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W O R L D F A C T B O O K OF C R I M I N A L

JUSTICE SYSTEMS

NORWAY

Lee B y g r a v e
N o r w e g i a n R e s e a r c h Centre

for C o m p u t e r s

and Law

This c o u n t r y report is one of m a n y p r e p a r e d for

the W o r l d F a c t b o o k of Criminal J u s t i c e Systems
under Bureau of Justice S t a t i s t i c s grant No.
9 0 - B J - C X - 0 0 0 2 to the State U n i v e r s i t y of N e w York
at Albany.
The p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r was G r a e m e R.
Newman, but r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the a c c u r a c y of the
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in each report is that of
the i n d i v i d u a l author.
The contents of these
reports do not n e c e s s a r i l y reflect the views or
policies of the Bureau of Justice S t a t i s t i c s or
the U. S. D e p a r t m e n t of Justice.

GENERAL OVERVIEW

i. P o l i t i c a l

system.

N o r w a y is a u n i f i e d state in w h i c h
g o v e r n m e n t a l p o w e r is d i v i d e d b e t w e e n the
judiciary, e x e c u t i v e and l e g i s l a t i v e branches,
each of w h i c h are m u t u a l l y independent.
The
e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h is made up of the King and
members of the Cabinet.
L e g i s l a t i v e power is v e s t e d in the n a t i o n a l
p a r l i a m e n t (Stortinget), which is c o m p o s e d of 157
members who are d e m o c r a t i c a l l y e l e c t e d on a
g e o g r a p h i c a l basis. A l t h o u g h the p a r l i a m e n t is
unicameral, it divides into two chambers (the
Lagting and Odelsting) for the p u r p o s e of p a s s i n g
legislation. Both chambers must a p p r o v e a bill
before it can be passed.
The bill must also be
a p p r o v e d by the King sitting in council with the
Cabinet, a l t h o u g h this is a mere formality.
In
theory, the j u d i c i a r y can e x e r c i s e some i n f l u e n c e
upon the l e g i s l a t i v e process since it has an
u n w r i t t e n p o w e r to set aside any l e g i s l a t i o n it
finds to be u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l .
However, this p o w e r
is rarely exercised. ( A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of J u s t i c e in
Norway, 1980: 88).
For a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and p o l i t i c a l purposes,
the c o u n t r y is d i v i d e d into 19 counties (fylker)
and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 450 m u n i c i p a l i t i e s (kommuner).
While the v a r i o u s counties and m u n i c i p a l i t i e s are

responsible for running a large number of vital

welfare services, r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for o r g a n i z i n g
and financing the criminal justice s y s t e m lies
p r i m a r i l y with central government agencies, most
notably the M i n i s t r y of Justice and Police.
2. Legal

system.

It is d i f f i c u l t to classify the N o r w e g i a n
legal s y s t e m solely by reference to the various
ideal categories of legal systems which are
commonly cited.
This is because the N o r w e g i a n
legal s y s t e m has l a r g e l y been set up on a national
level.
The N o r w e g i a n s y s t e m is most similar to
the legal systems of the other N o r d i c countries,
p a r t i c u l a r l y those of Denmark and Sweden.
N o r w a y does not have a general c o d i f i c a t i o n
of p r i v a t e or public law c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the Code
Civil or B D r g e r l i c h e s Gesetzbuch in civil law
countries.
It instead has c o m p r e h e n s i v e statutes
codifying, among other things, central aspects of
the criminal law and the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
justice.
N o r w e g i a n courts do not attach the same
weight to judicial p r e c e d e n t s as members of the
judiciary in common law countries t r a d i t i o n a l l y
have done.
Neither are N o r w e g i a n courts bound by
intricate rules concerning the a d m i s s i b i l i t y of
evidence; the basic rule is that all evidence is
admissible.
Court p r o c e d u r e is r e l a t i v e l y
informal and simple, and there is a strong lay
influence in the judicial assessment of criminal
matters and, to a lesser extent, civil matters.
This lay influence is created through the use of
both a jury s y s t e m and a system w h e r e b y lay judges
(without formal legal qualifications) sit with
p r o f e s s i o n a l judges in the hearing of cases.
3. H i s t o r y

of the criminal

justice

system.

The roots of the N o r w e g i a n legal s y s t e m can

be traced back more than 1,000 years to the
i n s t i t u t i o n of the Allting. This was a p u b l i c
gathering of yeomen, who convened to settle
disputes and make laws for the local district.
These types of meetings were in existence well
before the country was united as one k i n g d o m under
King Harald H a a r f a g r e in the late 9th century.
During the 10th century, there arose the
i n s t i t u t i o n of the Lagting, which was a more
formal and less l o c a l i z e d body e x e r c i s i n g
legislative, judicial, and e x e c u t i v e powers in
relation to a p a r t i c u l a r area.
These bodies were
composed of a p p o i n t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of local
communities, officials of the King, and members of
the clergy.
In the late 13th century, under the d i r e c t i o n

of King M a g n u s L a g a b o t e (Magnus the Lawmender),

the regional laws c r e a t e d by the L a g t i n g were
g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r and c o d i f i e d u n d e r one n a t i o n a l
law c a l l e d the Landslov.
The s e c o n d m a j o r
c o d i f i c a t i o n of N o r w e g i a n law took place in 1687,
during the p e r i o d when N o r w a y was in u n i o n with,
and ruled by, Denmark.
This c o d i f i c a t i o n was
i n i t i a t e d by the Danish King, C h r i s t i a n V.
Upon
d i s s o l u t i o n of the union with D e n m a r k at the end
of the N a p o l e o n i c Wars, N o r w a y a d o p t e d a
C o n s t i t u t i o n on M a y 17, 1814.
A m o n g s t other
things, the C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e d for the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c y and a
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l monarchy.
Of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e for the
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of criminal justice are A r t i c l e s
20, 96, 99, and 102 of the C o n s t i t u t i o n . A r t i c l e
20 empowers the King to p a r d o n criminals, while
A r t i c l e 96 bans i n t e r r o g a t i o n by torture and holds
that no one may be c o n v i c t e d "except a c c o r d i n g to
law", or be p u n i s h e d "except after a court
judgement". A r t i c l e 99 states that no one "may be
taken into c u s t o d y except in the cases d e t e r m i n e d
by law and in the m a n n e r p r e s c r i b e d by law", and
A r t i c l e 102 bans the s e a r c h i n g of p r i v a t e homes
"except in criminal cases."
A n o t h e r relevant
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n is A r t i c l e 94, w h i c h
provides for the p u b l i c a t i o n of "a new general
civil and criminal code."
The first c o m p r e h e n s i v e penal code was
e n a c t e d in 1842. This was r e p l a c e d by the G e n e r a l
Civil Penal Code of May 22, 1902.
W h i l e this Code
is still in force, it is i m p o r t a n t to note that a
Criminal Law C o m m i s s i o n was a p p o i n t e d in 1980 to
draft a new code.
So far, work by the C o m m i s s i o n
has r e s u l t e d in several a m e n d m e n t s to the e x i s t i n g
Code, plus a draft set of general p r o v i s i o n s for
the p r o p o s e d new code.
The draft set of new
general p r o v i s i o n s have not yet been sent out for
a general hearing. (Almindelig b o r g e r l i g
S t r a f f e l o v 22. mai 1902 nr. I0; Ny s t r a f f e l o v a l m i n n e l i g bestemmelser, 1992; Oie, 1993).
Special rules on judicial p r o c e d u r e for
criminal cases were first c o d i f i e d in s t a t u t e form
in 1887.
This statute was r e p l a c e d by the Act on
Rules of Judicial P r o c e d u r e in Penal Cases, w h i c h
e n t e r e d into force on J a n u a r y I, 1986. Several
i m p o r t a n t changes to this Act have b e e n p r o p o s e d
recently.
The bulk of these a m e n d m e n t s were
a p p r o v e d by P a r l i a m e n t on June ii, 1993 and
e n t e r e d into force in 1994.
They were not
e x p e c t e d to enter into force until 1994. (Lov om
r e t t e r g a n g s m % t e n i s t r a f f e s a k e r 22. mai 1981 nr.
25, the "Criminal P r o c e d u r e Act";
T o - i n s t a n s b e h a n d l i n g , anke og j u r y o r d n i n g i
straffesaker, 1992; Oie, 1993).
The Penal Code and C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e Act are

the two m a i n laws g o v e r n i n g the civil

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of criminal justice in Norway.
The
m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c r i m i n a l justice is
g o v e r n e d by two c o r r e s p o n d i n g laws: the M i l i t a r y
Penal Code of 1902 (Militoer S t r a f f e l o v 22. mai
1902 nr. 13) and M i l i t a r y C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act
of 1900 (Lov om R e t t e r g a n g s m a a d e n i m i l i t o e r e
S t r a f f e s a g e r 29. mars 1900 nr. 2).

CRIME

I. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

of Crime.

*Legal c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
The Penal Code groups
criminal o f f e n s e s into felonies (forbrytelser) and
m i s d e m e a n o r s (forseelser).
The C r i m i n a l Law
Commission, set up to draft a new Penal Code, has
p r o p o s e d the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n felonies and
m i s d e m e a n o r s be e v e n t u a l l y d r o p p e d from criminal
law. (It is i m p o r t a n t to note that, unless
o t h e r w i s e specified, all legal r e f e r e n c e s in this
report are to laws as they e x i s t e d on S e p t e m b e r I,
1993. [Ny s t r a f f e l o v - a l m i n n e l i g e b e s t e m m e l s e r ,
1992: 21]).
Felonies are, with some exceptions, o f f e n s e s
with a m a x i m u m p e n a l t y e x c e e d i n g 3 months'
imprisonment.
The m a j o r i t y of felonies are d e f i n e d
and l i s t e d in Part 2 of the Penal Code, such as
perjury, arson, racial d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , rape,
d e f a u l t i n g on o b l i g a t i o n to support dependents,
slander and libel, larceny, embezzlement, d a m a g i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems, murder,
b l a c k m a i l and robbery, fraud and b r e a c h of trust.
(Penal Code Sect. 2, 163- 165, 167, 148, 135a, 192,
219, 246-248, 257-260, 255-256, 151b, 233, 266-269,
270-278).
M i s d e m e a n o r s are g e n e r a l l y m i n o r offenses
carrying a m a x i m u m p e n a l t y of 3 months'
imprisonment.
Examples of these types of offenses
are found in Part 3 of the Penal Code.
All
breaches of the Road T r a f f i c Act are d e f i n e d as
m i s d e m e a n o r s i r r e s p e c t i v e of w h e t h e r or not they
carry a m a x i m u m p e n a l t y of more than 3 months'
imprisonment. ( V e g t r a f i k k l o v 18. juni 1965 nr. 4;
Penal Code, Sect. 31).
*Age of c r i m i n a l responsibility.
The m i n i m u m age
at w h i c h one can be held c r i m i n a l l y liable is 15.
(Penal Code, Sect.46; P r o p o s e d new Penal Code,
Sect. 37).
*Drug offenses.
Drug offenses are set out in
Sections 162 and 162a of the Penal Code and
Section 22 and 43 of the M e d i c i n a l Goods Act.

