ENSC3019/CHPR8503:

Week 6 Design of Packed Columns

Recommended reading:
McCabe et al., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, Chapter 21
Treybal, R. E. Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd Edn. McGraw-Hill 1955, Chapter 9
Coulson, J. M. and Richardson, J. F. Chemical Engineering, Volume 6: Particle
Technology and Separation Processes, 5th Edn. Butterworth-Heinemann 2002

Dr Kevin Li
Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au

Mass Transfer (MT) across phase interface: twosee McCABE et al. p547; BENTEZ p165
resistance model
distance

Gas film

Bulk gas

Liquid film

yA,G

Bulk liquid

xA,i
xA,L

yA,i

=
N A k y ( y A, g y A,i=
) N A k x ( x A,i x A,L )
1 ky
Resistances to diffusion of A:
(i) in the gas phase film

1 kx
(ii) in the liquid phase film

At the interface: assume local equilibrium between yA and xA,

2
no resistance to MT across the interface

Mass-transfer coefficients:

an engineering concept that allows us to simplify complex

diffusion problems.

=
N A k y ( y yi )
Flux

(mole/m2/s)

Coefficient

Driving force
(concentration
difference)

Since concentration could be defined in different ways,

a variety of coefficients can be defined:
ky, kx, Ky, Kx
3

Summary of general forms of MT Rates for two-phase films

See McCabe et al. page 547-548. Or if youre keen for more discussion look at Treybals Chapter 5..

=
N A k y ( y yi )
=
N A k x ( xi x )
=
NA Ky ( y y

=
N A Kx ( x x)
*

MTC=mass transfer coefficient.

1
1 m'
=
+
K y k y kx

ky is local MTC for gas phase

yi is mole fraction (of component A) in gas at the gasliquid interface , y is bulk vapour composition
kx is local MTC for liquid phase
xi is mole fraction (of component A) in liquid at the
gas-liquid interface, x is bulk liquid composition

Ky is overall MTC for gas phase

y* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk liquid of composition x
Kx is overall MTC for liquid phase
x* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk vapour of composition y
Subscripts A, and G, L dropped here for simplicity.

m is local slope of equilibrium curve

i.e. m ' =
( y* yi ) ( x xi )

Tutorial 1 Equilibrium for component A between air and

water is described by Henrys law y*=4x. The local mass
transfer coefficients are kx=2 mol m-2s-1 and ky=1 mol m-2s-1.
(1) What is the overall mass transfer coefficient for gas
phase?
(2) Evaluate the flux of A between phases at a point in a
column where bulk compositions are 0.08 mole fraction in
the gas and 0.01 mole fraction in the liquid.

6.1 Packed columns for absorption

Dr Kevin Li
Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au

Consultation hours
15:00-17:00Thursdays
2.49A in Civil & Mech Eng building

Equipment for gas-liquid absorption

Need intimate contact between the immiscible
phases to achieve mass transfer (MT) between
phases.
Flux NA
rate of transfer per unit area of gas-liquid interface
Engineering MT equipment focuses on increasing
the interfacial area for transfer (a )

Main equipment types

Packed columns

Random (let to fall randomly into column during installation)

Structured (engineering for lower P, higher cost )

Tray columns -

liquid levels on each tray

Gas sparging tanks

Column internals
Packing material, plus
Liquid inlet systems
Liquid & vapour distributors
Liquid collecting devices
Packing supports
Good info at manufacturer
www.sulzechemtech.com
GREEN, D. W. & PERRY, R. H. (eds.) (2008).
Perry's chemical engineers' handbook, New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Packed columns random packings

Raschig rings

see more images at

www.tower-packing.com
Metal pall rings

VSP Inner arc ring

10

Structured packings
www.sulzerchemtech.com

MellapakTM

www.sulzerchemtech.com

Grids

Tray columns

V-grid www.sulzerchem.com
Sieve tray

High performance trays

eg. Shell calming section tray

www.sulzerchem.com

Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. list some of the factors

which influence choice of trays or packing in a column:
1. Tray columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and
gas flow rates. Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid
rates.
2. The efficiency and performance of a tray column can be more
accurately predicted.
3. Easier to make provisions for withdrawal side streams in plate
columns.
4. Fouling & cleaning: can install manholes on trays. However, may be
easier to replace packing when fouled.
Plate columns can be designed with more assurance - some doubt that
good liquid distribution can be maintained in a packed column.
It is easier to provided cooling or heating in a plate column coils
directly on plates.
14

