An Instrumental Approach to Jazz Singing

ANNE FARNSWORTH

JAZZ VOCAL
TECHNIQUES
An Instrumental Method

By Anne Farnsworth

JazzMedia Press
2461 Coolidge Ave
Los Angeles, Ca 9 0 0 6 4
310.770.3015
www.jazzmediapress.com
Copyright 2000

All Rights Reserved

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many thanks to my fellow faculty members at the University of Southern

California Jazz Studies Department for their positive support of this project,
especially Dr. Thom Mason, founding chair, who was gracious enough to answer
my email questions and read pages.
My voice teachers down the line - Janice McVeigh in Vocal Arts at USC
Thornton School of Music, who not only improved my voice but helped me to
improve the voices of my own students. At New England Conservatory, there
was Bernard Barbeau on the classical side and Dominique Eade in Jazz Studies
(So pretty! So talented! Alas, too nice to hate!) Prior to that, there were the
countless ladies I went to in my search for whatever it was a vocalist did,
including the leathery former Big Band singer who blew smoke rings in my face
as she coached my singing.
On piano, oh boy, what a list of luminaries - how come Im not smarter? In
reverse chronological order we have Hal Galper, Bill Cunliffe, John Clayton (he
teaches piano?, everyone asks. No, he teaches music), Terry Trotter (a
gentleman and a gentle man).
In Boston, there was George Garzone, tenor man and visionary, who
kicked my butt both at the Conservatory and on the stand. Thank you, George,
if it wasnt for you I might still be pulling shifts at the Cambridge Hyatt. Jerry
Bergonzi, another great tenor player (after all, nobodys human). Jeff Covell,
Mike Marra, who I met while wandering the halls of Berklee one late afternoon
vowing to find myself a piano teacher, and stayed with for three years. My
neighbor and friend, Bruce Katz, who gave me a few pointers not only in
playing but in pedagogy, and the vocalists who hired me, especially Sharon
Jones, (Brown Sugar to you New Englanders), and Dick Short, two wonderful
singers who taught me how you put on a show, honey.
In Syracuse, in my other life as a classical pianist, there was Dr. Bishop, a
wonderful lady who gave her all to her students. Before that there was Mr.
Diameco, my teacher from seventh grade to twelfth, whom I also discovered
with my hall wandering technique after we moved to another town. And my
very first teacher, Mrs. Fuller, who, after giving me my seven A.M. lesson, would
make me breakfast and drive me to school.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
1-8
What is a Jazz Singer; Gender Issue?; Jazz in the University;
Importance of Piano; Rhythm; Swing Feel; Improvisation;
Repertoire; Jazz Singing and Singers;

II

INTERVALS, SCALES, & CHORDS

9-23
Intervals; Scales; Enharmonics; Triads; Progressions;
Diatonic relationships; Modes; Ear training; Exercises;

III

WHERE ARE WE?

24-33
Form; Sections; Bridgeless Standards; Bossa Nova;
Rhythm Changes; Twelve Bar Blues; Four Bar Phrases;
Examples;

IV

DID YOU BRING YOUR CHARTS?

34-48
Sitting in; Your Book; Casuals; Fake Books; Transposing;
Chord Symbols; Key Signatures; Circle of Fifths; T i m e
Signatures; Signs and Terms;

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE BLUES

49-58
Beginnings; American Folksong; Harmonic Development;
Modern Blues Form; Lowered Seventh; Substitution Chords;
Jazz Blues Form; Blues Variations; Minor Blues; Rock & Roll;

VI

IMPROVISATION ON THE BLUES

59-77
Common Tones; Solfege; Scat Syllables; Blues Exercises;
Modes and the Blues Form; Blue Notes; Blues Scale; Motives;
Passing & Approach notes; Building a Solo;
II

VII HARMONY IN JAZZ STANDARDS

78-100
I-VI-II-V Progression; Turnarounds; II-V-I Progression;
Tonal Centers; Parent Scales; Soloing over II-V-I;
Analysis: Satin Doll; Lady Is A Tramp; Sub Chords i n
Turnarounds; Lady Is A Tramp Bridge; Arpeggios on Lady Is A
Tramp; Step Down Progression; Text-Focused Improv; S h o u t
Chorus; Exercises;
VIII INTROS, TAGS, AND CODAS
101-111
Intros; Rootless Voicings; Counting off a Tune; Tags;
Tritone Substitution; Bossa Nova Codas;
IX

ADVANCED IMPROV
112-135
Transcriptions; Vocalese; Upper Structure Chord Tones; Bebop
Style; 7-3 And 9-5 Resolutions; Approach Notes; Bop Style
Motives; Sideslipping; Sequences; Quotes; Using Modes;
Analysis: Bossa Nova harmony; Analysis: All The Things Y o u
Are;

ALTERED CHORDS AND SCALES

136-142
Altered Dominants; Altered Scales; Bebop Scales;
Minor II-V-I; Upper Structure Piano Voicings;
Altered Bop Motives; Phrasing;

XI

YOU ARE FEELING VERY RELAXED...

