Professional Documents
Culture Documents
STUDY
BUDDY
1
Dictatorship
in
Germany
Hitlers
Germany
responsible
for
much
devastation
of
war;
could
have
waged
war
without
Mussolini.
Eventually
saw
Italian
alliance
as
burden
claiming
it
was
main
cause
of
German
defeat.
AJP
Taylor
shifted
focuse
of
WW2
being
just
Hitlers
war
- Germanys
desire
for
land
in
Eastern
Europe
and
position
of
dominance
in
central
Europe
not
Hitlers
creation
or
product
of
Nazi
ideology.
Had
been
part
of
German
foreign
policy
since
19th
cent
Bullock
has
criticised
Taylor
for
neglecting
Mein
Kampf
Kershaw:
Hitlers
interlocking
aims
based
in
world
view
dominated
by
concept
of
racial
struggle
as
key
determinant
of
history
Date
1933
October
Nazi
Action
Germany
leaves
League
of
Nations
Germany leaves
Significance
Contract
of
League
is
part
of
hated
Treaty
of
Versailles
Hitler
wins
plaudits
freedom
of
action
abroad
1934
January
July
1935
January
March
June
Disarmament
Conference
Germany
and
Poland
sign
10
Year
Non-
Aggression
Pact
Germany
brings
in
conscription
Anglo-Germany
Naval
Agreement
1936
March
Remilitarisation
of
Rhineland
July
Outbreak
of
Spanish
Civil
War
November
Axis
Agreement
Anti-Comintern Pact
1937
April
Guernica
November
1938
March
Anti-Comintern
Pact
Anschluss
Munich
Conference
`
September
1939
March
German
invasion
of
rest
of
Czech
May
August
September
Poland
Dictatorship
in
Italy
Became
fierce
Socialist,
although
despising
middle
class
socialists
as
they
too
moderate.
Despised
anyone
who
not
ready
to
do
battle
against
injustice
of
world.
Pursued
career
in
journalism
to
express
strong
criticisms
and
opinions
powerful
and
troublesome
agitator
Leading
left
wing
agitator
who
dreamt
of
revolution
which
would
make
all
men
his
subjects.
Believed
like
Marx
that
war
ideal
breeding
ground
for
revolution
urged
Italy
to
join
war
on
side
of
Allies.
Socialists
furious
and
expelled
him
from
party
Italians
not
satisfied
with
their
share
of
break
up
of
Austro-Hungarian
Empire
in
Peace
Treaty:
Trentio
and
Trieste
as
they
felt
deserved
greater
rewards
for
sacrifices.
Demands
for
various
territories
rejected,
nationalistic
Italians
furious
Yet,
Italians
frightened
post
WW1
as
had
unstable
home
front
with
Italian
trade
and
industry
collapse.
Spent
huge
sums
of
money
financing
war,
and
owed
billions
to
France,
Britain
and
US
who
supplied
Italy
with
majority
of
armaments
and
coal.
No
money
left
to
repay
debts
Returning
soldiers
found
no
employment
and
no
money
to
support
families.
State
did
nothing
to
assist.
These
victorious
soldiers
looked
upon
by
people
at
home
with
distrust
and
dislike.
Much
political
unrest
with
so
many
political
parties
with
varying
ideas
as
to
how
country
should
be
governed
Italy
post
WW1:
external
and
internal
political,
economical
and
social
conflict/strife
Mussolini
and
his
Arditi
seemed
so
strong
and
Government
seemed
so
weak
by
comparison
appeal
despite
violence.
Appealed
to
patriotic
feelings
of
Italians
making
them
feel
nationalistic
Socialists
general
strike
in
1922
enabled
Mussolini
to
punish
socialists.
Broke
into
Socialist
Party
buildings
and
smashed
everything.
Police
and
general
public
agreed
with
Mussolini
that
Fascists
just
doing
what
govt
afraid
to
do
Mussolini
declared
in
October
unless
the
government
is
handed
over
to
us,
we
shall
march
to
Rome.
Few
days
later,
ordered
government
to
resign
Next
day
25
000
Blackshirts
set
off
to
Rome
March
to
Rome
yet
Mussolini
stayed
behind
being
cautious
as
didnt
want
people
to
think
he
trying
to
take
over
government
by
force,
waiting
to
be
invited
to
become
PM.
Army
waiting
for
him
to
declare
martial
law,
which
would
give
him
authority
to
take
any
action
Government
finally
decided
to
declare
martial
law
and
drew
up
necessary
decree.
But
at
last
moment,
King
Victor
Emmanuel
refused
to
sign
with
excuse
that
rule
by
army
would
plunge
country
into
civil
war.
Refusal
to
sign
Declaration
of
Martial
Law
in
October
1922
took
away
from
government
its
one
chance
of
stopping
Fascists.
Mussolini
correctly
guessed
that
PM
would
very
shortly
resign
and
King
would
be
forced
to
invite
him
to
from
government
as
no
other
candidates.
Changes
Mussolini
gradually
implemented
to
protect
the
state
- Put
Fascists
into
all
important
positions
of
Government,
Police
and
Civil
Service.
Gradual
process
hardly
anybody
realised
- Altered
voting
system
to
ensure
he
had
large
majority
in
Parliament.
- Disbanded
Royal
Guard
and
put
Fascist
Militia
in
place
- Newspapers
censored
- Parliament
became
mere
talking
house
with
no
powers
to
make
laws
or
criticise
Editor
from
respected
newspaper:
He
has
given
to
the
Government
freshness,
youth
and
vigour
...
saved
Italy
from
the
Socialist
danger
With
Mussolini
as
leader,
Italians
felt
secure
and
contented.
More
work
and
more
money,
and
delighted
when
strikes
forbidden
by
law
Working
class
viewed
him
as
simple
man
who
loved
hard
work
reinforced
through
propaganda
Socialists,
Communists
and
Royalists
objected
to
some
of
his
implementations
The
April
elections
of
1923
last
free
elections.
Mussolini
destroyed
democracy
and
in
less
than
5
years
became
complete
dictator,
and
more
and
more
popular.
This
popularity
maintained
through
- Propaganda:
made
people
believe
that
Fascism
was
philosophy
which
would
bring
back
to
the
Italians
all
heroic
courage
of
ancient
Romans.
Slogans
painted,
special
illustrated
books
for
kids
- Fascist
youth
organisations
- Pulling
down
of
half
Eternal
City
of
Rome
to
remind
Italians
of
their
glorious
past
- New
schools,
railway
stations
and
motorways
built
- Great
areas
of
marshland
drained
and
turned
into
fertile
farmland
increase
of
production
Papacy
and
Italian
Government
had
been
on
extremely
bad
terms
since
1871.
Now
Mussolini
persuaded
Pope
to
give
up
his
claim
to
Rome,
while
agreeing
in
return
to
recognise
the
tiny
Vatican
City
as
completely
independent
state
hero
of
Catholics
Fascist
Italy
Not
nearly
as
hard
nor
tough
as
in
Nazi
Germany
Mussolini
had
no
pride
in
Italys
priceless
art
treasures.
Willingly
have
exchanged
them
for
few
great
battlefield
victories
yet
Italian
people
confident
that
he
would
never
lead
them
into
great
war.
Proud
of
their
Duce
for
making
Italy
feared
abroad
and
grateful
so
security
at
home
Germans
obeyed
Hitler
with
fanatical
enthusiasm
and
ready
to
sacrifice
everything
for
him.
However
Mussolini
complained
he
most
disobeyed
man
in
history.
Nothing
he
did/said
could
make
Italians
law
abiding.
When
Mussolini
implemented
laws
against
Jews
to
impress
Hitler,
Italians
saw
it
that
Jews
didnt
suffer
to
same
extent
as
German
Jews.
Very
few
murdered
or
sent
to
prison.
Mussolini
knowing
how
deeply
religious
most
Italians
were,
didnt
attempt
like
Hitler
to
persecute
Chruch.
The
King
grew
to
dislike
Duce
intensely,
and
this
was
reciprocated
by
Mussolini.
However
a=Army
still
looked
on
King
as
head
of
State
rather
than
Mussolini.
Mussolini
formed
special
Blackshirt
divisions,
but
they
never
took
complete
control
of
Italian
Army
like
SS
took
control
of
German
Army.
Showed
2
great
dictators
could
break
international
law
whenever
they
liked
and
get
away
with
it
Mussolinis
foreign
policy
similar
objectives
to
Hitlers
but
lacked
fanatical
ideological
elements.
Racism
almost
absent
from
Italian
policy
&
not
until
became
closer
to
Hitler,
anti-Semitism
part
of
domestic
policy.
-
1935
April
October
Stresa
Front
Abyssinian
Invasion
League Sanctions
November
Hoare-Laval
Pact
December
1936 July
November
Anti-Comintern
Pact
May
Pact of Steel
Germany
invades
September
Poland
Differences
Hitler
wanted
more
territory
to
unite
German
speaking
people
(lebensraum);
Mussolini
wanted
to
gain
empire
to
give
importance
to
Italy
in
effort
to
restore
days
of
old
Roman
Empire.
Hitler
gained
power
legally
although
took
time
and
extensive
use
of
propaganda;
Mussolini
took
power
by
force
when
marched
on
Rome
gaining
power
quickly
Hitler
made
extensive
use
of
intimidation
and
abolished
all
former
government
bodies.
Mussolini
had
no
comparison
to
Hitlers
SS
and
Gestapo
and
retained
monarchy
(too
violent
a
change
to
remove
them)
Nazi
Germany
better
organised
with
hierarchy
of
officials;
Fascist
Italy
no
organised
body.
Hitler
developed
totalitarian
state
and
Mussolini
set
up
dictatorship
Mussolinis
secret
police,
OVRA,
not
nearly
as
cruel
or
efficient
organisation
for
terror
as
Gestapo.
THE
LEAGUE
OF
NATIONS
AND
COLLAPSE
OF
COLLECTIVE
SECURITY:
ABYSSINIA,
SPANISH
CIVIL
WAR
AJP
Taylor:
French
wanted
League
to
develop
into
system
of
security
directed
against
Germany;
British
regarded
as
system
of
conciliation
which
would
include
Germany.
French
believed
last
war
caused
by
German
aggression;
British
came
more
and
more
to
hold
it
happened
by
mistake.
Disarmament
The
League
sought
to
replace
an
international
system
of
collective
security
for
old
system
of
every
State
relying
for
defence
on
own
armed
forces.
Only
when
Individual
states
became
convinced
that
alternative
provided
by
League
workable,
could
League
members
proceed
with
plans
to
disarm.
While
major
countries
remained
outside
League
system
of
collective
ecurity,
member
nations
didnt
feel
safe
Doubts
whether
member
nations
powerful
enough
to
deter
aggression.
Whilst
disarmament
basis
of
world
peace
and
principle
of
collective
security
praised,
international
situation
not
favorable
to
large
scale
disarmament.
Refusal
of
US
to
join
weakened
possibilities
of
disarmament.
Britain
and
France
felt
burden
on
themselves
too
heavy
and
changed
attitudes
to
League
- France
set
alternative
system
of
alliances
with
Rumania,
Yugoslavia,
Czech
and
Poland,
treaties
whose
existence
indication
of
lack
of
confidence
in
League.
At
Washington
Conference
of
1921-22
limitation
of
battleships
in
ratio
of
Great
Britain:US:Japan:France:Italy.
Numerically
limited
only
to
battleships
although
max
size
set
for
capital
shits,
aircraft
carriers
and
cruisers
- Applied
to
only
one
aspect
of
naval
armaments
- Limited
to
few
countries
only
January
1930:
same
5
powers
convened
in
London.
Agreements
as
to
capital
ships
and
regulations
of
submarine
warfare
accepted
by
each
of
States
but
differences
failed
to
bring
general
agreement
on
further
limitation
of
all
types
of
cruisers,
destroyers
and
submarines.
Three
Power
Naval
Treaty
of
March
1936
between
France,
Britain,
and
US
defined
certain
qualities
limitations
and
permitted
any
signatory
to
exceed
these
limitations
if
felt
being
outclassed
or
outbuilt
by
non
signatory
power.
International
cooperation
towards
limitation
of
naval
armaments
achieved
little.
Even
less
progress
made
within
League
towards
general
disarmament.
May
1920:
Permanent
Advisory
Commission
on
Disarmament
set
up.
1922
Draft
Treaty
of
Mutual
Assistance
drawn
up.
Assistance
to
victim
of
aggressor
to
come
from
member
States
of
continent
only.
Scheme
rejected
by
Britain
and
Dominions
Locarno
Pact,
ratified
in
Dec
1925,
gave
France
to
a
degree
security
it
lost
when
Guarantee
Treaties
of
1919
not
eventuated.
Brought
Germany
into
League
world
power
status.
This
treaty
brought
appearance
of
security
to
Europe
and
began
period
of
intensified
hopes
for
general
disarmament.
Disarmament
Conference
Disarmament
Conference
for
February
1932
planned
disregarding
reserves,
personnel
and
conscription
to
be
limited,
and
land
wartime
material
subjected
to
budgetary
limitation.
However,
Stresemann
now
dead,
Nazis
increasing
influence
and
whilst
Disarmament
Conference
may
have
been
effective
in
1925
or
1928,
serious
doubts
on
how
effective
in
1932
2
Feb
1932:
Geneva
Disarmament
Conference
opened.
Basis
for
continuing
conference:
limitations
placed
on
calibre
of
certain
specified
weapons,
numbers
of
aircraft
reduced,
chemical
and
bacteriological
warfare
banned
14
Oct
1933:
Germany
withdraw
from
Conference
and
shortly
after
Mussolini
made
clear
he
thought
conference
waste
of
time
ceased
to
exist.
Collapse
of
Collective
Security
Peace
initiatives
of
1920s
genuine
attempts
to
ensure
end
of
war.
But
never
came
time
when
all
weapons
and
fears
discarded.
Old
armaments
replaced
with
better
armaments.
Article
8:
maintenance
of
peace
requires
reduction
of
national
armaments
to
lowest
point
consistent
with
national
safety
and
enforcement
b
common
action
of
international
obligations
French
claimed
under
constant
threat
from
German
aggression.
Germans
made
national
grievance
of
fact
they
stood
defenceless
amidst
hostile
France,
&
communist
Russia
Britain
and
US
having
come
to
satisfactory
agreement
over
warship
ratios,
not
gratly
worried
about
armies
and
expressed
anxious
sympathy
for
everyone.
Collective
Security
worked
to
a
degree
at
diplomatic
level
but
apart
from
sanctions,
common
act
represented
undefined
force
that
didnt
exist.
Neither
collective
nor
secure
Depression
increased
siege
thinking.
Interest
in
Disarmament
Conferences
renewed
in
hope
of
reducing
defence
spending.
But
economic
nationalism
took
precedence
over
all
other
nationalism:
tariff
walls
and
trade
preferences
needed
armies
and
navies
to
defend
them.
By
Jan
1932,
Allies
fallen
foul
of
each
other
and
growing
psychology
of
fear
dominated
councils
of
world
March
1933:
Japanese
resigned
from
League
over
Manchuria.
By
this
time,
Nazis
in
full
control
of
Germany
and
looked
down
upon
principles
of
international
cooperation.
October:
walked
out
By
1934,
everyone
conceded
Disarmament
Conference
failed
Corfu
Incident
Members
of
Italian
boundary
commission
fixing
border
between
Albania
and
Greece
murdered
in
Aug
1923.
Italian
govt
demanded
official
apology
and
indemnity
of
50
million
lira;
and
Italian
involvement
in
apprehension
of
murders.
Greece
refused
and
appealed
to
League
for
aid.
Italians
bombarded
and
occupied
island
of
Corfu.
Italy
ill
disposed
to
direct
League
intervention
hence
League
council
asked
Council
of
Ambassadors
to
arbitrate.
They
temporised
by
awarding
Italians
indemnity
on
condition
Corfu
evacuated
dispute
settle
Showed
Leagues
authority
weakened
when
major
powers
involved;
certainly
if
that
power
unwilling
to
permit
League
negotiation
Involvement
of
ambassadors
essentially
compromise
by
big
powers
Mosul
Dispute
Dispute
between
Turkish
and
British
mandate
controlled
Iraq
(Mesopotamia).
British
attempted
to
take
most
of
Mosul
and
add
to
Iraq
although
it
hadnt
been
conquered
in
WW1.
Claimed
disputed
region
necessary
to
Iraqs
defence
and
economy.
Turks
claimed
it
not
spoil
of
war
and
local
population
favoured
Turkish
rule.
Emergency
council
meeting
held
and
temporary
demarcation
line
(Brussels
Line)
laid
down
roughly
along
Britains
desire.
By
1925
neutral
commission
appointed
by
League:
favoured
Turkey
in
that
right
by
conquest
of
Britain
&
Iraq
denied.
However,
suggested
provided
British
mandate
over
Iraq
continued,
people
better
off
under
Iraqi
rule.
Turkey
requested
Permanent
Court
determine
binding
nature
of
commissioners
award
and
whether
Turkish
reps
have
right
to
veto
Council
ruled
award
binding
but
in
accordance
with
Covenant,
unanimity
exclusive
of
votes
of
parties
in
dispute.
Turkey
rejected
decisions,
further
disorders
occurred
and
Brussels
Line
became
permanent
Turkey/Iraqi
border.
Rights
of
Turkish
minorities
in
Mosul
guaranteed
Example
of
League
failing
to
deal
with
issues
outside
Europe
Manchuria
By
end
1931:
Japan
invaded
Manchuria
following
explosion
on
Manchurian
railway
in
Sept
1931,
Jap
troops
moved
to
take
control
of
providence.
1932:
Shanghai
bombed
and
further
provinces
annexed
by
Japanese
Feb
1932:
in
attempt
to
conceal
aggression
as
separatist
movement,
Manchurian
leaders
declared
independence
and
new
state
named
Manchukuo
under
presidency
of
ex
Emperor
of
China,
Pu-Yi
These
actions
violated
obligations
to
Covenant
of
League,
Kellogg-Briand
Peace
Pact
and
Nine
Power
Treaty
of
1922
which
guaranteed
territorial
integrity
of
China
21
Sept
1931:
China
appealed
to
League
under
Article
11
of
Covenant.
By
December,
Commission
of
Inquiry
adopted
by
Council.
League
condemned
Japan
This
international
Commission
aka
Lytton
Commission
sent
to
Manchuria
to
report
on
incident.
Consisted
of
Britain,
Italy,
Germany
and
US.
During
this,
- Chinese
govt
began
boycott
of
Japanese
goods
and
business
firms
- Japanese
Navy
in
early
1932
landed
troops
in
Shanghai
to
suppress
anti-
Japanese
rioting
May
1932:
negotiations
completed
for
withdrawal
of
Jap
forces
and
ending
of
boycott
Sept
1932:
Japanese
govt
recognised
state
of
Manchukuo
while
Lytton
Commission
still
preparing
report
- Indicated
little
respect
Japan
had
for
principles
of
League
October:
Commission
rejected
Japans
reasons
for
invasion
but
didnt
call
for
return
to
status
quo
and
instead
called
upon
Japan
and
China
to
have
talks.
Suggested
China
set
up
in
Manchuria
autonomous
govt
which
would
acknowledge
Chinese
suzerainty.
Neither
side
agreed.
During
1933,
Japanese
continued
aggressive
actions
towards
China
ignoring
League
plans
for
acceptance
of
various
responsibilities
towards
League.
March:
Japan
left
League
month
later
May:
China
compelled
to
accept
Tangku
Agreement:
unequal
military
truce
which
offered
little
except
certainty
of
further
hostilities
Illustrates
when
major
power
chose
to
defy
League,
League
has
no
power
to
stop
it.
Highlighted
Leagues
inability
to
prevent
international
conflict.
Without
US
or
USSR
League
essentially
European
body
and
Japan,
China
and
Manchuria
beyond
its
capabilities
or
members
interests
Fundamental
principle
of
League
was
collective
security:
if
one
member
attacked,
other
League
members
rally
in
defence
of
member
and
force
back
down
of
aggressor.
Japan
shown
inadequacy
of
this
principle.
Abyssinia
(Ethiopia)
Abyssinia
provided
Mussolini
with
opportunity
for
imperial
expansion.
Other
factors
encouraging
Mussolini
to
be
involved:
- Italian
economists
argued
Abyssinia
rich
in
resources
&
would
provide
Italy
w
food
&
export
markets
- Political
motive:
divert
peoples
home
discontents
to
unite
nation
around
common
patriotism
- Restore
Italian
honour
in
face
of
humiliation
by
Abyssinia
at
Battle
of
Adowa
December
1934
some
Italian
soldiers
killed
in
clash
at
Walwal;
incident
Mussolini
used
as
excuse
for
invasion.
Also,
border
dispute
occurred
over
territory
lying
across
Abyssinia
and
Italian
Somaliland.
Abyssinia
appealed
to
League
for
arbitration
- Commission
decided
in
September
neither
caused
clash
but
made
no
award
concerning
ownership
- Abyssinian/Italian
relations
deteriorated
with
Italy
preparing
for
military
action
and
Abyssinia
making
several
appeals
against
this
to
League.
Britain
tried
to
encourage
Abyssinia
to
accommodate
Italy
and
offered
path
to
sea
and
use
port
of
Zeilia
in
British
Somaliland
as
part
of
its
attempts
to
prevent
outbreak
of
war
3
October
1935:
Italian
armies
moved
into
Abyssinia
from
Eritrea
in
north
and
Somaliland
in
south
Italian
strength
&
brutal
willingness
to
use
all
modern
weapons
including
gas
quickly
wore
down
Abyssinians.
7
Oct:
League
Council
declared
Itay
to
be
aggressor
11
Oct:
Assembly
agreed
to
impose
economic
sanctions
against
Italy
excluding
coal
and
oil;
however
a
few
states
(Austria,
Hungary,
Albania
and
Swtiz)
refused
to
apply
sanctions
League
agreed
to
impose
sanctions
against
Italy.
However
were
half
hearted
and
ineffective
- Oil
and
coal
not
included:
key
resources
for
nation
at
war
- Austria.
Albania,
Switzerland
and
Hungary
refused
to
endorse
sanctions
- Germany
and
Soviet
Union
helped
Italy
Sanctions
did
nothing
to
assist
Abyssinia.
Their
weak
nature
provided
further
evidence
to
weakness
of
League
December
1935:
secret
Hoare-Laval
Plan
providing
for
sacrifice
of
60
000
square
miles
of
Abyssinia
to
Italy
- Foreign
ministers
of
France
and
Britain
devised
plan
- Limited
sanctions
maintained
but
no
attempt
to
blockade
Suez
Canal
or
interfere
with
Mussolinis
access
to
war
zone
- Upon
being
revealed
to
public,
ensuing
outcry
territorial
concessions
abandoned
- Britain
strongly
in
favour
of
sterner
sanctions
against
Ital
but
France
continued
to
stall
deteriorated
relationship
By
April
1936
Abyssinian
capital
Addis
Ababa
captured
9
May
1936:
Italian
king
Victor
Emmanuel
III
crowned
emperor
- Power
of
Collective
Security
demonstrated
as
sham
- Integrity
of
Great
Powers
compromised
- League
received
crippling
blow
from
which
never
recovered
Rhineland
Britain,
France
and
Italy
signed
Stresa
Pact
to
confirm
frontiers
and
present
solid
front
against
German
rearmament.
Britain
and
France
looked
to
own
defences
and
Russia
and
France
signed
mutual
assistance
agreement
Hitler
raged
at
Frances
encirclement
of
Reich
Britain
had
fine
disregard
for
League,
Locarno,
Versailles
Treaty
and
Stresa
Pact,
signed
Anglo-German
Naval
Agreement
which
allowed
Reich
Navy
to
build
up
to
33%
of
British
Fleet
France
and
Italy
outraged
and
possibilities
of
alliances
to
stop
Hitler
destroyed
Weakness
of
Allies,
conciliatory
attitude
of
Britain
and
Mussolinis
success
in
Ethiopia
encouraged
Hitler
to
take
step
her
had
been
contemplating
as
part
of
foreign
policy
7
March
1936:
Hitler
summoned
ambassadors
of
France,
Britain,
Italy
and
Belgium
to
propose
plan
for
demilitarisation
of
both
sides
of
Rhine
and
25
year
arms
limitation
and
non
aggression
pact.
