted
parts and as a totality simultaneously."
-> 12
and Semper, in whom he found the basis for a practical aesthetic: the only aesthetic capable 01 yielding style as such,
096
097
111
Stock Exchange,
Netherlands,
1896-1903,
elevation
112
Stock Exchange,
Netherlands,
1896-1903,
interior
Chapter 07
113
Sint Hubertus Hunting Lodge, Hendrik Petrus Berlage and Bart Van der Leck,
Hoenderloo,
in opposition
Netherlands,
1914-19
Loos, he
blocks. The
facades."
After constructing
-> 13
vein,
in the Henny
-> 15
by the indispensable
tions. His major project at this date, his third project overall, was
the Amsterdam
Stock Exchange,
111,112
(469-by-180-foot)
This enormous
by which he meant both serenity and rest: "In the smaller works
of the ancients [there) is a charming repose. In contrast, our
present-day architecture gives a very restless impression.
I would almost say that the two words 'style' and 'repose' are
synonymous; that repose is the same as style and style the same
as repose."
-> 16
the Stock Exchange "does not seem to have the typical appear-
dimensionally
opportunity
in competition
-> 14
name calls to mind," and that strangely, in its mysterious richness, it "seems instead like a market, a store, a gymnasium;
it is devoid of the glorification
building had considerable
of bourgeois wealth."
impact throughout
-> 17
The
Europe, notably
on the young Berlin architect Ludwig Mies, who was in competition with Berlage for the commission
113
in Hoenderloo and
098
099
114
Raymond
Duchamp-Villon,
movements
likeCubism,
the geometric
attempts at incorporating
Laichter (1908-9). He displayed a more dynamic conception of space in the Hradec Krlov Museum (1909-12). His
colleague
114
at the
-7
18
and
Yet Duchamp-Villon
to the fore."
of
-720
Jank proposed
renewal of architecture
a complete
and particularly
pounding the idea that a building should look like the result of a
process of crystallization.
us."
-719
His ensemble at
over
will predominate
cre-
debates over
notably
of vvsehrad
Chapter 07
cul-
(1911-12)
116
approach was
district
115
116
Prague, Bohemia
1911-12
regarding an architecture
of connections
with daily life: "We first and always demand and need the fresh
excitement of new artistic intensities, springing from the tumultuous and glowing mass of contemporary
In 1930 the functionalist
life."
-> 21
Nonetheless,
->
"the
of the fundamental
22
exemplified
they constituted
and
by these
an original and
effort
100
101
The
GreatWar
and its
side effects
Instead of disrupting
architecture
in which
whose watercolors
moderniza-
->
of their own
tion programs for a war that had quickly become "total." Though
sometimes conceived
-> 1
Italy would enter the war on the side of the Allies. As early as
Avord and Istres in 1916 and 1917. Continuing on from his war
-> 2
patriotism,
Several members
01
They would
300-meter-long
and 50-meter-high
119
These
of their arches,
after falling off a horse, and Antonio Sant'Elia was killed the
A triple mobilization
for
experience
->
118
with visions of
of industry.
this effort were Franz Marc, Fernand Lger, and Andr Mare,
Chapter 08
to shelter thegrowing
workforce. Archi-
117
lan-
->
118
119 ~
117
1917
metaphorical
In all the warring nations, production
was transformed
Erich Mendelsohn,
and economists,
and its
use byarchitects.
by
Commemoration
of labor.
and reconstruction
(1911), ->
The first effect of the war, even before it was over, was an unprec-
even before the war, At the time, socialist critics had denounced
the "organization
of overwork."
need to
-> 9
archy orrnanaqernent
workers' movements.
of a rigid hier-
Manufactured
products, particularly
commemorative
Standardization,
In Germany
(Royal Manufacturing
or
-> 10
the
more efficient.
dissemination
esque steeple. There was no shortage of references to the architectural past in memorials such as Tannenberg (1924-7) 121 in
-> 8
millions of combatants
to the widespread
in
required a continuous
of
effort to prepare
pro-
of this
form basedon
a Futurist
102
103
121
Tannenberg
Memorial, Johannes
Memorial
122
France, 1927-32
Douaumont
France, 1920-32
Even cities lar Irom the lront lines lelt the weight 01 a war that
reconstruction
-> 11
The
interpretations
tion. Notwithstanding
revolutions in construc-
elfart was not just military and economic. Beginning in 1917, the
in the reconstruction
of Rheims,
123
a city considered
"martyred"
Cathedral
-> 12
plan
125
Douai, and
Heimatschutz
reconstruction
in 1919-21.