143-152
Relaxation Exercises; The Jaw and the Tongue;
Breathing; Open Your Mouth And Say Ah; Support;
Visualization; Singing Principles; Scatting Exercises;

XII

I NEED A GIG!
153-158
Where The Gigs Are; Who to Call; Equipment;
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
DISCOGRAPHY
INDEX

159-160
161-162
163-164
III

I
WHAT IS A JAZZ SINGER?

What makes a singer a Jazz singer? Is it the repertoire she chooses? Does
she scat? Is it her swinging beat? A good sense of time? A Jazz singer is
distinguished by all of these things. But the best are more accurately defined as
Jazz musicians. Jazz musicians play Jazz - whether they do it with a trumpet, a
tuba, a kazoo, or their voice. They speak a common musical language, learn the
rules of theory and harmony, and, if theyre creative and far-sighted, break
those rules to expand the Jazz universe for the rest of us.
Is a Jazz musician born or made? You may listen to Sarah or Ella grooving
on one of their masterful scat solos and tell yourself, No way could I ever do
that. You may not even be sure what that is - you just like the sound or feel of
their style of music. Maybe its the profound passion and intimate delivery of
Billie or Bessie that moves you. You relate to their strong feelings but are not
sure how to express them yourself.
Jazz musicians are born a n d made. Born in the sense that your cultural
surroundings, aptitudes, and an attraction to music are characteristics that you
land on the planet with. But that is only the beginning. The journey from there
to becoming a master musician is made by you. If, when people ask you why
you picked music as your vocation, you reply, I didnt pick music. Music
picked me, you are a musician. Because you will do whatever it takes to reach
1.

your goals - artistic self-expression and the joy of sharing yourself and your
gifts with other musicians and the world.

GENDER ISSUE

Whether in the academic arena or out in the trenches of the performing

world, we are faced with the unfortunate fact that singers are often not treated
with the same level of respect that instrumentalists accord each other. And
since, at least so far, the majority of singers are female and the majority of
instrumentalists are male, this could be construed as a gender issue. Once
again, the patriarchy keeping women down? Not exactly.
Look at it this way: say a boy, maybe twelve or thirteen, picks up an
instrument. He then proceeds to spend the bulk of his teen years sitting in his
bedroom learning how to play. Maybe in high school he starts a band with
some other guys who have been sweating it out on their instruments as well.
They realize that to compete in the marketplace, that is to nab the senior prom
gig, they need a singer. Theres a pretty girl who likes to sing and can carry a
tune so they take her on. She memorizes the lyrics and the melody to a few of
her favorite songs, cops her favorite singers licks, and shes on her way.
They start to rehearse and its not long before the guys realize that they
are conversing in a musical language of which she is completely ignorant. So
they talk around her, planning arrangements, choosing keys, and she become
marginalized. Multiply that scenario by the thousands and you have the
formative experience that ingrains in the players mind a prejudice, a
prejudgment, that singers are not real musicians. You guy singers out there
may be given the benefit of the doubt because, well, lets just call it a guy thing.
But that benefit will only buy you about five minutes on the bandstand if you
show yourself to be just another pretty voice.
Today, more and more girls are stepping out of the traditionally female
circle of piano, flute, or violin, picking up saxophones, trumpets, and guitars.
Theyre playing in high school jazz bands and heading off to college to continue
their musical studies. These young women are groundbreakers, tiny islands of
femininity in a deep sea of maleness and when you ladies out there look
unprofessional or just not serious about what you are doing, it makes it harder
for them.
So it is a gender issue to some extent, but one with an easily remedied
solution. How? By learning to read music and developing an understanding of

2.

basic theory and harmony. This allows you to step onto the bandstand as an
equal partner, possessed of a musical training on a par with your colleagues.

JAZZ IN THE UNIVERSITY

The average vocalist enrolling in a university level Jazz Studies program
enters woefully unprepared in comparison to his/her fellow students majoring
in piano, saxophone, or guitar. One exception may be drummers, who, like
singers, can reach a certain level of skill and participate in a group playing
situation without having to read music.
Entering university as a music student without a basic working knowledge
of reading and writing music is like going to college to study English literature
and not being able to read and write English. How can you understand what the
instructor is talking about? What they write on the blackboard? How can you
do your homework?
Jazz in the academic world is a relative newcomer. Most Jazz Studies
Departments exist under the umbrella of a classically oriented music school or
department. This ancillary status means that the Jazz major is required to study
the core Classical curriculum - history, harmony, oral skills, etc., in addition to
her Jazz studies. Youll find yourself sitting next to whiz kids who have been
playing their instruments and reading music for most of their lives, and the
classes will move at their speed, not yours. Its in your best interest to be
prepared before you plunk down that hefty tuition payment.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PIANO