Trays/Plate columns vs. Packed

columns
5. For corrosive liquids a packed column will be cheaper
than a plate column (due to materials).
6. The liquid hold-up is lower in a packed column. Important
if amount toxic or flammable liquid needs to be keep low
for safety.
7. Packed columns are more suitable for foaming systems
8. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage can be lower for
packed columns.
9. Packing cheaper for small columns, d < 0.6 m
15

Column internals
process design
Process design or process tech support to operation
needs to consider:
Type of contacting device
Number equilibrium stages
Height of packing required
Pressure drop
Fouling
Corrosion and other materials issues

16

MT Rate, rA, for absorption per unit volume of

See McCabe et al. page 579
packed column

rA

k y a ( y yi )

kya is local MTC for gas phase on

unit volume basis

rA

k x a ( xi x )

kxa is local MTC for liquid phase on

unit volume basis

rA

K ya ( y y

rA

K xa ( x x )

Coefficient

yi is mole fraction (of component A) in gas at the gasliquid interface , y is bulk vapour composition

xi is mole fraction (of component A) in liquid at the

gas-liquid interface, x is bulk liquid composition

Kya is overall MTC for gas phase on

unit volume basis
y* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk liquid of composition x

Kxa is overall MTC for liquid phase

on unit volume basis
x* is composition of vapour that would be in
equilibrium with the bulk vapour of composition y

a is interfacial area per unit volume of packed column

17

Which MTC and rate equation?

Can use any of the four basic rate equations to
design an absorption column, but the gas-film
coefficients are often used.
Well follow McCabe et al. and use Kya here.

18

Calculation of packing height (dilute gas)

L, x2

y2

x+dx

y+dy
y

dz
x

Mass balance on component A across differential

volume dz.
Rate loss solute from gas = Rate gain solute by liquid

Assume:
dilute gas change in molar flow V is neglected

V, y1

x1

Vdy
= K y a ( y y ) Adz
*

a = interfacial area/unit volume of column

A = cross-sectional area column (m2)
ZT = total height of packed section
Lets do a dimension analysis here.
How do we get this equation from NA?

19

Calculation of packing height

See McCabe et al. page 580-581

Rearranging and integration of the mass balance equation:

Then, substitute Zt
into above equation

Let

We now have an equation to calculate the total height of packing, ZT,

based on concentration driving force (y-y*), gas flow rate and the gas
phase MTC:

V
dy
Zt =
*

K y aA 1 y y
20

ZT = (height transfer unit) x (number units)

See McCabe et al. page 580-581

V
dy
Zt =
*

K y aA 1 y y
Height of transfer unit
HOy
Units of length.

The height of packing

needed to achieve:

change in gas conc.

= driving force
for that section of packing.

change in gas conc.

average driving force
Number of transfer units
NOy

Subscript Oy shows based on overall

gas phase driving force.

21

Operation line and equilibrium line

Graphic integration: 1/(Y Y*) as a

function of Y

Four sets of HTUs and NTUs

See McCabe et al. page 583

Gas film:

Liquid film:

Overall gas:

Overall liquid:

Ny =

dy
y yi

V/A
Hy =
k ya
L/ A
Hx =
kxa

dx
Nx =
xi x

H Oy

V/A
=
K ya

dy
*
y y

H Ox

V/A
=
K xa

N Oy =

N Ox

dx
= *
x x
23

ENSC3019

6.2 Determination of Column Height

24

Values of height of transfer

unit
See McCabe et al. page 580-581

Values of HOy are system dependent.

Sometimes available for a particular system directly in the
literature, or could be measured in pilot-plant studies.
But, often need to estimate height of transfer units from
empirical correlations for individual MTCs or individual heights
of a transfer unit.
This estimation is a key element of Assignment 1.

25

V
dy
Evaluating the
Zt =
*

K y aA 1 y y integral for NOy?