Germany
ultimately
took
gamble
in
believing
France
wouldnt
attack.
France
simply
sent
13
divisions
to
man
Maginot
Line
and
seeked
assistance
from
Britain
however,
Britain
believed
this
wasnt
its
concern
Remilitarisation
of
Rhineland
altered
balance
of
power
in
Europe:
- France
no
longer
secure
from
attack
behind
buffer
zone,
with
vulnerable
frontiers.
Geographically
cut
off
from
mutual
assistance
allies
- With
refortified
western
frontier,
Hitler
now
looked
eastwards
- Belgium
declared
neutrality
Maginot
Line
couldnt
be
extended
along
Belgian-German
border
- Loss
of
Locarno
and
Britains
failure
to
take
positive
action
further
undermined
Anglo-French
ally
1931:
King
Alfronso
XIII
abdicated
democratic
republic.
Survived
uneasily
for
5
years
deeply
dividing
nation
Republicans:
Socialists,
Communists,
Anarchists
- Supported
newly
elected
Popular
Front
govt
- Opposed
power
of
Church
and
landowners
- In
favour
of
more
equal
distribution
of
nations
wealth
Nationalists:
landowners,
businessmen,
devout
Catholics,
military
officers,
Spanish
Fascists
Party
- Opposed
newly
elected
Popular
Front
govt
- Sought
to
maintain
much
more
traditional
and
conservative
nature
of
Spanish
society
- Wished
to
maintain
church
power
Spanish
Civil
War
started
July
1936.
Group
of
military
officers,
based
in
Spanish
Morocco,
revolted
against
govt.
Leadership
of
rebels
soon
came
under
General
Franco
seeking
to
destroy
godless,
communist
govt
Torture,
massacres
and
indiscriminate
civilian
kills
common
as
seen
in
systematic
bombing
of
Guernica,
1937
This
incident
further
consolidated
divisions
within
Europe
which
were
solidifying
- Germany
and
Italy
gave
solid
backing
to
Nationalists
- Britain
and
France,
though
supporting
non-intervention,
generally
sympathetic
to
Republicans
Germany
involved
for
various
reasons
- Desire
to
prevent
spread
of
Russian
Bolshevism
- Need
to
acquire
cheap
raw
materials
fro
Spain
- Decision
to
test
battle
readiness
of
German
air
force
and
equipment
- Need
to
divert
and
weaken
Italy:
if
it
preoccupied
with
events
in
Spain,
Italy
would
be
less
likely
to
seek
new
friendships
with
Britain
or
France
Germany
and
Italys
firm
backing
of
Nationalists
cemented
relationship
and
further
highlighted
Italys
increasing
junior
status
in
Axis
partnership
- Italy
had
up
to
60
000
volunteers
fighting
for
Franco,
and
huge
amounts
of
supplies
&
equipment
- Germany
provided
substantial
military
equipment
and
given
chance
to
experiment
with
new
technology
and
steel.
Also
sent
teams
of
military
specialists
demonstrated
strength
in
being
dominating
power
in
Europe
- Germanys
Condor
Legion
destroyed
Guernica
Luftwaffe
valuable
experience
in
support
tactics
Britain
and
France
encouraged
non-intervention
in
Spain
- Discouraged
their
citizens
from
joining
the
fighting
- Actively
tried
to
prevent
arms
getting
in
(to
Republican
side)
which
Germans
and
Italy
had
no
misgiving
s
ignoring
calls
for
non-intervention
Soviet
assistance
to
Republicans
distrusted
although
significant
- 1000
aircraft,
900
tanks,
arms
and
ammunition
- Stalin
opposed
fascism,
but
nobody
believed
Stalin
was
whole
heartedly
fighting
for
democracy
Spanish
Civil
War
took
on
idealistic
flavour
- Thousands
of
youth
from
all
over
world
joined
International
Brigades
fought
on
side
of
Republicans
- International
volunteers
on
Nationalist
side,
including
Irish
Blueshirts
- Intensity
of
war
produced
great
art
from
those
such
as
Hemingway,
Orwell
and
Picasso
Appeasement
was
the
policy
of
inaction
against
aggressors
out
of
fear
of
provoking
outright
violence
For
the
generations
who
carried
scars
of
Great
War,
another
war
within
own
lifetime
unthinkable.
Concepts
such
as
League,
Collective
Security,
international
cooperation,
and
self
determination
unworkable
Question
of
how
to
maintain
peace
of
much
discussion.
Disarmament
failed
and
rearmament
unpopular.
Suggestion
aggression
could
be
stopped
by
heavy
guns
&
strong
armies
unacceptable
to
majority
free
world
Mid
1930s:
aggressive
states
possessed
such
formidable
destructive
power
that
people
and
leading
statesmen
of
democracies
convinced
no
defence
against
them
adopted
policy
of
conciliation
in
hope
that
when
states
satisfied,
could
calm
down
and
world
would
have
survived
Appeasement
was
genuine
conviction
that
peaceful
example
and
outstretched
hand
of
friendship
would
eventually
overcome
war-like
designs
of
predator
nations.
Believed
conflict
would
bring
total
obliteration
Britain
Appeasement
was
nothing
new
to
Britain
as
it
had
been
a
feature
of
British
diplomacy
for
centuries.
Since
16th
cent,
Britains
main
interests
has
been
in
trade,
naval
power
and
development
of
empire.
Britain
been
prepared
to
make
concessions
to
European
powers
&
leave
them
alone
so
it
could
pursue
worldwide
ambitions
policy
in
19th
cent
Only
when
its
interests
under
direct
threat
would
it
intervene
in
European
affairs.
Appeasement
had
been
in
operation
since
1919:
Lloyd
George
sought
to
moderate
Treaty
of
Versailles
during
Peace
Conference.
Realised
British
economy
needed
stable
&
prosperous
German.
Churchill
supported
view
Appeasement
in
1930s
context
seemed
logical
option:
combination
of
changing
international
realities,
depression,
guilt
over
Versailles,
psychology
of
British
nation
across
all
classes
and
strong
views
of
men
in
power
created
environment
in
which
appeasement
seemed
logical
option
Up
to
1930s
British
deeply
committed
to
disarmament
and
Collective
Security.
After
Depression,
taxpayers
reluctant
to
allow
govt
to
buy
guns
and
bombs
armament
spending
fell
Joad
Resolution:
undergraduates
at
Oxford
signed
refusing
to
fight
for
King
and
country
Majority
of
Britains
preferred
to
ignore
reports
of
German
arms
rebuilding.
Believed
Germany
had
been
harshly
treated
by
Treaty
of
Versailles.
Hitler
appeared
to
them
a
politician
with
reasonable
demands
such
as
the
settlement
of
territorial
grievances
and
recognition
of
rights
of
German
minorities
in
Poland
and
Czech
By
1934,
some
began
to
listen
to
Churchill
and
Government
Defence
Requirement
Committee
who
identified
Germany
as
Britains
long
term
enemy.
By
1936
majority
of
Britons
including
PM
Chamberlain,
came
to
accept
that
for
defence
of
country,
necessary
to
rearm
and
equip.
Chamberlain
believed
war
was
the
ultimate
waster
and
negation
of
human
values.
He
ready
to
pursue
any
course
and
calm
grievances
to
stave
off
major
conflict.
Many
possessed
pro-German
attitudes
in
believing
Hitler
not
threat.
Lloyd
George
considered
Hitler
reasonable
man
with
reasonable
aims;
and
many
regarded
him,
as
a
positive
force
against
Bolshevism.
Impressed
by
Reichs
ability
to
recover
from
years
of
guilt
and
Depression.
Lord
Halifax
began
to
advise
Baldwins
govt
(British
PM
before
Chamberlain)
in
1935
about
same
time
Anthony
Eden
appointed
Foreign
Secretary
in
1935.
Halifax
and
Eden
agreed
German
reoccupation
of
Rhineland
not
serious
threat.
Chamberlain,
who
succeeded
Baldwin
in
1937,
took
active
interest
in
foreign
affairs
and
genuinely
believed
Germany
been
punished
severely
by
Treaty
of
Versailles.
- Believed
differences
could
be
solved
through
personal
negotiation
and
concession
- Assumed
some
of
Hitlers
claims
reasonable
and
other
claims
consistent
with
rights
of
Germans
to
self
determination
and
re-emergence
as
major
power.
- Believed
League
of
Nations
ineffective
in
solving
international
disputes
Chamberlain
and
British
Conservative
Party
- Refused
to
deal
seriously
with
Soviet
Union
- Detested
Communist
ideology
Govt
reluctant
to
commit
too
much
money
to
rearmament
in
context
of
largely
appeasement-minded
general
public.
However,
from
1936,
steadily
increasing
commitment
to
rearmament
based
on
defence.
Plan
was
to
prevent
enemy
attack
with
boats
and
planes.
Navy
upgraded,
and
airforce
spending
increased.
Need
for
land
army
not
considered
imperative
except
to
honour
Imperial
commitments.
Tank
production
half
hearted;
and
recruitment
slow.
By
1939,
army
weakest
force
France
Frances
recovery
from
Depression
slower
than
rest
of
Europe:
declined
from
its
position
of
power
in
1920s
and
defeatism
abroad.
Govts
fell
one
after
the
other;
strikes,
violence
and
political
upheaval
determined
undermined
fighting
capabilities
of
nation
and
made
cohesive
defence
plan
impossible.
Technically
admirable,
outrageously
expensive
and
strategically
unsound
Maginot
Line
absorbed
significant
part
of
defence
budget
despite
its
lack
of
use.
1935:
military
service
extended
to
2
years
and
definite
plans
made
to
upgrade
airforce.
Navy,
kept
its
prestige
due
to
Italian
competition
in
Mediterranean,
most
efficient
of
forces
and
orders
to
increase
steel
production
included
plans
for
tanks
and
armaments.
Leon
Blum
headed
group
amalgamated
of
anit-fascist
factions
that
called
themselves
Le
Front
Populaire.
Committed
to
collective
security,
disarmament
and
social
reform.
Came
to
govt
at
time
when
France
deeply
divided
by
factions
within
and
shortly
to
face
German
invasion
of
Rhineland.
One
of
their
first
acts
was
introduction
of
40
hour
week,
which
was
bad
news
for
rearmament
plans
and
gave
rise
to
remark
that
invasion
of
Sunday
would
be
illegal.
Blum
in
accord
with
appeasement
policies
of
Chamberlain.
Prepared
to
adopt
any
mixture
of
actions
to
preserve
peace.
Despite
objections
from
extreme
left
of
party,
supported
limited
rearmament.
Within
a
year,
Le
Front
Populaire
divided
and
fell
to
series
of
unsuccessful
Socialists,
Radicals
&
combinations
Political
struggles,
strikes
and
street
violence
continued
to
plague
France
so
defence
system
in
disarray
and
its
people
cynically
convinced
that
could
never
withstand
organised
might
of
Reich.
This
situation
in
France
was
significant
contrast
to
Germanys
attitude
to
military
training,
rearmament
and
war
where
ultimately
whole
economy
geared
to
war
production.
In
interests
of
economic
self
sufficient
and
lebensraum,
Germany
believed
needed
to
expanded
eastwards
through
Austria
Appeasement
in
Action
Epitome
of
policy
of
appeasement
was
Munich
Conference
of
1928.
However,
British
govt
had
been
pursuing
policy
long
before
then.
Lloyd
George
endeavoured
to
soften
Versailles
Treaty
in
1919
and
various
trade
and
reparation
agreements
made
with
Germany
in
1920s
However,
it
was
in
1930s
that
appeasement
became
key
element
of
British
policu.
It
manifested
itself
in
both
active
and
passive
way.
Sometimes
it
was
case
of
acting
to
make
concessions
and
others
was
case
of
simply
not
reacting
to
action
taken
by
dictators.
Russia
sought
opposition
to
Nazism
but
Stalin
not
trusted
&
purges
of
1930s
weakened
Red
Army
League
of
Natiosn
and
principle
of
collective
security
dead
as
proved
by
Manchuria
and
Abyssinia
Act
of
Appeasement
German
Rearmament
January
1935
Franco-Italian
Agreement
March
1935
Germany
introduces
conscription
Anglo-German
Naval
Agreement
June
1935
December
1935
Hoare-Laval Plan
March
1936
Remilitarisation
of
Rhineland
1936
1939
January
1938
Chamberlains
attitude
t
ideas
from
US/USSR
Significance
Accepted
as
sad
but
inevitable
consequence
of
failure
of
Disarmament
Conference
Germany
played
up
fear
of
communism
Germany
only
seeking
equality
French
Foreign
Minister
Laval
indicated
to
Italians
that
France
accepted
designs
on
Abyssinia
Act
was
against
Treaty
of
Versailles
Britain
mildly
protested
Germany
allowed
35%
of
British
naval
strength
and
equality
in
number
of
submarines
Directly
contravened
Treaty
of
Versailles
and
sanctioned
Hitlers
moves
to
cancel
Versailles
armaments
provisions
Britain
acted
without
consulting
France
weakened
Stresa
Front
French
and
British
Foreign
Ministers
offered
to
carve
up
Abyssinia
for
Italy.
Italy
would
be
given
enough
land
for
1.5
million
people
to
end
fighting
Hitlers
action
directly
contravened
terms
of
1925
Locarno
Pact
which
guaranteed
western
European
frontiers.
Beyond
protest
note,
Britain
and
France
did
nothing.
Great
boost
for
Hitler
British
view
Hitler
merely
going
into
his
backyard
Britain
and
France
pushed
for
non-
intervention
and
avoided
involvement
Germany
and
Italy
filly
backed
Nationalists
and
no
action
taken
against
them
Only
Soviet
Union
assisted
Republican
case
In
Jan,
US
President
Roosevelt
floated
idea
calling
for
powers
to
convene
as
means
of
returning
to
peaceful
diplomacy.
Chamberlain
rejected
this
bomb
Date
October
1933
March
1938
Austria
Anglo
French
Plan
had
to
be
accepted.
Agreed
on
strict
condition
that
France
and
Britain
would
never
allow
German
invasion
of
what
remained
of
Model
State.
22
September:
Chamberlain
met
Hitler
at
Godesberg
to
present
new
proposals.
Hitler
stunned
as
hadnt
expected
this
much;
achieved
through
policy
of
appeasement.
Thus
began
to
make
further
demands
- All
Czech
nationals
were
to
evacuate
specified
areas
leaving
possessions
- Defences
were
to
be
abandoned
intact
- Germany
would
guarantee
no
new
borders
until
Hungary
and
Poland
received
their
cut
- Military
occupation
and
region
in
German
hands
by
28
September
London
and
Paris:
immediate
rejection
of
changed
plans.
British
govt
agreed
to
support
France
if
it
felt
obliged
to
fight.
Hitler
threatened
Czech
annihilation
State
of
Emergency
called,
reservists
called
up,
civil
defence
measures
put
into
place.
Chamberlain
sent
personal
advisor,
Horace
Wilson,
to
tell
Hitler
how
unnecessary
war
was.
These
pleas
with
Mussolinis
intervention
broke
the
stalemate.
Hitler
invited
Chamberlain
to
attend
conference
in
Munich
End
of
Appeasement
In
months
following
Munich
Agreement,
was
notable
easing
of
tension
in
Europe
- Dec
1938:
Germany
recognised
sanctity
of
French
borders
- Hitler
tried
to
negotiate
deal
with
Poland
whereby
it
offered
future
gains
in
Ukraine
for
return
of
Danzig
and
permission
to
build
road
across
Polish
Corridor
to
East
Prussia
- Meetings
continued
between
British
and
Germany,
and
British
and
Italian
figures
- As
late
as
March
1939,
much
of
British
press
remained
optimistic
abpout
chances
of
peace
Ultimately
in
March
1939,
Hitler
resumed
the
aggression
- 15
March:
German
troops
marched
into
rest
of
Czechoslovakia.
Bohemia-
Moravia
incorporated
into
Reich
while
Solvakia
became
Nazi
puppet
state.
Hungary
took
more
of
southern
region
Ruthenia
- Week
later,
Germany
seized
Lithuanian
port
of
Memel
and
its
surrounding
district.
- April:
Mussolini
annexed
Albania
Munich
Agreement
ripped
up.
Churchill
had
been
right
all
along.
Finally,
Chamberlain
govt
forced
to
abandon
policy
of
appeasement
31
March:
Britain
announced
would
formally
guarantee
independence
of
Poland.
Hitler
knew
if
attacked
Poland,
Britain
declare
war.
Similar
guarantees
followed
for
Romania,
Greece
&
Turkey.
France
followed.
In
his
speech,
Chamberlain
said
Britain
committed
to
lend
the
Polish
govt
all
the
support
in
their
power
- Announcement
brought
end
to
appeasement;
and
Both
Germany
and
Western
powers
realised
position
of
Soviet
Union
would
be
vital
in
event
of
war.
Co-operation
of
Soviet
Union
with
West
threatened
Germany
w/
prospect
of
2
front
war
and
only
Soviet
intervention
could
save
Poland
form
invasion
by
Germany.
Both
West
and
Germans
looked
to
Soviet
Union
in
mid
1939
as
possible
aly
in
future
war.
However,
British
and
France
half
hearted
about
linking
with
Soviet.
West
viewed
Soviet
with
suspicion.
Chamberlains
distrust
for
Stalin
and
dislike
of
Communism
blinded
him
to
possibility
West
and
Soviet
of
common
interest
in
opposing
Hitler.
Some
in
Britain
like
Churchill
suggested
joining
with
Soviet
against
Russia.
- Chamberlain
not
keen
- Stalin
remained
distrustful
of
west;
suspected
Britain
&
France
pushing
eastwards
to
confront
Russia
- When
Britain
offered
Poland
guarantee
in
March
1939,
and
Hitler
renounced
German-Polish
Non
Aggression
Pact,
and
Anglo-German
Naval
Agreement,
a
chance
of
an
Anglo-Soviet
agreement
seemed
possible
- British
negotiators
sent
to
Moscow
but
were
too
junior,
lacking
in
authority
and
half
hearted
By
June
1939
Halifax
recognised
that
the
policy
if
appeasement
not
effective
against
Hitlers
policy
of
lebensraum.
Thus,
Britain
entered
treaties
of
mutual
defence
with
Poland
and
Turkey;
and
guaranteed
assistance
to
Greece
and
Romania.
Initiated
under
belief
that
if
these
countries
security
and
indefence
were
threatened,
Britains
would
be
too
Britains
policy
now
aimed
at
isolation/encirclement
of
Germany
and
Italy
to
prevent
them
from
acquiring
desired
living
space
Soviets
had
watched
Wests
policy
of
appeasement
with
Hitler
with
alarm.
Had
been
supporters
of
collevtive
security
had
had
witnessed
consistent
failure.
Furthermore,
in
1938
British
rebuffed
Soviet
approaches
for
major
power
consultations
after
German
absorption
of
Austria,
and
kept
Soviets
out
of
negotiations
with
Germany
over
fate
of
Czechoslovakia.
Soviet
not
invited
to
Munich
Conference.
During
northern
summer
of
1939
British
fumbled
negotiations
with
Soviets.
Sent
junior
delegation
to
Moscow
for
talks.
Rebuffed
suggestions
of
Soviet
support,
which
would
have
involved
Red
Army
troops
being
given
access
to
Polish
and
Romanian
territory
in
operations
against
Germany.
Offered
little
to
Soviet
Stalin
realist
and
man
who
wanted
to
extent
Soviet
power
in
Eastern
Europe.
Saw
that
alliance
with
West
offered
prospect
of
war
with
now
gain;
whereas
negotiations
with
Germans
offered
him
deal
giving
him
control
of
eastern
Poland
and
Baltic
states,
offering
gain
without
war
Stalin
agreed.
By
1939
Germany
stood
on
brink
of
war.
German
acquired
Austria
and
Czech
and
already
instigated
plans
for
invasion
of
Poland.
Hitler
less
worried
about
West
reaction
compared
to
Soviet
Pact
Poland
isolated
Stalin
distrustful
of
west
and
Hitler
realised
attack
on
Poland
would
involve
him
in
2
front
war
enemies
came
to
arrangement.
Both
sides
began
sending
out
signals
to
each
other
- April:
Hitler
announced
his
intention
of
dealing
with
Poland
in
major
speech
and
pointedly
made
no
anti-Soviet
references
- Stalin
replaced
Jewish
Foreign
Minister
Litvinov,
with
Molotov
- June:
via
Italian
Foreign
Minister
Ciano
Hitler
let
Stalin
know
arrangement
could
be
made
Early
august:
Ribbentrop
let
it
be
known
Soviet
interests
in
Poland
and
Baltic
respected
- After
personal
exchange
of
messages
between
Hitler
and
Stalin
in
mid
August,
agreed
Ribbentrop
should
fly
to
Moscow
- 23
August:
German
Soviet
Non-Aggression
Pact
signed.
Agreed
to
remain
neutral
if
other
became
involved
in
war.
Secretly,
Poland
divided
between
them
and
agreed
that
Soviet
should
take
control
of
Latvia,
Estonia,
Bessarabia
and
Finland.
Germany
to
control
Lithuania.
Hitler
and
Stalin
still
detested
and
didnt
trust
each
other.
However,
suited
them
both
to
come
to
agreement
Pact
eliminated
chance
to
avoid
war
and
sealed
Polands
fate
-
be
Summary
Hitler
made
hostility
to
Soviet
Union
known
as
soon
as
he
gained
power.
Long
term
goal
of
achieving
lebensraum
would
be
at
Soviet
Unions
expense.
As
Nazi
power
grew,
Stalin
sought
agreements
with
France
and
Czechoslovakia.
Stalin
concerned
at
wests
willingness
to
give
in
to
Hitler,
exp
after
Munich.
March
1939:
Britain
offered
guarantee
to
Poland
and
Stalin
hoped
similar
agreement
could
be
reached
with
Western
Powers.
However,
Chamberlain
not
keen
on
working
with
Stalin.
Hence,
Stalin
became
open
to
idea
of
agreement
with
Hitler
West
couldnt
trusted:
Munich
and
Western
Hitler
Two
front
war
dangerous.
Deal
with
Russia
will
lead
to
Polands
quick
defeat
and
then
Germany
can
deal
with
western
antions
Soviet
Union
could
be
dealt
with
once
western
nations
been
defeated
Neutralising
Soviet
Union
would
avoid
getting
into
mess
Germany
found
itself
in
July/August
1914
1
Sept
1939:
Germans
invaded
Poland.
Britain
and
France
demanded
German
cese
military
action
threatening
war.
Hitler
ignored
demands
3
Sept
first
Britain
then
France
declared
war
on
Germany.
Poles
rejected
German
proposals
and
Hitler,
who
already
singed
Case
White
(invasion
of
Poland)
made
move
German
SS
disguised
as
Polish
soldiers
attacked
radio
station
on
German
border
Germans
attacked
Britain
declaration
of
war
ANALYSIS:
CAUSES
OF
THE
CONFLICT
(OUTBREAK
OF
WAR
IN
1939)
Military
leaders
were
warning
govt
there
was
no
way
Britain
could
take
on
3
enemies
simultaneously
(Germany,
Italy
&
Japan)
and
best
policy
was
to
reduce
number
of
ones
potential
enemies
appeasement
1967:
British
govt
began
30
Year
Rule:
allowed
classified
official
documents
to
be
opened
up
to
researchers:
- Opened
up
significant
material
which
suggested
economic
restraints
seriously
restricted
options
of
govt
in
dealing
with
Hitler
- Also
suggested
that
Chamberlains
actions
needed
to
be
reevaluated
in
more
positive
manner.