-> 13
(The Reconstituted
City)
the exhibition
La Cit
in 1917 - in which
124
rural architecture
and rationalization.
-> 14
worked
-> 15
-> 16
urban areas.
Postwar recomposition
But to see
the consequences
Chapter 08
Though the
123
124
France, 1917
Farm buildings
exhibition,
Epieds,
France, 1917
that developed
beginning
with
of Americanization
forced migrations,
population
the
the ris-
aspirations. The
in Jean
reactionary
emerging
nation-states
such as Czechoslovakia,
Finland,
uncompromised
by
and re-formed,
(The
des Abendlandes
break with the outdated world that had led to the war. Faith in
professional
organiza-
to new
the potential of science to enable humanity to transcend conflict led to the notion of experimental, scientific, or "Iaboratory"
political borders. They were run by men who had been pro-
foundly changed
The emigration
neers as a consequence
figured professional
of Russian architects
of the Bolshevik
and engi-
Revolution
recon-
During the decade between the armistice of 1918 and the stock
market crash of 1929, a postwar economy boosted by the spread
of Fordism seemed to promise both affordable,
durable con-
experience
organizations
contribute
eager to
Labour Organization
development
to translating
forms.
of the illustrated press, the motion picture indusof the world's fairs provided fertile
Chapter 08
the spread
125
Grand'Place,
126
Portrait 01 an Architect,
Schnarrenberger,
- architects
succumbed
Wilhelm
127
The Architect,
1923
to the
methods
-> 19
1927), while
"three principies"
Conqres internationaux
d'architecture
moderne (International
lormulations
reproduction
->
lor
01 archihad
now that
20
in an "internationally
organized"
as
space. According
to
and the
lations."
-> 21
in the propaganda
->
22
108
109
Expressionism
in Weimar
Germanyand
the Netherlands
by municipal adminis-
poli-
contributed
the
Arbeitsrat
to
Social Democratic-dominated
The Arbeitsrat
serious or radicalattempt
any
program
"socialization,"
residential
where the
statement featured
slogans such as "Art and people must form a unity" and "Art
- the for-
government
effects." It demanded
of the war-damaged
of all monuments,
strategies
the dissolution
including
experi-
new architectural
of all academies
war memorials,
and
that required an
nomic strateqiestound
"national
framework
chological
the psy-
of future law-making."
tellung fr unbekannte
Architects).
Architekten
..,2
expression
his ardor, his humanity, his faith, his religion! ... There are no
Following the empire's collapse,
organized
demobilized
architects
architectural
councils
being organized,
that means, lord of art, who will build gardens out of deserts
the Arbeitsrat
in Berlin
of a minority of
Chapter 09
Expressionism
him who will once again deserve the name of architect, for
number of
..,3 Taut
affirmed in the same leaflet that the desire for the future was
architecture
schauung
crystal - architecture."
,.
.
'
...
.,.,
..
.,.....
...;\.:.
.'
~~t~
.....
hS..
4T~h~
129
(Architectural
Projects), Hermann
Finsterlin, 1919-20
128
130 ~
(Alpine Architecture),
h a crystalline architecture
by
the periodical
Frhlicht
by the Arbeitsral.
pru-
II
}
130 published
ing site. This was the case with Hablik and with Hermann
Finsterlin, whose projects, despite their apparently
Ausstellungsbauten
of pyramidal
Architekturentwrfe
were unmistakably
'8
(Exhibition
superimpositions
world. Hablik's
Constructions;
1921) consisted
(Architectural
zoomorphic,
Projects; 1919-20)
129
both in 8cheerbart's
Dynamism in architecture
architecture
contemporary
known as the
pictorial experiments
lormed
in
a world of fractured
movement
like Peter
that trans-
was a more
By rellecting
enameled-brick
pronouncements
der
Steote,
interiors associated
with Expressionism.