Simplest case - Straight operating & equilibrium lines.
Can evaluate NOy by:

N Oy =
y2

change in gas conc.

log mean driving force

dy
=
N Oy =
*
y
y

)
y1 (
y y ) (y y )
(
(y y ) = y y
(
)
ln
(y y )
*

lm

lm

For details on the integration above, see

Coulson & Richardson Vol2.

Log mean driving force

*

y2 y1
*
y
y

(
)

Example H2S scurbber problem

& solution provided at end of
these set of slides.

26

Challenges and discussions

What if gas is not dilute?
Where do I get values of Mass Transfer Coefficients?
Affects of temperature and pressure?
What if theres a chemical reaction as well as absorption?
E.g. amine absorption for acid gas removal?

27

Example 13.1 H2S scrubber

Gas from a petroleum distillation column has its H2S concentration
reduced from 0.03 kmol H2S /kmol inert hydrocarbon to 1 % of this
value by scrubbing with triethanolamine-water solvent in a
countercurrent tower, operating at atmospheric pressure and 300 K.
The equilibrium relation for the solution is described by Ye=2X.
Solvent enters the tower free of H2S and leaves containing 0.013
kmol H2S /kmol solvent. If the flow of inert gas is 0.015 kmol/s.m2 of
tower cross-section, calculate:
(a)Height of absorber required
(b)Number of transfer units NOG (or Noy)required
The overall coefficient for absorption KYa is 0.04 kmol/s.m3 (unit
mole fraction driving force).
28

Example 13.1 solution (1)

Data:

Y2

Ls, X2

1) Equilibrium expression
Ye=2X
2) Top of column conditions
Y2 = 0.03 x 0.01 = 0.0003
X2 = 0 Y2e = 0

absorber

Driving force = Y2-Y2e = 0.0003

3) Bottom of column conditions

Vs, Y1

X1

Y1 = 0.03
X1 = 0.013 Y1e=0.026
Driving force = Y1-Y1e = 0.004
29

Example 13.1 solution (2)

Logarithmic mean driving force:
0.004 0.0003
Y

Y
=
(
e ) lm
0.004
ln

0.0003

0.0037
= = 0.00143
2.59

Mass balance on H2S in gas film:

(rate moles lost from gas) = (rate mass transfer)

Vs (Y1 Y2 )=
S KG aP (Y Ye )lm SZ
Where S is the cross section area
(which is also termed as A)

KG is the pressure dependent MTC

KG P = Ky

Example 13.1 solution (3)

And we can rewrite in terms of lumped overall coefficient:

KG a P = KY a = 0.04 kmol/s m3
Then:

Vs (Y1 - Y2) = KY a (Y - Ye)lm Z

0.015 (0.03 0.0003) = 0.04 (0.00143) Z
Solve for Z:

Z = 7.8 m
31

Example 13.1 solution (4)

Now calculate height of transfer unit:

Which is another
expression of HOy

For dilute systems, Vs V

Number of transfer units:

Z
N
=
= 20.7
OG
H OG
NOG = 21
Which is another expression of32
NOy

Example 13.1 alternatives solutions

If your love calculus you could solve analytically:
Y2

N OG

dY
=
Y Y
Y1 e

NOG = 21.1

Calculate HOG as before. Then calculate Z.

Z = 7.91 m
33

Example 13.1 alternatives solutions

Could do a graphical-numerical solution (eg.
trapezoidal rule or Simpson rule to find the NOG)
This will be illustrated later with Tutorial Example 2

34

Looking forward:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. suggest the following
advantages/disadvantages for Plate vs Packed:
Plate columns can be designed to handle wider range of
liquid and gas flow rates
Packed columns not suitable for very low liquid rates
The efficiency and performance of a plate column can
be more accurately predicted

35

Looking forward:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
Plate columns can be designed with more assurance some doubt that good liquid distribution can be
maintained in a packed column.
It is easier to provided cooling or heating in a plate
column coils directly on plates.
Easier to make provisions for withdrawal side streams in
plate columns.
Fouling by solids can easily install manholes on plates
small columns however may be easier to replace
packing when fouled.
36

Looking forward:

Plate columns vs. Packed columns

For corrosive liquids a packed column will be cheaper
than a plate column (due to materials).
The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed
column important if amount toxic or flammable liquid
needs to be keep low for safety
Packed columns are more suitable for foaming systems
The pressure drop per equilibrium stage can be lower
for packed columns impt. vacuum distillation
Packing cheaper for small columns, d < 0.6 m
37

6. 3 Height Equivalent of an Ideal Stage

Review:
Plate columns vs. Packed columns
Coulson and Richardson Vol 6. suggest the following
advantages/disadvantages for Plate vs Packed:
Plate columns can be designed to handle wider range of
liquid and gas flow rates
Packed columns not suitable for very low liquid rates
The efficiency and performance of a plate column can
be more accurately predicted

39

Plate column easy to think of in # of stages,

what about packed?
V n+1
y n+1
n +1

L n+1
x n+1
Ln
xn

n -1

Vn
yn
V n-1
y n-1

L n-1
x n-1

Ideal stage
stage-by-stage
determination

N actual =

N ideal

40

Height Equivalent to a Theoretical Plate

(HETP)
Column height is determined from # of theoretical plates
and the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP)

H packed
= N ideal HETP
=4
7 stages

If the HETP is 0.5 m then...

3.5 m
0

xB

0
xD
1

Example: 7 Theoretical Stages

41

How to determine an HETP

Typically determined through empirical data
General values for random packing
0.3 to 0.6 m

Smaller packing can have lower values but also less

capacity
Structured packing can have much improved HETP
0.1 to 0.2 m

Typically no fundamental prediction for HETP

42

Random and Structured Packing

Random - larger HETP

Plastic Tripak
(Jaeger Products Co.)

Metal Tripak
(Jaeger Products Co.)

Section of expanded
metal packing

Sections of expanded metal packings placed

altenatively at right angles (Denholme Co.)

Structured packing elements

for small colums with wall
wipers at the periphery

Structured - smaller HETP

(better separation with smaller column height)
43

Example: HETP for iso-octane/toluene with

Intalox packing
HETP given in terms
of a flow capacity
factor
#25, 40 50 refer to
packing sizes of 1,
1.5, 2 inches
Recommended design
velocity: 20% less than
when HETP rises rapidly
superficial velocity
44

Wetted area key to good separation

The better the wetted area the lower the HETP
Thus structured packing typically better than random

Areas of high liquid flow tend to have low vapour flow

and vice versa
Liquid will also tend toward the outside
Also means redistribution can be important
Recommended design practice of redistribution every 3 to
4m

45

Liquid distributors/redistributors
Liquid distributor distribute liquid evenly over column
(feed and reflux from condenser)
Redistributors - collect liquid that has migrated to the
walls and redistribute it evenly over packing or even out
any other maldistribution

Weir Liquid distributor

Wall wiper redistributor

46

Recommended examples from textbooks

read, understand, try to do the problems yourself
McCABE et al:
Examples: 21.1, 21.2, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6, 21.7
BENTEZ, J. (2009):
Examples 6.1, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8
SEADER, J. D. & HENLEY, E. J. (2006).
Example 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.6
Treybal, R. E. (1981); illustration 9.10
Try problems from the end of these chapters as well.
47

Not presented

6.4 DETERMINATION OF
COLUMN DIAMETER

-- APPLICABLE TO BOTH DISTILLATION AND

ABSORPTION COLUMNS

REFERENCE FOR
ASSIGNMENT 1

48

Determination of Column Diameter

Column diameter D is a function of the volumetric flow
rate V and velocity u of the gas entering the column
=

For a given task, gas flow rate V is known, and then

unknown parameter is velocity u.
Gas velocity is often determined by the viable pressure
drop in the column (which is related to operation cost).
Larger velocity higher pressure drop higher
operation cost
Smaller velocity lower pressure drop larger
column diameter and higher capital cost

For packed column

Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding
Gx G
x

dry

log Gy
Loading point
Flooding point
G mass flow per unit area (Gy-gas, Gx-liquid)
Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

For packed column

Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding
Gas outlet
Some flooding description

Liquid inlet

A visual build-up of liquid on the upper

surface of the packed bed
A rapid increase in liquid hold-up with
increasing gas rate
Formation of a continuous liquid phase above
the packing support plate
A considerable entrainment of liquid in
the outlet vapour
Liquid outlet