Even if you have no plans to study Jazz in an academic setting, youll still
need to learn your craft. A lot of people studied piano when they were young.
If you were one of the fortunate kids dragged kicking and screaming to piano
lessons while your friends played ball, call your parents right now and thank
them! Youve got basic music reading skills. If youve never taken a piano
lesson in your life, start now. Sign up for private lessons or take a beginning
class at your local community college or music store. Recycle grandmas old
upright, rent a spinet, or buy a used electronic keyboard. Do whatever it takes
to get your hands on some keys and start practicing!
3.

You dont need to be a great pianist. After all, your practice time is
limited and your main interest is singing. You just need to be able to read
melody lines in order to learn new tunes, maybe play some basic chords to
accompany yourself. If your piano skills are already in place, so much the
better. In a short while you could find yourself doing solo work, singing and
accompanying yourself in a small club or restaurant. Its a great way to gain
experience in front of an audience while you work out arrangements and
develop your own personal style. Think of it as paid practice.
Most serious musicians, whether in Jazz, Classical, or Pop, play piano in
addition to their primary instrument. Sarah Vaughn and Aretha Franklin played
so well that they often sat down at the piano in the course of a concert to
accompany themselves. Composers and arrangers write at the piano, music
students use it for their harmony and ear training studies, singers use it to
vocalize and learn new material. The piano is the musicians desk; its where we
do our work. Having the ability to practice, learn new songs or write your own
charts gives you control over your musical growth. Youll also save a lot of
money by not having to hire rehearsal pianists or arrangers.
Were going to discuss theory in this book. Thats how the instrumentalists
learn improv and thats how you can, too. Dont be afraid - if you can add, you
can figure it out. But its one thing to understand it on the page; its another to
be able to hear it. Thats where the piano comes in. The keyboard can guide you
while you develop your ear.

RHYTHM
There are two components that distinguish Jazz from other styles of music rhythm and improvisation. Jazz rhythms have the element of swing, a
syncopated pulse that puts accents on the second and fourth beats of the bar,
known as upbeats, rather than on the more traditional first, the d o w n b e a t1, and
third beats. This accent on two and four shifts the rhythmic base, creating a
sense of forward momentum that energizes the music.

4.
1

The terms downbeat and upbeat refer to the conductor's arm movement as he describes a 2/4, 3/4 or 4/4
rhythm. The conductor swings the baton downward on beat one and back up on beat two.

Clap the accented beats while you sing the following

example. How does the 'feel' of the rhythm change?

Ex. 1.1
Sing as you clap on beats one and three

Row

row

row your

boat

Gently

down the stream _________

Now clap on t w o and four

Row

row

row your

boat

Gently

down the stream____________

Dont feel a difference? Try it at a faster tempo.

SWING FEEL
Put identical pieces of music in front of a jazz player and a classical player
and they will play the notes of the melody with different rhythms. The classical
musician will play the rhythms as written, a precise division of the beat, while
the Jazz player will alter the quarter and eighth notes in a triplet/rest fashion.
This rhythmic alteration is what we call swing feel, also known as jazz eighths.
See next example.
5.

Ex. 1.2
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star

'Straight Eighths' - sung as written

'Jazz Eighths'
Hint: Say the word "choc-o-late" slowly and evenly three times in a row. This
is eighth note triplet rhythm. Now clap on the first and third syllables
of "choc-o-late" in the pattern and you'll have this rhythmic figure.

REPERTOIRE
The repertoire of material played by most Jazz musicians traditionally has
come from outside of the jazz world. Broadway show tunes, Tin Pan Alley, even
pop and rock tunes have been appropriated to become what are called J a z z
standards. But once in the hands of a Jazz musician they share one
commonality. They swing.

IMPROVISATION

Improvisation is the other key element that defines Jazz. In the early 20th
century, when Jazz was born, no other style of music incorporated improv as an
integral part of performance. In centuries past, European classical musicians

6.

learned to improvise and were expected to use that skill in their performances.
Remember the famous 'cutting contest' between the young Mozart and the
older Salieri in the movie "Amadeus"?
Over time, that ability declined in performance in deference to the
composers vision. Musician-composers like Bach and Mozart wrote out their
improvisations under the rubric of Theme and Variations. The implicit
suggestion was that the performer play the composers solo, and refrain from
making any additions of their own.
This play it as written mentality continued into the nineteenth century
when there was strong public opinion against flashy soloists who veered off on
their own flights of fancy. Thank goodness we have the outlet of Jazz with
which to express ourselves. A Jazz musician is an instantaneous composer,
writing on the spot and expressing the mood of the moment.