Hans Poelzig's new projects responded to Taut's call tor transparency by playing with sol id masses. In his contribution
the competition
to
(House 01
110
111
\
\
).'
~\
\,..
I
....
1t.
I
\
\\
\,
r1
/
/
/'
,/
"
/
/'
132
131
132
performances;
(Great Playhouse;
the tront lines at the Paul Cassirer Gallery in Berlin. These consisted 01 very small India-ink perspectives
houses, and hangars. He associated
01 tactories, ware-
the dynamism
01 their
"True understanding
by the hall-hearted
architecture 01 recent
the super-terrestrial
architecture
masses."
action more quickly than other architects, and his projects had
that we must create things tor eternity has gained general rec-
ognition."
->
->
->
For the
assisted by
built a super-
translorming
stalagmites
throughout
in his studies 01
(1921-3)
landscape.
sculptural
Mendelsohn's
Observatory
solar spectrum,
Sommerleld's
which light beams trorn above were guided and collected tor
Chapter 09
business as a commercial
Expressionism
(1920-1), in
was expedited by
dealer in lumber.
133
01 the Potsdam
analysis. The two elements were integrated in a plastic sculptural mass whose continuous
.t.."
.'
GUT GAP.I'\AU
-.:;.':;:t.
=-
-~ series of Bismarcktrme
reference to
--3
- ght be a materialization
Klein, Moritz Meltzer, Max Pechstein, and Heinrich Richter built the Garkau Farm in Scharbeutz-Klingberg,
(1922-6).135
by Henri
of west-
near Lbeck
ideal
+ollusklike
- 1924 Mendelsohn
3Ilg
and discovered
Fritz
revo-
eines Architekten
-> 10
After con-
transformed
of New
ms and accentuated
(1928-9), dominated
pro-
requirements
seemed to anticipate
the vertical
the Chilehaus
-armonious
-> 11
->
Line sailed.
in Tallinn in 1936.
massing 01 the
respected the
12 The brothers
in miniature
orthogonal
using a
Hanseatic Expressionism
ing. His houses (1922) and cal (1924-5) in Worpswede, a colore episodically,
rural architecture.
of the north's
116
117
137
De Dageraad
Netherlands,
136
on BttcherstraBe
138
1918-23
Chilehaus,
Germany, 1922-3
was
Modersohn-Becker
projects
(1923-7)
141
rooms, lully
School
in Amsterdam,
beginning
by Michel de Klerk
Though partly attribut-
the correspond-
the way they are laid both horizontally and vertically; and their
diverse shapes, which vary Irom rectilinear to convex to con-
public linancing
lor working-
and embroidered
pro-
nicknamed
with a mechanical
the combatant
in which the meeting hall plays the role 01 rural church while the
industry, Amsterdam
was already
140
de Klerk combined
a village theme
architectural
the Theosophical
theo-
South (1914-17).
Architectura
image 01 low-income
ety 01 Amsterdam
prolessionals
established
in 1855, hosted an
136
a cooper-
or social
(House
01 Shipping Companies;
Chapter 09
Expressianism
15
by
139
Caver of Wendingen
cover designed
140
141
Paula Modersohn-Becker
142 ~
Secand Goetheanum,
detectable
in the
in the Theosophical
movement.
Society, formulating
In 1912 he
a secular
(1924-8),142
a library,
and meeting rooms. The large faceted volume inserted into the
pastoral Swiss landscape
majestically
precepts
of Expressionism.
Chapter 09
Expressionism
1924-8
Netherlands,
1917-21
Return to
order in Paris
symptoms 01 a "breakdown"
had published tour years earlier in his book Die Auflosung der
Stiidte ..