Gas inlet

Filling of the voids in the packed bed with liquid

www.see.ed.ac.uk

Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

Design considerations: Pressure drop and flooding

V

Gx

L
Gy

(McCabe, Smith, Harriott)

Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

Design considerations: Diameter of packed towers

Pressure drop analysis: Eckert graph
Pressure drop in
inH2O/ft of packing
(brackets: mm H2O/
m of packing)

Flooding line

Normally
* Moderate to high pressure
distillation =
0.4 to 0.75 in water / ft
packing
= 32 to 63 mm water / m
packing

Gy :
Mass flow of
gas per
unit area
Gy = u v

* Vacuum Distillation =
0.1 to 0.2 in water / ft packing
= 8 to 16 mm water / m
packing

McCabe, Smith, Harriott

Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

* Absorbers and Strippers =

0.2 to 0.6 in water / ft packing
= 16 to 48 mm water / m
packing

Eckert graph in IS units

2
0.2

In a flooding line,
u becomes umax

u, dry column velocity (m/s);

umax, flooding point velocity
(m/s); g, acceleration of
gravity (m/s2); , packing
factor (1/m); , liquid density
correction coefficient, i.e.
density of water versus density
of the liquid = H2O/L; L,
viscosity of liquid (mPa s), wL
and wV, liquid and vapor mass
flowrate (kg/s).

Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

0.5

Design considerations: Diameter of packed towers

Other different graphs

Given L, V (mass flow rates)

Select pressure drop

determine u

select packing

Double check pressure drop

D
Sinnott

Centre for Energy - energy for today and tomorrow

ENSC3019/CHPR8503
Topic 3 Solid-fluid separations
Recommended reading:
H. Pierson & B. Perlmutter, Settle Down (Part 1). The Chemical Engineer (TCE), 2010, June pp48-50.
H. Pierson & B. Perlmutter, The solution is clear (Part 2). TCE, 2010, July/August pp53-55.
Chapters 28 & 29 of McCabe et al., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th Edn. McGraw Hill 2005
Sections 18 & 21 of Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th Edn. McGraw-Hill

Dr Kevin Li
Kevin.li@uwa.edu.au

56

We will look at:

Sedimentation & Settling processes

Important solid handling processes we wont

study here:

Filtration & screening processes

Size reduction
Solids mixing
Hopper and storage vessel designs
57

Examples of solid-fluid separations

Oil and gas industry hydrocyclones

Separate sand and other solids
from water or other liquids
Separate oil droplets from water

58

Examples of solid-fluid separations

Coal-fired power station (filter-bags)

Particulates from flue gases

59

Gravity classifiers
Separate particles of the same density but different
particle sizes.

Feed

Liquid + fine particles

overflow

Coarse particles sink, picked up by

60
screw
Image from http://www.zoneding.com/Product-23.html

Examples of solid-fluid separations

Food and beverage industry (filter)
Separate curd (solids)
from whey (liquid)

61

Properties and handling of particulate solids

Size
Shape
Density

62

Size and shape of particles

For regular shaped particles we can easily define size and shape.

Cube

Volume = l
Area = 6l
Sphere

4 d
Volume =
3 2
d
Area = 4
63 2

Relative sizes of particulate matter

Examples of real particles

Shape of irregular particles

Sphericity

s =

6 dp
S p Vp

1 for a sphere
1 for cube as dp=l

Eq. 28.1 McCabe et al. p 967

dp = nominal diameter of one particle
Vp = volume of one particle
Sp = surface area of one particle
65

Sphericity of some materials

Material

Material

Spheres, cubes,
short cylinders
(L=dp)

1.0

Ottawa sand

0.95

Coal dust

0.73

Crushed glass

0.65

Mica flakes

0.28

Raschig rings
(L=dp)
Berl saddle
(L=dp)

0.330.58
0.3

McCabe et al, p164 Table 7.1

66

Description of populations of
particles

In practice, size distribution is a histogram

Distribution curve by mass, number and surface can
differ dramatically
Which distribution we would use is dependent on the
end use of the information