The drugs c o v e r e d by these laws are l i s t e d in the

N a r c o t i c s R e g u l a t i o n s issued by the M i n i s t r y of
Social A f f a i r s (Forskrift om n a r k o t i k a m.v. 30.
juni 1978 nr. 8). There are some 250 s u b s t a n c e s
listed; salts and d e r i v a t i v e s of the l i s t e d
s u b s t a n c e s are also c a t e g o r i z e d as narcotics.
An o r d i n a r y drug o f f e n s e p u r s u a n t to the Penal
Code involves the illegal m a n u f a c t u r e , introduction,
acquisition, storage (as o p p o s e d to p o s s e s s i o n /
besittelse), or t r a n s f e r of narcotics, and is
p u n i s h e d by a fine or i m p r i s o n m e n t of up to 2
years. I m p r i s o n m e n t for a serious drug o f f e n s e
(grov n a r k o t i k a f o r b r y t e l s e ) can be i m p o s e d for a
m a x i m u m of I0 years. (Lov om l e g e m i d l e r m.v. 20.
juni 1964 nr. 5; Penal Code, Sect. 162).
W h e t h e r or not a drug o f f e n s e is j u d g e d as
serious (grov) depends on the type of drug
involved, its q u a n t i t y and the n a t u r e of the
offense.
If the q u a n t i t y is "very significant",
i m p r i s o n m e n t will be imposed for a p e r i o d of 3 to
15 years.
In " p a r t i c u l a r l y a g g r a v a t i n g
c i r c u m s t a n c e s " (soerdeles s k j e r p e n d e
o m s t e n d i g h e t e r ) , an offender can be i m p r i s o n e d for
up to 21 years. (Andenaes and Bratholm, 1991:
289-291; Penal Code, Sect. 162).
A s i m i l a r h i e r a r c h y of sanctions is p r o v i d e d
for those who receive or make a p r o f i t from a drug
offense or who assist other persons in r e c e i v i n g
or m a k i n g such a profit.
A drug o f f e n s e under the
M e d i c i n a l Goods Act is d e f i n e d as the illegal
p o s s e s s i o n or use of narcotics, and the p u r c h a s i n g
of n a r c o t i c s under false pretenses. (Penal Code,
Sect. 22, 43, 162a).
Note that, prima facie, the laws make no
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t kinds of narcotics;
m a r i h u a n a is t r e a t e d the same as h e r o i n or
cocaine.
The use of drugs in sport is not
e n c o m p a s s e d by the above laws. (Andenaes and
Bratholm, 1991: 288-289).
2. Crime

statistics.

The f o l l o w i n g crime statistics cover offenses

r e p o r t e d to the p o l i c e in 1991.
The s t a t i s t i c s
are b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n e n t e r e d into the
country's central crime r e g i s t r a t i o n system,
STRASAK, and on the results of q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
c o m p l e t e d by p o l i c e d i s t r i c t s which in 1991 were
not yet c o n n e c t e d to STRASAK.
Most of the
s t a t i s t i c s are taken from K r i m i n a l s t a t i s t i k k
1 9 9 1 / C r i m i n a l S t a t i s t i c s 1991, p u b l i s h e d in 1993
by the Central Bureau of Statistics.
The
d e f i n i t i o n s of the offenses upon w h i c h the
s t a t i s t i c s are b a s e d are taken from p r o v i s i o n s of
the Penal Code. The total number of r e p o r t e d
felonies for 1991 was 252,311. The total n u m b e r of

reported m i s d e m e a n o r s was 99,066.

Statistics 1991, 1993: 19).

(Criminal

*Murder. In 1991, there were 50 incidents of

murder reported to police. (Criminal Statistics
1991, 1993: 19).
A person is guilty of m u r d e r (drap) if he or
she i n t e n t i o n a l l y "brings about" (forvolder) or
"assists in b r i n g i n g about" (medvirker) the death
of another person. (Penal Code, Sect. 233).
*Rape.
In 1991, 387 incidents of rape were
reported to the police. (Criminal Statistics 1991,
1993: 19).
A person is guilty of rape (voldtekt) if he
or she, either by using violence or m a k i n g someone
fear for their life or health, forces someone, or
assists in forcing someone, to have "indecent
intercourse."
The concept of indecent i n t e r c o u r s e
(utuktig omgang) includes but is not limited to
sexual i n t e r c o u r s e involving penetration.
(Andenaes and Bratholm, 1991: 103; Penal Code,
Sect. 192).
*Larceny.
In 1991, there were 177,071 incidents
of larceny reported to police, a c c o u n t i n g for
70.2% of all reported felonies.
Of the total
number of larcenies, 68,408 were cases of simple/
minor l a r c e n y (simpelt tyveri), 85,976 were cases
of s e r i o u s / a g g r a v a t e d larceny grovt tyveri) and
22,697 were cases of m o t o r - v e h i c l e theft.
Motorvehicle theft is d e f i n e d in a s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y
manner in Section 260 of the Penal Code. (Criminal
1993: 19).
A person is guilty of larceny if he or she
takes, or assists in taking, an object which, in
whole or in part, belongs to another person, with
the i n t e n t i o n of making an u n j u s t i f i e d gain
(vinning) for himself or herself or for others.
W h e t h e r the larceny is s i m p l e / m i n o r or
s e r i o u s / a g g r a v a t e d depends on a v a r i e t y of
factors, including the value of the stolen goods,
whether or not the larceny took place on p u b l i c
premises, and whether or not it i n v o l v e d burglary,
use of weapons, explosives or the like. (Penal
Code, Sect. 257-258).
*Serious drug offense.
In 1991, there were 13,063
d r u g - r e l a t e d crimes reported to police, a c c o u n t i n g
for 5.2% of all reported felonies.
Of these,
there were 6,780 ordinary drug offenses and 588
serious drug offenses in relation to the Penal
Code, while 5,695 incidents c o n s t i t u t e d drug
offenses in relation to the M e d i c i n a l Goods Act.
The number of reported drug offenses has i n c r e a s e d
five-fold during the last decade, and t w e n t y - f o l d
since 1970. (Criminal Statistics 1991, 1993: 19;

Statistics

1991,

Kriminalitet

og rettsvesen,

1992:

25.

*Crime regions.
Crime s t a t i s t i c s for N o r w a y show
that the rate of i n v e s t i g a t e d felonies i n c r e a s e s
with the rate of p o p u l a t i o n density.
This w o u l d
also a p p e a r to be the case with r e p o r t e d felonies.
(Kriminalitet og rettsvesen, 1992: 27).
In 1991, Oslo c o u n t y had the h i g h e s t rate of
i n v e s t i g a t e d felonies, at 124 per 1,000
inhabitants.
The counties of Vestfold,
Aust-Agder, Buskerud, V e s t - A g d e r and O s t f o l d had
the next h i g h e s t rates, with figures b e t w e e n 67
and 56 per 1,000 inhabitants.
All of these
counties have a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75% of their
i n h a b i t a n t s living in d e v e l o p e d (tettbygde) areas.
The counties with the lowest rates of i n v e s t i g a t e d
felonies, S o g n - F j o r d a n e (15 felonies per 1,000
inhabitants) and M o r e - R o m s d a l (18 felonies per
1,000 inhabitants) have only a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% of
their p o p u l a t i o n living in d e v e l o p e d areas.
The
a v e r a g e rate of i n v e s t i g a t e d felonies for the
c o u n t r y as a whole was 52 per 1,000 inhabitants.
(Criminal S t a t i s t i c s 1991, 1993: 24; K r i m i n a l i t e t
og rettsvesen, 1992: 27).

VICTIMS

I. Groups most v i c t i m i z e d by crime.

I n f o r m a t i o n on victims of crime has been
g a t h e r e d as part of general surveys on living
c o n d i t i o n s in N o r w a y ( L e v e k % r s u n d e r s o k e l s e r ) .
This i n f o r m a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d in s u m m a r y form by
the Central Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s in its
p u b l i c a t i o n , K r i m i n a l i t e t og r e t t s v e s e n (2nd ed,
1992) at pages 15-20.
All of the data cited b e l o w
are d e r i v e d from this publication.
In surveys on living conditions c a r r i e d out
in 1983, 1987 and 1991, a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample of
the N o r w e g i a n p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n 16 and 79 years
old were asked w h e t h e r or not they had been
s u b j e c t e d to some form of v i o l e n c e or threat of
v i o l e n c e d u r i n g the p r e v i o u s year.
Of those a s k e d
in 1991, 5%, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 170,000 persons,
a n s w e r e d in the affirmative.
(The survey figures
for 1987 and 1983 were 5% and 4%, respectively.)
A p p r o x i m a t e l y a third of those persons a n s w e r i n g
yes had s u f f e r e d m a n i f e s t b o d i l y i n j u r y as a result
of the violence.
In 1991, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 11% of s u r v e y e d m a l e s
b e t w e e n 16 and 24 years old had been s u b j e c t e d to
v i o l e n c e or the threat of violence.
The
e q u i v a l e n t figures for females b e t w e e n 16 and 24
years old, for males over 45 years of age, and for