01 Cubism voiced
collections and
galleries and branded a boche ("kraut") art lorm. Yet they also
-> 2
(Toward an
Architecture; 1923) 143, a manilesto that celebrated mechanization, affirmed the necessity 01 using "regulating lines" to propor-
-> 4
01 science - that
way to the Netherlands and Russia, and they were also picked
Chapter 10
dwellings with
11
LES AVIONS
143
an Architecture),
145
Le Corbusier,
(Towards
144
1923
124
125
s
N
POLYCHROMIE
LE CORBUSIER
OUARTIERS
ET P. JEANNERET
1927
146
Workers' Houses
Ouartiers
--S
modernes
Corbusier
Frugs),
147
the double-height
During this period Le Corbusier
layout;
lar Michael Stein (brother 01 the writer Gertrude Stein), his wife
-78
Inside, he conceived
promenade
processions
architecturale,
arrangement
as a
promenade
The
stairwells
architect-critic
of
-710
Le
proportions
on tfie Acropolis
of windows
147, -79
has just barely touched down, The boxlike structure leatures three
levels interconnected
erctiitecturete.
pilotis (stilts),
01
Corbusier
in build-
summed
Paris apartments.
up his contribution
to a new architecture
ing only a single workers' housing complex. 146 This was real-
models
the Dom-ino
in
in
orders:
plan" 01 load-bearing
structures;
ribbon
126
127
148
Geneva, Switzerland,
project, Le Corbusier
1927
mechanics.
reinlorced
on traditional
149
Centrosoyuz
Le Corbusier
structural
by the use 01
Cooperatives),
-> 11
.~
based on a
technically
148
Le Corbusier
lic edilice, making the site seem to Ilow beneath the building
to incorporate
ity campaign
-> 12
Europe to pro-
his lascination
Winaretta Singer-Polignac,
lirst-class
a Mundanum,
lounges of a transatlantic
tual by the lack of any device to extract the used air Irom the
was designed lor the philanthropist Paul Otlet using a plan based
invocation 01 classical
pie 01 Le Corbusier's
precepts 01 large-scale
realization
construction.
So
architecture."
-> 13
major commission,
headquarters
149, the
and implemented
architecturale,
Le Corbusier's
Chapter 10
designing
151
Auguste
ertical window Irames man [and] agrees with his silhou-' S." -> 15 In Le Raincy, east of Paris, Perret built Notre-Dame
153,
a church commemorating
World
signilicantly,
In it he displayed
150
dio-
::lerret's thinking was close to that of the poet Paul Valry, whose
(Eupalinos, or the
tacto exclusion .
. t accents.
-> 16
monumentality
Perret tirelessly
->
he Exposition Internationale
Modernes;
the theater at
152,
18
Ruhlmann and
lerentiation
->
out Irom the crowd for work that was as elegant as it was
allordable
with depart-
an architecture
expressive
01 furniture associated
and the
from
was a de
154;
desk-bookshelf
for the
151 -
contrasted with
128
129
153
Notre-Dame
de la Consolation,
130
131
.-Gl11
~
- ~
Smoking
IJ
l.
154
-'
Paris,
155
France, 1925
-> 19
of
156,
who
resi-
some moldings that catch the light, it is the entire lacade. The
155.
In
-> 21
Erected
that the "cubic lorms" 01the chteau "brought to mind the title 01
regulations.
a poem by Mallarm."
Mallet-Stevens,
-> 22
triangular gar-
or elegant modernism
01the
->
20
He would
158.
157,
tle in Mzy for the couturier Paul Poiret (1921-3), but the project
tors Jan and Joel Martel, whose quarters are clustered around
Champs-lyses,
seat screening room, built lor the lilm director Eric Allatini, and a
forced-concrete
including the glass artist Louis Barillet and the young ironsmith
Chapter 10
56
157
L'inhumaine
1923-4,
Robert M'allet-Stevens,
Hotel Nord-Sud,
132
133
161
Apartment
Roux-Spilz,
160
Cap-Martin,
Building,
Michel
France, 1929
work was visible in his many designs lor memorials, while Mediter-
At the initiative 01 his brother Jean, at that time a painter with ties to
accents and above all a play with the continuity 01 the street wall.