Differential VS cumulative
distribution

2 basic principles of
separation
To separate liquid from solids, or solids from
liquids there are only 2 mechanisms available:
(1) Use a screen or porous medium that retains
one component and allows others to pass
(2) Use differences in sedimentation rates as
particles (or drops) move through a gas or
liquid

69

Separation by
Settling / sedimentation

Gravity
Centrifugal force
Heavy media
Flotation
Magnetic force

Screens
Screen / filter

Gravity
Filters
Pressure
Vacuum
Expression
Crossflow eg. membranes
70

Gravity sedimentation processes

Three broad functional operations
(1) Classifier

Separate solids into two fractions

(2) Clarification

Remove a relatively small quantity of suspended

particles to produce a clear effluent

(3) Thickening

To increase concentration of solids in a feed

stream
71

Selecting a separation method

1. Define the problem

Is liquid or solid the valuable product?

How clear does liquid need to be?

2. Establish process conditions

Particle size, concentrations, flowrates

How long do particles take to settle?

3. Make a short list of appropriate equipment types

72

Clarifiers and thickeners

Convert dilute slurry of fine particles into a clarified

liquid and a concentrated suspension.
Often performed in large open tanks.
Cessnock Wastewater Treatment Works
http://www.epco.com.au

73

Batch sedimentation process

Time
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

C
D

C
D

D
74

Rate of separation

Clear
liquid
interface
height

Settling time, hours

75

Flocculation
particles < few microns dp settle slowly
Agglomerate particles faster separation

Videos
Flocculation for waste water treatment
How flocculation works?
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=5uuQ77vAV_U
76

Equipment - thickeners

http://www.filtration-and-separation.com/

77

Motion of a particle in air

Eq(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

The forces acting on a particle in a fluid

The drag force increases as the velocity of

the particle increases, until it reaches the
terminal settling velocity, the sum of force
become zero, ma = 0

: density of particulate or fluid, kgm-3

Fd: drag force, kgms-2
ma: sum of the forces acting on the particle
a: downward acceleration of the particle, ms-2

(5)

Stokes Law
The relationship between velocity and drag

force:

(6)

where, is the fluid viscosity, Pas or kgm-1s-1

Substitute eq (6) into eq (5):
(7)

Which is commonly referred to as Stocks Law.

George Gabriel Stokes

In class tutorial 1
Compute the terminal settling velocity in air of a spherical particle with

diameter of 1 and 10 , respectively. Density of the particle is 2000

kgm-3, air density 1.2 kgm-3, viscosity 1.8 x 10-5 kgm-1s-1.

V = 9.81 (10-6) 2 (2000-1.2)/ (18 1.8 x 10-5 ) = 6.05 x 10-5 m/s

V = 9.81 (10-5) 2 (2000-1.2)/ (18 1.8 x 10-5 ) = 6.05 x 10-3 m/s
Estimate how long will it take for the particle to settle down to the

ground level, if it falls from a 3000 m altitude. Assume no convection,

no rainfall.
About 19 months for the 1 particle and, 5.7 days for the 10 particle.

 Terminal settling velocity for spherical particles with specific gravity =

2, in standard air.

Gravity Settler
A gravity settler is simply

a long chamber through

which the contaminated
gas passes slowly,
allowing time for the
particles to settle by
gravity to the bottom.
Very effective for very
dirty gases with heavy
particles (metallurgical).

The average velocity equals volumetric

flow rate divided by cross sectional area:
Vavg = Q / (WH)

Physical Model
Easy mathematical analysis and typical model for devices

using similar devices, i.e. cyclones and electrostatic

precipitators.
Vavg
Vt
H
Chamber floor

escaped

L
captured

captured

Deriving the model

Assumptions for plug flow

a) The horizontal velocity of the gas in the chamber is

equal to Vavg everywhere and constant
b) The vertical component of the velocity of the
particle is equal to the terminal settling velocity due to
gravity, Vt
c) If a particle settles to the floor, it stays there and is
not-entrained
d) Particle size distribution is uniform, no interaction
with each other