females over 45 years of age were a p p r o x i m a t e l y

9%, 3% and 2%, respectively.
The figure for those
living in urban areas was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7%; it was
2% for those living in rural areas.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y half of those p e r s o n s who had
been s u b j e c t e d to v i o l e n c e or the threat of
v i o l e n c e had been s u b j e c t e d to it several times
during the year.
Women, more than men, were
subject to v i o l e n c e in their own home; men, m o r e
than women, were subject to v i o l e n c e w h i l e out in
restaurants, bars, cafes, or other p u b l i c places.
M u r d e r victims are u s u a l l y males.
In 1990,
for example, 35 of the 46 r e p o r t e d m u r d e r victims
were men; 3 of the victims were u n d e r 15 years
old.
In the age groups of 15-20, 21-30 and 31-40,
8, 12 and 12 p e r s o n s had b e c o m e m u r d e r victims,
respectively.
In a third of the cases, the v i c t i m
and o f f e n d e r were m e m b e r s of the same family or
living together.
In t w o - t h i r d s of the cases, both
were under the i n f l u e n c e of drugs or alcohol.
In
almost half of the cases, the m u r d e r was the
result of an argument.
In 1991, 14% of the population, or
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 480,000 persons, r e p o r t e d that they
had p o s s e s s i o n s stolen or d a m a g e d d u r i n g that
year.
Half of these cases c o n c e r n e d theft: 20%,
both theft and damage; 30%, d a m a g e only.
Of those
persons living in large towns, 21% r e p o r t e d h a v i n g
had p o s s e s s i o n s stolen.
The c o r r e s p o n d i n g figure
for those l i v i n g in rural areas was 8%.
T h e r e are several w e a k n e s s e s w i t h these v i c t i m
surveys.
For example, they do not i n c l u d e p e r s o n s
under 16 years old or p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n
on the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c status of crime victims.
It
is w o r t h n o t i n g that in 1992, a special c o m m i t t e e
a p p o i n t e d by the M i n i s t r y of Justice and Police to
i n v e s t i g a t e the legal p o s i t i o n of crime victims
c r i t i c i z e d the p a u c i t y of d e t a i l e d crime v i c t i m
data in Norway. The c o m m i t t e e recommended, among
other things, that the s y s t e m w h e r e b y s t a t i s t i c s
are c o l l a t e d on criminal offenses r e p o r t e d to and
i n v e s t i g a t e d by the p o l i c e should be e x t e n d e d to
include e s s e n t i a l data on the victims of those
offenses. (Sterkere vern og ~kt st~tte for
k r i m i n a l i t e t s o f r e , 1992: 8, 13).
2. Victims'

assistance

agencies.

As of 1990, there were 46 crisis centers

spread t h r o u g h o u t N o r w a y o f f e r i n g a s s i s t a n c e to
women and c h i l d r e n who had been subject to rape or
other p h y s i c a l or p s y c h o l o g i c a l abuse. There were
also 41 crisis t e l e p h o n e services for women, along
with several t e l e p h o n e services for men who have
been the victims of incest.
C h i l d r e n who are
victims of incest are o f f e r e d a s s i s t a n c e by a
support center in Oslo (Stottesenter mot incest),

which has been o p e r a t i n g since 1986. (Sterkere

vern og okt stotte for k r i m i n a l i t e t s o f r e , 1992:
7O).
A n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n for victims of
v i o l e n c e ( L a n d s f o r e n i n g for v o l d s o f r e og
m o t a r b e i d i n g av vold) was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1989,
with the a i m of a s s i s t i n g victims and c a m p a i g n i n g
for m e a s u r e s to reduce the extent of v i o l e n c e in
N o r w e g i a n society.
V e r y few p r o g r a m s are in p l a c e
that s p e c i a l i z e in p r o v i d i n g support for e l d e r l y
victims of violence.
One such p r o g r a m has been
i n i t i a t e d in the town of Skien and a n o t h e r in
Manglerud, Oslo. (Sterkere vern og okt stotte for
k r i m i n a l i t e t s o f r e , 1992: 70-71).
Most of the above p r o g r a m s are run on a
private, v o l u n t a r y basis. Some funding is p r o v i d e d
by the State, such as for the crisis centers for
women.
3. Role of v i c t i m in p r o s e c u t i o n

and sentencing.

In N o r w e g i a n law, the crime v i c t i m plays a

p e r i p h e r a l role in the p r o s e c u t i o n and s e n t e n c i n g
process.
It is the State w h i c h is a c c o r d e d the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of p r o s e c u t i n g and s e n t e n c i n g
criminal offenders.
The v i c t i m ' s role in this
p r o c e s s is l i m i t e d g e n e r a l l y to providing, as a
witness, e v i d e n c e on the m a t t e r in question.
It
s h o u l d be n o t e d that there is p r e s e n t l y no s y s t e m
w h e r e b y a " V i c t i m Impact S t a t e m e n t " is made out
and s u b m i t t e d to the court as a s u p p l e m e n t to the
p r e - s e n t e n c e report, a l t h o u g h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of
such a s y s t e m has r e c e n t l y been recommended.
(Sterkere vern og okt stotte for
k r i m i n a l i t e t s o f r e , 1992: 36).
In c e r t a i n situations, the v i c t i m will have
e x t e n d e d rights in the p r o s e c u t i o n process, such
as in cases where the v i c t i m i n s t i t u t e s a p r i v a t e
p r o s e c u t i o n or becomes a p a r t y to the p r o s e c u t i o n .
The v i c t i m will then have a right, for instance,
to e x a m i n e witnesses.
The v i c t i m will also have a
right to be a c q u a i n t e d with case d o c u m e n t s d u r i n g
the m a i n court hearing.
Generally, this right is
not e x p r e s s l y a c c o r d e d to victims, even t h o u g h
they do have a right to be a c q u a i n t e d with case
d o c u m e n t s d u r i n g the p r e - t r i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 242,404,402).
Since 1991, it has been p o s s i b l e for the
p r o s e c u t i n g a u t h o r i t y to d e c i d e that certain
criminal m a t t e r s may be s e t t l e d out of court
through n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n the o f f e n d e r and
victim, with an e x t r a - j u d i c i a l body called the
C o n f l i c t Board (konfliktr%d) p r e s e n t as an
arbitrator.
Several c o n d i t i o n s must be f u l f i l l e d
b e f o r e this can occur.
The o f f e n s e must not be so
serious as to incur imprisonment, the o f f e n d e r
must be p r o v e d g u i l t y of the a l l e g e d offense, and

both the o f f e n d e r and v i c t i m must consent to the

m a t t e r b e i n g s e t t l e d out of court in the w a y
described. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 71a).4.

Victims'

rights

legislation.

There is no victims' rights l e g i s l a t i o n as

such.
Rather, p r o v i s i o n s giving victims c e r t a i n
rights have been i n c o r p o r a t e d into m o r e general
laws, such as the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s A c t (CPA),
the Injury C o m p e n s a t i o n Act (Lov om
s k a d e s e r s t a t n i n g 13. juni 1969 nr. 26) and the
Legal A i d Act (Lov om fri r e t t s h j e l p 13. juni 1980
nr. 35).
An e x a m p l e of such a p r o v i s i o n is S e c t i o n 456
of the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act, w h i c h states that
a c o m p e n s a t i o n c l a i m o r d e r e d to be p a i d to a
v i c t i m takes p r i o r i t y over a c l a i m by the State
that the o f f e n d e r pay a fine.
In addition,
Section 107a p r o v i d e s that in cases i n v o l v i n g a
c o n t r a v e n t i o n of Sections 192 to 196 of the Penal
Code (sexual offenses), the v i c t i m is e n t i t l e d to
the a s s i s t a n c e of a lawyer, who is p a i d by the
State.
The lawyer is p e r m i t t e d to be p r e s e n t
during the m a i n h e a r i n g of the case, is given
l i m i t e d rights to assist the v i c t i m when he or she
is q u e s t i o n e d in court, and must be given access
to the case documents. In most other cases, it is
the v i c t i m who must bear the costs of e n g a g i n g a
lawyer to assist him or her d u r i n g the p r o s e c u t i o n
process. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect.
I07c,264a).
W o m e n who have been m i s t r e a t e d or a b u s e d are
e n t i t l e d to free legal advice, i r r e s p e c t i v e of
their assets or income.
T h e y are also e n t i t l e d to
the free a s s i s t a n c e of a lawyer d u r i n g the
p r o s e c u t i o n process, a l t h o u g h this lawyer does not
have the same rights as those lawyers a p p o i n t e d
p u r s u a n t to S e c t i o n 107a of the C r i m i n a l
Procedures Act.
V i c t i m s of v i o l e n c e are also
a l l o w e d free legal advice i r r e s p e c t i v e of their
assets or income (Ministry of Justice, C i r c u l a r s
G-38/89, G-62/87, G-I01/83).
A v i c t i m has the right to d e m a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n
for losses s u f f e r e d as a result of b e i n g
p h y s i c a l l y or m e n t a l l y i n j u r e d by an offender. The
type of loss for which c o m p e n s a t i o n can be c l a i m e d
is u s u a l l y e c o n o m i c only, a l t h o u g h there are
certain e x c e p t i o n s n o t e d in the I n j u r y
C o m p e n s a t i o n Act.
C o m p e n s a t i o n can be d e m a n d e d
from the offender, by m o u n t i n g a civil legal
claim, for example, or from the State. (Injury
C o m p e n s a t i o n Act, Sect. 3-2, 3-3, 3-5; State
R e g u l a t i o n s of J a n u a r y 23, 1981).

POLICE
I. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
There are 5 p o l i c e

regions,

among w h i c h are

54 police districts.
The districts are led by
police c o m m i s s i o n e r s (Politimestre), who have as
their immediate subordinates, d e p u t y p o l i c e
c o m m i s s i o n e r s (Politiinspektorer), a s s i s t a n t
commissioners (Politiadjutanter) and
superintendents
(Politifullmektiger).
Police
c o m m i s s i o n e r s and deputy police c o m m i s s i o n e r s are
a p p o i n t e d by the King in Council.
The other two
classes of officials are a p p o i n t e d by the M i n i s t r y
of Justice and Police. (Kriminalitet og
rettsvesen, 1992: 40; Public P r o s e c u t i o n
A u t h o r i t i e s and Police in Norway, 1992: 4).
The police force is a d m i n i s t e r e d d i r e c t l y by
the M i n i s t r y of Justice and Police. It is also
s u b o r d i n a t e to the Public Prosecution A u t h o r i t y
(den o f f e n t l i g e p%talemyndighet) with regard to
the i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p r o s e c u t i o n of crimes.
The
police c o m m i s s i o n e r s and their immediate
subordinates form the first instance of the Public
Prosecution Authority, which is headed by the
Director General of Public Prosecutions
(Riksadvokaten).
(Administration of Justice in
Norway, 1980: 51; Criminal Procedures Act, Sect.