161
Across lrom Parc Montsouris, l.urcat built a house lor the painter
that had spread in the 1920s. Eileen Gray, an Irish designer active
edged, with E 1027 (1929), 160a villa she built on the Riviera tor
159,
Dada, De Stijl,
and Mies: from
subversiveness
to elementarism
Expressionism
interest in the
had
Russia. From Berlin, Dada seattered to Cologne with Arp and Max
Ernst, and to Hanover with Kurt Schwitters, until Pieabia and Tzara
among intellectuals
and artists.
branched out across the map; artists and architects at the edges
01 montage, and a bluntly asserted nihilism. A nomadic phenomenon that changed aceording to its setting, it was lounded in
In the Netherlands,
the Expressionism
01 the Amsterdam
Tristan Tzara and Mareel Janco were the opening act of a eollee-
tive revolt against the very concept 01art. The arrival 01 Francis
tinctive Dada phase, particularly alter they met Man Ray. Picabia's
opposed
to choosing
in 1916
call to architects to
and eonstruction
(as
historical
seemed to contradict
162,
or neue Gestaltung
Neo-Plasticism
Chapter 11
to elementarism
oa highly metaphysical
- a
164 ~
Les Architectes
du Groupe
and
Paris,
France, 1923
162
Germany
Pavilion (Barcelona
1920
138
139
1.-
,
1
11.
.-I
I
165
Netherlands,
1919
In purely architectural
conventions.
Contributors
experimented
in three dimensions,
Huszr, who designed Ihe journal's lago. The group Ihat assem-
Van Doesburg's
involvement in architectural
166
projects began in
on Ihe
. 4 In 1923 he
collaborated
House in Noordwijkerhout
in Katwijk aan Zee (1917). Oud and Van Doesburg later went
ceil-
ing and the Ilat planes 01 colors painted on the walls conllicted
Spangen Low-Income
Housing Development
in Rotterdam,
limitations
-> 2
Van Doesburg and Jan Wils together built the De Lange House
Les Architectes
House
dimensional
notions 01 the window. The least radical 01the three was a town
-> 3
In this
that by the
time Mondrian and Oud left the group, he had totally isolated
himsell. Nonetheless,
work by associating
he was able to establish a European netwith El Lissitzky and Kurt Schwitters, and
a private house 169, was the most complex, and provided the
Chapter 11
in
to elementarism
166
Mondrian
167
France, 1926-8.
168 ~
in
recontruction
Schrder
1990-4
had to accommodate
dimensional
to a counter-composition
representation
of three-dimensional
Strasbourg,
and 2006-8
1924
of colors,
Mallet-Stevens
French architects'
1927 commemorating
in
to provide a theoretical
collective"
(Toward a Collective
of our environment
according
to
mathematics, technology,
project (1924-9), a
at their cor-
to
cloak his identity, which allowed him both to put forward quasiThe only large-scale
the Aubette
167,
Klber in Strasbourg
composition
Jacques-Francois
of
in estab-
connection
Amsterdam
concourse
characterized
165,
142
143
170
Housing Development,
Holland, Nelherlands,
1924-7
171
Kielhoek
Rotterdam,
172
Schrbder
Netherlands,
169
Housing Development,
Netherlands,
J. J. P. Oud,
1925-9
1924, axonometic
and
"romantic" approaches,
describing
style
Other architects
1929
box.
Robert van't Hoff was the most literal of the many Dutch archi-
industrial, which one might call the positive trend, aims at the
aesthetic representation
of products of a technical
ingenuity.
-> 8
Garden
The cabinetmaker
ies of Frank Lloyd Wright's furniture for Robert van't Hoff, was
house, with
He con-
Oud's facade for the Caf De Unie (1925, bombed 1940) brought
frorn this period was the Red and Blue Armchair 011918, which
Oud introduced
new ele-
170
->
is the most
Iyrical. Built near the estuary of the Maas River, the develop-
of Le Corbusier's
"reminder"
about
(1925-9)
171
interpretation
dimensions.
plans of the two main levels, which are partly lit by a small sky-
Chapter 11
to elementarism
.c r-I T~
1_'
L.~
-174
Concrete
Office Building,
Berlin, Germany,
175
1923
Otfice Building,
FriedrichstraBe
competition
173
Brick Country House, project, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Berlin, Germany, 1923
spaces as difficult to grasp from the inside as they are trorn the
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who published his theoretical pro-
174
-> 10
by his
(Exhibition 01
-> 13
de l'Effort moderne.