Variation
of
this
theme
is
to
see
British
govt
behaviour
in
1930s
as
keeping
in
balance
with
traditional
British
foreign
policy.
Britain
hadnt
involved
itself
in
European
affairs
until
apparent
that
single
power
about
to
destroy
balance
of
power
and
dominate
continent
- Before
1939
Britain
attempts
hands
off
approach
but
once
apparent
Germany
intends
to
dominate
continent,
Britain
forced
reluctantly
to
enter
war
Rather
than
beef
up
League
over
Abyssinia,
Hoare
sought
deal
with
Mussolini
in
Hoare-Laval
Plan
- Chamberlains
naivety,
and
obstinacy,
combined
with
firm
control
over
cabinet,
allowed
no
alternatives
to
appeasement.
Chamberlain
often
ignored
or
bypassed
foreign
minister
and
diplomats
with
disastrous
consequences
- Lord
Halifax
still
sought
accommodation
with
Hitler
in
May
1940
Middlemass
attacks
Chamberlain
for
running
foreign
policy
as
a
one
man
band
controlling
Foreign
Office
and
allowing
no
dissent.
Believed
Chamberlain
totally
misunderstood
Hitler,
believing
his
aims
limited
to
righting
wrongs
of
Versailles
and
was
man
with
whom
one
could
negotiate
RAC
Parker
rejects
notion
that
Chamberlain
had
no
option
but
to
follow
appeasement
due
to
economic
and
political
restrains.
States
there
was
variety
of
policy
options
which
Chamberlain
skilfully
hid.
-
French
General
Marshall
Foch
said
of
decision
to
create
Polish
Corridor
and
separate
East
Prussia
from
rest
of
Germany
There
is
the
root
of
the
next
war
AJP
Taylor
states
Versailles
Treaty
failed
to
deal
with
issue
of
German
power.
Further
argues
that
far
less
onerous
for
Germany
than
domestic
propaganda
tried
to
make
out.
Germany
survived
as
united
and
potentially
strong
state
that
quite
capable
of
dominating
continent
of
Europe
- Geographically
intact,
apart
from
losing
small
border
areas.
Lost
only
13%
of
territory
- Despite
provisions
of
Treaty,
Germanys
economy
still
potentially
strongest
in
Europe
Richard
Overy
International
system
which
existed
during
inter
war
period
didnt
reflect
reality
of
international
power.
Such
disparity
didnt
mean
war
inevitable
but
meant
international
environment
unstable
to
which
Hitler
took
advantage,
and
with
which
appeasers
had
to
cope
- 1815
1914:
no
major
war
in
Europe
involving
more
than
2
major
powers
as
powers
accepted
concept
of
balance
of
power
- Rise
of
new
forces
such
as
democracy.
Nationalism
and
German
power
upset
this
equilibrium
Inter-war
period
didnt
experience
peace.
US
isolationism,
Germanys
early
weakness
&
Russias
concentration
on
developing
its
revolution,
fate
of
Europe
in
hands
of
Britain
&
France
didnt
reflect
true
balance
of
power
- After
1919,
Britain
became
second
rate
military
and
economic
powers.
Never
recovered
in
economic
strength
after
war,
and
was
preoccupied
with
imperial
matters
- Left
France
with
job
of
upholding
post
war
settlement.
Economically
and
thus
militarily,
France
could
never
be
match
for
Germany
there
was
a
growing
contradiction
between
the
existing
international
system
and
the
reality
of
power
made
more
dangerous
by
restless
political
forces
released
by
economic
modernisation
and
the
rise
of
mass
politics
AJP
Taylor
Refused
to
see
Hitler
as
embodiment
of
evil
and
unique
presence
in
European
politics
Taylor
argues
Hitler
had
no
long
term
plans
for
war,
no
preconceived
blueprint
for
taking
over
Europe.
- Mein
Kampf
and
Hossbach
Memorandum
were
no
more
than
political
day
dreaming
Hitler
opportunist
and
when
war
came
in
1938,
it
was
fault
of
bungling
diplomacy
2.
Course
of
the
European
War
GERMAN
ADVANCES:
THE
FALL
OF
POLAND,
THE
LOW
COUNTRIES
AND
FRANCE
The
Fall
of
Poland
September
October
1939
Rapid
German
attack
using
formations
of
tanks
and
armoured
vehicles,
heavy
artillery
and
close
air
support
caught
Allies
by
surprise.
Indeed
actions
did
take
place
during
these
6
months:
- Minor
skirmishes
along
Maginot
Line
between
French
and
German
troops
- Finnish
Soviet
War
continued
- SS
busy
reorganising
Poland
Phoney
war
came
to
abrupt
end
when
German
forces
invaded
Denmark
and
Norway
Britain
had
considered
plans
to
cut
off
Swedish
iron
ore
supples
to
German
having
major
impact
on
German
war
production
as
Germans
got
half
iron
needed
for
making
weapons
from
Sweden.
This
ore
reached
Germany
via
Norwegian
port
of
Narvik.
British
decided
to
take
action
in
Norway
and
began
mine
laying
operations
along
Norwegian
coast
hoping
to
disrupt
German
shipping
9
April:
Hitler
launched
Operation
Wesrubung,
a
direct
attack
on
Denmark
and
Norway.
Denmarks
King
Christian
X
surrendered
next
day.
Gave
themselves
supply
bases
for
invasion
of
Norway
Allied
troops
had
minor
holds
in
central
Norway
and
pounded
German
positions
in
Narvik.
Royal
Navy
attacked
and
British
troops
sent
to
northern
Norway
but
British
forces
poorly
trained,
poorly
equipped
and
didnt
have
adequate
fighter
planes
to
protect
them
from
German
air
attacks.
British
army
failed
to
develop
plans
for
coordinating
infantry
&
tanks.
British
navy
slow
to
modernise
&
strategists
failed
recognise
importance
of
aircraft
carriers
&
need
for
improved
anti-submarine
capability.
With
collapse
of
France
in
matter
of
weeks,
allied
troops
withdrawn.
10
June:
Norway
surrendered.
NOTE:
blame
for
resulting
fiasco
in
Norway
fell
on
Chamberlains
shoulders
forcing
his
resignation
when
Members
of
Parliament
refused
to
support
his
govt.
Replaced
by
Churchill.
The
Fall
of
the
Low
Countries
and
France
May
June
1940
10
May:
German
forces
attacked
Low
Countries
(Belgium
and
Netherlands)
as
part
of
Operation
Fall
Gelb
German
forces
able
to
quickly
cut
through
Netherlands
with
Nazi
sympathisers
and
German
nationals
succeeding
in
capturing
vital
bridges
and
communications.
Rotterdam
bombed
reducing
it
to
nothing
(14
May)
and
within
days
Netherlands
surrendered
10
May:
German
airforce
bombed
Belgian
airfields.
Attack
on
Belgium
and
France
coordinated
to
start
with
invasion
of
Netherlands.
Belgian
army
surrendered
in
late
May,
two
weeks
after
France
overrun.
Allied
leaders
appalled
at
defection
for
now
placed
British
and
French
troops
in
even
more
danger.
British
&
French
commanders
believed
German
attack
of
France
to
be
similar
to
Schlieffen
Plan
with
massive
German
advance
across
Belgium
sweeping
towards
Channel
coast
&
Paris.
Believed
no
rapid
German
advance
could
penetrate
heavily
forested
Ardennes
region
or
strong
Maginot
Line
on
Frances
common
border
w/
Germ
- Ardennes
lightly
defended
due
to
assumption
Instead
of
striking
at
France
across
border
protected
by
Maginot
Line,
Germans
attacked
through
forested
areas
of
Ardennes.
Hitlers
blitzkrieg
tactics
and
his
generals
skill
completely
routed
their
allied
opponents.
This
took
them
round
the
end
of
the
Maginot
Line
and
enabled
them
to
punch
a
hole
in
the
French
defences
at
a
very
weak
point.
French
never
recovered;
army
split
General
von
Bock
advanced
through
Belgium
w/
massive
force
similar
to
1914.
Allied
commanders
ordered
half
forces
to
deal
with
threat.
This
simply
diversion
11
May:
General
von
Leeb
started
attacks
along
Maginot
Line
tying
down
Anglo-
French
forces
In
centre
b/w
von
Bocks
and
von
Leebs
forces,
in
the
Ardennes
and
Luxemberg
region,
General
von
Rundstedt
(German)
prepared
massive
force
to
invade
France.
46
divisions
w/
copious
amounts
of
weaponry
Battle
for
France:
11
day
campaign.
Dramatic
and
decisive.
Allied
forces
to
north
in
Belgium
and
to
south
around
Maginot
Line
now
completely
separated.
20
May:
German
forces
reached
coast
at
Abbeville.
German
advance
so
rapid
that
forward
units
in
danger
of
being
cut
off
and
running
out
of
fuel
24
May:
Hitler
ordered
forces
halt
to
consolidate
positions
27
May:
port
of
Boulogne
taken
and
Calais
surrounded
Major
General
RH
Barry
contrasts
Allied
and
German
strategies
- Allied
command:
slow
and
unimaginative
in
thought.
However,
does
acknowledge
that
Allies
had
potential
to
overcome
Germanys
forces
if
they
had
reacted
more
quickly.
- German
plan:
bold
and
risky
Dunkirk
Consequently,
British
forces
ordered
back
towards
Dunkirk.
PM
Churchill
gave
order
for
Operation
Dynamo
evacuation
of
all
allied
troops
to
England.
Arguably
greatest
rescue
exercise
of
its
kind
in
history:
850
vessels
from
navy
warships
to
personally
owned
fishing
boats
brought
out
of
France
allied
troops
and
civilians
Largely,
evacuation
only
possible
as
Hitler
inexplicably
decided
not
to
destroy
allied
troops
as
they
evacuated
as
post-war
peace
terms
would
soon
be
discussed
Belgium,
the
Netherlands
and
Luxembourg
lost
to
Germans.
France
about
to
fall.
Besides
from
large
numbers
of
death
in
BEF,
valuable
and
abundant
weapons
were
left
in
France
and
over
100
aircraft
lost
during
evacuation
4
June:
Dunkirk
captured
Fall
of
France
5
June:
Germans
resumed
attacks
against
French
targeting
Paris
&
areas
to
east.
By
9
June,
French
army
in
retreat.
10th:
Mussolini
declared
war
on
France.
13th:
Paris
declared
open
city
to
avoid
destruction
of
historic
architecture
and
treatures.
14th:
Germans
entered
Paris.
THE
AIR
WAR
AND
ITS
EFFECTS:
THE
BATTLE
OF
BRITAIN
AND
THE
BLITZ,
THE
BOMBING
OF
GERMANY
German
decision
to
switch
from
airfields
and
radar
stations
to
blitz
the
cities
occurred
just
as
Fighter
Command
near
collapse
- Dowding
System
provided
RAF
with
sophisticated
detection
and
command
system
- Luftwaffe
lacked
specific
aims
and
often
operated
independently
of
rest
of
German
military
- RAF
pilots
displayed
enormous
skill
and
courage
in
face
of
odds.
- As
RAF
fighting
over
home
territory,
planes
could
land
&
refuel
easily
and
spend
more
time
in
the
air.
Fallen
aircraft
might
be
repaired,
downed
pilots
could
be
rescued.
Luftwaffe
didnt
have
advantages.
- Germans
failed
to
recognise
importance
of
radar.
RAF
had
excellent
early
warning
system
- German
Messerschmitt
BF
109
excellent
fighter
but
short
on
range
limited
operational
time
- Messerschmitt
had
to
escort
and
protect
German
bombers
operated
at
lower
altitudes
limited
in
manoeuvre
it
couldnt
exploits
one
of
greatest
assets
which
was
at
high
altitudes
Key
Turning
Point:
stalemate
ensued
in
that
Hitler
failed
to
defeat
Britain
and
Churchill
not
strong
enough
to
attack
Germany.
Major
implications
for
future
course
of
war
- Hitler
had
to
face
two
front
(and
later
three)
war
- Decreased
chances
of
success
of
Hitlers
invasion
of
Soviet
Union
- Prevented
Italian
and
German
forces
from
taking
North
Africa
and
gaining
control
of
Middle
East
oil
supplies
and
Suez
Canal
- Allowed
US
to
base
itself
in
Britain
If
German
victory
had
been
achieved,
highly
likely
German
victory
in
WW2
Political
result:
allowed
Churchill
to
remain
great
leader.
If
Britain
had
been
defeated,
his
own
Conservative
Party
would
have
removed
him
from
power;
particularly
as
Chamberlain
and
Halifax
favoured
armistice
The
Blitz
(53
Nights)
7
Sept:
Luftwaffe
dropped
bombs
on
London
and
industrial
areas
trying
to
destroy
morale
Blitz
Since
start
of
war,
British
had
preparations
against
bombings
with
civilian
defence
organisation
Air
Raid
Precautions
set
up.
Citizens
issued
with
gas
masks,
air
raid
shelters
constructed,
air
raid
sirens
installed
in
each
area,
barrage
balloons
floating
above
cities
and
blackout
regulations
Blitz
did
less
damage
than
expected
and
didnt
destroy
morale
15
September:
Germany
launched
massive
daylight
bombing
raid
on
London.
Daylight
attacks
lasted
until
30th
German
bombers
then
switched
tactics
to
attacking
at
night
with
Luftwaffes
attention
now
on
Britains
towns
and
cities
and
centres
of
production
- German
daylight
bomber
losses
too
large
- Nonetheless,
RAF
developed
night
fighters
equipped
with
radar
Raids
that
did
occur
during
day
mostly
aimed
at
engaging
RAF
fighters
to
disrupt
defensive
operations
over
South
East
Britain.
7
13
Nov:
London
main
target
and
bombed
almost
every
night
- Not
only
symbolic
target
of
London,
but
across
wide
range
of
industrial
&
communications
centres
Sept
1940
May
1941:
Main
force
of
Blitz
occurred
By
May,
Hitlers
attention
fully
focussed
on
plans
for
Russia
and
needed
air
force
in
east
although
Britain
would
continue
to
be
bombed
intermittently
throughout
war:
60%
of
housing
destroyed
or
damaged
Some
positive
aspects
to
Blitz
campaign
for
Britain
- Industrial
production
not
been
drastically
hurt;
industry
able
to
recover
- Britains
ports
still
able
to
function
However,
as
bombing
got
worse,
more
British
resolve
hardened.
Resolve
to
fight
on.
Churchills
visits
to
bombed
areas
well
received
29
December
1940:
worst
night
of
bombing
for
London
with
much
in
flames
although
St.
Pauls
Cathedral
survived
symbol
of
Britains
will
to
resist
Reporting
of
American
journalist
Edward
Murrow
during
Blitz
gradually
created
sympathy
and
admiration
in
US
for
Britain
despite
US
strong
isolationist
policy
to
avoid
being
dragged
in
European
war.
Dennis
Richards
emphasises
that
Battle
of
Britain
major
turning
point
as
fighter
pilots
and
presence
of
navy
in
Channel
halted
Hitlers
path
of
conquest
allowing
for
the
mighty
alliance
of
Russia
and
US
victory
AJP
Taylor:
major
factor
in
victory
was
lack
of
clarity
in
German
strategic
aims
in
comparison
to
British
certainty
of
purpose.
Goering
couldnt
decide
locality
of
target
Liddell
Hart
argues
damage
inflicted
and
disruption
caused
by
Luftwaffe
greater
than
generally
admitted
particularly
on
industrial
production.
If
Luftwaffe
allowed
to
persist
in
campaign
of
attacking
industrial
centres,
damage
could
have
been
greater
- not
succeeded
in
its
object
of
destroying
the
RAFs
fighter
strength
and
the
British
peoples
morale
Overy
suggests
debate
over
morality
of
allied
bombing
has
turned
focus
away
from
how
successful
it
has
been
in
severely
affecting
German
war
front
weakening
economy
and
destroying
weapons
and
numbers
of
workers.
Additionally,
he
suggests
Hitler
looking
for
quick
way
to
force
British
to
negotiate
or
create
right
conditions
for
invasion
rather
than
attack
simply
due
to
enragement.
The
Bombing
of
Germany
1920s
&1930s:
RAF
believed
strategic
bombing
war
winning
weapon
Harris,
architect
of
the
allied
bombing
campaign,
put
great
faith
in
bombing
arguing
surest
way
to
defeat
enemy
was
to
destroy
its
war
potential.
Later
greatly
criticised
for
strategy
of
area
bombing
attacking
entire
cities
rather
than
specific
targets
Placed
in
difficult
role
as
govt
privately
supported
tactic
of
area
bombing
with
its
inevitable
result
of
heavy
casualties
among
German
civilian
population;
yet
publicly
wished
to
downplay
tactic
to
avoid
conflict
with
religious
and
humanitarian
opinion.
April
1940:
decided
to
confine
Bomber
Command
to
mainly
night
bombing
for
survival
reasons
as
15/16
May
1940,
96
strong
force
of
British
two
engine
bombers
attacked
the
Ruhr
industrial
area.
Only
crew
claimed
to
have
found
actual
target
area
1940:
Night
bombing
inaccurate
and
ineffective;
however
attacks
on
German
cities
angered
Hitler
switch
to
the
Blitz
which
key
factor
helping
Britain
win
in
Battle
of
Britain.
1941:
reports
of
ineffectiveness
of
Bomber
Command
very
alarming.
Although
significant
amounts
of
bomber
aircraft
were
lost,
German
anti-aircraft
guns
had
more
copious
amounts.
Night
flying
and
poor
navigation
equipment
accounted
for
most
of
losses.
OPERATION
BARBAROSSA,
STALINGRAD
AND
THE
RUSSIAN
CAMPAIGN
Operation
Barbarossa
Background
22
June
1941:
German
forces
invaded
Soviet
Operation
Barbarossa
Hitler
made
clear
his
intention
to
invade
with
ideological,
racial,
strategic
and
economic
motives
- Lebensraum:
to
create
Aryan
empire
required
living
space
found
in
vastness
of
Russia
- Slavs
of
Russia
racial
inferiors
to
become
future
slave
force.
- Russia
would
provide
grain,
oil
and
other
resources
needed
by
the
Reich
- Defeat
of
Russia
isolate
Britain
to
defeat
with
submarine
force
By
May
1941:
Hitler
consolidated
position
in
Eastern
Europe
- Hungary
and
Bulgaria
joined
Axis
25
March
1941
Yugoslavia
joined
Axis
powers
when
signed
Tripartite
Pact.
Few
days
later,
Prince
Pauls
pro-axis
govt
overthrown
- Hitler
alarmed
invasion
of
Yugoslavia
commencing
w/
attack
on
Greece
- 6
April:
German,
Italian
and
Hungarian
forces
attacked
Yugoslavia
- By
late
May,
Axis
forces
control
of
Yugoslavia
and
Greece
and
expelled
Allied
forces
here
Significant
German
victory
but
actions
in
the
Balkans
delayed
invasion
of
Russia
by
a
month
The
Attack
Stalin
had
been
warned
by
British
intelligence
and
own
sources
yet
chose
not
to
believe
invasion
shouldnt
have
come
as
suprise
German
attack
of
monumental
proportions
with
3.2
million
troops
and
vast
weaponry
German
forces
divided
into
3
armies
with
Leningrad,
Moscow
and
Kiev
as
targets.
- Often
out
of
radio
contact
with
each
other;
attacked
simultaneously
on
a
3200km
front
- Army
Group
North
moved
through
Baltic
States
towards
Leningraf
- Army
Group
Centre
towards
Moscow
- Army
Group
South
aimed
to
capture
Ukraine
and
target
Kiev.
Needed
swift
victory
as
longer
it
lasted,
greater
chance
for
defeat:
Russia
vast,
sources
limitless
and
Russian
winter
helped
defeat
enemies
in
the
past.
Planned
that
blitzkrieg
tactics,
aim
of
destroying
Red
Army
in
field,
would
finish
off
Soviet
Union
Hitler
overestimated
the
abilities
of
his
armed
forces
whilst
underestimating
resistance
mentality
of
Russians
Soviet
forces
unprepared
for
onslaught
with
many
troops
still
training
for
sporting
events
in
late
June.
Took
hours
to
realise
under
attack.
22
June:
Germany
attacked
with
1200
Soviet
aircraft
destroyed
by
noon
spectacular
initial
process
Mid
July:
with
100km
of
Leningrad
but
Hitler
ordered
to
pause
while
infantry
consolidated
in
Baltic
States
Armies
reached
outskirts
of
Leningrad
and
Kiev
(never
really
capturing
Moscow)
but
met
by
determined
Soviet
resistance.
Hitler
made
serious
tactic
error
in
dividing
his
commands
&
change
priorities
in
middle
of
campaign
- Army
Group
Centre
towards
Moscow
temporarily
halted
- Two
of
these
redeployed.
First
advanced
north
to
support
German
position
in
Leningrad
(however
position
didnt
improve
as
Russians
fought
back
and
refused
to
surrender
stalemate
siege
1.5
million
Russians
died
from
military
confrontations,
freezing
weather,
diseases
and
starvation)
and
other
moved
south
towards
Kiev
- After
40
day
battle,
Army
Group
South
captured
Kiev
w/
extensive
casualties
on
both
sides
- Change
of
tactics
delayed
attack
on
Moswo
by
nearly
2
months
By
end
July:
German
forces
captured
Bialystol,
Minsk,
Uman
and
Smolensk
Army
Group
Centre
similarly
stalled
by
Hitler
who
insisted
tank
divisions
should
head
south
to
assist
capture
of
Kiev.
Hitlers
generals
argued
should
be
allowed
to
push
to
Moscow
but
Hitler
argued
Kiev
needed
to
secure
food
supplies
of
Ukraine
and
provide
springboard
to
move
on
oil
wells
of
Caucasus
19
Sept:
Kiev
captured
However,
German
forces
slowed.
Leningrad
not
captured
3
year
siege
October:
Hitler
launched
Operation
Typhoon
(attack
on
Moscow)
However,
autumn
rains
turned
poor
roads
into
quagmires
slowed
progress.
By
Nov,
Russian
winter
played
its
role.
Initially
assisted
German
forces
as
frost
made
easier
to
move
across
hardened
ground.
Yet
as
temperatures
dropped,
advance
halted.
German
soldiers
neither
equipped
nor
trained
for
such
conditions
- Inadequate
clothing
and
lack
of
supplies
hypothermia,
frostbite
and
trench
foot
- Engine
sumps
froze,
tank
mechanisms
broke
down,
power
line
snapped
- Goering
promised
Luftwaffe
would
keep
German
army
supplied;
yet
in
freezing
conditions
parachute
drops
had
to
be
employed
to
deliver
supplies
which
often
lost
or
fell
into
Soviet
hands.
Reasons
for
Failure
of
Operation
Barbarossa
Geography:
vastness
of
Russia
caused
disorientation
and
deep
sense
melancholy
amongst
German
troops.
Size
made
difficult
for
Germany
to
keep
forces
supplied.
Soviet
Union
also
followed
scorched
earth
policy
destroying
anything
of
value
to
Germans
Japans
decisions
to
expand
southward:
with
no
threat
of
Japanese
attack
Stalin
could
move
well
trained
and
well
equipped
Siberian
forces
westwards.
With
this,
Zhukov
able
to
bring
out
Soviet
Unions
new
military
hardware
such
as
K1,
K2
and
T34
tanks
Goerings
promise
that
army
would
be
resupplied
in
Russia
never
realised.
Luftwaffes
cargo
missions
over
Russian
skies
continually
threatened
by
Red
Armys
anti-aircraft
crews.