55).
The Director General is a p p o i n t e d by, and
d i r e c t l y a c c o u n t a b l e to, the King, i n d e p e n d e n t of
the M i n i s t r y of Justice.
He or she is a s s i s t e d by
40 Public Prosecutors or State A t t o r n e y s
(Statsadvokater), 37 of whom are a s s i g n e d to
p a r t i c u l a r g e o g r a p h i c a l jurisdictions.
There are
9 such jurisdictions.
In addition, there are 8
Public Prosecutors attached to the recently
e s t a b l i s h e d Central Unit for the I n v e s t i g a t i o n and
Prosecution of Economic and E n v i r o n m e n t a l Crime.
All Public Prosecutors or State A t t o r n e y s are
lawyers and a p p o i n t e d by the King. (Norges
S t a t s k a l e n d e r 1993, 1993: 194-195; Politi og
p%talemyndighet,
1988: 12-13).
In rural areas, police duties are carried out
by sheriffs (Lensmenn), each of w h o m has general
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y in relation to a d e f i n e d
district.
There are 370 such districts.
(Politi
og p%talemyndighet,
1988: 28).
As a police
officer, a sheriff is accountable to the local
police commissioner.
(Police Act, Sect. 6).
There are several special units to the police
force, all of which are a d m i n i s t e r e d centrally.
These include the National Bureau of Crime
Investigation (Kriminalpolitisentralen "Kripos"), the Police Security Service (Politiets
Overv%kingstjeneste),
the Police C o m p u t i n g Service
(Politiets Datatjeneste), the Police E q u i p m e n t
Service (Politiets Materielltjeneste)
and the
Mobile Police (Utrykningspolitiet).
There is also
a small specialist a n t i - t e r r o r squad based in
Oslo. (Public Prosecution A u t h o r i t i e s and Police
in Norway, 1992: 6-7).

The functions and tasks of the p o l i c e are

m a n y and varied, ranging from the usual
m a i n t e n a n c e of law and order, the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
and p r e v e n t i o n of crime, to m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e tasks, such as i m m i g r a t i o n control
and control of l o t t e r i e s and gambling.
The m a i n
rules g o v e r n i n g the functions and tasks of the
p o l i c e force are found in the Police Act of 1936
(Lov om p o l i t i e t 13. mars 1936 nr. 3), the Police
I n s t r u c t i o n of 1990 (Alminnelig t j e n e s t e i n s t r u k s
for p o l i t i e t 22. juni 1990), the S u r v e i l l a n c e
I n s t r u c t i o n of 1977 ( O v e r v t k i n g s i n s t r u k s 25.
n o v e m b e r 1977), the W e a p o n I n s t r u c t i o n of 1989
(Vtpeninstruks for p o l i t i e t I. august 1989), the
C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act of 1981 and the
P r o s e c u t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n of 1985. (Forskrift om
o r d n i n g e n av p t t a l e m y n d i g h e t e n 28. juni 1985 nr.
1679).
It s h o u l d be noted that the f u n d a m e n t a l right
of p o l i c e to m a i n t a i n p u b l i c order is b a s e d on
c u s t o m a r y law and not set down in statute.
However, this right was i n c l u d e d in a p r o p o s a l for
a new Police Act, d r a f t e d in 1991 and s u b m i t t e d to
P a r l i a m e n t in 1994. ( O d e l s t i n g s p r o p o s i s j o n nr. 83,
1992-1993).
The p o l i c e are c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of the
m i l i t a r y forces. In certain e m e r g e n c y situations,
such as rescue o p e r a t i o n s and n a t u r a l
catastrophes, the police can seek the a s s i s t a n c e
of the m i l i t a r y when there are i n s u f f i c i e n t
c i v i l i a n resources to cope with the situation. In
such cases, the m i l i t a r y forces are under c o m m a n d
of the p o l i c e and must follow the laws w h i c h
regulate p o l i c e actions. (Police Instruction,
Chapt. 14).
2. Resources.
*Expenditures.
In 1993, the p o l i c e force was
a l l o c a t e d NOK 2 , 8 5 7 , 2 6 7 , 0 0 0 .
The sheriff force
was a l l o c a t e d NOK 875,548,000. These sums do not
include m o n e y a l l o c a t e d to the N o r w e g i a n Police
A c a d e m y or the Police E q u i p m e n t Service.
(Driscoll, 1993).
*Number of police.
In 1993, there were 6,827
p o l i c e officers, i n c l u d i n g o f f i c e r s s e r v i n g in the
sheriff force.
As of 1991, there were 374 female
p o l i c e / s h e r i f f officers.
W h i l e there are no
figures a v a i l a b l e on the number of female o f f i c e r s
for 1992 and 1993, it is e s t i m a t e d that in 1993
women c o m p r i s e d about 8%-9% of p o l i c e o f f i c e r s and
4% of sheriff officers.
As of 1993, there were 2
female p o l i c e c o m m i s s i o n e r s .
All p o l i c e officers in 1993 had a N o r w e g i a n
background, except for one woman from Pakistan.

There were also several other officers who were

born in other countries but a d o p t e d and raised by
N o r w e g i a n families. (Driscoll, 1993).
3. Technology.
* A v a i l a b i l i t y of police automobiles.
As of A u g u s t
1993, there were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,620 police
automobiles.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,000 of these were
State-owned; the rest were rented.
In addition,
there were 86 motorcycles, all of which were
State-owned.
(Hagen, 1993).
* E l e c t r o n i c equipment.
Computer t e c h n o l o g y is
used by the police force for a v a r i e t y of
purposes, including reporting crimes, g a t h e r i n g
and p r o c e s s i n g crime statistics, budgeting,
a c c r e d i t a t i o n of officials and fingerprinting.
(An A u t o m a t e d Fingerprint I d e n t i f i c a t i o n S y s t e m
[AFIS] has been in use with the National Bureau of
Crime I n v e s t i g a t i o n since the b e g i n n i n g of 1985.
[Politiets Datatjeneste, 1993: 25]).
All police and sheriff stations have on-line
links to a central computer network m a i n t a i n e d by
the Police C o m p u t i n g Service.
At present, p o l i c e
cars are not m o u n t e d with m i n i - c o m p u t e r terminals,
but there are plans to mount a fleet of police cars
with such equipment later this year. M o b i l e
telephones, radio equipment and radar guns are
also widely used. (Haukaas, 1993; Politiets %rbok
1991, 1991: 18-21; Politiets Datatjeneste, 1993).
*Weapons.
The most common type of weapon with
which police arm themselves is a wooden baton.
There are 2 main types of guns a v a i l a b l e for use
by o r d i n a r y police officers: US carabiners (30
caliber) and Smith & W e s s o n revolvers (model I0).
M a c h i n e guns are available to s p e c i a l l y s e l e c t e d
police units, such as the anti- terror squad.
There are light b u l l e t - p r o o f vests for
a p p r o x i m a t e l y half of the operative police force.
They are d i s t r i b u t e d u n e q u a l l y between the various
police districts d e p e n d i n g on need.
A l m o s t all
police officers on patrol in Oslo have
b u l l e t - p r o o f vests.
There are also a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2,000 heavy b u l l e t - p r o o f vests and helmets
d i s t r i b u t e d b e t w e e n the police districts.
(Hagen,
1993).
4. T r a i n i n g

and qualifications.

Persons seeking to be recruited into the

police force as ordinary service personnel must be
b e t w e e n 21 and 30 years old, have N o r w e g i a n
citizenship, and be of good health, character and
standing.
(Police Act, Sect. 13).
They must also
have completed a 3-year training course run by the

N a t i o n a l Police A c a d e m y (Politihogskolen) in Oslo.

This t r a i n i n g course involves 1 year of studies at
the academy, f o l l o w e d by 1 year of p r a c t i c a l
t r a i n i n g at p o l i c e stations, and then a year of
further study b a c k at the academy.
(Politihogskolen, 1993: 8).
At present, there are
no c o m p u l s o r y p o s t g r a d u a t e courses for s e r v i c e
personnel, a l t h o u g h such courses have e x i s t e d in
the past.
Those seeking to be r e c r u i t e d to the
upper e c h e l o n s of the police force, such as the
rank of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , must have c o m p l e t e d a
u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e in law. (Police Act, Sect. 4).
5. Discretion.
*Use of force.
S e c t i o n 67 of the C r i m i n a l
P r o c e d u r e s Act p r o v i d e s the p o l i c e w i t h general
a u t h o r i t y to i n v e s t i g a t e and p r o s e c u t e cases of
crime.
It also p r o v i d e s the police with a u t h o r i t y
to seek court p e r m i s s i o n to apply c e r t a i n c o e r c i v e
measures, such as arrest and seizure of property,
d u r i n g the i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p r o s e c u t i o n process.
These c o e r c i v e m e a s u r e s are d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r s
14-17 of the C r i m i n a l Procedures Act and a m p l i f i e d
in C h a p t e r s 8-11 of the P r o s e c u t i o n I n s t r u c t i o n of
1985.
Rules g o v e r n i n g the use of w e a p o n s by p o l i c e
are c o n t a i n e d in the W e a p o n I n s t r u c t i o n (WI) of
1989 (V%peninstruks for p o l i t i e t I. august 1989).
The i n s t r u c t i o n covers the use of guns,
explosives, gas and batons.
Batons and gas can
only be used in " e s p e c i a l l y d a n g e r o u s s i t u a t i o n s "
or when p o l i c e cannot carry t h r o u g h a task w i t h o u t
being subject to a risk of injury. (Weapon
Instruction, Sect. 17).
Guns shall only be used as a "last option",
when: (a) p o l i c e or others are t h r e a t e n e d by
weapons or v i o l e n c e and the use of guns seems
n e c e s s a r y to p r e v e n t the loss of human life or
serious injury; or (b) it is n e c e s s a r y to
i m m e d i a t e l y a p p r e h e n d a person who is s u s p e c t e d
of, or c h a r g e d with, a serious v i o l e n t offense,
i n c l u d i n g a t t e m p t s at such offenses, or a p e r s o n
who is o t h e r w i s e seen as being of special d a n g e r
to n a t i o n a l security, to life or health; or (c) it
is n e c e s s a r y to p r e v e n t serious d a m a g e to foreign
property, or when e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n t e r e s t s
of s o c i e t y are threatened. (Weapon Instruction,
Sect. 19).
Before using weapons, p o l i c e must c o n s i d e r
the d a n g e r or risk of injury to which o u t s i d e r s
will be subjected.
If c i r c u m s t a n c e s allow, they
must i n i t i a l l y warn a p e r s o n that w e a p o n s will be
used a g a i n s t him or her if he or she does not obey
police orders.
They must also fire a w a r n i n g
shot.
E x p l o s i v e s can only be used in order to
gain access to l o c k e d or b a r r i c a d e d premises, when