Beginning
projects. In a competition
on the FriedrichstraBe
-> 11
in Berlin, he submitted
lands and Germany not only through his presence on the doorstep 01 the Bauhaus but also through his participation
in the
in 1922.
International"
-> 12
In July 1923
to elementarism
by
structure. A radi-
beehive - a metapharical
(260-loot)
architecture
175
a design lor a
several iconoclastic
-> 14
the build-
a secand
-> 15
177
176
Monument
to Karl Liebknecht
Hermann Lange House, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Krefeld, Germany, 1928-9
1935
pretation of the palazzo block that Peter Behrens had built ear-
ible compromises.
continuum.
of brick ele-
volumes joined in a
was the result of "the wall [Iosing) its enclosing character and
language.
18
Tugendhat (1928-30)
on a hill overlooking the city, the house reproduced the fluid floor
in the
176
tion of the two Spartacist leaders. Beginning with his houses for
the textile industrialists
177
and Josef
178,179
in Brno, Czechoslovakia.
Perched
plan of the Barcelona Pavilion, but this time areas had welldefined purposes, as if the partitions between rooms had been
erased once the plan was completed. According to the critic Paul
Westheim, Mies conceived the house as "a circulation route leading from room to room according to [the owners') style of living."
very different
be isolated and cut off from the others. Even more, continuity
owners' collections
Barcelona, the living room, which overlooked the city, was backed
Chapter 11
to elementarism
e
'
L"
178,179
Tugendhat
e eco
{SCHOS
(Czech Republic),
S,
1928-30
150
151
Architectural
education in
turmoil
effects on architectural
schools.
conservative
privileged
remained staunchly
project reviews and sornetirnes even had to disguise their affiliation with the atelier to have any chance of passing. In 1934
polarities represented
art historian Max Raphal gave a few lectures, but this effort
by pedagogical
programs in Germany,
universally
attempts at modernization
was
fui reminder of the recent bloodbath. After the Allied victory, the
routines,
180
and attempts at
prestige for a
1960s ..
tor at Fontainebleau,
Another former student of Laloux and an instrucJacques Carlu, started teaching at the
Massachusetts
including
Institute of Technology
thus inaugurating
tia n of academic
brought new design concepts to the atteninstitutions. Eliel Saarinen, winner of the com-
Chapter 12
Architectural
education
in turmoil
181
180
181
Le Corbusier,
Robert Mallet-Stevens
There he implemented
a new curriculum
between monumental
-> 7
Initially this
mood. The
replaced
by Itten dedicated
to the explora-
The most intense search lar new educational methods took place
geared to producing
although not taught as such until 1927, was the ultimate goal
tion 01 architecture
as an experimental
discipline
tor which
01 the curriculum,
in workshops
in Berlin,
relationship
in 1919.
tive specilically
-> 5
183
-> 8
between the school and the public, an objecset out in the 1919 manilesto. An integral part
attacks. He recommended
that it be
185
designed
by Georg
orien-
(Arts and
house with a
School 01 Fine Arts) were united in April 1919 under the name 01
dents, including
In his lounding
-> 6
new school: "to bring together all creative efforts into one
01 a new architecture."
He continued,
"The
Architektur"
clearly positioned
its experiments
->
at the lorelront
152
153
183
Bauhaus exhibition,
182
Staatliches
154
155
184
Torten Housing
1926-8
185
01 the cur-
182
a manulacturing
01 lunctional
now taught in
the
ideas.
relationships
structure was
while the students' living quarters had vertical windows and bal-
prolessional.
locused
188
-> 10
commissioned
184
Tbrten
ques-
assembly line,
01 the construction
courtyard
lactory in Berlin-
Steglitz until pressure lrom the Nazis lorced him to close it down
instead on designing
by the municipality
that
had begun under Meyer and strove to make the school more
site. Also
-> 11
~I'Y"lAnr'1
LlI""
IUIIIIUld.