German
plans
risked
destruction
of
flew
too
low;
landing
heavy
aircraft
dangerous
because
of
frozen
airstrips
essential
war
materials
(medicine,
food
and
ammunition)
packed
into
crates
and
parachuted
from
high
altitudes
frequently
missed
targets
and
captured
by
Russian
troops
Role
of
Stalin:
decision
to
stay
in
Moscow
raised
Soviet
morale.
His
use
of
nationalist
and
religious
propaganda
sustained
people.
Interfered
less
in
military
affairs
than
The
Battle
of
Stalingrad
Background
Little
chance
Army
Group
North
making
breakthrough.
Leningrad
destroyed
due
to
siege
in
Jan
1944
but
Russian
surrender
not
likely.
Similarly,
chance
of
Army
Group
centre
breaking
into
Moscow
not
likely.
Army
Group
North
(Leningrad)
and
Army
Group
Centre
(Moscow)
could
not
be
moved
unless
Red
Armys
forces
in
these
cities
surrendered
unlikely
Army
Group
South
looked
more
promising.
Once
spring
arrived
in
1942,
Hitler
launched
another
attack
as:
- Must
win
in
Russia
or
be
taken
prisoner
- Could
not
withdraw
because
safe
retreat
impossible
April
1941:
Hitler
launch
Operation
Blue
into
south
of
Russia
divided
Army
Group
South
&
launched
2
pronged
attack
- Army
Group
A
to
head
into
Caucasus
with
intention
of
capturing
Soviet
oils
wells.
Hitler
believed
by
denying
Stalin
of
main
oil
supplies,
Soviet
war
effort
would
be
greatly
disadvantaged
- Army
Group
B
to
cut
off
River
Volga
by
capturing
Stalingrad.
Operation
twofold:
Volga
key
communication
centre
and
essential
waterway
and
Stalingrad
significant
industrial
centre.
Supported
by
Italian,
Hungarian
and
Romanian
troops.
Led
by
General
Paulus
However,
taking
Stalingrad
unnecessary
as
not
strategically
important
and
Volga
could
have
been
easily
cut
further
south.
Hitler
gave
city
greater
significance
than
it
deserved
due
to
name
Stalingrad
29
May:
German
forces
scored
major
victory
near
Kharkov
taking
significant
numbers
of
prisoners,
tanks
&
guns.
Further
victories
followed
at
Kerch
and
Sevastopol
in
June
and
at
Rostov
on
River
Don
in
late
July
The
Battle
When
Paulus
began
attack
on
Stalingrad,
Soviet
forces
outnumbered
4
to
1.
August:
launched
massive
two
day
aerial
bombardment
destroying
more
than
of
city.
Fighting
involved
not
grand
movements
but
rather
individually
fought.
German
and
Soviet
troops
often
fought
hand-to-hand
combat.
Lone
snipers
key
figures
in
fighting.
Hitler.
Officers
promoted
on
merit
and
trust
of
Zhukov
major
factor
in
ability
for
Soviet
survival
Hitlers
Interference:
Hitler
didnt
allow
generals
to
run
things.
Direct
intervention
arguably
prevented
capture
of
Leningrad.
Decision
to
take
Kiev
before
Moscow
gave
defenders
breathing
space
to
prepare
defence.
Frequent
arguments
with
generals
slowed
German
process
Climate:
Russian
winter
(-40
temps)
unexperienced
by
Germans
who
unprepared
for
it.
Russians
had
advantage
Christian
sees
failure
of
Barbarossa
as
crucial
moment
in
war
which
enabled
Russia
to
exploit
to
full
its
huge
reserves
of
raw
materials
and
labour
Bullock
argues
main
factor
for
failure
of
Barbarossa
was
Hitlers
nature
as
interfering
figure
who
didnt
trust
judgement
of
generals
ignoring
reality
of
campaign
Overy
emphasis
significance
of
Hitlers
tactically
unsound
practice
of
purging
senior
officers
in
bringing
about
negative
effect
on
Germanys
war
effort
Red
Army
attempted
to
prevent
Paulus
troops
from
capturing
city.
Soviet
forces
established
front
line
along
Volga
River
and
refused
to
retreat.
Every
citizen
in
Stalingrad
helped
to
defend
city
Rattenkrieg
(rat
war).
Women
and
children
created
simple
yet
deadly
mines
and
booby
traps
out
of
recycled
explosives
urban
guerrilla
warfare
19
November:
Zhukov
launched
Operation
Uranus
at
Stalingrad
plan
to
trap
all
German
forces
inside
Stalingrad.
Zhukovs
plan
was
to
encircle
Paulus
6th
Army
in
giant
pincer
movement
trapping
German
forces
- From
South
would
be
General
Vatutins
forces
- From
North
came
larger
force
to
attack
Paulus
vulnerable
north
eastern
flank
- Essentially
both
Russian
armies
progressively
encircle
city
until
met
creating
a
large
circular
war
zone
that
included
the
city
23
Nov:
2
Soviet
forces
met
at
Kalach
Bridge
trapping
Paulus
300
000
men
inside
city
and
couldnt
escape
Paulus
Army
Group
A
bogged
down
in
Caucasus,
Luftwaffe
find
almost
impossible
to
supply
forces,
north
eastern
flank
(Italian,
Hungarian
and
Romanian
troops)
exposed
and
winter
arrived
12
Dec:
Attempt
made
to
relieve
Paulus
with
force
led
by
General
Manstein
(Operation
Winter
Tempest).
However,
force
too
small
and
couldnt
reach
city
Paulus
sought
permission
from
Hitler
to
surrender;
yet
refused.
Promoted
to
Field
Marshall
no
German
Field
Marshall
ever
surrendered.
31
Dec
1942:
Russian
troops
captured
Paulus
headquarters
German
6th
Army
surrendered
due
to
cold,
lack
of
food
and
ammunition,
and
disease.
German
force
300
000
men
lost
and
91
000
marched
off
to
horrific
Soviet
imprisonment.
Lasted
approx
200
days
with
22
German
generals
and
nearly
280
000
Axis
troops
captured
upon
conclusion
forced
to
prison
camps
where
many
died
in
captivity
McCauley
argues
significance
undeniable
boosting
Soviet
morale,
High
Command
showed
could
match
battle
tactics
with
best
of
them
and
never
again
did
Soviet
troops
flee
battle
Samsonov
high
praise
for
efforts
of
Soviet
people
and
Communist
Party:
efficient
war
economy
and
ability
of
generals
to
plan
major
campaigns.
- the
impressive
results
of
the
Stalingrad
battle
created
favourable
conditions
for
operations
by
Anglo-American
forces
against
Nazi
Germany
and
its
allies
Significance
of
Russian
Campaign
Kharkov
captured
by
Soviet
offensive
but
by
mid
March,
it
and
Belgorod
were
again
in
German
control
1943
onwards:
Soviet
forces
began
gain
advantage
in
quantity
and
quality
of
equipment
- Soviet
production
greatly
rationalised
only
small
number
of
different
types
of
aircraft
produced
but
on
mass
scale
- American
supplies
granted
to
Russia
through
Lend
Lease
scheme
beginning
to
make
themselves
felt.
Mid
1943:
Hitler
committed
forces
to
massive
contest
at
Kursk
Operation
Citadel
lasted
from
5
12
July.
Soviet
forces
established
salient
around
Kursk
and
was
temptation
to
push
further,
although
Stalin
resisted.
Temptation
for
Germans
to
cut
it
off,
which
Hitler
couldnt
resist.
Bulge
in
front
line
to
be
site
of
greatest
tank
battle
in
history
June
1941:
Operation
Barbarossa
commences
Sept
1941
Jan
1944:
900
day
siege
of
Leningrad
Oct
1941:
Kiev
surrenders
Nov
1941:
Moscow
besieged
June
1942:
Operation
Blue
commences
August
1942:
Stalingrad
besieged
July
1943:
Battle
of
Kursk
THE
BATTLE
OF
EL
ALAMEIN
AND
THE
SIGNIFICANCE
OF
THE
CONFLICT
IN
NORTH
AFRICA
TO
THE
EUROPEAN
WAR
Background
to
the
North
Africa
Conflict
Italy
Enters
War
10
June
1940:
Italy
entered
war
eager
to
capitalise
on
Germanys
swift
defeat
of
French.
1940:
Italy
not
prepared
for
long
time
war
critically
short
of
military
vehicles
and
supplies
as
result
of
Mussolinis
involvement
in
Spanish
civil
war.
Naval
and
air
forces
also
weak
Nonetheless,
late
1940
Mussolini
stroked
fascist
blow
on
both
sides
of
Mediterranean
Sea
by
attacking
Egypt
(Sept)
and
Greece
(Oct).
Assault
on
Egypt
resulted
for
Campaign
in
North
Africa
Mussolini
had
3
ambitious
goals
in
North
Africa
- Capture
British
Egypt
as
victory
in
Cairo
would
provide
Hitler
and
Mussolini
control
of
Suez
Canal,
vital
link
between
Mediterranean
Sea
and
Indian
Ocean
- Seize
control
of
Mediterranean
Highway,
vital
coastal
road
linking
Tunisia
with
Libya
and
Egypt
- Use
Egypt
as
springboard
to
launch
new
offensive
into
Middle
East
oilfields
Italys
early
wartime
performance
cause
of
concern
for
Hitler
- Italys
32
divisions
struggled
against
Frances
6
divisions
in
June
1940.
Small
advance
into
France
only
achieved
with
help
of
German
forces
attacking
French
rear
- June
1940:
Italian
base
in
Libya
attacked
by
British
naval
forces
- September:
2
Italian
destroyers
sunk
in
Libya
October
1940:
Italian
forces
attacked
Greece
where
army
got
bogged
down
in
mountains
of
northern
Greece
and
thousands
died
from
cold
winter.
Italian
forces
driven
back
into
Albania
by
December
By
May
1941:
British
forces
taken
all
of
Italys
East
African
Empire
Early
Actions
in
North
Africa
Since
1911
Italy
possession
of
colony
of
Libya
in
North
Africa,
situated
west
of
Egypt.
Now
under
British
control
Sept
1940:
strong
Italian
force
invaded
Egypt
and
set
up
fortified
camps.
British
commander
in
Chief
in
North
Africa,
General
Wavell,
launched
attack
against
these
camps
in
Operation
Compass.
During
next
80
days
Italian
army
now
undersupplied
progressively
pushed
back
750km
as
Allied
forces
thrust
into
Libya
- 10
Dec
1940:
Sidi
Barrani
captured
with
34
000
Italian
prisoners
- Early
Jan
1941:
Australian
6th
Division
led
attack
into
Libya.
Bardia
captured
w/
70000
Italian
prisoners
- 22
Jan:
British
&
Australian
forces
captured
Tobruk
w/
port
facilities,
stores
of
supplies
&
prisoners
- Important
bases
along
the
Mediterranean
Highway;
Bardia,
Tobruk
&
Benghazi
captured
eventually.
By
Nov
1940
numerically
stronger
Italian
forces
completely
defeated.
British
advanced
500
miles
and
taken
significant
numbers
of
prisoners,
tanks
and
guns.
Feb
1941:
Hitler
decided
to
send
General
Rommels
Afrika
Korps
to
Libya.
This
force
trained
for
rapid
movements
and
consisted
of
hundreds
of
tanks,
thousands
of
field
guns
and
numerous
infantry
divisions
Rommel
in
North
Africa
March
1941:
Rommel
launched
counter
attack
against
British
forces
driving
them
out
of
El
Aghelia
back
towards
Tobruk.
Rommels
tank
commands
challenged
and
eventually
reconquered
many
towns
and
bases
along
the
Mediterranean
Highway
previously
won
in
Operation
Compass
April:
Rommels
German-Italian
forces
launched
3-pronged
attack
against
British
forces.
Italans
retook
Benghazi
7
April:
Rommel
captured
Derna
and
British
Generals
Neame
and
OConnor
British
position
weakened
as
many
troops
now
in
Greece
involved
in
failed
attempt
to
defend
country
Mid
April
Rommel
began
siege
of
Tobruk
lasting
242
days
(April
December
1941)
- Tobruk
important:
only
allied
base
in
between
Alexandria
in
Egypt
&
Sfax
in
Tunisia
(1600m
distance).
Seaport
had
best
facilities
for
1500km,
water
distillation
plant
and
strong
defence
arrangements
- Strategic
value
for
future
of
North
Africa
campaign
recognised
by
both
sides
- Next
8
months,
allied
troops
mostly
Australians
held
on
against
constant
Axis
air,
sea
&
land
attacks.
- Tobruk
periodically
attacked
by
Rommels
tanks
and
troops
and
Liftwaffe
- Mid
Nov:
British
8th
Army
launched
Operation
Crusader
to
relieve
Tobruk;
British
light
tanks
suffered
great
losses.
Rommel
launched
attack
on
British
forces
but
also
suffered
heavy
casualties.
- 7
Dec
(after
40
day
battle
of
Operation
Crusader):
Rommel
withdrew
forces.
Tobruk
saved
w/
high
losses
for
both
sides
- Dec:
allied
forces
able
to
evacuate
troops
from
Tobruk
Jan
1942:
Rommel
began
2nd
desert
offensive
moving
from
El
Aghelia
to
Agedabia
succeeded
in
driving
British
back.
29
Jan:
Benghazi
fell
- Next
4
months,
each
side
held
ground
building
up
supplies
and
fortifying
positions
- June:
Tobruk
fell
to
Germans
July
1942:
Rommel
pushed
his
Afrika
Korps
deeper
Egypt;
threatened
Cairo
1st
Battle
of
El
Alamein.
For
almost
a
month,
both
sides
battled
with
neither
winner.
Atrocious
conditions.
Fought
in
trenches
and
attempted
to
locate
strategic
positions
hidden
periodically
due
to
severe
sandstroms
By
August
1942:
stalemate
ensued
in
desert
war.
Rommels
Afrika
Korps
and
Britains
8th
Army
taken
battering
but
no
clear
winner
emerged
Churchill
aimed
for
victory
hence
reorganised
senior
staff
General
Montgomery
new
commander
of
8th
army
This
force
would
confront
Rommels
entire
Afrika
Korp
in
Battle
of
El
Alamein
Background
to
the
Battle
of
El
Alamein
Rommel
fortified
his
position
west
of
El
Alamein
with
masses
of
anti-personnel
and
anti-tank
mines.
German
troops
referred
to
area
as
devils
garden.
Rommel
known
for
desire
to
take
offensive
However,
his
position
in
North
Africa
deteriorating
and
Rommel
knew
longer
delayed
attacking
British
position,
less
chance
of
success:
- Late
August:
British
&
Axis
tank
strength
approx
equal
but
in
following
weeks
British
balance
favoured
- Rommels
long
lines
of
communication
made
them
vulnerable
to
British
air
attacks
- Rommels
attempts
to
outflank
British
position
at
El
Alamein
late
August
1942
failed
as
his
forces
faced
dense
minefields,
strong
resistance
and
repeated
air
attacks
- Reinforced
by
men
and
material,
Montgomerys
position
growing
steadily
stronger.
By
Oct,
Rommel
outnumbered
2
to
1
and
many
of
his
troops
Italian
infantry.
More
than
half
armour,
worn
out
vehicles
- Tank
battles
relied
on
plentiful
supplies
of
fuel;
Rommels
Afrika
Korps
critically
short
of
fuel.
Rommel
hoped
for
short
battle.
The
Battle
of
El
Alamein
By
Oct
1942
Afrika
Korps
had
secure
front
line
west
of
El
Alamein.
Resembled
ground
level
fortress
and
protected
by
entrenched
positions,
barbed
wire
and
more
than
500
000
anti-personnel
and
anti-tank
mines
However,
Afrika
Korps
faced
long
term
problem
of
fuel.
Tanks
and
vehicles
required
vast
amount
of
petroleum
products
on
regular
basis
to
ensure
mobility.
Major
supply
located
in
Tunisia
1500km
away
hoped
attack
against
Montgomerys
8th
army
would
be
short.
- If
besieged,
Germans
would
become
vulnerable
Despite
this,
Rommels
infantry
and
tanks
had
high
level
mobility.
Only
they
knew
secrets
out
of
maze
to
attack
8th
armys
front
lines
Montgomerys
front
line
strong
and
attempted
to
mislead
enemy.
Throughout
Oct,
carried
various
ruses
to
confuse
Rommels
aerial
reconnaissance
units
- Establishing
forward
positions
which
would
then
be
abandoned
- Dummy
pipelines
- Jeeps
masked
with
camouflage
so
resembling
tanks
The
End
of
Conflict
in
North
Africa
8
Nov:
120
000
strong
Anglo-American
force
under
Generals
Eisenhower
and
Patton
landed
in
Morocco
and
Algeria
as
part
of
Operation
Torch;
and
had
to
cope
w/
Hitlers
fury
over
disobedience
Faced
possibility
of
being
trapped
between
allied
forces
moving
east
and
west
across
North
Africa
retreated
towards
Tunisia.
Poor
planning,
slow
movement
and
torrential
rain
slowed
movement
of
allied
troops
from
the
west
while
Axis
reinforcements
arriving
daily.
By
Jan
1943
stalemate
developed
in
Tunisia
Pate
Jan:
again
disobeying
orders,
Rommel
abandoned
Tripoli
and
retreated
to
Mareth
in
southern
Tunisia
Feb:
Rommels
forces
attacked
US
forces
at
Battle
of
Kasserine
Pass,
western
Tunisia.
Lost
2000
men;
US
10000
March:
Montgomery
defeated
German
attack
at
Medenine
in
south
of
Tunisia.
Rommel
finally
left
North
Africa
Late
March:
Montgomery
succeeded
in
driving
Axis
forces
north
from
Mareth
Line
Early
May:
remaining
Axis
forces
in
Tunisia
vastly
outnumbered,
short
of
fuel,
food
and
other
supplies.
13
May:
Axis
forces
surrendered.
Few
hundred
escaped
but
130
000
taken
prisoner.
Allies
now
in
control
all
North
Africa
The
Significance
of
the
Campaign
in
North
Africa
Campaign
diverts
German
resources
and
attention
turning
point
but
in
comparison
to
Russian
campaign,
only
minute.
The
British
were
isolated
and
alone
against
Nazi
Germany
and
faced
constant
bombing
during
the
Blitz;
hence
war
in
North
Africa
of
great
significance
for
Britain
Strategically,
region
important.
Britain
relatively
weak
in
Mediterranean.
Once
Russia
entered
war,
Axis
success
in
North
Africa
would
enable
forces
to
link
with
German
forces
in
Southern
Russia
through
Middle
East
If
Britain
could
retain
and
perhaps
increase
control
of
North
African
coast,
would
open
way
for
possible
counter
attacks
on
Italy
and
German
occupied
territory
anywhere
in
Mediterranean.
Failure
to
hold
North
Africa
would
allow
Middle
East
oil
supplies
to
fall
into
hands
of
Axis
powers.
Germanys
shortage
of
resources
crucial
factor
in
eventual
defeat
Britain
controlled
Egypt
thus
Suez
Canel
which
provided
quick
route
to
India,
Far
East,
Empire
&
Persian
Gulf.
Canal
itself
vital
British
Imperial
trade
link
with
India,
South
East
Asia,
Australia
and
New
Zealand
Allied
control
of
North
Africa
made
direct
allied
attack
on
Italy
possible
via
Sicily
from
safe
base
in
Egypt
(Operation
Husky).
This
offensive
prefaced
liberation
of
Italy
and
eventual
collapse
of
Mussolinis
govt
Mid
1944
Hitler
faced
fighting
3
fronts:
North
Africa,
Greece
&
Russia
strain
on
Germanys
resources
Though
important
in
weakening
Axis
cause,
was
on
Eastern
Front
in
Russian
campaign
where
war
turned
decisively
in
allies
favour
due
to
scale
of
German
losses
and
magnitude
of
Russian
war
effort.
Augured
well
for
future
Anglo-American
cooperation
Boost
to
British
morale.
Britain
not
experiencing
much
success.
US
not
yet
factor
in
war;
Russia
appeared
to
be
in
trouble
and
Singapore
lost
- Knowles
emphasises
success
of
Battle
of
El
Alamein
on
British
morale
Significance
still
debated.
Many
military
historians
argue
was
theatre
of
war
that
gain
undue
attention
&
fame
Barnett
argues
British
overcommitted
themselves
in
North
Afrika
hence
badly
weakening
their
forces
in
South
East
Asia.
Also
argues
played
less
important
part
in
Germanys
ultimate
defeat
than
Russian
campaign
- Evidence:
2nd
Battle
of
El
Alamein
wihcih
was
largest
of
all
dessert
battles,
Montgomery
engaged
only
4.5
German
divisions
whilst
at
same
time
Soviet
confronted
190
divisions
Thomson
argues
campaign
in
North
Africa
did
little
to
ease
pressure
on
Eastern
Front
but
great
impact
on
wider
European
war.
Strategic
terms,
gigantic
flanking
movement.
3.
Civilians
at
War
SOCIAL
AND
ECONOMIC
EFFECTS
OF
THE
WAR
ON
CIVILIANS
IN
BRITAIN
Reaction
to
the
Outbreak
of
War
1939:
British
went
to
war
with
sense
of
weary
resignation
in
comparison
to
sense
of
patriotism
&
adventure
in
1919.
Simply
desire
to
get
job
done.
No
lengthy
recruitment
campaigns
as
conscription
introduced
in
April
1939
British
govt
reacted
to
start
of
war
by
initiating
legislation
that
had
profound
impact.
By
1940
Acts
in
place:
Sense
of
relief
as
war
came
and
illusions
of
appeasement
over.
Relief
tempered
strongly
by
sense
of
fear.
Everyone
believed
Nazi
Germany
going
to
be
formidable
enemy
Since
Munich
Crisis
of
September
1938,
country
preparing
for
war.
Air
raid
shelters
built
across
country
- In
London
underground
city
stations
used
as
public
air
raid
shelters
with
almost
200
000
people
Horror
of
WW1
was
use
of
gas
widely
believed
gas
would
be
used
since
1938
civilians
issued
with
gas
masks
&
no-one
allowed
to
leave
home
w/out
one;
although
gas
never
used
as
weapon
against
civilians
Within
days
of
start
of
war
over
1.5
million
children
evacuated
from
Britains
cities
to
countryside
to
spare
horror
of
expected
bombing
onslaught.
Once
phoney
war
set
in,
many
returned
home.
The
Blitz
British
cities
never
experienced
mass
level
of
bombing
German
cities
(e,g.
Dresden
and
Hamburg)
experienced
However,
German
bombing
still
had
major
effect
on
industrial
and
civilian
areas
Early
Sept
1940
May
1941:
London
experienced
the
Blitz.
German
bombing
initially
carried
out
during
day
but
form
early
Oct
switched
to
night
Later
in
war,
British
cities
endured
smaller
scale
attacks
and
from
1944
the
V1
and
V2.
German
V
rockets
not
very
effective
but
caused
enormous
fear
amongst
civilian
population
14
Nov
1940:
massive
raid
launched
against
Coventry.
Cities
and
towns
considered
of
economic
value
attacked
1941:
ports
main
targets
as
bombing
tried
to
assist
German
U-boat
campaign
in
Battle
of
the
Atlantic
German
air
attacks
has
several
aims
- Initially
soften
country
for
possible
German
invasion
- Destroy
Britains
ability
to
produce
needs
of
war
- Key
aim:
break
morale
of
British
civilian
population
German
bombing
failed
- Luftwaffes
failure
in
Battle
of
Britain
ended
real
prospects
of
German
invasion
- Though
bonbing
did
do
great
damage,
particularly
to
working
class
housing,
often
located
near
their
places
of
work,
British
economic
production
never
seriously
threatened.
- Rather
than
low
morale,
probably
increased
it
faced
enemy
with
great
resilience
and
determination
in
spirit
of
Dunkirk
Nov
1938
Chamberlain
appointed
Sir
John
Anderson
head
of
Air
Raid
Precautions
Bureau
(ARPB).