the c o n d i t i o n s in S e c t i o n 19 of W e a p o n I n s t r u c t i o n
are fulfilled, and upon an order from a p o l i c e
commissioner.
(Weapon Instruction, Sect. 20,22).
Police on routine p a t r o l do not c a r r y guns.
Police c o m m i s s i o n e r s can a u t h o r i z e that h a n d g u n s
be taken by p o l i c e when p a t r o l l i n g by car.
In
such cases, the w e a p o n s and a m m u n i t i o n m u s t be
kept in l o c k e d cabinets in the p a t r o l cars.
Special p o l i c e units can carry other types of
weapons, if p e r m i t t e d by the M i n i s t r y of Justice.
Police are allowed, on a case by case basis, to
carry guns in certain d a n g e r o u s situations.
(Weapon Instruction, Sect. 5, Sect. i0-II).
*Stop/apprehend
available.

a suspect.

Information

not

* D e c i s i o n to arrest.
The m a j o r legal r e q u i r e m e n t s
that m u s t be met b e f o r e a p e r s o n can be a r r e s t e d
by the p o l i c e are p r o v i d e d in C h a p t e r 14 of the
C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act.
Generally, the d e c i s i o n
to a r r e s t a p e r s o n must be made by an o f f i c i a l of
the Public P r o s e c u t i n g A u t h o r i t y , w h i c h i n c l u d e s
the h i g h e r - r a n k i n g p o l i c e officials, or a court.
A n o r d i n a r y p o l i c e o f f i c e r or p r i v a t e c i t i z e n m a y
m a k e an a r r e s t on his or her own i n i t i a t i v e if
d e l a y "entails any risk."
However, these sorts of
arrests m u s t s u b s e q u e n t l y be r a t i f i e d as soon as
p o s s i b l e by the Public P r o s e c u t i n g A u t h o r i t y .
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, S e c t . 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 ) .
There
are no s t a t i s t i c s a v a i l a b l e on the n u m b e r of
arrests m a d e w i t h o u t a warrant.
W h e t h e r a p e r s o n is a r r e s t e d d e p e n d s
p r i m a r i l y on the type of p e n a l t y for the o f f e n s e
he or she is s u s p e c t e d of h a v i n g committed, along
with the risk that he or she will try to evade
p r o s e c u t i o n and/or commit a n o t h e r crime.
Section
171 of the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s A c t states that any
p e r s o n who is s u s p e c t e d "with just cause" of
c o m m i t t i n g a felony p u n i s h a b l e by m o r e than 6
months' i m p r i s o n m e n t m a y be a r r e s t e d when: (i)
"there is reason to fear that he will evade
p r o s e c u t i o n or the e x e c u t i o n of a s e n t e n c e or
other p r e c a u t i o n s " ;
(2) "there is an i m m e d i a t e
risk that he will i n t e r f e r e with any e v i d e n c e in
the case...";
(3) "it is d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r
to p r e v e n t h i m from again c o m m i t t i n g a c r i m i n a l
act p u n i s h a b l e by i m p r i s o n m e n t for a t e r m
e x c e e d i n g 6 months"; or (4) "he h i m s e l f r e q u e s t s
it for reasons that are found to be
satisfactory.[...]."
None of these four
c o n d i t i o n s n e e d to be met in o r d e r to a r r e s t a
p e r s o n s u s p e c t e d of a felony p u n i s h a b l e by
i m p r i s o n m e n t of I0 years or more.
Such a p e r s o n
m a y be a r r e s t e d if he or she c o n f e s s e s to the
felony or there are c i r c u m s t a n c e s "that s t r e n g t h e n
the s u s p i c i o n to a m a r k e d d e g r e e . " (Criminal

P r o c e d u r e s Act, S e c t . 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 ) .
Persons "caught in the act" of c o m m i t t i n g a
crime m a y be a r r e s t e d i r r e s p e c t i v e of the p e n a l t y
the crime incurs.
This is also the case w h e n
there is "reason to fear" that a s u s p e c t will
evade p r o s e c u t i o n by fleeing abroad.
After being
arrested, a p e r s o n m u s t be b r o u g h t b e f o r e a court
"as soon as p o s s i b l e and as far as p o s s i b l e on the
day f o l l o w i n g the arrest", so that an o r d e r can be
i s s u e d that the p e r s o n be r e m a n d e d in custody.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 173,183-184).
It is p o s s i b l e for p o l i c e to d e t a i n a p e r s o n
for up to 4 hours w i t h o u t a r r e s t i n g h i m or her.
This t e m p o r a r y d e t e n t i o n can be i m p o s e d on p e r s o n s
who "disturb the p u b l i c p e a c e and order", or who
do not c o m p l y w i t h a p o l i c e request to give their
name, age and p l a c e of residence, or who are found
in the v i c i n i t y of a p l a c e where a felony is
"deemed" to have o c c u r r e d i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e h a n d .
Further g u i d e l i n e s on when and h o w p o l i c e m a y
d e t a i n p e r s o n s who d i s t u r b the p u b l i c p e a c e and
order are p r o v i d e d in Chapt 9 of the Police
Instruction.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect.191).
*Search and seizure.
The p o l i c e m a y s e a r c h a
p e r s o n ' s p r e m i s e s if that p e r s o n "is with just
cause s u s p e c t e d of any act p u n i s h a b l e by law w i t h
imprisonment."
The p o l i c e m a y also c o n d u c t a
b o d i l y s e a r c h of such a p e r s o n "if there is r e a s o n
to a s s u m e that it m a y lead to the d i s c o v e r y of
e v i d e n c e or of objects that m a y be s e i z e d . "
Pursuant to Sect. 157 of the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s
Act, it is also p o s s i b l e to conduct a p h y s i c a l
e x a m i n a t i o n of a s u s p e c t d u r i n g a court inquiry.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 192,195)
In c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p o l i c e can s e a r c h
the p r e m i s e s of p e r s o n s other than the s u s p e c t and
to c o n d u c t b o d i l y searches of these persons.
All
searches m u s t be made p u r s u a n t to a court order,
unless the p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d consents to the
search, is "caught in the act" or there is "strong
s u s p i c i o n " of an act p u n i s h a b l e by m o r e than 6
months' i m p r i s o n m e n t and there is an " i m m e d i a t e
risk that the p u r p o s e of the search will o t h e r w i s e
be t h w a r t e d . "
S e a r c h e s s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d "as
far as p o s s i b l e " in the p r e s e n c e of an i n d e p e n d e n t
witness. Upon b e i n g arrested, a p e r s o n m a y also be
s e a r c h e d in order to find and d i s p o s s e s s h i m or
her of a n y t h i n g that m a y be used for the p u r p o s e
of v i o l e n c e or escape.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act,
Sect. 1 7 8 , 1 9 2 - 1 9 5 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9 ) .
A n y objects " d e e m e d to be s i g n i f i c a n t as
e v i d e n c e " m a y be seized.
Seizure will n o r m a l l y be
the result of a w r i t t e n d e c i s i o n of the P u b l i c
P r o s e c u t i o n A u t h o r i t y or a court, but a p o l i c e
o f f i c e r can e f f e c t a s e i z u r e on his or her own
i n i t i a t i v e "when c a r r y i n g out a d e c i s i o n to m a k e

an a r r e s t or search, and o t h e r w i s e when d e l a y

entails a risk."
A n y seizure m a y be c h a l l e n g e d in
a court. (Criminal Procedures Act, g e n e r a l l y
C h a p t e r 17, Sect. 2 0 3 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 , 2 0 8 ) .
*Confessions.
Police have no a u t h o r i t y to order
any person, i n c l u d i n g suspects, to m a k e a
statement.
However, they can record any
s t a t e m e n t s that are made by the suspect.
Suspects
must be i n f o r m e d that they are not o b l i g e d to m a k e
any statement, b e f o r e they are examined.
In
addition, p e r s o n s c o n d u c t i n g an e x a m i n a t i o n of a
suspect, such as the police, p r o s e c u t i n g
authority, and court, must not use "promises,
false information, threats or coercion", or "any
means that reduce the level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s or
a b i l i t y of the p e r s o n c h a r g e d to make up his own
m i n d freely." (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect.
92,230,232).
If the suspect admits to h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d a
crime, he or she must then be asked w h e t h e r s/he
admits b e i n g g u i l t y and liable to a penalty. If an
u n r e s e r v e d c o n f e s s i o n is made, the suspect must be
asked w h e t h e r he or she consents to the case b e i n g
a d j u d i c a t e d in a court of s u m m a r y jurisdiction.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 233).
6. A c c o u n t a b i l i t y .
C o m p l a i n t s a l l e g i n g that p o l i c e have b r e a c h e d
criminal law in c a r r y i n g out their duties are
h a n d l e d by special i n v e s t i g a t o r y bodies,
i n d e p e n d e n t of the M i n i s t r y of J u s t i c e and Police
and s u b o r d i n a t e to the D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l of Public
P r o s e c u t i o n s (Riksadvokaten).
All cases in w h i c h
p o l i c e actions have r e s u l t e d in a p e r s o n ' s death
and/or serious b o d i l y injury must be i n v e s t i g a t e d
by such bodies, i r r e s p e c t i v e of w h e t h e r or not a
c o m p l a i n t has been made.
It is up to the
R i k s a d v o k a t to d e c i d e w h e t h e r or not to p r o s e c u t e
the police. (Prosecution Instruction; Sect.7-2,
34-6; cf Chapt 34; cf s 34-8).
A l l e g a t i o n s of p o l i c e acting in b r e a c h of
d i s c i p l i n e are h a n d l e d by special c o m m i t t e e s
(ansettelsesr%d) a t t a c h e d to each p o l i c e
department.
D e c i s i o n s r e a c h e d by these c o m m i t t e e s
can be a p p e a l e d to the M i n i s t r y of J u s t i c e and
Police.
The M i n i s t r y also handles general
c o m p l a i n t s about p o l i c e behavior. (Aukrust, 1993).