\IUlIlAIUII
LIIII""::;
""GUIIUllly!
...
-> 12
1::; IIULIIIII\J
psychological
UUL
organi-
Chapter 12
UUIIUIII\J
Architectural
education
in turmoil
nl\JII""1
r"\l'"lj.-IlCI':>,
MI L dllU
':>LlUlt-...
JlUI.::l,
I ""GI 11IIGdl
ClIIU
OLUUIU::;,
UUIIUGI
'u16
u.
and therelore on
lile;
v r'I.IIUlC;1 J r cr o ,
VI
- ------
------
- -- ------
186
188 ~
------
Bauhaus stall on the rool at the opening 01 Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building, Dessau,
Germany, 1926. From lelt: Josel Albers, Hinnerk Seheper, Georg Muehe, Lszl Moholy-Nagy,
Herbert Bayer, Joost Sehmidt, Walter Gropius, Mareel Breuer, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee,
Lyonel Feininger, Gunta Stlzl and Oskar Sehlemmer.
187
1930
156
157
189
Moscow, USSR
190
(Russia), 1923
191
Vorkurs. Its
around Vesnin.
an experimental
laboratory,"
taught
by olten ideologically
with
neoclassicist
opposed
instructors: "graphics,"
Rodchenko;
"surface/color,"
Alexander
to sculpture;
Algiers,
Algeria, 1931
derived
Harvard University; his aim was to measure the "psychotechnic qualities 01 architects"
in the
tak-
and "s pace:' which was devoted to the study and assembly 01
189
Specialization
1924 a department
housing.
and lunctional
production-oriented
conlrontation
projects 01 a collective
to be either
technology;
190
with a
01
technique." ..15
Chapter 12
Architectural
move-
education in turmoil
192
193
School 01 Architecture,
approaches.
in Brussels,
187
and
provoked by Nazism in
architecture
the ver-
by its founder ..
18
tecture department
architectural
approaches
by the establishment
01 a grow-
191
01 studio
programs. In 1938 Mies van der Rohe was hired to head the
architecture
the teaching 01
two years later merged with the Lewis Institute to become the
19
193
Lszl Moholy-Nagy
Mukden (Shenyang)
1929 lectures
20
the
160
161
Architecture
and revolution
in Russia
to consolidate
intellectual
tor
trorn the
propaganda
plan
01 streets and squares as part 01 the celebration 01 the revolution and May Day. Initially limited to a display 01 banners and
the erection 01 isolated sculptures, these spectacles eventu-
ally transligured
with translormations
in European architectural
(1919),
its borders only at world's fairs such as the 1900 Paris expo-
194
the critic Nikolai Punin, the tower was designed to hold within
structures undertaken
by the civil
->
con-
hall-sphere
->
lnternational's
various
Until 1920, conllicts between the Red and White armies led to
widespread
campaigns
implemented
dated, Sinskulptarkh,
between various disciplines. They warked logether on theoretical schemes lor "people's houses" like those built in Weslern
as they were manilold. The civil war and then the Bolshevik
houses,
196
Expressionism.
the nationalization
Chapter 13 1 Architecture
194
Monument
(Saint Petersburg),
Russia, 1919
162
163
f-n.~'7-t' df_
1IAI_....,yA ....._
196
Communal
9-,,-----.....
1920
197
Obmokhu
transform pre-revolutionary
Concurrent discussions
Inkhuk
in construction
neo-Palladian;
were opposed to
Several architects
who in
ladovsky
of Constructivism.
and, for a time, El Lissitzky. 200 This group was very influential
exhibited sculptures
structures at the
Contemporary
-> 3
that
been discredited
of Russia) to
on their New
commissions
- including Iac-
Sti/ i
Epokha (Style and Epoch; 1924) echoed Le Corbusier's theories by suggesting that a new design method should be based
Zholtovsky's
to architecture.