One
of
1st
duties
to
create
Air
Raid
Wardens
Service.
Simple
backyard
refuges,
known
as
Andersons
shelters
became
reality.
Roof
of
shelter
composed
6
sheets
of
galvanised
metal
bolted
together
at
top.
Shelters
only
2m
x
1.5m
but
offered
some
protection
from
falling
debris.
Half
buried
in
ground
with
earth
heaped
on
top
of
metal
roof.
Entrance
protected
by
steel
shield
and
earthen
blast
wall.
Sandbags
(400
million
by
1941)
piled
around
shopping
centres
and
public
buildings.
Huge
barrage
balloons
tied
with
cables
to
wagon
or
truck
conspicuous
above
Londons
skyline.
Prevented
Luftwaffe
from
dive
bombing
and
helped
pinpointing
target
more
difficult.
After
battle
at
Dunkirk
British
finally
began
to
take
warnings
seriously
Many
precautions
in
place
to
deal
with
expected
air
attacks.
To
make
difficult
for
German
bombers,
blackout
enforced
across
country.
As
soon
as
air
raid
siren
sounded,
street
lights
turned
off,
car
headlights
dimmed
and
windows
covered
with
thick
curtains
to
conceal
internal
lighting
- Heavy
fines
for
disobeying
blackout
regulations
which
rigorously
enforced
by
air
raid
wardens
Fearing
invasion,
beaches
covered
in
barbed
wire,
pillboxes
set
up
in
southern
England
and
signposts
removed
On
streets
air
raid
wardens
blew
whistles
that
signalled
appeal
for
public
to
seek
safety.
Often
assisted
by
Britains
Local
Defence
Volunteers
(LDVs)
also
known
as
Home
Guard
- May
1940:
created
comprised
of
assorted
collection
of
boys
and
old
men
often
armed
only
with
sticks
and
pikes.
Armed
with
attitude
rather
than
guns
- Home
Guard
resistance
icon
of
Britains
home
front.
- Under
General
Ironside,
Home
Guard
had
1.5+
million
members
by
1942
- By
end
of
war,
evolved
into
decently
trained
and
armed
organisation.
Members
prepared
and
willing
to
take
on
any
German
parachute
landing
Before
blitz
began
ten
of
thousands
children
evacuated
to
countryside
and
billeted
by
parent
helpers
who
received
small
fee
from
government
Largest
public
defence
shelters
located
underground
in
Londons
railway
stations
and
slept
here
on
daily
basis.
Above
ground
traffic
accidents
increased
to
intolerable
levels.
In
dark
people
accidentally
run
over
by
cars
or
down
stairs
and
into
canals.
Government
Controls
National
Service
(Armed
Forces
Act):
all
men
18-40
liable
to
be
conscripted
- 1941:
lifted
to
51
- Exemptions:
reserved
occupations,
conscientious
objectors
and
those
in
very
poor
health
Security
measures:
Emergency
Powers
Act
gave
govt
power
to
direct
workers
including
women
National
Registration
Act
introduced
forcing
people
to
carry
identity
papers
Treacheries
Act
used
to
imprison,
watch
or
ban
people
of
organisations
considered
threat
to
security
e.g.
British
Fascist
Party
of
Oswald
Mosley
Many
people
of
German
or
Italian
descent
interned
or
sent
overseas
National
Service
(Armed
Forces)
Act:
required
all
men
18
40
be
available
for
nationwide
conscription.
In
1941
conscription
age
lifted
to
51.
National
Registration
Act:
required
all
citizens
to
carry
identity
cards
Treacheries
Act:
defined
all
forms
of
sedition
or
treason.
British
Union
of
Fascists
banned
in
1940
with
founder
Mosley
imprisoned
Emergency
Powers
Act:
gave
govt
right
to
conscript
workers
into
essential
war
industries
(e.g.
steel
and
textiles).
Women
20-30
became
official
part
of
war
effort
Essential
Works
Order:
introduced
by
Minister
of
Labour
Bevin.
Specific
industries
(e.g.
railways,
aircraft
production
and
munitions)
and
workers
under
govt
control.
Provided
job
security
and
eliminated
industrial
strikes
moving
towards
total
war
Rationing
Blitz
feared
by
Battle
of
the
Atlantic
posed
greatest
threat
to
Britains
survival
during
war.
This
battle
prevented
Britain
from
obtaining
many
commodities
such
as
sugar,
tea,
fruit,
oil
and
rubber
from
trading
partners
in
America
and
Europe.
Overy
the
Axis
knew
how
much
the
oceans
mattered
which
is
why
they
made
such
strenuous
efforts
to
sever
the
arteries.
By
1942
German
submarines
were
sinking
British
ships
faster
than
could
be
replaced
British
imported
much
of
its
food
thus
from
start
of
war
govt
paid
great
attention
to
food
rationing.
Petrol
rationing
started
in
1939
Jan
1940:
food
rationing
began
for
butter,
bacon
and
sugar
- Meat,
tea,
margarine,
fats
and
jam
eventually
added
over
next
year
- Dec
1941:
points
system
introduced
giving
each
person
16
points
to
spend
at
any
shop
on
items
Citizens
issued
with
ration
booklet
which
contained
coupons
for
different
products.
Money
and
relevant
coupon
necessary
to
purchase
commodities.
Main
issue
for
all
shoppers
was
amount
of
products
for
sale.
Ration
coupons
placed
severe
limitations
on
distribution
of
all
items
and
prices
fixed.
Ministry
of
Food
exhorted
people
to
try
substitute
foods
such
as
carrot
tart
and
American
Span
Eggs
rare
as
many
chickens
had
been
killed.
Average
1
egg
per
fortnight.
From
July
1942,
dried
eggs
appeared
Full
cream
National
Dried
Milk
available
for
small
children.
People
treated
far
better
during
war
than
depression
health
standards
during
war
actually
rose
Minister
of
Food,
Lord
Woolton,
initiated
several
food
schemes
to
deal
with
food
crisis
- People
exhorted
to
grow
vegetables
in
victory
gardens
simple
vegetable
patch
- His
BBC
program
Kitchen
Front
promoted
ideas
for
producing
nutritious
food
w/
limited
resources
Exotic
products
like
chocolate
highly
valued.
Tobacco
and
alcohol
not
rationed
but
trading
hours
limited
Clothes
also
rationed.
Encouraged
to
make
own
clothes,
recycle
old
garments,
make
clothes
from
blankets
and
used
curtains.
Nylon
stockings
almost
impossible
to
get
women
resorted
to
drawing
line
up
back
of
leg
June
1941:
ration
coupons
for
certain
items
of
clothing
esp
woollen
garments
and
leather
boots
and
shows
Concentrated
beetroot
used
as
lipstick
and
bicarbonate
of
soda
became
substitute
for
deodorant.
Thriving
black
market
for
goods
in
short
supply
and
many
people
survived
bartering
goods.
Most
British
faced
life
stoically.
Govt
successful
in
ensuring
degree
of
equality
during
war
years
feeling
of
nationalism
- Lives
of
Britains
poorest
classes
improved
significantly
as
now
access
to
many
foods
at
fixed
prices
4.6+
million
children
born
during
war
years.
Despite
threat
of
German
bombing
and
wartime
privations,
most
healthy
generation
yet
1939
1945:
infant
mortality
fell
by
10%;
maternal
mortality
fell
by
40%.
Govt
introduced
series
measures
to
improve
health
of
nation
- Diphtheria
immunisation
introduced.
Deaths
from
this
disease
fell
by
75%
(1938
1945)
- By
Sept
1941:
all
school
children
received
free
milk.
Scheme
lasted
until
early
1970s
- By
1945:
half
all
school
receiving
school
meals
- Emergency
Hospital
Service
widened
availability
of
medical
services
-
-
Deep
resentment
as
Americans
had
more
money,
smarter
uniform
and
were
taking
our
women
overpaid,
oversexed
and
over
here
By
end
of
war,
over
15
000
British
women
married
American
servicemen
Despite
such
inconveniences
life
continued
for
average
citizen.
Everyone
knew
now
directly
part
of
war
effort.
This
holistic
attitude
and
sense
of
community
important
psychological
assets;
and
strengthened
Britains
home
from
resistance
mentality.
Not
until
late
in
war
that
Germans
began
to
suffer
on
home
front.
Approx
35%
Germanys
food
needs
came
from
occupied
areas
and
domestic
agriculture
able
to
benefit
from
good
weather
and
use
foreign
labourers
Despite
Hitlers
concerns
morale
not
concern
for
Nazis
during
early
war.
Swift
defeat
of
Poland
with
relatively
light
casualties
convinced
most
people
of
Hitlers
genius
and
strength
armed
forces.
During
phoney
war,
life
unaffected
by
war.
Rapid
successes
in
west
from
April
June
1940
further
calmed
any
concerns
people
mightve
had.
Further
emphasised
by
Goebbels
wartime
propaganda
- Newsreel
films
showing
Wehrmacht
marching
through
Warsaw
of
Paris
- War
heroes
paraded
through
streets
- As
in
Britain
Goebbels
realised
value
of
providing
comedy
&
light
entertainment
on
radio
and
cinema
However
Germanys
early
easy
Blitzkrieg
successes
not
good
for
Home
Front
or
longer
term
war
effort.
Convinced
Nazis
no
need
for
severity
at
home.
Germany
could
survive
off
resources
of
nations
conquered
carelessness
on
Home
Front
continued
when
sense
dictated
total
war
should
been
introduced
immediately
Evacuation
As
in
Britain,
parents
urged
to
evacuate
children
from
major
cities.
Most
went
to
specially
established
camps
run
by
Hitler
Youth
set
up
throughout
Reich
and
occupied
territories
such
as
Poland
and
Hungary
- Children
undertook
programs
of
Nazi
indoctrination
Class
differences
emerged
as
middle
class
families
able
to
move
away
from
towns
together
whilst
workers
children
sent
away
from
parents.
Natural
desire
to
keep
families
together
usually
children
kept
as
home
Families
that
evacuated
together
often
met
hostility
in
countryside,
being
blamed
for
food
shortages,
inflation
and
rising
crime
rate
Refugees
fled
to
Black
Forest,
Bavaria
and
rural
parts
of
Eastern
Germany
Total
War
Coordination
of
all
human
and
material
resources
by
centralised
state
authority
By
end
1942
war
clearly
not
going
in
Germanys
favour.
Britain
still
resisted,
Afrika
Korps
defeated
at
El
Alamein,
US
now
in
war
and
defeat
looming
at
Stalingrad.
Military
setbacks
Germany
reverted
to
total
war
18
Feb
1943
Goebbels
announced
at
famous
speech
at
Berlin
Sportpalast
total
war
means
a
shorter
war.
Policies
in
all
areas
(economic,
levels
of
repression,
propaganda)
more
extreme
During
this
period
propaganda
became
more
strident
and
harsh
- Imagery
used
more
extreme
and
contained
crude
Jewish/Slav/Bolshevik
caricatures
- Link
between
Jews
and
Communists
emphasised
- Atrocity
stories
spread
through
German
media
about
Russian
actions
in
east
- April
1943:
Goebbels
emphasised
Soviet
forces
massacred
thousands
Polish
officers
at
Katyn
Wood
Jan
1943:
Casablanca
Conference
between
Churchill
and
US
President
Roosevelt
called
for
unconditional
surrender
of
Germany
before
peace
talks
could
occur.
Goebbels
argued
this
showed
allies
intended
treating
Germany
far
worse
than
in
1919
no
choice
but
to
fight
to
bitter
end.
Economic
Issues
Prior
to
1943
German
economy
not
mobilised.
Rather
industrial
production
focused
on
quick
victory
proven
by
blitzkrieg
successes
in
1940
Rigid
govt
control
of
all
industrial
resources,
mass
production
and
highly
mobile
and
flexible
workforce
existed
in
US
and
Britain
but
not
Germany.
Production
levels
in
Germany
lagged
behind
economic
achievements
of
Allied
powers.
German
wages
remained
high
equal
level
of
consumerism.
Affluent
and
politically
connected
German
businessmen
profited
from
war.
Concept
of
total
war
simply
unknown
in
Germany
before
1943.
Wehrmachts
invasion
of
Soviet
Union
in
1941
placed
great
pressure
on
economic
and
military
resources.
2
years
later
after
defeats
in
Russia
and
North
Africa,
Germany
forced
into
total
war
effort
1943
1945:
Germany
attempted
to
maintain
and
enforce
European
empire
while
nations
economic
superstructures
pushed
to
limits
Consumer
Issues
Shortages
and
rationing
became
facts
of
life.
Ration
books
required
for
nearly
every
domestic
and
personal
necessity.
By
1945
weekly
allowances
of
food
such
as
sugar,
meat
and
dairy
fats
severely
reduced.
- Bartering
common
and
black
market
industries
thrived
Anti
Nazi
resistance
groups
smuggled
in
prohibited
items
such
as
French
and
English
newspapers,
clothing
and
books.
Sheltered
Wehrmacht
deserters
and
those
escaped
from
concentration
camps
School
children
conducted
scrap
metal
drives
to
collect
household
copper,
brass,
steel
and
iron
utensils
to
be
recycled
for
military
purposes.
Woollens
essential
for
Wehrmachts
winter
uniforms
civilian
garments
manufactured
from
alternative
fabrics
which
wore
out
quickly
Role
of
Women
Labour
of
women
ran
counter
to
entrenched
Nazi
philosophy
which
saw
women
as
homemakers
Initial
needs
of
war
met
by
transferring
working
women
from
consumer
sector
to
more
essential
war
industries
To
sustain
morale,
govt
introduced
generous
allowances
for
families
of
those
drafted
into
armed
forces.
Employed
women
lost
up
to
4%
of
family
allowance
disincentive
to
remain
in
employment
Army
call
for
compulsory
labour
service
resisted
by
Nazi
leadership.
Reliance
placed
on
campaign
urging
women
to
volunteer.
Many
women
simply
rejected
notion
of
war
work
Burden
fell
on
working
class
women
who
resented
middle
and
upper
class
who
carried
on
with
lifestyle
Employers
reluctant
to
employ
women
and
preferred
workers
provided
by
Sauckel
forced
labour.
As
more
men
drafted
into
armed
forces,
need
for
female
labour
greater
13
Jan
1943
Hitler
signed
decree
requiring
women
17
45
register
for
war
work.
Decree
not
rigidly
enforced
and
only
limited
success.
Categories
of
exemption
allowed
and
clear
Hitler
remained
reluctant
to
conscript
married
women
with
children,
older
women
or
middle
class
women
unused
to
factory
work
Jan
1944
Hitler
told
Sauckel
to
get
extra
4
million
workers
needed
from
occupied
territories
Women
who
worked
in
factories:
manufacture
of
munitions
of
weapons
Millions
used
in
transport,
administration,
communications
and
commerce.
With
men
gone
from
land,
women
left
to
manage
farms
aided
by
young
women
from
Reich
labour
service
By
July
1941
growing
demand
for
female
personnel
met
by
young
women
from
Reich
labour
service
when
6
months
labour
service
extended
by
further
six
months
of
war
service.
From
mid
1943
women
deployed
as
anti-aircraft
auxillaries
to
replace
men
in
servicing.
1944
replaced
men
manning
searchlights
Historical
Debate
Divided
over
effects
of
Allied
bombing
on
civilian
morale
and
German
war
effort
British
planners
hoped
intensive
bombing
of
cities
would
cause
morale
to
crumble
and
encourage
active
opposition
to
Nazi
regime.
Did
happen
partly
due
to
control
maintained
by
Nazis
and
spirit
of
defiance
Keegan:
German
civilian
morale
never
broken
by
bomber
attack
Kitchen:
Allied
bombing
had
shattering
effect
Burleigh:
agrees
civilian
morale
didnt
collapse;
but
also
points
to
2/3
of
population
of
Hamburg
fleeing
city
between
raids.
Also
suggests
leadership
and
people
became
so
great
people
simply
tried
to
survive
- if
the
direct
impact
of
bombing
on
war
production
was
as
low
as
is
often
claimed,
then
why
were
so
many
men
and
munitions
redeployed
from
the
land
war
to
defending
German
cities?
Overy:
significant
indirect
effects
of
bombing
divert
scarce
resources
to
rebuild
factories
&
communications
reduction
in
output
of
weapons
by
approx
50%.
Flood
of
refugees
strained
rationing
system
- urban
society
was
transformed
by
the
large
scale
evacuation
of
cities,
the
massive
destruction
of
housing
and
amenities
and
the
almost
constant
state
of
alarm.
Bombing
strained
emergency
services
and
the
German
welfare
system
almost
to
breaking
point
Sustained
intensity
of
Allied
bombing
raids
mean
10x
more
German
civilians
killed
than
number
in
Britain
Pretence
at
judicial
procedure
disappeared.
Getapo
and
SS
free
to
act
as
saw
fit.
Peoples
Court
known
for
dispensing
swift
and
party
justice
Reports
of
SD
revealed
from
1943
many
Germans
unhappy
with
regime
- Many
disillusioned
and
saw
war
as
disaster
- Anxiety
at
anti-Semitic
policies
- Goebbels
no
longer
trusted
and
people
listened
to
foreign
broadcasts
Open
opposition
to
Nazi
regime
limited
to
small
number
brave
individuals:
- Hans
and
Sophie
Scholl
who
organised
White
Rose
resistance
movement
Army
opposition
to
regime
unsuccessful
during
July
1944
bomb
plot
on
Hitlers
life
led
by
Stauffenberg.
Failure
of
plot
conspirators
rounded
up
and
shot
stiffer
repression
Nazi
Ideology
Hitlers
war
was
racially
based
with
deep
ideological
aims.
Sought
to
gain
control
of
land
and
economic
resources,
to
unite
national
groups,
seek
revenge,
achievement
of
lebensraum
in
the
east
and
creation
of
German
empire
peopled
by
racially
pure
Aryans
served
by
slave
force
of
undesirable
groups
such
as
Jews
Based
on
Darwinist
approach
to
race
development
of
life
process
of
evolution
that
species
survived
based
on
ability
to
adapt
to
environment
i.e.
survival
of
fittest
rise
and
fall
of
nations
Social
Darwinism
Nations
succeeded
in
history
because
contained
superior
human
beings
with
superior
culture
existence
of
superior
and
inferior
races;
Aryans
believed
to
be
supreme
race
Hitler
believed
Aryan
racial
stock
and
Germanic
culture
would
enable
Germany
to
lead
world.
Germanic
empire
in
east
hoped
to
be
created
for
German
population
that
would
reach
250
million
by
end
of
cent
lebensraum
For
Aryan
race
to
succeed
in
historical
mission,
essential
that
Aryan
blood
stock
be
kept
pure.
Nazi
policies
identified
several
impurities
- Non
Aryan
racial
types
such
as
Slavic
people
and
Gypsies
- Handicapped
and
mentally
ill
- Homosexuals
- Greatest
threat
believed
to
be
the
Jewish
race
Roberts
argues
Germany
lost
war
because
of
its
single
minded
preoccupation
with
racial
aspect
and
ideological
war
aims.
Believed
ideology
always
prevailed
to
disadvantage
of
Germany
- When
war
going
badly
final
solution
pursued
forcefully
- Scarece
transportation
resources
waster
- Millions
of
potential
workers
gassed
- Social
Darwinist
thinking
forbade
retreat
or
compromise.
- the
real
reason
that
Hitler
lost
the
Second
World
War
was
exactly
the
same
reason
that
caused
him
to
unleash
it
in
the
first
place:
he
was
a
Nazi.
Historical
Debate
Essence
of
Holocaust:
perverted
science
and
inherent
racist
thinking
combined
with
Nazi
ideology
to
bring
about
systematic
destruction
of
Jews
in
Europe
and
other
threatening
minorities
Intentionalists
Argue
it
was
Hitlers
intention
all
along
to
exterminate
Jewish
race
and
that
Nazi
ideology
consistently
presented
Jews
as
sub-human
species
to
be
eliminated
Once
gained
power
in
1933,
in
position
to
start
putting
plans
into
practice.
Early
war
victories
placed
more
Jews
under
his
control
mission
possible
Hilter
told
Reichstag
if
was
war,
would
mean
end
of
Jews
in
Europe.
Planned
from
beginning
but
not
until
1940s
that
Hitler
felt
secure
enough
politically
to
start
mass
murder
of
Jews.
Evidence
- Mein
Kampf
- Consistency
of
utterances
against
Jews
- Steadily
increasing
pressure
placed
on
Jews
in
1930s
- Speech
of
Jan
1939
threatening
end
of
Jews:
result
will
be
annihilation
of
the
Jewish
race
in
Europe
Structuralists
Argue
it
wasnt
Hitlers
intention
form
start
to
destroy
Jews.
As
time
went
on,
esp
during
war,
Nazi
regime
became
radicalised
and
spun
out
of
control
events
of
Holocaust
Nazi
propaganda
and
anti-Jewish
speeches
existed,
but
no
documentary
evidence
to
show
Hitler
planned
mass
murder
of
millions
from
start.
Argue
Final
Solution
forced
on
Germany
because
so
many
countries
refused
to
take
Jewish
refugees
and
war
situation
brought
so
many
Jews
under
German
control
creating
food
supply
and
settlement
problems.
Evidence
- Attempts
at
Jewish
emigration
in
late
1930s
whereby
Himmler
encouraged
emigration
of
Jews
true
policy
to
rid
Germany
of
Jews.
German
army
followed
by
SS
units
Einsatzgruppen
who
were
killing
squads
with
purpose
to
seek
out
Jews
and
kill
them.
Throughout
2nd
half
of
1941,
tens
of
thousands
Jews
systematically
murdered
by
these
squads
However,
shooting
activities
of
Einsatzgruppen
inefficient
and
time
consuming
Jewish
problem
31
July
1941
Goering
requesting
Heydrich
present
plan
which
would
bring
about
solution.
At
Nuremberg,
Goering
claimed
working
under
Hitlers
orders.
Before
end
of
1941
Nazis
began
experimenting
with
various
gassing
techniques
- Sealed
trucks
crammed
with
prisoners
filled
with
carbon
monoxide
- At
Chelmno
and
Belzec
concentration
camps,
series
of
poisonous
gasses
tested
Jan
1942:
Wansee
Conference
where
decided
to
seek
a
final
solution
to
the
Jewish
problem
gas
all
Jews
- Blueprints
made
for
design
of
gas
chambers
and
crematoria,
lists
drawn
up
of
how
Jews
to
be
exterminated
in
each
country
- Some
of
Germanys
top
industrial
firms
involved
in
this
Jews
to
be
deported
to
new
and
larger
camps
in
east
e.g.
Auschwitz
and
Treblinka
in
Poland
resettlement
Himmlers
Death
Head
units
ran
camps
supported
by
Gestapo
officers
and
Wehrmacht
troops.
Camps
in
east
had
another
function
other
than
death
and
slavery.
Perverted
medical
science
given
free
rein
as
doctors
such
as
Mengele
performed
medical
experiments
on
prisoners.
Might
be
injected
with
diseases
in
order
to
trace
progress
of
infection,
be
subjected
to
intense
cold
or
intense
air
pressure
Goldhagen
suggests
4
things
needed
for
Holocaust:
Hitlers
decision,
German
control
over
the
Jews,
organisation
and
resources
allocated
to
operation
and
large
number
of
people
to
follow
through.
Argues
no
Germans,
no
Holocaust
German
political
culture
developed
to
point
where
masses
of
ordinary
Germans
satisfied
to
go
along
with
Holocaust.