PROSECUTORIAL AND JUDICIAL

i. Rights

of the accused.

PROCESS

*Rights of the accused.

The rights of the a c c u s e d
are d e s c r i b e d in the C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act.
The
a c c u s e d must be i n f o r m e d of the nature of the
charge(s) b r o u g h t against h i m or her upon b e i n g
a r r e s t e d and a t t e n d i n g court for the first time.
The a c c u s e d must also be given the chance to
refute the grounds on w h i c h the charge is based.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, S e c t . 9 0 , 9 2 , 1 7 1 ) .
A l t h o u g h the a c c u s e d has a general right to
a t t e n d court p r o c e e d i n g s and to summon and e x a m i n e
witnesses, the court can order him or her to leave
the c o u r t r o o m while a witness is b e i n g e x a m i n e d
"if there is special reason to fear that an
u n r e s e r v e d s t a t e m e n t will not o t h e r w i s e be m a d e . "
The a c c u s e d must be i n f o r m e d s u b s e q u e n t l y of the
p r o c e e d i n g s that o c c u r r e d in his or her absence.
In special circumstances, such as if n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s are at stake, the a c c u s e d m a y
be e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e d from the p r o c e e d i n g s .
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 135,245).
The court's verdict must be c o m m u n i c a t e d to
the a c c u s e d as soon as possible, along with
i n f o r m a t i o n on rights of appeal. Court j u d g e m e n t s
and orders are to be a c c o m p a n i e d by reasons.
(Criminal Procedures Act, S e c t . 3 9 - 4 1 , 4 3 , 5 2 ) .
The a c c u s e d has the right to b r i n g appeals
a g a i n s t court verdicts, both on q u e s t i o n s of fact
and q u e s t i o n s of law. There are, however, several
l i m i t a t i o n s on the e x e r c i s e of this right. For
example, appeals to the Supreme Court, which is
the h i g h e s t judicial body, can only take p l a c e if
p e r m i t t e d by the Court's A p p e a l s S e l e c t i o n
C o m m i t t e e (Kjoerem%isutvalget). Moreover, the
general rule is that such appeals can only be
b a s e d on a l l e g e d errors of law.
In other words,
the S u p r e m e Court is unable to try questions of
e v i d e n c e related to the issue of guilt.
( A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Justice in Norway, 1980: 65-66;
C r i m i n a l Procedures Act, as a m e n d e d new Chapt 23,
Sect. 323, 1993).
The a c c u s e d do not have the right to have
their cases tried by jury.
As a basic rule,
however, appeals from v e r d i c t s r e a c h e d by the
court of first i n s t a n c e on cases c o n c e r n i n g
felonies p u n i s h a b l e by more than 6 years'
i m p r i s o n m e n t are dealt with by the High Court
(Lagmannsrett).
In these cases, there is a jury
(lagrett) p r e s e n t to d e c i d e the q u e s t i o n of guilt.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, new Chapt 24, as
amended, 1993).
* A s s i s t a n c e to the accused.
As a general rule,
the a c c u s e d is e n t i t l e d to the a s s i s t a n c e of
d e f e n s e counsel of his or her choice d u r i n g all
stages of the judicial process.
The a c c u s e d is
also p r o v i d e d with the free a s s i s t a n c e of d e f e n s e
counsel, chosen by the court, d u r i n g the m a i n

court hearing.
There are several e x c e p t i o n s to
the latter rule, such as if the case i n v o l v e s a
c e r t a i n m i n o r offense, like d r i v i n g under the
i n f l u e n c e of alcohol, or when the a c c u s e d has m a d e
an u n r e s e r v e d confession.
However, these
e x c e p t i o n s a p p l y only in cases tried by the City
or D i s t r i c t Court.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act,
Sect. 9 4 , 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 , 2 6 2 ) .
2. Procedures.
* P r e p a r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e s for b r i n g i n g a suspect to
trial.
Once a p e r s o n has been arrested, he or she
is b r o u g h t b e f o r e the court of e x a m i n a t i o n and
s u m m a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n (forhorsretten). This court
decides w h e t h e r or not the p e r s o n shall be
r e m a n d e d in custody.
The p r o s e c u t i n g a u t h o r i t y
then p r e p a r e s a formal i n d i c t m e n t
(tiltalebeslutning), which it serves on the
accused.
The i n d i c t m e n t contains i n f o r m a t i o n on
the time, place and object of the coming trial and
legal details on the nature of the charge.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, Sect. 184,184a).
W h e n the relevant 1993 a m e n d m e n t s to the CPA
enter into force, all criminal m a t t e r s will
i n i t i a l l y be b r o u g h t to the District and City
Courts.
A p p e a l s will be brought b e f o r e the High
Court, though in special c i r c u m s t a n c e s they will
be able to go d i r e c t l y to the S u p r e m e Court.
Previously, the most serious criminal cases were
tried by the High Court at first instance.
It was
also m u c h e a s i e r to b r i n g appeals from d e c i s i o n s
r e a c h e d by the D i s t r i c t and City Courts d i r e c t l y
b e f o r e the S u p r e m e Court, b y p a s s i n g the High Court
in the process. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, new as
amended, Sect.5,6,8, 1993).
*Official who conducts prosecution.
The Public
P r o s e c u t i o n A u t h o r i t y is r e s p o n s i b l e for d e c i d i n g
w h e t h e r to p r o s e c u t e and for c o n d u c t i n g the
prosecution.
For very serious felonies, such as
murder, the d e c i s i o n to p r o s e c u t e lies with the
D i r e c t o r General of Public Prosecutions.
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for p r o s e c u t i n g most other types of
felonies lies with the State a t t o r n e y s / P u b l i c
Prosecutors. Police C o m m i s s i o n e r s and their
i m m e d i a t e s u b o r d i n a t e s are also part of the Public
P r o s e c u t i o n A u t h o r i t y and have the power to
p r o s e c u t e more m i n o r cases, which are t y p i c a l l y
m i s d e m e a n o r s . ( A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of J u s t i c e in
Norway, 1980: 51-52).
On A u g u s t 27, 1993, a Royal R e s o l u t i o n was
issued, e x t e n d i n g p o l i c e p r o s e c u t i o n p o w e r s to
e n c o m p a s s d i f f e r e n t types of felonies, such as
b r e a k i n g and entering, f a l s i f i c a t i o n of documents,
larceny, fraud and vandalism. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s
Act, new as amended, cf n e w l y amended, Sect.67,

1993).
* A l t e r n a t i v e s to trial.
M i n o r o f f e n s e s can be
s e t t l e d by the p o l i c e s e r v i n g a writ p r e s c r i b i n g
p a y m e n t of an o p t i o n a l fine (forelegg) upon the
accused.
This type of writ is u s u a l l y served in
minor t r a f f i c and customs offenses. If the fine is
paid, there are no further judicial p r o c e e d i n g s .
If the fine is not paid, the m a t t e r can be
p r o s e c u t e d in court using s i m p l i f i e d p r o c e e d i n g s .
For instance, a D i s t r i c t Court judge could d e c i d e
the m a t t e r summarily.
This s i m p l i f i e d court
p r o c e d u r e is also e m p l o y e d when an a c c u s e d p e r s o n
makes an u n r e s e r v e d c o n f e s s i o n for a crime not
p u n i s h a b l e by more than i0 years' imprisonment,
and the c o n f e s s i o n is c o r r o b o r a t e d by evidence.
(Criminal P r o c e d u r e s Act, new as amended, Sect.
248, 1993; K r i m i n a l i t e t og rettsvesen, 1992: 42).
An o r d i n a r y court trial can also be avoided:
(a) in cases w h e r e the p r o s e c u t i n g a u t h o r i t y
decides not to prosecute, often with the c o n d i t i o n
that the o f f e n d e r u n d e r t a k e s not to engage in
further criminal behavior; (b) in cases i n v o l v i n g
persons under the age of 18, which are left to be
d e c i d e d by m u n i c i p a l child w e l f a r e boards; and (c)
in cases which can be s e t t l e d by a r b i t r a t i o n
through the C o n f l i c t Board. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s
Act, Sect. 69; K r i m i n a l i t e t og rettsvesen, 1992:
42).
* P r o p o r t i o n of p r o s e c u t e d cases going to trial.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of felonies c o m p l e t e d by the p o l i c e
in 1991 r e s u l t e d in 58,600 charges b e i n g b r o u g h t
against 22,400 persons; 70% of the charges, and
a p p r o x i m a t e l y half of the persons charged, ended
up in trial. (Criminal S t a t i s t i c s 1991, 1993:
29,144).
Of cases i n v o l v i n g felonies w h i c h were
i n v e s t i g a t e d in 1991, 77% were not c l e a r e d up by
the end of the year.
Only 11% to 14% of cases
i n v o l v i n g l a r c e n y were s u c c e s s f u l l y investigated,
while figures for cases i n v o l v i n g m u r d e r and
serious drug o f f e n s e s were 84% and 89%,
respectively.
Of those cases w h i c h were c l e a r e d
up in 1991, 19.5% r e s u l t e d in charges b e i n g laid, of w h i c h
(Criminal S t a t i s t i c s
1991, 1993: 27,28,51).
Just as the p r o p o r t i o n of cases s u c c e s s f u l l y
i n v e s t i g a t e d varies by type of offense, so does
the p r o p o r t i o n of cases going to trial, though
often to a smaller extent and not in the same
pattern.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 75% to 80% of charges
i n v o l v i n g l a r c e n y went to trial in 1991.
The
figures for o r d i n a r y drug crimes, serious drug
crimes and m u r d e r were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 78%, 97% and
80%, r e s p e c t i v e l y . These p e r c e n t a g e s were

69.5% went

to trial.

c a l c u l a t e d using n u m e r i c a l data
S t a t i s t i c s 1991. (1993: 53-55).

from C r i m i n a l

P r e - t r i a l i n c a r c e r a t i o n conditions.
A court of
e x a m i n a t i o n and s u m m a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n
(forhorsretten) can decide that an a r r e s t e d p e r s o n
be r e m a n d e d in c u s t o d y if any of the c o n d i t i o n s
set out in Sections 171, 172 or 173 of the
C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act are fulfilled.
Pre-trial
i n c a r c e r a t i o n shall be "as short as p o s s i b l e and
must not e x c e e d 4 weeks", but it can be e x t e n d e d
by up to 4 weeks at a time. (Criminal P r o c e d u r e s
Acts, Sect. 184, 185).
There is a p r o v i s i o n for a p e r s o n to forgo
arrest or be r e l e a s e d from c u s t o d y s u b s e q u e n t to
arrest if he or she gives certain guarantees.
However, this p r a c t i c e is rarely applied.
(Andenaes, 1993: 126; C r i m i n a l P r o c e d u r e s Act,
Sect. 181,188).
*Bail procedure.