-> 4
(Contemporary
national electrification
Local
of their systems
Arkhitektura
Independent
->
A profession renewed
Architecture
Agricultural
Konstantin
Melnikov
164
165
198
Izvestia
Association
199
layout
200
Skyhook,
201
by El Lissitzky, 1926
202 ~
Melnikov, Moscow,
the Exposition
Internationale
Modernes.
Composed
199
et Industrie/s
Alexander
district of collective
by .
model
in Leningrad
kitchens, and
neighborhood
city
and Victor failed to realize their 1924 project for the Moscow
according
newspaper's
multiplied
ing slogans on the clouds. But the three brothers did succeed
possible, buildings
to as "social condensers,'
Office Building
apartment
sprang up,
Sokol Garden
referred
edged successor to the pre-1914 "people's houses,' the workers' club became the principal place of acculturation
site where the confrontation
and the
in the Shabolovka
designed
195
res-
propaganda.
201
built
such as the
Chapter 13 I Architecture
203
Burevestnik
Melnikov, Moscow,
204
Narkomfin
Communal
House, Moisei
inexhaustible
imagination
simul-
The three
House, 204 was carried out under the aegis of Nikolai Miliutin,
head of the People's Commissariat
Miliutin commissioned
employees
lever over the street, while inside the seats face a stage wedged
into a triangular
was remarkable
as a "transition"
monumentality
an approach
he had
explic-
com-
Described
the building was remarkable for its precise design and care-
fui execution.
->
a direct descendant
developed
of the
house"
such as Sergei
quickly discredited
tions during the NEP. In the second half of the 1920s, full-scale
ambitious ideological
house.
pres-
facilities was intended to offset the small living unit. The most
ment block built on the Moskva River across from the Kremlin.
Chapter 13
Architecture
205
206
Communal
Sverdlovsk
(Yekaterinburg),
"he private house that Melnikov built lor himsell 205 with the
The disurbanist
remains
it consists
brick walls
the "irresponsible"
01 two interlocking
cylindrical
and lozenge-shaped
in the USSR
of hundreds
the case with Ernst May, or by an al1raction to the USSR's revNith the launch 01 the USSR's lirst Five Year Plan in 1927, the
ion 01 thousands
assistance
ollactories
builtthe
Factory in Leningrad
01932
01 Western architects
endelsohn
components
in 1926-8,
with
become particularly
themselves as "proletarians"
network 01 medium-sized
proponents
01 a radical decentralization
eradication
01 cities. Formulated
- laced 011
on the occasion
01 compe-
and
campaigns
dis-
"archi-
dis-urbanist
Okhitovich
position - as theorized
- may be understood
to the communal
ported ..
by the sociologist
as a sell-critical
the
Mikhail
01 the Constructivists
as complete
reaction
170
171
207
Architectural
1931
The competition
Communist
01 literary and
An initial competition
in aclimate
with a neo-
international
set a new
competition,
launched
as
il in emulation
Factory in
Western architects,
including
a veneer 01 impartiality
so as to give the
and openness.
"Workers'
with Constructivism,
proponents
marginalized,
young American
"suggestions."
->
11
lolan's ini-
Chapter 13 [ Architecture
thereby
as was inevitably
gestures, Melnikov
->
12
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CKnA./l,
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c::::::::::J
c:::=::::J
c::=:::J
c:::::=:J
PECCOPHA8
IIItTElKAR
!lD,Q,C06HAR
q
:,
npOXOAHAB
E'
__~O'OB'.
nPOXOAIfAR
,,
,
;AEnO
O',
V
p
qnroxoAHAR
nPOxOAKAfI
CTOJlOIWI~CTOJlOBAfI
~j
--------------210 ~
q
nOatAPHOE
tJeTo,oB'"
H:
,,
,
A
CTOJlOBAft
)j' ..,.-
.<
.;'
209
Factory, Alexander
Vesnin, Leonid Vesnin and Viktor Vesnin, Moscow, USSR (Russia), 1931-6
172
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