-
..
the
vast
majority
of
the
German
people
(came)
to
understand,
assent
to,
and
when
possible,
do
their
part
to
further
the
extermination
of
the
Jews
Background
to
D-Day
Mid
1943:
outcome
for
Allied
victory
most
probable
- Rommel
been
driven
out
of
North
Africa
following
defeat
at
El
Alamein
and
in
Tunisia
- Allies
taken
Sicily
and
beginning
slow
march
through
Italy
- Germans
lost
initiative
on
Eastern
Front
following
Soviet
success
in
Battle
of
Kursk
- Allies
gained
upper
hand
in
Battle
of
the
Atlantic
- Allied
bombing
would
have
eventual
devastating
effect
on
German
industry
However,
Allies
knew
victory
against
Germany
would
require
attack
on
German-
occupied
France
to
be
followed
by
eventual
driving
out
of
Wehrmacht
Washington
Conference
of
May
1943:
decision
to
invade
France
Quebec
Conference
in
August:
plans
accepted
By
end
of
year,
US
General
Eisenhower
appointed
Supreme
Allied
Commander
of
Operation
Overload;
General
Montgomery
Commander
of
Land
Forces;
Admiral
Ramsay
Commander
of
Naval
Forces
Russians
not
satisfied
who
had
been
suffering
for
over
2
years
- Soviet
losses
ran
into
millions;
land
destroyed
- Stalin
suspected
western
powers
happy
to
see
Nazis
and
Communists
destroy
each
other
in
bloody
war
of
attrition
- Stalin
questioned
western
courage
- When
Roosevelt,
Stalin
and
Churchill
met
at
Tehran
Conference
in
Nov
1943,
western
leaders
promised
Stalin
they
would
open
another
front
in
France
by
May
1944
Though
Stalins
arguments
valid,
decisions
to
invade
France
matter
that
could
not
made
lightly.
German
defences
strong
and
if
allied
amphibious
landing
failed,
might
take
more
extended
periods
to
attempt
again.
Dangers
of
cross-Channel
attack
revealed
during
attack
on
France
port
of
Dieppe
in
1942
Roosevelt
wanted
to
work
with
Stalin
and
keen
for
Soviet
intervention
against
Japan
in
Pacific
War.
However,
Churchill
deeply
suspicious
of
Stalin
and
sought
allied
front
in
Balkans
to
prevent
complete
Soviet
post
war
takeover
of
Eastern
Europe
Cold
War
Also
danger
Soviet
Red
Army
might
march
into
Germany
alonr
though
decision
to
invade
France
in
1944
taken
because
of
military
position
of
German,
also
had
eye
on
post
war
situation
in
Europe
Operation
Bodyguard
Operation
an
attempt
to
keep
D
Day
invasion
secret
by
creating
false
fronts
and
distributing
misleading
information
in
bid
to
convince
Wehrmachts
intelligence
bureau
that
Allied
attack
would
occur
in
either
Norway
or
French
port
city
of
Calais
Allies
need
location
kept
secret
to
avoid
Germany
strengthening
defences
result
in
horrific
Allied
death
rates
Location
kept
secret
Germans
spread
defensive
forces
To
gain
as
much
information
as
possible
about
landing
areas
agents
dropped
into
France;
aircraft
flew
reconnaissance
missions
along
entire
French
coastline
so
as
not
to
alert
Germans
of
real
target
Hitlers
hunch
backed
by
Rommel
was
attack
in
Normandy;
however
Hitlers
hesistancy
and
caution
stoped
him
fortifying
Normandy
at
expense
of
Calais
Two
phoney
armies
created
Initial
assault
onto
beaches
of
Normandy
involved
50
000
men.
Inside
France
up
to
100
000
members
of
French
Resistance
assisted
with
guerrilla
attacks
on
German
positions
During
stage
one,
naval
and
aerial
bombardments
would
attempt
to
destroy
Atlantic
Wall
that
protected
Normandys
beaches.
Parachute
drops
which
included
thousands
airborne
troops
had
2
missions
- Destroy
Wehrmachts
lines
of
communications
- Enforce
new
resistance
strongholds
created
by
Frenchs
anti-Nazi
underground
movemen
2+
million
men
shipped
to
France
during
entire
operation.
Allies
used
12
00
aircraft
comprising
fighters,
bombers,
transports
and
gliders,
139
warships,
221
smaller
combat
vessels,
landing
craft,
and
merchant
ships
5th:
Allied
paratroopers
dropped
behind
beaches
of
Normandy
and
Atlantic
Wall
in
6
different
waves
Targeted
area
extended
approx
110km
along
beaches
of
Normandy.
Allied
troops
allocated
specific
landing
areas
which
divided
into
five
sections
from
east
to
west
- Sword
(British),
Juno
(Canadian
and
British),
Gold
(British),
Omaha
(US)
and
Utah
(US)
- Beaches
attacked
at
different
times
due
to
tide.
Began
at
630am
at
Utah
Beach
- Overall
successful
but
heavy
loss
at
Omaha
beach
where
stiff
resistance
and
steep
cliffs
casualties
Simultaneously
parachute
drops
occured
over
Calais,
Allies
phoney
target.
However
paratroopers
here
not
human.
Were
1m
long
dummies
specialy
weighted
and
equipped
with
parachutes
that
opened
automatically
and
had
self
detonating
explosives
attached
to
clothing
Glider
planes
carrying
radio
equipment
and
commando
units
would
also
attack
Normandy.
Waited
on
runways,
along
with
Allied
fighter
aircraft
and
heavy
bombers
Order
of
attack
- British
6th
airborne
division
arrived
by
glider
to
seize
bridges
on
River
Orne
and
take
German
artillery
battery
at
Merville.
- US
82nd
and
101st
airborne
divisions
landed
in
south
east
corner
of
Cotentin
Peninsula
- Following
ferocious
aerial
bombardment,
allied
warships
then
launched
massive
barrage
against
German
defences
- Landings
at
Sowrd,
June,
Gold
and
Utah
achieved
efficiently
and
with
relatively
light
casualties.
German
counter
attack
between
Juno
and
Sword
defeated.
British
troops
began
moving
inland
- Things
not
as
straightforward
at
Omaha
and
Americans
became
pinned
down
on
foreshore.
Suffered
3000
casualties
on
that
first
day
th
6
June:
50
000+
Allied
soldiers
left
transport
ships
and
boarded
vast
network
of
flat
bottomed
landing
craft.
French
coastline
5km
away
By
nightfall
156
000
allied
troops
landed
in
Normandy.
By
12
June,
326
000
troops
ashore
and
bridgehead
50miles
wide
been
gained.
- Allied
invasion
force
faced
many
problems
prior
to
getting
ashore.
Required
to
get
close
to
beaches
while
being
pounded
by
Atlantic
Walls
coastal
artillery.
Thousands
soldiers
jumped
waist
or
shoulder
deep
into
ocean
carrying
25km
of
weapons
and
equipment
- Drowning
distinct
possibility
unless
could
move
rapidly
out
of
surf
Hitlers
Doodlebugs
12
June
1944:
Hitler
responded
to
Allied
invasion
of
France
by
ordering
10
V1
rockets
to
be
launched
against
Britain.
4
reached
Britain
and
one
hit
London
V1
Rocket
25m
and
carried
1000kg
of
explosive
with
400km
range
mass
destruction
f
new
form
of
aggressive
and
indiscriminate
warfare
unknown
to
Allied
power
V2
used
later
in
war.
Deadly
as
made
little
noise
and
nearly
impossible
to
detect
by
Britains
radar
networks
before
cargo
exploded.
Added
chilling
and
unpredictable
chapter
to
war.
At
same
time
helped
to
justify
Allied
nations
decision
to
conduct
saturation
bombing
raids
over
Germany
Liberation
of
France
Late
July:
allies
commenced
breakout
from
Normandy.
Within
6
weeks,
Paris
liberated,
Germans
driven
out
of
France
and
Allies
reached
Belgium.
French
resistance
forces
gained
control
of
Brittany
almost
making
US
General
Pattons
entry
there
unnecessary
Canadian
troops
launched
Operation
Totalise
aimed
to
trap
German
troops
near
Falaise.
Called
off
on
11
August.
American
forces
then
moved
eastward
and
cornered
German
troops
in
Falaise
pocket.
- 50
000
captured,
10
000
killed
but
30
000
escaped
with
armour
fleeing
eastward
across
River
Seine
Mid
August:
US
and
French
troops
invaded
southern
France
in
Operation
Anvil
and
advanced
north
through
Rhone
Valley
15
August:
workers
in
Paris
went
on
strike
and
joined
by
police.
Hitler
ordered
Paris
be
levelled
but
German
governor
von
Choltitz
refused.
He
surrendered
city
to
French
2nd
Armoured
Division
on
25
August;
Free
French
leader
de
Gaulle
arrived
26th
Paris
liberated
25th
August
1944
Following
days,
retribution
carried
out
against
those
French
who
collaborated
with
Germans.
10
000
executed
By
Oct:
de
Gaulle
restored
order.
Replaced
Vichy
appointees
with
Resistance
leaders
and
Resistance
forces
disarmed
or
merged
into
French
army.
At
same
time
Franc
ebeing
freed,
British
forces
to
north
had
crossed
River
Seine
heading
eastward
By
late
August:
US
forces
close
to
River
Meuse
while
British
forces
gained
control
all
bridges
over
River
Somme
1
Sept:
Canadian
forces
liberated
Dieppe.
By
3
Spet
allied
forces
had
moved
into
Belgium
and
captured
Brussels.
Antwerp
liberated
on
4
Sept
Campaign
took
about
7
weeks.
Losses
on
both
sides
considerable:
400
000
Germans
died,
200
000
allied
Actual
landings
postponed
for
several
days
due
to
bad
weather
but
finally
took
place
on
6
June.
Massive
floating
harbours
towed
across
drop
off
points
along
Normandy
peninsula
where
beached
to
form
port
facilities
necessary
to
unload
millions
of
tonnes
of
war
materials
Mass
strength
of
Allies
overwhelmed
defences
which
put
up
stiff
resistance.
Having
established
crucial
bridgehead
through
which
war
effort
flowed,
Allies
finally
broke
through
German
lines
where
could
deploy
mechanised
armour,
something
enemy
lacked
Hitlers
failure
to
throw
invaders
back
in
sea
within
first
few
days
doomed
German
defence
to
eventual
collapse.
By
this
point
in
war,
Allied
airpower
had
30:1
superiority
over
Luftwaffe
which
couldnt
offer
protection
against
bombing
attacks
on
panzer
reserves
being
hauled
form
rear
on
rail
network
By
end
July
1944
Allied
foothold
expanded
into
larger
bridgehead
100+km
wide
Army
Group
Centre
along
700km
front.
Attack
to
move
across
Belorussia
towards
Poland.
Effectively
destroyed
Army
Group
Centre
- Operation
preceded
by
major
supporting
operations
involving
laying
of
mines
and
sabotage
actions
against
German
communications
- Jordan:
Operation
Bagration
was
Hitlers
worst
military
setback
of
the
war
..
dramatically
turned
the
tide
of
war
against
the
Third
Reich.
Zhukov
armies
had
4
assets:
quest
for
victory,
speed,
mobility
&
overwhelming
manpower
resources
Soviet
advance
rapid
&
strong
and
captured
German
soldiers
shown
no
mercy
by
Soviet
captors.
Thousands
executed
Army
Group
entre
ceased
to
exist
June
and
July:
Russian
offensive
steamed
path
of
destruction
towards
Poland.
Wehrmachts
supply
lines
and
retreat
routes
cut
and
military
resources
captured.
German
units
progressively
encircled
or
overrun
by
Zhukovs
tank
units.
No
mercy
or
compassion
Early
July:
Soviet
forces
begin
campaign
to
drive
Germans
out
of
Baltic
states
of
Estonia,
Latvia
and
Lithuania.
Success
here
would
threaten
German
food
supplies
and
links
to
Sweden
and
Finland
11
July:
Red
Army
forces
capture
Minsk.
German
losses
exceed
100
000.
17
July:
Soviet
forces
enter
Poland.
Within
less
than
fortnight
Lvov
liberated
&
Soviet
forces
reach
River
Vistula
- Soviet
forces
moved
too
quickly
so
outpaced
support
units.
By
time
Poland
reach,
Zhukovs
tanks
short
of
fuel.
Thus
operation
temporarily
postponed
but
Stalin
achieved
goal.
Wehrmachts
Army
Group
Centre
(one
of
Hitlers
strongest
military
assests)
broken
Beginning
August:
Russia
forces
rested
on
Vistula,
short
distance
from
Warsaw
August:
Polish
resistance
forces
rise
up
against
Germans
in
Warsaw.
12
August:
coup
against
pro-German
government
of
Romania.
- 12
Sept:
Romania
surrenders
to
Soviet
Union
- Romania
rewarded
by
receiving
back
area
of
Transylvania
it
lost
to
Hungary
Sept:
Soviet
Union
declares
war
on
Bulgaria,
invades
and
quickly
takes
control
- 8
Sept:
new
Bulgarian
regime
declares
war
on
Germany
Early
Sept:
Soviet
forces
begin
attack
in
Carpathian
Mountains
on
their
way
to
Slovakia.
Eventually
break
through
in
Nov
British
forces
occupy
Athens
in
Oct
and
German
forces
leave
country
on
19
Oct
- Brief
civil
war
breaks
out
in
that
country
between
communist
and
royalist
forces
which
ends
in
Dec
but
Greece
not
be
settled
land
yet
Yugoslav
1st
Army
begins
advance
on
Belgrade
and
Marshal
Titos
Liberation
Army
captured
Belgrade.
Managed
to
free
his
country
of
German
control
without
Red
Army.
Baltic
states
fall
under
Soviet
control
and
by
early
Oct
Russia
in
East
Prussia.
By
end
1944,
Hitlers
empire
in
central
and
eastern
Europe
greatly
diminished.
Consisted
of
western
Poland,
most
of
Czechoslovakia,
western
Hungary,
Croatia,
Slovenia
and
northern
Italy.
Allies
successes:
Hitlers
armies
beaten
on
two
fronts.
New
Russian
offensive
also
launched
against
the
Balkans,
Hungary
and
Romania
eventually
all
succeeded.
However,
Stalins
attitude
towards
Poles
created
bitter
controversy
1
August:
Polish
resistance
groups
began
uprising
against
German
forces
in
Warsaw
prompting
retaliation.
Polish
forces
equal
to
Germans
but
latter
had
advantage
in
tanks
and
air
support.
200
000+
Poles
killed
Soviets
made
no
attempt
to
help
claiming
needed
to
resupply
front
line
forces.
Suited
Stalins
purpose
to
have
Germans
kill
off
anti-communist
Polish
patriots
- Stalin
guaranteed
Polish
Underground
his
total
support
if
members
rose
up
&
help
defeat
Germans.
Polish
resistance
supported
by
Polish
govt
in
exile
in
London
and
hoped
to
gain
control
of
city
to
be
in
stronger
negotiating
position
with
advancing
Red
Army.
Stalin
ordered
Zhukov
to
create
neutral
perimeter
16km
outside
Warsaw
and
wait.
Intentions
clear:
eliminate
2
problems
(Poles
and
Germans)
by
allowing
them
to
destroy
each
other.
By
late
August:
German
superior
in
air
power
and
artillery
too
much
for
Polish
resistance
forces.
Stalin
moved
forces
away
from
River
Vistula
front
and
allow
battle
to
take
course.
Stalins
tactics:
- Allow
Germans
to
destroy
Polish
resistance
- Move
in
and
destroy
German
forces
- Poland
then
under
total
Soviet
domination
AJP
Taylor
suggests
alternative
explanation
is
that
Red
Army
stretched
its
lines
of
communication
so
that
in
no
position
to
assist
Poles.
Not
view
accepted
by
most
historians
- Similarly,
Altgovzen
argues
that
as
Soviet
forces
made
way
through
Belorussia
and
across
Polish
border,
were
exhausted
no
position
to
assist
Polish
action
against
Germans
Mid
Sept:
Soviet
Marshal
Rokossovsky
attacked
eastern
quarter
of
Warsaw
- By
14th:
Germans
driven
out
of
area
- Soviet-backed
Polish
army
moved
in
to
take
control
of
bridgeheads
in
Warsaw
Oct:
Poles
appealed
for
armistice,
which
Germans
granted.
66
day
Warsaw
Uprising
resulted
in
200
000
Poles
sent
to
concentration
camps
or
forced
into
slave
labour.
Population
of
Warsaw
dropped
from
1.3
million
to
`162
000
people
Warsaw
rising
came
to
end
on
2
Oct
as
last
Polish
fighters
surrendered.
Germans
evacuated
city
sending
200
000
Poles
in
concentration
camps
and
destroyed
everything
path.
Poland
liberated
in
Jan
1945
(1)
The
War
in
the
West:
September
December
1944
Early
hopes
German
defeat
in
France
would
bring
end
to
war
cancelled
out
by
several
factors:
Problems
Allied
intelligence
authorities
suspected
Wehrmacht
had
strong
military
profile
in
Holland.
Suspicion
confirmed
by
reconnaissance
planes
that
photographed
large
numbers
of
German
tanks
and
artillery
throughout
Arnhem
area.
Photographs
ignored
or
downplayed
The
Battle
Mid
Sept:
allied
forces
taking
control
of
Belgium
and
Netherlands;
Brussels
and
Antwerp
already
fallen.
17
Sept:
General
Montgomery
launched
Operation
Market
Garden
with
aim
to
outflank
German
defences
in
Netherlands
by
seizing
bridgeheads
over
Rhine
behind
Siegfried
Line
(pre
war
German
defensive
line
in
west)
- To
be
prelude
for
advance
across
River
Rhine
into
Germany
Hopes
for
Operation
too
optimistic
form
start
- Allied
intelligence
in
region
poor
- British
not
able
to
use
Enigma
machine
to
decipher
German
communications
as
in
region
German
army
using
different
radio
frequencies
- Maps
outdated;
no
provisions
for
reinforcements
or
proper
evacuation
if
things
went
wrong.
Montgomery
certain
would
succeed
Initially
campaign
went
well
US
paratroopers
of
101st
and
82nd
airborne
divisions
dropped
at
Eindhoven
and
Nijmegen
with
aim
of
capturing
bridgeheads
of
Rivers
Meuse,
Rhine
and
lower
Rhine
1st
British
airborne
division
and
Polish
brigade
dropped
at
Arnhem
but
many
units
landed
several
km
from
target
bridge
Ground
forces
joined
w/
101st
and
82nd
by
19
Sept
but
unable
to
battle
way
through
to
British
forces
at
Arnhem
Forces
at
Arnhem
faced
strong
German
resistance
and
gradually
squeezed
into
narrow
perimeter
The
Results
Operation
Market
Garden
failed
for
many
reasons:
German
forces
in
Holland
far
greater
than
Montgomery
expected.
Immediately
launched
offensive
and
took
advantage
of
every
Allied
setback
Poor
weather
ongoing
issue.
1st
Polish
Airborne
Brigade
didnt
participate
in
initial
attack
on
Arnhem
as
transport
planes
grounded
by
adverse
flying
conditions
in
Britain.
Poles
joined
campaign
1
day
late
reducing
effectiveness
of
Montgomerys
plans
Montgomerys
airborne
drop
zone
in
Holland
far
too
large
extending
over
100km.
Many
airborne
units
missed
specific
targets
by
3-5km.
19
Sept:
German
patrol
found
briefcase
containing
plans,
drop
zones
and
battle
orders
for
every
Allied
unit
in
Holland
compromising
Operation
Flatlands
surrounding
5
bridges
vast
combat
zone.
Allied
forces
couldnt
effectively
coordinate
transport
and
logistical
duties
along
Highway
69,
main
road
to
Arnhem.
Isolated
battles
became
major
engagements
hampering
2nd
Armys
mobility
Wehrmacht
employed
panzer
units
and
armoured
vehicles
which
rapidly
encircled
or
destroyed
Allied
soldiers
armed
with
only
rifles
and
machine
guns.
Bridges
of
Veghel
and
Grave
captured
but
major
campaigns
occurred
at
Eindhoven,
Nijmegen
and
Arnhem.
By
Day
3
of
Operation
Allied
offensive
failed.
Allied
soldiers
ran
out
of
supplies
hand
to
hand
fighting
Allied
aerial
evacuation
from
Holland
began
on
Day
8;
disorderly
and
poorly
planned.
After
fighting
for
a
week
soldiers
forced
to
swim
across
canals
when
boats
couldnt
be
found.
Equipment
discarded
and
all
Allied
vehicles
abandoned.
Many
got
lost
and
thousands
captured
by
Germans
Weeks
following
Operation,
Abwehrs
agents
launched
new
attack
on
Dutch
Underground
and
nearly
destroyed
it.
Wehrmacht
also
accused
people
of
Holland
of
organising
Operation.
Accusation
false.
Hundreds
of
civilians
killed
as
part
of
German
warning
to
Netherlands
Wehrmachts
armies
re-grouped,
troops
transferred
to
new
units
and
every
soldier
fit
for
duty
assembled
for
Hitlers
major
gamble.
Teams
of
German
soldiers
dressed
in
British
or
American
uniforms
infiltrated
Ardennes
creating
diversions
and
attempting
to
gain
information
from
Allied
soldiers
after
invasion
began
British
and
Americans
taken
completely
by
surprise.
German
forces
pushed
through
lightly
defended
Ardennes
region
of
Belgium
and
Luxembourg
but
failed
to
make
it
to
Meuse
River.
- Instead
succeeded
in
creating
bulge
in
American
line
- Ardennes
region
one
of
weakest
parts
of
Allied
line
held
by
mix
of
resting
veterans
and
inexperienced
- Broke
through
Allied
line
along
attack
front
while
small
groups
of
special
forces
penetrated
deeper
into
Allied
territory
spreading
confusion
and
panic.
Allied
intelligence
authorities
completely
unaware
of
Hitlers
intentions.
Engima
machine
not
used
weeks
prior
to
invasion
due
to
Belgiums
close
proximity
to
Germany
Allies
greatest
intelligence
asset
neutralised
19th
Hitler
ordered
commencement
due
to
weather.
Low
cloud
cover
and
dense
fog
would
keep
Allied
aircraft
on
group
increasing
safety
of
his
armoured
units.
Allied
reinforcements
quickly
diverted
to
deal
with
attack:
- Montgomery
placed
in
charge
of
Anglo-American
forces
north
of
German
advance
and
Bradley
to
south.
Part
of
Pattons
US
3rd
Amry
changed
frot
and
attacked
north
and
reduced
bulge
Germans
had
driven
into
Allied
line
- 2
US
airborne
divisions
brought
in
by
road
- Montgomerys
forces
moved
to
stop
enemy
crossing
River
Meuse
- Patton
stopped
attack
in
Saar
and
moved
north
to
attack
German
southern
flank
German
attack
began
to
weaken
by
late
Dec
and
as
weather
improved,
allied
air
power
became
decisive.
- Completely
overcome
by
mid
Jan
- German
supply
system
stretched.
It
and
front
line
forces
came
under
continuous
attack
Operation
had
one
mission:
drive
wedge
into
Allied
line.
German
assault
successful
for
1st
3
days.
Bulge
75km
wide
and
50km
deep
divided
Montogmerys
forces
in
northern
Belgium
from
Pattons
armies
in
south
Battle
of
the
Bulge
continued
for
5
weeks.
During
this
period,
entire
Ardennes
Forest
witnessed
massive
tank
movements
including
attacks,
retreats
and
attempted
escapes.
Confusion
and
disorientation
common
24
Dec:
leading
panzer
units
ran
out
of
fuel
near
Meuse
River
effectively
ending
Germanys
forward
assault
Shift
in
weather
changed
course
of
battle.
Fog
and
low
cloud
cover
over
Ardennes
lifted
Eisenhower
sent
300
tank-buster
aircraft
to
Belgium.
Snow
created
white
carpet
allowing
General
Models
tanks
to
be
clearly
seen
by
Allied
pilots.
Typhoon
and
Mustang
aircraft
caused
major
damage
1
Jan
1945:
Pattons
3rd
Army
nearly
surrounded
large
German
force.