Information

not available.

* P r o p o r t i o n of p r e - t r i a l o f f e n d e r s incarcerated.
In 1991, just over 20% (533 persons) of the total
a v e r a g e n u m b e r of p r i s o n e r s were in c u s t o d y
a w a i t i n g trial. (Criminal S t a t i s t i c s 1991, 1993:
124,128).

JUDICIAL

SYSTEM

i. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
At the top of the judicial h i e r a r c h y is the
Supreme Court (Hoyesterett), l o c a t e d in Oslo.
D i r e c t l y b e l o w the Supreme Court is the High Court
(Lagmannsrett).
There are 5 High Courts, each
c o v e r i n g a s e p a r a t e but p a r a l l e l t e r r i t o r i a l
j u r i s d i c t i o n in
Eidsivating, Agder, Gulating,
F r o s t a t i n g and H%logaland.
B e l o w the High Court
are the D i s t r i c t and City Courts (Herredsrett and
Byrett), which function o r d i n a r i l y as the courts
of first instance. There are 98 D i s t r i c t and City
Courts. (Kriminalitet og rettsvesen, 1992: 72-73).
The m a j o r i t y of criminal m a t t e r s are s e t t l e d
s u m m a r i l y in the forh~rsrett. In 1990, for example,
35,200 criminal m a t t e r s went to the D i s t r i c t and
City Courts, of which two-thirds, or 23,800, were
s e t t l e d in the forh~rsrett. A l s o in 1990, less than
2% of all criminal matters were h a n d l e d by the High
Court at first instance. (Kriminalitet og
rettsvesen, 1992: 74).
2. Special

courts.

The majority of special courts which have

been established hear only particular kinds of
civil matters.
For instance, there is a Court of
Impeachment (Riksretten) to hear criminal charges
brought against government ministers, members of
parliament and Supreme Court judges, although it
is rarely used. (Administration of Justice in
Norway, 1980: 88).
There is also the Court Martial which hears
criminal charges on members of the military
(Krigsretten).
This court is made up of one
professional judge and 2 military lay judges.
(Administration of Justice in Norway, 1980: 83).
3. Judges.
*Number of judges.
The Supreme Court is served by
a Chief Justice (Justitiarius) and 17 judges.
Attached to the High Court are 84 judges
(lagdommere), while 238 judges (embetsdommere) and
156 deputy judges (dommerfullmektiger) are
employed at the District and City Courts.
(Kriminalitet og rettsvesen, 1992: 72-73).
*Appointment and qualifications.
All judges are
appointed by the King in Council upon the
recommendation of the Ministry of Justice. To be
appointed, judge s must be Norwegian citizens,
financially solvent, and have achieved high
university grades when studying for their law
degree. Jurists from all professional backgrounds
can be appointed as judges. There is no formal
system of promotion through the court hierarchy.
Deputy judges tend to be relatively young and
often have just graduated law school.
(Administration of Justice in Norway, 1980: 89).
Lay judges can participate in the hearing of
cases.
Usually one professional judge and two lay
judges hear criminal cases at the District and
City Courts.
Amendments to the CPA in 1993 have
made it possible for more serious cases to be
heard at first instance by two professional and
three lay judges.
Previously, these cases went
straight to the High Court for a first instance
hearing. (Criminal Procedures Act, new as amended,
Sect. 276, 1993).

PENALTIES AND SENTENCING

i. Sentencing process.
*Who determines the sentence?
Sentences issued by
the courts of first instance (District and City

Courts) are d e t e r m i n e d by a c o l l e g i u m of two lay

judges and one p r o f e s s i o n a l judge. However, 1993
amendments to the Criminal Procedures Act make it
possible for this c o l l e g i u m to be e x p a n d e d to
three lay judges and two p r o f e s s i o n a l judges for
more serious cases.
The 1993 a m e n d m e n t s also
provide that sentences issued by the High Court
are to be d e t e r m i n e d by three p r o f e s s i o n a l and
four lay judges. (Lov om d o m s t o l e n e 13. august
1915 nr. 5). (Courts Act, cf Sect. 12,14; Criminal
Procedures Act, new as amended, Sect. 276, 332,
1993).
In cases tried by jury, sentences will be
d e t e r m i n e d by the p r o f e s s i o n a l judges, the jury
foreman and three jury members.
Sentences issued
by the Supreme Court are always d e t e r m i n e d by
p r o f e s s i o n a l judges.
If a p p l i c a t i o n of the law is
upheld, an appeal court cannot alter the sentence,
"unless it finds that the p e n a l t y is o b v i o u s l y
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the criminal act committed."
(Criminal Procedures Act, new as amended, Sect.
344,376e, 1993).
*Is there a special s e n t e n c i n g
Information not available.

hearing?

*Which persons have input into the s e n t e n c i n g

process?
Courts and the p r o s e c u t i n g a u t h o r i t y can
order that a social inquiry on the charged person
be c o n d u c t e d in order to assist them in
d e t e r m i n i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e penalty. (Criminal
Procedures Act, Chapter 13). There is also
p r o v i s i o n for the appointment of various experts
to serve either in the capacity of w i t n e s s e s or in
the c a p a c i t y of lay judges. (Criminal Procedures
Act, Chapter II; Criminal Procedures Act, new as
amended, Sect. 277,332, 1993).
2. Types

of penalties.

*Range of penalties.
The main types of penalties
for criminal actions are imprisonment, social
service, and fines.
The m a x i m u m prison sentence
is 21 years, of which a p p r o x i m a t e l y one such
sentence is imposed each year.
Crimes that are
p u n i s h e d by i m p r i s o n m e n t of up to 21 years include
murder, rape and serious drug offenses.
(Kriminalitet og rettsvesen, 1992: 58; Penal Code,
Sect. 15; Penal Code, p r o p o s e d new, Sect. 40).
Offenders can also receive a s u s p e n d e d prison
sentence (betinget dom).
Suspended prison
sentences are usually given to young and/or
first-time offenders for lesser crimes.
In 1990,
1 in 3 felonies was p u n i s h e d with a s u s p e n d e d
prison sentences, either alone or in a d d i t i o n to
payment of fines. (Kriminalitet og rettsvesen,

1992:

58).
C o m m u n i t y service involves an offender doing
unpaid c o m m u n i t y work for a set time period, with
a m a x i m u m of 360 hours.
It is u s u a l l y imposed for
crimes which can be p u n i s h e d by up to 1 year in
prison.
It can be combined with p a y m e n t of fines
and, in special circumstances, with a short p e r i o d
of imprisonment.
A s u b s i d i a r y term of
i m p r i s o n m e n t (subsidioer fengselsstraff) is
u s u a l l y fixed at the same time that a p e n a l t y
involving community service and/or p a y m e n t of a
fine is imposed.
The s u b s i d i a r y term of
i m p r i s o n m e n t takes effect if the c o m m u n i t y service
is not carried out s a t i s f a c t o r i l y or the fine is
not paid. (Penal Code, Sect. 28,28a-28c; Penal
Code, p r o p o s e d new, Sect. 40,53,57,61).
A n o t h e r type of p e n a l t y is d e t e n t i o n (hefte),
a form of custodia honesta rarely applied and
d r o p p e d in the p r o p o s e d new Penal Code.
However,
the p r o p o s e d Code retains the p e n a l t y of
p r e v e n t i v e d e t e n t i o n (forvaring).
Persons who
have r e p e a t e d l y committed felonies of a serious
nature and w h o m a court suspects will commit such
crimes once released from prison can be held back
in p r e v e n t i v e detention.
Other penalties which
are retained in the p r o p o s e d new Code include:
forfeiture of p u b l i c and/or p r i v a t e office; loss
of the right to vote and to engage in certain
enterprises; and p r o h i b i t i o n from entering or
staying in certain areas. (Penal Code, Sect.
29-33; Penal Code, p r o p o s e d new, Chapter 9,10).
*Death penalty.

There

is no death penalty.

PRISON

I. Description.
*Number of prisons and type.
On July 2, 1993,
there were 48 prisons, of which 5 were central
prisons (landsfengsler) and 43 were regional
prisons (kretsfengsler, h j e l p e f e n g s l e r and
arbeidskolonier).
One of the central prisons
(Bredtvedt) was for females only.
Most other
prisons contained prisoners of both sexes.
Larger
prisons had special sections just for women.
There were no prisons solely used for juveniles.
(Fridhov, 1993).
*Number of prison beds.
On July 2, 1993, there
were 1,831 places for prisoners in closed prison
i n s t i t u t i o n s (lukkede anstalter) and 941 places in
open i n s t i t u t i o n s (%pne anstalter) (Fridhov, 1993).
In open institutions there are no special security

measures taken to p r e v e n t prisoners escaping,

unlike those taken in closed institutions.
*Number of annual admissions.
In 1991, there were
11,497 new admissions and 550 r e - a d m i s s i o n s to
penal institutions, i n d i c a t i n g a 6% increase from
the previous year. (Criminal Statistics 1991,
1993: 123, 129).
*Average daily p o p u l a t i o n / n u m b e r of prisoners.
In
1991, the average daily number of prisoners was
2,548, of which 124, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5%, were
women.
A total of 4% of those a d m i t t e d to p r i s o n
in 1991 were foreign citizens residing in Norway,
of which over half had o r i g i n a l l y come from Europe
(mainly from northern Europe), 9% from America,
14% from A f r i c a and 28% from Asia. A total of 5%
of those admitted to prison were of unknown
citizenship.
(Criminal Statistics 1991, 1993:
125).
*Actual or e s t i m a t e d p r o p o r t i o n s of inmates
incarcerated.
The following is the p e r c e n t a g e of
convicted offenders admitted into prison in 1991
by crime type. (Criminal Statistics 1991, 1993:
126).
Drug Crimes
Violent Crimes (includes sexual
offenses, various forms of b o d i l y
violence, murder)
Property Crimes (includes theft)
Other Crimes (includes fraud,
drunken driving, traffic offenses)
Unknown

9%

12%
15%
40%
24%

2. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
*Administration.
All prisons in Norway
financed and a d m i n i s t e r e d by the State.
*Number of prison
were 1,534 prison

guards.
guards.

are

On July 2, 1993,
(Fridhov, 1993).

there

*Training and qualifications.