 Traverse time of particle in the flow direction is

t = L / Vavg
Vertical settling distance =
tVt = VtL / Vavg
So all the particles with vertically settling distance smaller than H will
settle on the floor.
The fraction of particles that will be captured, is
Fractional collection efficiency =
= VtL / (VavgH) (8)
To compute the efficiency-particle diameter relationship, we replace
the terminal settling velocity in eq (8) with the gravitysettling
relations described by Stocks law, finding
Block flow/plug flow

(9)

for Mixed flow (practical)

Assumption

Gas flow is totally mixed in the z direction but not in

the x direction, as most real gas flows are turbulent.
Collection efficiency
(10)
(11)

or,

In class tutorial 2
Compute the efficiency-diameter relation for a gravity settler that has

H =2m, L = 10m, and Vavg = 1 m/s for both the plug and mixed flow
models, assume Stocks Density of the particle is 2000 kgm-3, air
density 1.2 kgm-3, viscosity 1.8 x 10-5 kgm-1s-1. law.
A: We can get the result using only one computation and then using
ratios. For a 1 micron particle in plug flow:

Mixed flow

Calculation results
Particle diameter,
1
10
30
50
57.45
80
100
120

plug flow
0.000303
0.03
0.27
0.76
1.00
1.94
3.03
4.36

mixed flow
0.000303
0.03
0.24
0.53
0.63
0.86
0.95
0.99

57.45

Plug flow settling VS mixed flow

Dust gas in

Clean gas out

Plug flow gravity settler

Dust gas in

Clean gas out

Mixed flow gravity settler

Limitation of gravity settler

Only effective for particles with diameter >100 micron
(fine sand, mineral particle) but not for particles of air
pollution (PM10)

To increase the collection efficiency substantially and practically,

by substituting some other force for the gravity in driving the
particles from the gas stream to the collecting surface

Centrifugal force
If a body moves in a circular

path with radius r and

velocity Vc along the path,
then it has angular velocity
=Vc/ r
(12)
Centrifuge force =
acceleration, substitution of g

Example
A particle is travelling in a gas stream with velocity of
18 m/s and radius of 0.3 m. What is the ratio of
centrifugal force to the gravity force acting on it?
A: (18 x 18/0.3)/9.8 = 110.2

Centrifugal Separator (Cyclone)

Substituting the centrifugal acceleration of the
gravitational one into Stocks law, eq (7), and drop the
buoyancy term, we find:
(13)

This is the settling velocity under centrifuge

Structure of cyclones
Similar to gravity settlers, in

the form of two concentric

helices.
Only the outer helix
contributes to collection
Particles get into the inner
helix escape uncollected
Dimensions are typically
based on the diameter D0 of
outer helix. Taken as ratios
to D0. Gas inlet width, Wi =
0.25

tangentially

Model details
During the outer spiral of the gas, the particles are driven

to the wall by centrifugal force, where they collect, attach

to each other, and form larger agglomerates and slide down
the wall by gravity and collect in the dust hopper in the
bottom.
The inlet stream has a height Wi in the radial direction,
equivalent to the height H of pure gravity settler
The length of the flow path is ND0, where N is the
number of turns that gas traverse the outer helix (normally
set as N = 5), analogues to the length of gravity settler L.

Collection efficiency of cyclones

Substitute H =Wi and L = ND0 into gravity settler

equation (9) & eq (11), finding:

plug flow (14)

mixed flow (15)

Further substituting the centrifugal Stokes law eq (13) into

above equations, finding:

plug flow (16)

mixed flow (17)

In class tutorial 3
Compute the efficiency-diameter relation for a cyclone separator that

has Wi = 0.15 m, Vc = 18 m/s, and N =5, for both block and mixed flow
assumptions, assuming Stocks law.
Particle diameter,
1
10
30
50
57.45
80
100
120

plug flow

mixed flow

For very small particles < 5 micron

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B&W's Multiclone dust collector

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An industrial multiclone dust collector

Cut diameter
Measure of the size of the particles caught and the size
passed for a particular particle collector.
Cut diameter is the diameter of a particel for which the
efficiency curve has the value of 0.5, i.e. 50%
Substitute = 0.5 into Stocks law plug flow model,
finding:
plug flow (18)

Other dust collectors

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)Venturi scrubber
Bag filter
Venturi scrubber