Patton
requested
reinforcements
from
Eisenhower
who
ordered
Montgomerys
forces
to
move
south
immediately.
But
Montgomerys
armies
left
positions
2
days
later
eventually
linking
up.
But
during
critical
48
hours,
many
Germans
escaped
- Patton,
Bradely
and
Eisenhower
highly
critical
of
Montgomerys
behaviour.
Hitler
convinced
Ardennes
campaign
would
succeed.
In
Jan
became
clear
offensive
might
fail,
launched
2
more:
SUMMARY
Aiming
at
Antwerp,
the
bold
offensive
broke
through
to
depth
of
130km
but
failed
due
to
Allied
air
attacks
and
counter
offensive
on
3
Jan
1945.
In
trying
to
delay
end
of
war,
Germany
sustained
120
000
casualties
and
lost
500
tanks
and
1600
planes.
No
one
profited
from
offensive
with
exceptions
of
Russians,
for
Hitler
gambled
away
last
reserves
needed
for
defence
in
east.
By
5
Match
US
9th
army
reached
Cologne
while
futher
south
1st
and
3rd
armies
took
Bonn.
- 7
March
US
forces
captured
undammed
railway
bridge
at
Remagen
where
German
troops
still
retreating.
Bridge
crossing
captured.
Made
German
defence
of
Rhineland
impossible
- By
early
March,
allied
forces
were
along
River
Rhine
from
Holland
to
Swiss
border
Allies
continued
push
into
Germany:
Early
Feb:
Allied
offensive
oped
at
north
end
of
line
in
early
Feb
fighting
battle
through
Reichswald
forest
and
close
to
Rhine
22
March:
Pattons
forces
crossed
Rhine
between
Mainz
and
Worms
and
moved
into
northern
Bavaria
28
March:
Montgomerys
forces
crossed
into
Germany
n
north
and
defeated
final
German
stand
28
March:
General
Hodges
forces
crossed
Remagen
Bridge
and
reached
Marburg
to
east
Throughout
March,
Allies
advanced
form
west
but
at
slow
progress
as
wherever
opposition
existed,
forces
halted
and
bombarded
defenders
into
submission
General
Bradleys
forces
moved
into
central
Germany
and
captured
Leipzig
British
forces
moved
across
northern
Germany
- 24
April:
Reached
River
Elbe
- 27
April:
captured
Bremen
and
Lubeck
on
Baltic
Sea
on
2
May
- 3
May:
Hamburg
fell
without
resistance
Hitler
still
issuing
usual
orders
of
no
retreat.
Reality
was
increasing
numbers
of
German
troops
too
glad
to
surrender
to
Allies
to
keep
themselves
sage
from
Russians.
5
May:
US
3rd
Army
took
Linz
in
Austria
and
Pilsen
in
Czechoslovakia
on
6th
US
7th
Army
was
resisted
strongly
at
Nuremberg.
Then
crossed
Danube
=,
captured
Berchtesgaden
and
met
some
of
US
5th
Army
moving
north
from
Italy
Over
next
few
days
various
German
units
surrendered
in
Italy,
Holland
and
France.
7
May:
Germans
agreed
to
unconditional
surrender
Midnight
8
May:
war
in
Europe
over
At
Teheran
Conference
(1943)
Allies
agreed
that
if
defeated
Axis
powers,
legal
action
should
be
taken
against
al
Nazi
and
Japanese
officials.
Basis
of
trials
established
in
London
Charter:
bring
to
trial
&
punish
the
major
war
criminals
of
Axis
countries
Allies
created
International
Military
Tribunal
(IMT)
a
new
self
proclaimed
and
unprecedented
legal
entity
in
post
war
Berlin.
Court
proceedings:
Nov
1945
Oct
1946
Examination
of
the
Charter
of
the
International
Military
Tribunal
illustrates
attitude
of
Allies.
Bitterness,
revenge
prevailed
Late
1944:
Hitler
ordered
destruction
of
concentration
camps
before
arrival
of
Soviet
armies
but
couldnt
really
be
carried
out.
Following
conclusion
of
war,
leading
Nazis
on
trial
in
front
of
International
Military
Tribunal
to
account
for
responsibilities
of
scale
or
war
and
extent
of
human
atrocities.
Roosevelt,
Stalin
and
Churchill
agreed
on
terms
under
which
trials
to
operate
in
London
Charter
of
August
1945
However,
is
history
always
written
by
victors?
If
Axis
powers
had
won
Allies
would
be
condemned
for
bombing
of
Dresden;
which
Axis
were
now
being
tried
for
bombing
of
Warsaw
Nonetheless,
Nazi
leaders
needed
to
be
made
example
of
because:
- Usually
actions
of
individuals
or
junior
officers
who
lost
control
or
acted
as
direct
result
of
extreme
stresses
of
wartime
situations.
However,
German
atrocities
part
of
official
govt
policy
- Ensure
Germans
realised
what
happened
and
culprits
were
people
whom
Germans
supported
earlier.
Brought
home
to
those
Germans
who
claimed
ignorance
of
camps
enormity
of
crimes
committed
- Idealistic
hope
similar
acts
of
barbarism
wouldnt
be
repeated
if
Nazis
made
example
of
- UN
initiating
and
trials
hoped
to
show
it
body
willing
to
ensure
international
peace
and
morality
24
leading
Nazis
to
be
tried
but
Himmler,
Goebbels
and
Ley
committed
suicide;
Krupp
too
ill
and
Bormann
never
captured
thus
tried
in
absentia
Trial
of
Nazi
war
criminals
didnt
end
in
1946.
Decades
after
war
former
Nazis,
concentration
camp
guards
and
SS
officers
tracked
down
and
brought
to
justice.
Trials
created
controversial
legal
precedent.
In
future
years,
more
Nazi
officials,
prison
camp
guards
and
military
officers
arrested
and
brought
to
trial.
Influenced
wide
variety
of
international
jurisprudence
issues
in
post
war
period
1950:
UN
General
Assembly
requested
International
Law
Commission
use
proceedings
of
Nuremberg
as
basis
for
drafting
new
international
criminal
codes.
Also
helped
form
charters
for
organisations
such
as
- Genocide
Convention
1948
- Geneva
Convention
on
the
Laws
and
Customs
of
War
1949
- Universal
Declaration
of
Human
Rights
1948
John
Man
discusses
in
Nazism
on
Trial
inconsistencies
of
Nuremberg
Trials.
Argues
how
nation
could
be
tried
for
aggression
or
breaking
treaty
as
no
legal
framework
existed.
- No
Italians
placed
on
trial
- Position
of
Soviet
Union
compromised.
Germans
accused
of
conspiracy
in
plans
for
invasion
of
Poland
which
clearly
part
of
Nazi
Soviet
Pact.
Pact
ignored
-
-
Yet
when
Germany
invaded
Russia,
same
pact
deemed
treaty
broken
However
does
not
in
any
way
diminish
the
crimes
of
the
vanquished,
nor
the
need
to
punish
them
Forced
Hitler
and
generals
to
think
of
radical
retailiations.
Too
much
faith
in
V1
and
V2
rockets
which
expensive
and
limited
impact.
Ability
of
allies
to
escort
long
range
bombers
with
fighters
later
in
war
to
have
major
effect
- Early
bombing
raids
over
Germany
fangerous
as
long
distance
planes
lacked
fighter
protection
when
flew
over
Germany
became
vulnerable
to
attack.
Bomber
losses
very
high
early
in
war
- By
late
1943,
system
perfected
to
enable
fighters
to
fly
distances
as
great
as
bombers
forced
Germans
to
divert
many
its
fighters
to
home
front
to
deal
with
allied
bomber/fighter
threats
- Hence,
weakened
German
tactical
aerial
strength
on
Eastern
Front
&
in
Normandy.
As
fighters
had
to
be
moved
from
front,
gave
vast
aerial
superiority
to
Soviet
forces
in
east
&
allied
forces
in
Normandy
- Germany
forced
put
more
effort
to
producing
anti-aircraft
taking
up
33%
artillery
production
by
1944
- Allies
superiority
evident
in
D
Day;
allies
had
12
000
aircraft
whilst
Germans
had
less
than
500
- Eventual
allied
success
in
Battle
of
the
Bulge
owed
much
to
superior
air
power
Allied
air
forces
superiority
of
70:1
in
invasion
of
France
-
Luftwaffe
decimated
Soviet
air
force
during
first
few
days
operation
By
autumn
of
1941
western
Russia
in
German
hands,
Leningrad
under
siege,
Kiev
taken
and
Moscow
about
to
be
attacked
However,
Moscow
survived
in
Dec
1941
- Zhukov
military
skills
- Transfer
of
750
000
Siberian
forces
westwards
- Errors
on
German
side
in
timing
and
supplies,
Russian
scorched
earth
policy,
inadequate
and
inappropriate
German
equipment
- Winter
Russias
survival
in
1941
change
to
mobilise
enormous
economic
and
human
resources
- Industries
moved
east
to
escape
German
bombing.
Soon
achieved
unbelievable
feats
of
production
- Soviet
wartime
production
noted
for
its
simplicity
and
rationalisation
- Surge
of
patriotic
and
religious
fervour
amongst
Russian
people
which
spurred
them
on
to
superhuman
efforts
- Soviet
Union
centralised
police
state
which
made
rapid
mobilisation
of
nation
easy
to
achieve
As
result
of
such
factors,
Soviet
able
to
gradually
defeat
German
forces
even
though
human
and
economic
costs
enormous.
- Stalingrad
marked
turning
point
on
Eastern
Front
- Kursk
initiative
slip
away
from
Wehrmacht
- 1944+
Russian
forces
able
to
push
back
Germans
to
own
land
-
-
Structuralists
Acknowledge
validity
of
intentionalists
but
argue
Germanys
defeat
and
collapse
of
Nazism
result
of
structure
of
Nazi
regime
and
inner
workings
- Lack
of
centralised
control
rivalry
and
gross
economic
inefficiency
- Failure
to
immediately
go
to
total
war
- As
regime
radicalised
and
spiralled
out
of
control,
obsession
with
racial
issues
diverted
resources
and
manpower
from
main
aim
of
fighting
war.
Intentionalists
Argue
defeat
of
Germany
and
collapse
of
Nazism
direct
result
of
war
which
was
product
of
Hitlers
intention
all
along
to
pursue
lebensraum
in
east
- Poor
preparation
- Failure
to
defeat
Britain
and
Russia
- Extensive
nature
of
war
which
stretched
Germanys
limited
resources
Key
argument
is
result
of
war
cannot
be
explained
by
simply
stating
that
allies
had
more
resources
than
Axis
Why
were
allies
able
to
maximise
economic
superiority?
- Overy
points
to
factors
such
as
internal
political
rivalries,
military
interference,
military
interference
and
lack
of
mass
production
Why
Germany
not
able
to
maximise
economic
strengths?
- Germanys
economic
technological
failures.
- 1944:
could
fire
rockets
into
England
but
still
needed
1.25
million
horses
to
move
its
army
Production
and
invention
sealed
allied
victory.
Allies
proved
capable
of
maximising
production
whether
through
US
business,
heroic
Russian
sacrifice
or
British
grit,
whereas
Germany
didnt.
Invention
and
innovation
won
battle
in
air
and
at
sea
Combined
with
superior
allied
leadership
and
moral
high
ground
allied
victory.
Raises
great
paradox
of
WW2
that
western
democracy
saved
by
exertions
of
communism.
States
without
efforts
of
Soviet
difficult
to
see
how
democracies
could
have
defeated
Germany
To
what
extent
was
the
collapse
of
collective
security
the
main
cause
of
the
tensions
that
led
to
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe?
Line
of
argument:
principle
of
collective
security
great
idealistic
hope
of
inter-war
period.
Belied
powers
working
through
League
of
Nations
could
work
together
to
prevent
aggression
and
chain
of
events
led
to
war
in
1914.
Collective
security
collapsed,
unable
to
handle
realities
of
European
and
world
politics
no
means
to
stop
aggression
of
Axis
powers
whose
actions
increased
tensions
in
Europe.
Only
response
to
this
aggression
in
form
of
appeasement
which
doomed
to
fail
Background
of
League
and
how
operated.
Explain
idea
of
collective
security.
- Article
10:
Collective
Security
Article
- Article
12:
Arbitration
Article
- Article
16:
Sanctions
Article
Collective
security
unable
to
function
due
to
realities
of
European
and
world
politics.
Reasons
for
failure:
- Failure
of
internationalism
in
world
of
aggressive
nationalism
- Failure
of
League
to
reflect
true
balance
of
power
- Inability
of
Britain
and
France
to
do
job
- Lack
of
any
coercive
machinery
so
nations
like
Japan
could
act
with
impunity.
Failure
of
collective
security
enabled
dictators
to
act
without
fear
of
any
retribution.
Hitler
and
Mussolini
further
acted
to
heighten
tension
in
Europe
- Hitlers
conquests
in
Rhineland,
Austria,
Czechoslovakia,
Spain;
Italy
in
Abyssinia
Without
collective
security,
Britain
and
France
resorted
to
appeasement
- Merely
encouraged
dictators
leading
to
eventual
fall
and
events
of
1939
Had
collective
security
had
support
of
all
major
powers
and
League
able
to
overcome
nationalistic
urges
of
time,
tensions
in
Europe
may
been
controlled.
Its
collapse
gave
dictators
chance.
Western
response
of
appeasement
failed
due
to
complete
misunderstanding
of
nature
of
Hitler
and
Mussolini.
Thus,
collapse
of
collective
security
main
cause
of
tensions
that
led
to
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe
2.
The
Course
of
the
European
War
2009
HSC:
Assess
the
significance
of
the
conflict
in
North
Africa
to
Allied
victory
in
the
European
War
2007
HSC:
Evaluate
the
view
that
Operation
Barbarossa
was
the
major
turning
point
of
the
European
War
How
significant
was
Britains
survival
in
1940
to
the
eventual
outcome
of
the
war
in
Europe?
Assess
success
of
German
strategies
during
course
of
the
European
War
in
the
period
September
1939
to
June
1941
1. German
strategies
in
period
extremely
successful
as,
by
and
large,
Germany
had
achieved
aims
it
set
out
2. German
strategies
successful
as
by
June
1941
Germany
gained
control
over
whole
of
Europe
and
faced
only
isolated
and
weakened
Britain
3. German
strategies
failed
by
June
1941
because
as
Germany
contemplated
attack
on
Russia,
knew
it
would
be
facing
two
front
war
4. German
strategies
mixed
success,
at
best,
in
period
up
to
June
1941
and
only
gained
measure
of
success
because
of
weakness
of
opponents
Discussion
for
4th
argument
Superficial
look
at
map
of
Europe
in
June
1941
might
lead
one
to
conclude
German
military
strategy
long
success
story.
Axis
control
of
Europe
stretched
from
Arctic
to
Sahara,
from
Atlantic
to
Russian
frontier.
Apart
from
Britain,
faced
no
opposition
in
Europe.
However
on
closer
examination
been
setbacks.
Future
far
from
certain
and
Germany
yet
to
be
tested
by
hardening
enemy
Hitlers
strategy
against
Poland
in
Sept/Oct
1939
seems
to
have
been
extremely
successful
- Wehrmachts
use
of
blitzkrieg
tactics
worked
very
effectively
- Poland
defeated
inside
a
month
with
light
German
casualties
- Pre-war
agreement
with
Soviet
Union
been
honoured
- Polands
quick
defeat
meant
wouldnt
face
2
front
war
However
on
closer
examination
success
in
this
campaign
shouldnt
be
exaggerated
- Polands
defences
clearly
no
match
for
German
offensive
forces
- Polish
strategy
of
fighting
in
open
west
[played
into
Germanys
hands
(blitzkrieg)
- Polands
quick
demise
helped
by
Soviet
invasion
from
east
- Invading
Poland
now
left
Hitler
with
west
to
deal
with
while
Soviet
resided
on
Germanys
new
frontier
- Germany
couldnt
fight
on
as
it
needed
to
replenish
its
war
supplies
Victory
in
west
spectacular
as
Germany
overran
Denmark,
Norway,
Low
Countries
and
France
- Swedish
iron
ore
supplies
secured
- Control
of
Norwegian
and
Low
Countries
coasts
gave
German
strategic
advantage
over
Britain
- Collapse
of
France
gave
Germany
control
of
Western
Europe
- Britain
remained
in
war
but
greatly
weakened
and
isolated
However,
results
of
campaigns
in
west
revealed
limits
of
German
strategy
- As
each
nation
conquered,
large
occupation
forces
required
to
control
lands
(400
000
in
Norway)
- Poor
French
leadership,
low
morale
&
willingness
to
deal
w/
Hitler
eased
German
western
campaigns.
- Occupying
Germans
faced
strong
resistance
movements
(e.g.
France)
- Failure
to
knock
Britian
out
of
war
reveal
several
problems
with
German
strategy
o E.g.
weaknesses
in
Luftwaffe,
errors
of
judgement
on
Hitlers
part
To
what
extent
was
the
Russian
campaign
a
turning
point
in
the
European
War?
1. Russian
campaign
clearly
turning
point
of
war
as
up
until
this
point
Germany
had
virtual
non
stop
military
success.
Failure
to
gain
quick
success
in
Russia
revealed
flaws
in
blitzkrieg
and
long
drawn
out
war
would
benefit
Russia
due
to
its
vast
resources
and
huge
population
compared
to
Germanys
limited
strength
2. Russian
campaign
clearing
very
important
but
to
argue
it
was
turning
point
is
unhistorical
as
should
not
be
considered
in
isolation
from
other
events
in
war
Discussion
for
1st
Argument
Prior
to
Russian
campaign
Germany
had
experienced
almost
non
stop
military
success
using
blitzkrieg
tactics
Germany
in
almost
invincible
position
in
June
1941
- Refer
to
its
allies,
weakness
of
potential
opponents,
control
of
resources,
strength
of
navy
Early
part
of
Russian
campaign
proved
the
point
However,
Barbarossa
failed
to
achieve
its
goals
in
1941:
- Explain
goals,
show
what
went
wrong
and
suggest
why
- What
was
implication
of
failure?
Germany
took
up
offensive
again
in
1942
with
some
success
but
then
experienced
horrors
of
Stalingrad
- Explain
importance
of
consequences
of
Germanys
failure
at
Stalingrad
Germanys
failure
at
Kursk
sealed
its
fate
- Explain
significance
of
Kursk,
Russias
growing
strength
&
tactical
skills
and
what
meant
for
wider
war
- Germany
lost
the
initiative
on
Eastern
Front
Might
suggest
Germany
lost
its
opportunity
for
victory
in
wra
with
defeat
in
Russia
- Failure
in
Russia
coincided
with
defeat
in
North
Africa,
growing
presence
of
America
and
growing
Anglo-American
control
of
Atlantic
Failure
in
Russian
campaign
sealed
matter
of
when
Germany
would
lose
rather
than
if
turning
point
Assess
the
significance
of
the
conflict
in
North
Africa
to
the
course
of
the
European
War.
Allied
success
in
North
Africa
of
major,
if
not
decisive,
importance
for
course
of
War.
Provided
allies
with
major
strategic
and
economic
advantages,
boosted
British
morale
and
augured
well
for
future
Anglo-American
cooperation.
Severely
weakened
Axis.
However
as
turning
point
in
war
didnt
have
decisive
impact
Germanys
failure
in
Russian
campaign
had
Provide
narrative
background
of
events
in
conflict
in
North
Africa
- Early
allied
success
against
Italy,
arrival
of
Rommel,
success
of
Afrika
Korps,
Battle
of
El
Alamein
and
eventual
removal
of
Axis
troops
from
North
Africa.
Allied
success
in
North
Africa
enormous
strategic
implications
- Allied
control
of
Mediterranean
and
opportunities
this
gave
for
future
campaigns
- Maintained
British
control
of
Suez
Canal
(importance)
- Prevented
possible
linking
of
Rommels
forces
with
those
inside
Russia
Secured
allied
control
of
Middle
East
supplies
- Refer
to
Axis
difficulties
in
gaining
oil
supplies
Boost
to
British
morale
- Explain
Britains
long
series
of
setbacks
After
early
difficulties
in
Operation
Torch,
later
stages
of
conflict
in
North
Africa
showed
Ango-American
forces
could
work
well
together
- Examples
of
actions
in
Sicily,
Italy
and
later
France
However
though
conflict
in
North
Africa
important
and
certainly
weakened
Axis
cause,
was
on
Eastern
Front
in
Russian
campaign
where
war
turned
decisively
in
allies
favour
due
to
scale
of
German
losses
and
magnitude
of
Russian
war
effort.
3.
Civilians
at
War
2007
HSC:
To
what
extent
did
Allied
and
Axis
strategies
during
World
War
2
affect
civilians?
Evaluate
the
view
that
Germanys
defeat
in
World
War
2
was
the
result
of
domestic
failure
Failure
to
go
to
total
war
- Concern
of
home
front
morale
maintained
- Wasted
production
of
unessential
products
- Allies
preparation
much
more
long
term
and
thus
successful
Influence
of
ideology
overriding
practicality
- Use
of
women.
Speers
attempts
limited
- Pursuit
of
Holocaust:
waste
of
resources
and
soldiers
Military
interference
- Too
many
models
limits
possibility
of
mass
production
Structure
of
Nazi
regime
domestic
failure
- Empire
building
- Rivalries
- Waste
and
duplication
confusion.
Explain
the
origin
and
impact
of
the
Holocaust
cause
and
effect
Nazi
ideology
deeply
rooted
in
19th
cent
Social
Darwinist
ideas
and
strong
belief
in
superiority
of
Aryan
culture
anti
Semitism
widespread
in
early
20th
cent.
Hitler
promoted
such
ideas
long
before
gained
office.
Once
in
power,
in
position
to
promote
racial
beliefs
gradually
throughout
1930s,
and
then
with
horrific
efficiency
during
war
leading
to
Holocaust.
However
some
historians
suggest
Holocaust
came
not
specifically
from
Nai
ideology
but
nature
of
Nazi
regime
and
extreme
conditions
it
faced
during
war
Holocaust
direct
result
of
Nazi
ideology
put
into
practice
- Explain
nature
of
Nazi
ideology
- Discuss
Social
Darwinism,
Aryan
culture,
Volkgemeinschaft
- Conclude
with
obsession
Nazis
had
about
racial
purity
and
perfect
race
and
implications
for
Jews
and
minority
groups
Hitlers
obsession
with
racism
and
anti-Semitism
predates
coming
to
power
- Mein
Kampf
- Intentionalist
School
of
Thought
Once
in
power
able
to
pursue
these
policies
in
1930s
- Nazi
anti-Jewish
legislation
and
Crystal
Night
Onset
of
war
put
into
sharper
contrast
what
to
do
about
Jews
and
minority
groups
- Once
in
control
of
Eastern
Europe
and
much
of
Soviet
Nazis
now
able
to
put
ideological
beliefs
into
widespread
practice
Explain
impact
of
Nazi
beliefs
on
Jews
and
other
minority
groups
now
that
Nazis
in
control
- Creation
of
ghettos
- Construction
of
camps
- Resettlement
- Implementation
of
Final
Solution.
victory
highly
likely.
Had
catastrophic
effect
on
German
war
production
made
impossible
for
Germany
to
match
allied
production.
Indirectly,
but
crucially,
air
power
weakened
German
military
position
in
east
and
later
Normandy.
German
war
effort
most
effectively
destroyed
due
to
efforts
of
Soviet
Union
in
east
Luftwaffe
failed
to
win
Battle
of
Britain
and
to
damage
morale
British
people
during
Blitz
- Britain
survived
Battle
of
Britain
due
to
skill
and
courage
of
RAF,
use
of
radar
and
German
errors
- Hitlers
decision
to
bomb
London
and
other
cities
gave
Fighter
Command
breathing
space.