Those seeking
recruitment as prison officers must be N o r w e g i a n
citizens, b e t w e e n 21 and 35 years old, and be of
good health and character.
They must also have
s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d secondary schooling.
(Lov
om f e n g s e l s v e s e n e t 12. desember 1958 nr. 7; Prison
Act, Sect. 6).
All recruits must then complete a 2 year
course of study at the N o r w e g i a n Prison College
(Fengselsskolen) in Oslo, followed by one year's
c o m p u l s o r y service in the prison system. (Fridhov,
1993).

* E x p e n d i t u r e on p r i s o n system.
In 1992,
a p p r o x i m a t e l y NOK 1 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 was spent on
prisons. This sum includes m o n e y spent on b u i l d i n g
and m a i n t a i n i n g p r i s o n facilities but does not
include m o n e y spent on education, h e a l t h and
culture p r o g r a m s for prisoners. (Fridhov, 1993).
3. Prison Conditions.
*Remissions.
As a general rule, p r i s o n e r s are
r e l e a s e d on p a r o l e b e f o r e the p e r i o d for w h i c h
they have been s e n t e n c e d has expired. Normally,
they are r e l e a s e d once they have s e r v e d at least
t w o - t h i r d s of their sentence, w h i c h m u s t at least
be 2 months, i n c l u d i n g time spent in custody.
In
special circumstances, a p r i s o n e r can be r e l e a s e d
on p a r o l e after half of the s e n t e n c e has expired,
but this rarely occurs. (Andenaes, 1991: 357;
Prison Act, Sect. 35,36).
* W o r k / e d u c a t i o n . There are c o m p u l s o r y work s c h e m e s f o r
serving short
prison s e n t e n c e s may avoid having to p a r t i c i p a t e
in these schemes if it is d i f f i c u l t to find
a p p r o p r i a t e work a c t i v i t i e s for them.
Prisoners
are paid for their work.
(Prison Act, Sect.
17,18).
P r i s o n e r s can p a r t i c i p a t e in p r o g r a m s run by
the M i n i s t r y of Education.
These p r o g r a m s are
o f f e r e d at all e d u c a t i o n a l levels (primary,
s e c o n d a r y and tertiary). (Andenaes, 1991: 351).
*Amenities/privileges.
Prisoners have v i s i t a t i o n
rights, postal c o r r e s p o n d e n c e rights, the right to
lodge w r i t t e n complaints, and the right to be
a l l o w e d outdoors for at least an hour each day.
(Prison Act, Sect. 22-25).
M o s t p r i s o n s have a p r i e s t who holds regular
church services for p r i s o n e r s and helps o r g a n i z e
social events.
At the larger prisons, there are
also social workers and sports and r e c r e a t i o n
advisors w h o m p r i s o n e r s can consult.
Prisoners
are n o r m a l l y a l l o w e d to have televisions, radios
and m a g a z i n e s in their cells. In special
circumstances, they are also a l l o w e d to leave
p r i s o n for short periods, such as to visit a sick
relative. (Andenaes, 1991: 352; Prison Act, Sect.
34).
T h e r e are no special t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s for
p r i s o n e r s b e y o n d o r d i n a r y m e d i c a l services,
a l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e to t r a n s f e r p r i s o n e r s to
other i n s t i t u t i o n s for special t r e a t m e n t if
necessary.
It is also p o s s i b l e for a p r i s o n e r
a d d i c t e d to drugs to enter into a special contract
with the p r i s o n authorities.
In this contract,
the p r i s o n a u t h o r i t i e s can offer and p r o v i d e m o r e
p r i v i l e g e s on the c o n d i t i o n that the p r i s o n e r

prisoners.

However,

those

p r o m i s e s not to use drugs and agrees to u n d e r g o

regular urine tests to ensure the p r o m i s e is b e i n g
kept. (Fridhov, 1993; K r i m i n a l i t e t og rettsvesen,
1992: 62; Prison Act, Sect. 12,32).

EXTRADITION AND TREATIES

*Extradition.
All of the N o r d i c countries have
e n a c t e d n a t i o n a l laws giving them m u t u a l
e x t r a d i t i o n rights.
(For Norway, see Act of
3 M a r c h 1961 on E x t r a d i t i o n of O f f e n d e r s to
Denmark, Finland, I c e l a n d and Sweden; for Sweden,
see Act of 5 June 1959 on E x t r a d i t i o n of C r i m i n a l
O f f e n d e r s to Denmark, Finland, I c e l a n d and Norway;
for Denmark, see Act of 3 F e b r u a r y 1960 on
E x t r a d i t i o n of Legal O f f e n d e r s to Finland, Iceland,
N o r w a y and Sweden; for Finland, see Act of 3 June
1960 on E x t r a d i t i o n of C r i m i n a l O f f e n d e r s b e t w e e n
Finland and the other N o r d i c Countries.)
Norway
also r a t i f i e d the Council of Europe C o n v e n t i o n of
D e c e m b e r 13, 1957, giving it mutual e x t r a d i t i o n
rights in r e l a t i o n to Austria, Cyprus, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, S w i t z e r l a n d
and Turkey.
B i l a t e r a l e x t r a d i t i o n treaties have b e e n
c o n c l u d e d with A u s t r a l i a (September 9, 1985),
B e l g i u m (November 3, 1981), Estonia (April 3,
1930), Latvia (September 12, 1927) and the U n i t e d
States (June 9, 1977).
* E x c h a n g e and t r a n s f e r of prisoners.
Norwegian
citizens or residents can serve p r i s o n s e n t e n c e s
that were i m p o s e d by the courts in other N o r d i c
c o u n t r i e s in Norway, p u r s u a n t to Section 3 of the
Act of 1963 on E n f o r c e m e n t of Penal S e n t e n c e s
Passed in the N o r d i c States.
Citizens of the
other N o r d i c countries are also a l l o w e d to serve
N o r w e g i a n p r i s o n s e n t e n c e s in their r e s p e c t i v e
home c o u n t r i e s (Sect. 5).
There are also
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o v i s i o n s for serving s u s p e n d e d
p r i s o n s e n t e n c e s (Chapt 3) and for the s u p e r v i s i o n
of p e r s o n s r e l e a s e d on p r o b a t i o n (Chapt 4). (Lov
om f u l l b y r d i n g av n o r d i s k e dommer p% straff m.v.
15. n o v e m b e r 1963)
N o r w a y r a t i f i e d the E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n of
May 28, 1970 on the I n t e r n a t i o n a l V a l i d i t y of
C r i m i n a l Judgements, and the E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n
of M a r c h 21, 1983 on the T r a n s f e r of S e n t e n c e d
Persons.
The p r o v i s i o n s of these c o n v e n t i o n s are
i m p l e m e n t e d in the Act of 1991 on T r a n s f e r of
S e n t e n c e d Persons, which e n t e r e d into force on
A p r i l I, 1993.
This Act p r o v i d e s a legal basis

for prisoner transfer arrangements with those

European countries which are party to the above
conventions. (Lov om overforing av domfelte 20.
juli 1991 nr. 67)
*Specified conditions.
Conditions for the
extradition of foreign nationals from Norway are
set out in the Act of 1975 on the Extradition of
Offenders (Sect. 26 and 27).
This Act does not
apply to extradition matters in relation to the
Nordic countries, nor does it override
international agreements entered into by Norway
prior to the Act's entry into force.
The Act also
provides a legal basis for the extradition of
foreigners to countries which have not signed an
extradition treaty with Norway. (Lov om utlevering
av lovbrytere m.v. 13. juni 1975 nr. 39).

SOURCES
Administration of Justice in Norway, 2nd ed,
Ministry of Justice and Police (Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1980).
Andenaes, Johs, Alminnelig strafferett (General
Criminal Law). 3rd ed. (Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1991).
Andenaes, Johs, Norsk straffeprosess (Norwegian
Criminal Procedure). 2nd ed., vol I, (Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1987).
Andenaes, Johs, Norsk straffeprosess (Norwegian
Criminal Procedure). 3rd ed., vol 2 (Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1993).
Andenaes, Johs and Bratholm, Anders, Spesiell
strafferett (Special Criminal Law). 2nd ed.
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Aukrust, Magnar. Director of Legal Section, Police
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Ministry of Justice and Police,
Oslo.
Telephone call: August 30, 1993.
Telephone no: 22 345250.
Driscoll, Hilde. Advisor, Personnel Office,
Administrative Section.
Police Division,
Ministry of Justice and Police, Oslo.
Fax
received: September i, 1993.
Telephone no.
22 345244.
Hagen, Egil N. Technical Chief for the Police
Equipment Service, Jaren. Telephone call:
August 31, 1993. Telephone no.: 61
329100
Haukaas, Helmet. Director of the Police Computing
Service, Oslo.
Telephone call: August 30,
1993. Telephone no.: 22 068000.
Fridhov, Inger Marie. Researcher, Criminal Care
Division, Ministry of Justice and Police,
Oslo.
Telephone call: August 30, 1993.

T e l e p h o n e no.: 22 651660.
K r i m i n a l i t e t og rettsvesen (Criminality and the
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Lee Bygrave

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