Nick Krol

Popular Mechanics Article

The Final Frontier: Getting Computers to Work in Space

Credit: NASA, ESA, H. Teplitz and M. Rafelski (IPAC/Caltech), A. Koekemoer (STScI), R.

Windhorst (Arizona State University), and Z. Levay (STScI)
Imagine youre at your job, sitting in an office doing work. Every now and then there will
be a slight distraction, but overall you have peace and quiet. Now imagine the same situation, but
every few seconds a group of lunatics runs past your door screaming at the top of their lungs. It
would be pretty difficult to get anything done, right? This is exactly the problem with electronics
in space. The lunatics (cosmic radiation) upsets the normal function of the computer and makes it
difficult to perform any task given to it.

In order to understand how radiation makes operating a computer a problem, it is first

important to understand how computers work. Transistors, a type of semiconductor device, have
an integral part in everything a computer does. Advanced computers can have billions of them,
and they are all used as either on/off switches or amplifiers. Combinations of transistors in
different on and off states are used to store data or control outputs. When used as an amplifier,
small inputs result in an output many orders of magnitude larger. This is due to the nature of the
semiconductor lattice, which allows large currents to flow through the device when a small
signal is applied. A loudspeaker at a concert uses transistors in this manner to boost a singers
voice.
Under normal operation on Earth, transistors will work consistently and reliably, because
the level of noise in the circuit is low. Think of noise as static during a phone call. A little bit is
tolerable, and you will still be able to understand the voice coming through the line. If there is
too much static, you cant understand what was said and the information is lost. If the level of
noise in a circuit is too high, amplifiers will produce a distorted signal, and switches can flip
position unintentionally.
Noise in the circuit:
Radiation can be thought of simply as free floating energy. On Earth, we are protected
from this by the magnetic field that naturally surrounds the planet. When in space, this field
doesnt provide any protection. The energy in the form of radiation will bombard the computers
and introduce this static in the phone call. If enough of this energy is deposited in the right
spot, transistors that are in the off position can turn on, and vice versa. This can cause
everything from small glitches in the system, to the corruption of memory, to total catastrophic
failure. Imagine sitting at a red light while cars pass in front of you. Suddenly, without touching
the gas pedal, you start accelerating into traffic. Things would get ugly pretty quickly. The same
failure could happen if an engine accidentally turned on in space.
Damage:
Revert back to the lunatics outside your office analogy. Now imagine every time they
walked by, they threw rocks at you. If enough rocks hit you or your computer, some permanent
damage could be done. Radiation effects transistors in much the same way. If enough particles
hit the device, the ability to detect the small input signal and amplify it is greatly reduced.
Without amplifiers, communication is impossible, and acquisition of weak data signals is no
longer an option. Because most things in space are really far away, almost all data signals are
weak. Take GPS as an example. A satellite must acquire a signal from a cellphone with enough
accuracy to determine location. The great distance combined with the limited transmitting power
of such a small device means that if the amplifiers in the satellite arent working perfectly, GPS
would be useless.
Consequences:
Many modern amenities depend on technology in satellites; television, cell phones, radio,
and GPS are but a few. While the old ways of doing these things didnt require satellites, most of

the advancements in these fields are due to the increased efficiency allowed by beaming signals
to and from space. As these technologies become more and more complex, they also become
more susceptible to noise introduced by radiation. Scientists have been aware of this problem for
a while, but no permanent solution has been found.
The first solution involves protecting the transistors from radiation. In other words,
putting up a wall to block the rocks the lunatics are throwing. While this generally does a good
job, a perfect wall has yet to be built. Most of the radiation will be blocked, but enough will get
through to still cause problems. The second solution is redundant circuitry. If you cant do your
work because you are having rocks thrown at you, then have two other people in different rooms
doing the same thing. Chances are all three people wont get hit with rocks at the same time, and
they can all fill in the gaps if one person is taken out of commission for a while. If you have three
circuits working at the same task, a disruption in one will be corrected by the other two. This
method also has its down side. Imagine if a company had to have three people doing the task for
each individual. They would need triple the space, and it cost three times as much to get the same
work done that would be if there were no lunatics. Circuits have the same problems with space
and power. Satellites must run on batteries with limited power supply, so excess use is
unacceptable. As of right now, the current satellites use combinations of these solutions. In some
cases, circuits are shielded, and in other cases there are multiple transistors performing the same
task.
Because of the added complexity of designing a circuit for use in space, it can take up to
ten years of design and testing before an electronic system that works perfectly on the ground
will be ready for orbit. As technology gets more complicated, this time will only increase.
Hopefully a better solution is on the way, and the science fiction universes we have all heard
about will be one step closer to becoming a reality.

Works Cited
Li, Xing-Ji, Effect of ionizing radiation on dual 8-bit analog-to-digital converters with various
dose rates and bias conditions in Chinese Physics B, 2013, Vol 22
McHale, John, Steady as she goes: the space electronics market is moving steadily along while
exploring smaller and smaller form factors to increase performance. Meanwhile, the methods for
radiation-hardening electronics remain the same in Military and Aerospace Electronics, June
2010, Vol 21, Pg. 24