Failed
to
break
will
of
British
people
Failure
to
defeat
Britain
of
crucial
long
term
significance
- Hitler
destined
to
fight
2
front
war.
Explain
significance
- Britains
survival
meant
North
Africa
wouldnt
fall
Axis
- Britains
survival
made
possible
later
crucial
involvement
of
US
and
invasion
of
France
- Also
made
possible
bombing
of
Germany
Bombing
of
German
far
worse
than
anything
British
experienced
(give
examples).
Major
impact
on
weakening
German
war
effort
- Ceiling
put
on
production
despite
efforts
of
Speer
- Railway
network
disrupted
- Chemical
and
oil
production
suffered
- Major
social
disruption
occurred
Allies
success
in
developing
long
range
fighter
escorts
for
bomber
force
meant
Germans
had
to
switch
fighter
aircraft
to
home
front
and
produce
more
anti-aircraft
guns
- Weakened
German
militarys
tactical
air
strength
on
Eastern
Front
and
later
in
Normandy
- Instead
of
producing
offensive
weaponry
Germans
used
scarce
resources
to
defend
cities
&
economy
However
it
was
on
Eastern
Front
that
effected
German
army
most
- Wehrmacht
bogged
down
on
Eastern
Front
- Failure
to
defeat
Red
Army
in
1941
allowed
Russia
to
take
advantage
of
enormous
human
and
economic
resources
o Led
to
defeats
at
Stalingrad,
Kursk,
Operation
Bagration
- German
losses
on
eastern
front
enormous
and
Germans
simply
couldnt
replace
them
- Part
reason
for
inability
to
replace
losses:
impact
of
allied
bombing
campaign
against
G
home
front
To
what
extent
were
the
events
of
the
final
twelve
months
of
the
war
responsible
for
the
allied
victory
in
the
European
War?
1. Actions
in
final
12
months
decisive
in
determining
outcome
of
war.
Up
to
that
point,
war
on
knife
edge
2. Outcome
of
events
of
final
12
months
result
of
events
earlier
in
war
months
of
war
didnt
decide
outcome
of
war.
Rather
events
earlier
in
war
responsible
for
deciding
outcome
of
final
12
months
Mid
1944
Axis
powers
in
increasingly
desperate
position
- Steadily
pushed
back
on
Eastern
Front
- North
Africa
long
lost
(brief
mention)
- Italy
facing
allied
onslaught
- Bombing
campaign
hurting
Germany
In
this
context
allies
invaded
Normandy
- Details
of
D
Day
- Operation
Overlord
only
possible
because
of
survival
of
Britain
in
1940
(brief)
- Massive
US
presence
in
Overlord
couldnt
have
happened
without
Anglo-
American
control
of
sea
o Battle
of
Atlantic
- Allied
air
superiority
only
possible
because
of
Germanys
need
to
divert
fighters
to
Home
Front
Massive
Russian
offensives
of
1944
(give
examples)
steadily
pushed
Germans
back
to
their
own
land
and
defeat
Axis
allies
one
by
one.
Germans
simply
cannot
match
size
and
speed
of
Russians
- Failure
to
innovate
sees
German
forces
still
reliant
on
horsepower
whereas
Red
Army
totally
mechanised.
Lend-Lease
helped
Red
Army
- Axis
forces
suffer
air
inferiority
for
same
reason
as
in
Normandy
- Failures
in
German
economy
prevented
maximisation
of
output
so
cant
equal
Russian
power
- Allied
bombing
major
problem
German
resistance
to
allied
move
through
France
and
into
Low
Countries
strong
but
ineffective
- Use
of
heavy
armour
in
Falaise
Gap
holds
up
allied
advance
but
allied
destruction
of
that
armour
disastrous
as
Germans
cannot
replace
- Similarly
on
Eastern
Front
actions
against
Red
Army
(examples)
led
to
destruction
of
tanks
and
aircraft
that
cant
be
replaced
- Re-emphasise
that
inability
to
replace
armour
and
aircraft
result
of
earlier
actions
in
war
Moments
of
significant
German
resistance.
Operation
Market
Garden
and
Ardennes
Offensive
(some
detail)
- Allied
disaster
at
Arnhem
short
lived
acquittal
- Allied
air
power
finally
destroys
German
advance
at
Ardennes
which
petering
out
anyway
- Brave
German
resistance
against
Russians
as
Red
Army
descends
on
Berlin
led
by
Volkssturm
troops
indicating
desperation
Germany
finally
destroyed
by
allied
advances
from
west,
south
and
east.
Unable
to
rsist
these
advances
because
of
impact
of
allied
actions
earlier
in
war.
To
what
extent
was
the
collapse
of
collective
security
the
main
cause
of
the
tensions
that
led
to
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe?
The
outbreak
of
the
conflict
in
Europe
was
the
result
of
a
variety
of
factors
in
a
gradual
process
from
1935
1945.
The
collapse
of
collective
security
accounts
for
the
main
cause
of
this
outbreak
as
its
failure
exacerbated
the
tensions
in
Europe.
The
League
of
Nations
was
instigated
to
achieve
international
peace
and
security
post
World
War
One,
yet
its
structural
weaknesses
disallowed
for
a
strong
consolidation
of
collective
security.
Consequently,
the
dictatorships
of
Hitler
and
Mussolini
were
able
to
pursue
their
aggressive
foreign
policies
without
fear
of
reprimand.
Upon
recognising
the
failure
of
collective
security,
the
Allies
resorted
to
the
ineffective
policy
of
appeasement
which
further
encouraged
Hitler
and
Mussolini
to
act
without
concern
of
consequences.
As
such,
the
collapse
of
collective
security
is
to
hold
primary
responsibility
for
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe.
The
aims
of
the
League
of
Nations
were
never
realised,
thus
impacting
its
chances
of
success
to
which
it
is
to
hold
primary
responsibility
for
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe.
The
League
of
Nations
had
been
instigated
based
on
Wilsons
Fourteen
Points
in
the
hopes
of
international
cooperation.
Theoretically,
Article
10
of
the
Covenant,
the
Collective
Security
Article,
called
for
members
to
guarantee
each
other
against
aggression
for
the
maintenance
of
peace
by
collective
action.
However,
the
structural
weaknesses
of
the
League
did
not
allow
for
this
to
occur.
Despite
the
sanctions
of
the
League
Covenant,
the
organisation
did
not
possess
a
true
balance
of
world
powers,
and
hence
the
consequences
of
breaking
articles
are
not
considered
severe.
The
United
States,
for
example,
did
not
ratify
the
Treaty
of
Versailles
as
it
recognised
that
the
League
lacked
clearly
specific
guarantees
and
methods.
Furthermore,
the
Soviet
Union
was
refused
membership
based
on
fears
of
Communism.
Thus,
these
two
powerful
nations
were
not
included
in
the
provisions
of
disarmament
as
outlined
in
Article
8
of
the
League
Covenant
requiring
for
the
reduction
of
national
armaments
to
the
lowest
point
consistent
with
national
safety.
As
a
result,
member
nations
did
not
disarm
completely
as
the
Covenant
called
for
disarmament
based
on
the
defence
of
their
nation.
With
two
super
powers
not
bound
by
such
policies,
effectively
disarmament
failed
as
signatory
nations
feared
their
security.
With
the
US
absence,
Britain
and
France
were
the
two
superpowers
of
the
League.
However,
not
only
was
there
a
lack
of
confidence
in
their
leadership
ability,
but
their
interests
also
conflicted.
Historian
AJP
Taylor
emphasises
that
France
wanted
the
League
to
develop
into
a
system
of
security
uniting
European
powers
against
Germany;
however,
Britain
regarded
the
League
as
a
system
of
conciliation
which
would
include
Germany.
With
such
structural
weaknesses
evident,
members
began
to
lose
confidence
in
the
League.
Members
recognised
that
theoretically,
the
Articles
of
the
League
encompassed
much
justice
and
nobility;
however,
the
majority
of
them
were
impractical.
With
this
loss
of
faith,
member
nations
were
generally
uncooperative,
disconnected
and
in
the
interwatr
period
nationalism
took
precedence
over
hopes
of
internationalism.
Thus,
the
very
attitudes
and
goals
of
nations
during
this
period
never
allowed
for
the
success
of
the
League
of
Nations
nor
that
of
collective
security
The
conflict
of
Abyssinia
is
an
example
whereby
the
failure
of
collective
security
allowed
for
Mussolinis
aggressive
foreign
policy
to
take
place;
thereby
holding
primary
responsibility
for
bringing
about
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe.
Abyssinia
provided
Mussolini
with
an
opportunity
for
imperial
expansion,
the
restoration
of
Italian
honour
and
As
a
result
of
the
failure
of
collective
security,
the
Allies
resorted
to
the
policy
of
Appeasement
which
strongly
contributed
to
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe.
Appeasement
was
the
policy
of
inaction
against
aggressors
out
of
fear
of
provoking
an
outbreak
of
war.
The
failure
of
the
League
of
Nations
created
an
environment
whereby
appeasement
seemed
to
be
the
only
logical
option,
despite
its
ineffective
nature.
This
was
because
the
Allies,
particularly
France,
wanted
to
avoid
another
international
war
as
the
existence
of
war
weariness
was
still
strong.
The
governments
understand
that
any
alternative
would
culminate
in
much
social
and
political
discontent,
thereby
encouraging
peace
regardless
of
the
repercussions.
Consequently,
Mussolini
and
Hitler
were
practically
encouraged
to
pursue
their
policies
of
expansionism
as
they
pleased,
without
repercussions,
further
heightening
the
tensions
in
Europe.
The
Czechoslovakia
Crisis
is
an
example
whereby
appeasement,
as
a
result
of
the
failure
of
collective
security,
contributed
to
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe.
Czechoslovakia
had
emerged
post
1918
with
a
multinational
population,
most
significantly
including
that
of
an
estimated
3
million
Germans
in
the
Sudetenland.
In
accord
with
Hitlers
policy
of
lebensraum,
he
wanted
to
unite
them
into
the
Third
Reich
and
was
prepared
to
go
to
war
in
doing
so.
In
the
Anglo-
French
Plan,
Britain
and
France
had
urged
President
Benes
of
Czechoslovakia
to
concede
to
Hitlers
territorial
demands
to
preserve
peace
in
Europe.
This
called
for
the
transfer
of
all
areas
with
over
50%
of
German
inhabitants
to
the
Third
Reich;
however
Benes
refused.
Nonetheless,
these
nations
decided
to
sacrifice
Czechoslovakias
nationalism
for
international
security,
and
thus
divided
Czechoslovakia
up
accordingly,
giving
in
to
Hitlers
demands.
Hitler
had
not
been
expecting
this
and
henceforth
made
more
territorial
demands.
France
had
agreed
to
protect
Czechoslovakias
remaining
borders
if
it
accepted
the
Anglo-French
Plan;
yet
upon
Hitlers
further
demands,
France
no
longer
honoured
such
economically
viable
resources
and
export
markets.
Mussolini
had
used
the
death
of
Italian
soldiers
in
a
clash
at
Walwal
as
an
excuse
for
invasion.
Abyssinia
appealed
to
the
League
of
Nations
for
assistance;
yet
they
simply
declared
that
neither
party
were
at
fault
for
the
clash.
Upon
recognising
the
failure
of
the
League
to
implement
sanctions,
Mussolini
invaded
Abyssinia
with
brutal
willingness.
It
was
only
then
that
the
League
Council
declared
Italy
to
be
the
aggressor.
As
a
result
the
League
imposed
sanctions
on
Italy
which
ultimately
did
not
have
a
significant
effect.
They
placed
a
ban
on
economic
commodities,
however
excluded
coal
and
oil
which
were
the
necessities
of
war;
and
nations
such
as
Austria,
Hungary
and
Switzerland
refused
to
impose
the
sanctions.
Furthermore,
Italy
had
Germanys
military
and
economic
support
which
overrode
the
minor
effects
of
the
sanctions.
As
such,
Mussolinis
actions
in
Abyssinia
caused
the
tensions
in
Europe
to
rise
and
effectively
undermined
the
principles
of
collective
security.
Hence,
it
can
be
seen
that
although
this
invasion
significantly
contributed
to
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe,
the
failure
of
collective
security
ultimately
allowed
Hitler
and
Mussolini
to
break
international
law
without
repercussions,
to
which
it
is
to
hold
primary
responsibility.
Historian
AJP
Taylor
emphasises
the
ineffectiveness
collective
security
in
promoting
its
aim
of
international
peace:
this
was
the
death
blow
to
the
League
as
well
as
to
Abyssinia
promises
reflecting
the
extent
of
their
aversion
to
war.
Britain
and
France,
in
accord
with
the
allied
policy
of
appeasement,
continued
to
concede
to
Hitlers
demands.
On
20
September
1938
at
the
Munich
Conference,
Hitlers
demands
were
granted
and
Sudetenland
ceded
to
Germany
at
the
expense
of
Czechoslovakias
nationalism
and
integrity
which
had
been
compromised
by
the
allies
in
their
upholding
of
the
policy
of
appeasement.
Historian
AJP
Taylor
argues
that
the
Munich
Conference
was
a
critical
moment
whereby
the
Allies
failed
to
pursue
an
aggressive
policy
of
appeasement.
The
inevitable
should
not
be
discussed
in
history,
yet
it
is
evident
that
the
League
of
Nations
possessed
the
potential
to
suppress
the
outbreak
of
conflict
in
Europe.
Ultimately,
the
League
failed
to
overcome
its
weaknesses
of
member
states
nationalism
and
structural
flaws
in
response
to
which
Hitlers
and
Mussolinis
aggression
simply
increased,
exacerbating
the
existing
tensions
and
thus
the
likelihood
of
the
outbreak
of
war.
Furthermore,
the
principles
of
collective
security
were
further
undermined
in
the
Allies
adoption
of
the
policy
of
appeasement
of
which
it
can
also
be
argued,
directly
lead
to
the
outbreak
of
the
war.
Theoretically,
collective
security
was
intended
for
a
consolidation
of
international
peace
in
Europe;
yet
its
failure
led
to
a
disorganised
system
of
powers
who
could
not
overcome
their
ideological
differences.
Nationalism
consistently
took
precedence
over
internationalism
which
was
necessary
in
consolidating
the
success
of
collective
security.
As
such,
the
failure
of
collective
security
can
be
seen
as
the
primary
cause
for
the
exacerbation
of
tensions
in
Europe
and
consequently
that
of
the
outbreak
of
conflict.
Word
Count:
1373
To
what
extent
are
the
dictatorships
of
Hitler
and
Mussolini
the
main
causes
of
the
tensions
that
brought
on
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe?
The
conflict
in
Europe
was
caused
by
a
variety
of
factors
in
a
gradual
process
from
1935
1945.
The
dictatorships
in
Italy
and
Germany
played
a
significant
role
in
accounting
for
the
outbreak
of
war,
although
they
alone
were
not
the
main
cause.
Rather,
the
allied
policy
of
appeasement
and
the
failure
of
collective
security
allowed
these
dictators
to
freely
pursue
their
aggressive
ideological
policies
without
repercussions.
Hence,
there
is
to
be
an
equal
balance
of
blame
among
these
factors
for
the
main
cause
of
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe
in
1939.
The
dictatorships
in
Italy
and
Germany
of
Mussolini
and
Hitler
respectively,
were
significant
causes
in
bringing
about
the
conflict
in
Europe.
Both
these
dictators
shared
aggressive
and
opportunistic
foreign
policies
which
exacerbated
the
outbreak
of
war.
Both
the
short
term
aims
of
the
foreign
policies
in
Italy
and
Germany
were
to
tear
up
the
provisions
of
the
Treaty
of
Versailles
for
primarily
nationalistic
reasons.
Italy
did
not
receive
the
territories
it
had
been
promised
by
the
allies
and
hence
wanted
to
pursue
a
policy
of
aggressive
expansionism
as
Mussolini
believed
imperialism
defined
a
nations
greatness.
Hitler
was
also
dissatisfied
with
the
provisions
of
the
Treaty
in
terms
of
its
The
Czechoslovakia
Crisis
is
an
example
whereby
both
the
dictatorships
of
Hitler
and
the
policy
of
appeasement
are
to
hold
equal
significance
in
the
conflict
in
Europe.
Czechoslovakia
had
emerged
post
1918
with
a
multinational
population,
most
significantly
that
of
an
estimated
3
million
Germans
in
the
Sudetenland.
In
accord
with
Hitlers
policy
of
lebensraum,
he
wanted
to
unite
them
into
the
Third
Reich
and
was
prepared
to
go
to
war
in
doing
so.
In
the
Anglo-French
Plan,
Britain
and
France
had
urged
President
Benes
of
Czechoslovakia
to
concede
to
Hitlers
territorial
demands
to
preserve
peace
in
Europe.
This
called
for
the
transfer
of
all
areas
with
over
50%
of
German
inhabitants
to
the
Third
Reich;
however
Benes
refused.
Nonetheless
in
the
secret
Hoare-Laval
Plan,
these
nations
divided
Czechoslovakia
up
accordingly
and
planned
to
give
into
Hitlers
demands.
Hitler
had
not
been
expecting
this
and
henceforth
made
more
territorial
demands.
France
had
agreed
to
protect
Czechoslovakias
remaining
borders
if
it
accepted
the
Hoare-Laval
Plan;
yet
upon
Hitlers
further
demands,
France
no
longer
honoured
such
promises.
Britain
and
France,
in
accord
with
the
allied
policy
of
appeasement,
continued
to
concede
to
Hitlers
demands.
On
20
September
1938
at
the
Munich
Conference,
Hitlers
demands
were
granted
and
Sudetenland
ceded
to
Germany
at
the
expense
of
Czechoslovakias
nationalism
and
integrity
which
had
been
compromised
by
the
allies
in
their
upholding
of
the
policy
of
appeasement.
Historian
AJP
Taylor
argues
that
the
Munich
Conference
was
a
critical
moment
whereby
the
Allies
failed
to
pursue
an
aggressive
policy
of
appeasement.
Hence
the
dual
significance
of
the
dictatorship
in
Germany
and
that
of
the
policy
of
appeasement
is
evident
in
accounting
for
main
causes
of
the
conflict
in
Europe.
The
failure
of
collective
security
allowed
the
dictatorships
in
Italy
and
Germany
to
continue
pursuing
their
policies
of
expansionism
without
repercussions;
hence
both
factors
are
to
hold
equal
significance
in
bringing
about
the
conflict
in
Europe.
The
League
of
Nations
had
been
instigated
based
on
Wilsons
Fourteen
Points
in
the
hopes
of
international
cooperation.
Yet
there
were
structural
weaknesses
in
this
organisation.
Signatories
of
the
League
Covenant
promised
to
submit
to
the
League
Assembly
in
matters
of
dispute
rather
than
resorting
to
war.
However,
both
parties
had
to
agree
to
a
hearing
otherwise
the
Court
of
the
League
did
not
encompass
the
jurisdiction
to
do
so.
Article
10
of
the
Covenant
states
that
in
handling
acts
of
international
aggression,
no
advice
could
be
given
unless
it
was
voted
on
unanimously;
and
furthermore
members
of
the
League
were
not
obliged
to
accept
economic
and
social
burdens
on
Germany
and
the
international
humiliation
it
bore.
Similar
to
Mussolini,
Hitler
wanted
to
pursue
a
policy
of
aggressive
expansionism
in
accordance
with
his
long
term
aim
of
lebensraum.
Hitler
hoped
to
unite
all
the
German
speaking
Aryans
into
the
Third
Reich
and
Mussolini
to
unite
the
Roman
Empire
as
a
famous
conqueror.
These
policies
required
living
space
in
which
both
dictators
pursued
to
conquer
territories
in
an
aggressive
manner.
Thus,
these
dictators
were
able
to
pursue
their
desires
without
much
interference
from
the
allies.
However,
it
must
be
considered
that
their
pursuit
for
territory
and
their
aggressive
policies
were
not
the
main
cause
for
the
outbreak
of
war.
The
allied
policy
of
appeasement
which
allowed
them
to
do
so
is
to
hold
equal
significance.
such
advice.
Additionally,
despite
the
sanctions
of
the
League
Covenant,
the
organisation
did
not
possess
a
true
balance
of
world
powers,
and
hence
the
consequences
of
breaking
articles
are
not
considered
severe.
The
United
States,
for
example,
did
not
ratify
the
Treaty
of
Versailles
and
did
not
believe
in
the
necessity
of
the
League
of
Nations,
hence
it
was
not
a
member.
Furthermore,
the
Soviet
Union
was
refused
membership
based
on
fears
of
Communism.
Thus,
these
two
powerful
nations
were
not
included
in
the
provisions
of
disarmament.
As
a
result,
member
nations
did
not
disarm
completely
as
the
Covenant
called
for
disarmament
based
on
the
defence
of
their
nation.
With
two
super
powers
not
bound
by
such
policies,
effectively
disarmament
failed
as
signatory
nations
feared
their
security.
Hence
the
dictatorships
of
Hitler
and
Mussolini
recognised
the
failure
of
collective
security
which
allowed
them
to
pursue
their
aggressive
policies
of
expansionism
without
repercussions.
The
conflict
of
Abyssinia
is
an
example
whereby
the
dictatorship
in
Italy
and
the
failure
of
collective
security
are
to
hold
equal
significance
in
bringing
about
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe.
Abyssinia
provided
Mussolini
with
an
opportunity
for
imperial
expansion,
the
restoration
of
Italian
honour
and
economically
viable
resources
and
export
markets.
Mussolini
had
used
the
death
of
Italian
soldiers
in
a
clash
at
Walwal
as
an
excuse
for
invasion.
Abyssinia
appealed
to
the
League
of
Nations
for
assistance;
yet
they
simply
declared
that
neither
party
were
at
fault
for
the
clash.
Upon
recognising
the
failure
of
the
League
to
implement
sanctions,
Mussolini
invaded
Abyssinia
with
brutal
willingness.
It
was
only
then
that
the
League
Council
declared
Italy
to
be
the
aggressor.
As
a
result
the
League
imposed
sanctions
on
Italy
which
ultimately
did
not
have
a
significant
effect.
They
placed
a
ban
on
economic
commodities,
however
excluded
coal
and
oil
which
were
the
necessities
of
war;
and
nations
such
as
Austria,
Hungary
and
Switzerland
refused
to
impose
the
sanctions.
Furthermore,
Italy
had
Germanys
military
and
economic
support
which
overrode
the
minor
effects
of
the
sanctions.
As
such,
Mussolinis
actions
in
Abyssinia
caused
the
tensions
in
Europe
to
rise
and
effectively
undermined
the
principles
of
collective
security.
Hence,
it
can
be
seen
that
although
this
invasion
significantly
contributed
to
the
outbreak
of
war
in
Europe,
the
failure
of
collective
security
ultimately
allowed
Hitler
and
Mussolini
to
break
international
law
without
repercussions,
to
which
it
is
to
hold
an
equally
significant
role.
Historian
AJP
Taylor
emphasises
the
ineffectiveness
collective
security
in
promoting
its
aim
of
international
peace:
this
was
the
death
blow
to
the
League
as
well
as
to
Abyssinia
Although
the
dictatorships
in
Italy
and
Germany
and
their
aggressive
policies
of
expansionism
significantly
contributed
to
the
outbreak
of
war,
the
allied
policy
of
appeasement
and
the
failure
of
collective
security
are
to
hold
equal
significance.
Due
to
such
misgivings,
they
ultimately
allowed
these
dictatorships
to
pursue
a
boundless
policy
of
expansionism;
although
the
Allies
themselves
were
in
a
much
stronger
position
to
suppress
them.
Thus,
while
the
dictatorships
played
a
critical
role,
they
cannot
be
deemed
the
main
cause
of
the
conflict
in
Europe
alone
as
there
were
a
variety
of
factors
in
a
gradual
process
rather
than
the
perceived
immediate.
Word
Count:
1289