JAZZ SINGING AND SINGERS

When Jazz was in its infancy, the distinct sounds created by horn players
was due, in part, to the musicians attempts to replicate the phrasing and tones
of the human voice, specifically the styles and sounds the early African
Americans brought from their native lands. Blues intonations, field hollers, the
church-centered testifying and shout choruses, all were incorporated into what
we now identify as a jazz sound.
As singers began to appear in the late 20s and 30s, they turned the
concept of singing around by replicating the sounds of the jazz horns. Thus
was born a more instrumental style of singing. Even if they never used scat
syllables, they enhanced the melody, embellishing it with new notes, throwing
others away. The rhythm of the melodic line was also an area of
experimentation, delaying the start of a line and catching up later. This is
called singing behind the beat, a technique that Billie Holiday developed to such
an extent that every singer who follows her is in her debt when they play with
the rhythm in their singing.
This melodic and rhythmic rephrasing of the original melody of a vocal
song is called text-focused improvisation. Nat King Cole was a master of this
subtle type of improvisation, as are more contemporary singers like Dianne
Reeves and Diana Krall. Their smooth, swinging delivery adds excitement to the
most mundane melodies and the creativity in their execution ensures that we
never hear them sing the same way twice.
The storytelling, conversational aspects of the Blues add another
dimension to Jazz singing, creating an intimate connection with the audience.
7.

This connection comes out in ad-libbed asides such as hear me tellin ya,
interjections that add a sharp rhythmic excitement akin to a drummers rim
shot. Joe Williams spiked his fluid, sophisticated delivery with many such
shouts and cries, and the audience responded in kind to this heightened
emotionalism.
Scat singing, creating a melodic line spontaneously with syllables and
sounds, is more closely linked to the instrumental solo. This is called abstract
improvisation2, the most challenging of vocal styles. Just as withinstrumentalists,
when its good, its magic, but when its bad, well, better not to hear it at all!
Ella Fitzgerald and Sarah Vaughan are the undisputed leaders of this type
of improv, forging a style that is the gold standard of scat. Betty Carter, with
her driving, hard bop approach, transformed every piece of music that she cast
her talents on, stretching standard intonation and opening our ears to new
possibilities. Tania Maria melds her sharp, percussive piano playing with an
equally percussive scatting style. Among the men, Al Jarreaus early albums
show him to be one of the modern masters of abstract improv, along with
Bobby McFerrin with his unique gift of instrumental mimicry. Mark Murphys
muscular approach is aggressively masculine yet at the same time supremely
sensitive.
The compendium of great Jazz singers is too long to list here, spanning as
it does the breadth of the twentieth century. The important thing is for you to
get hold of their albums or CDs and wear them out! If youre not already
familiar with these singers, ask for referrals from Jazz-loving friends or
musicians. Use the discography in the appendix of this book as a guide.
Remember, Jazz is an aurally transmitted art form. What you see on the
page isnt what comes out of the singers mouth and you wont be able to speak
this special language with authority without hearing the accent of the natives. A
conscientious and wide-ranging study of established masters is probably the
most important element of the young jazz musicians education. Youll get the
theory, youll learn the tunes, and youll conquer your stage fright. But first,
you need to get the sounds in your ears.

8.
2

The terms TEXT-FOCUSED IMPROV and ABSTRACT IMPROV were coined by Dr. Thom Mason
of the University of Southern California's Thornton School of Music. Of late, he has dropped abstract
improv, replacing it with THROUGH-COMPOSED, a label conceived by his colleague at USC,
Professor Shelton Berg.

II
INTERVALS, SCALES, & CHORDS

Lets do a quick overview of intervals, the distance between two pitches. If

this is all new to you, get a basic theory book and start studying. Ask your
private instructor or a musician friend to sit down with you at a piano and
answer any questions you might have. The concepts are not difficult but they
are easier to visualize on the keyboard.
The unit of space from one key on the piano to the very next one,
whether a black key or a white one, is called a half step a n d the interval is a
minor second. Two adjacent keys comprise a whole step, a major second. The
amount of half and/or whole steps between two pitches determines the size of
the interval.

9.

Some of the intervals found within the C octave:

C to C
C to D

Minor Second
Major Second

1 half step
2 half steps

C to E
C to E
C to F
C to F
C to G
C to G
C to A

Minor Third
3 half steps
Major Third
4 half steps
Perfect Fourth
5 half steps
Augmented Fourth 6 half steps
Perfect Fifth
7 half steps
Augmented Fifth
8 half steps
Major Sixth
9 half steps

C to B
C to B
C to C

Minor Sixth
Major Seventh
Perfect Octave

10 half steps
11 half steps
12 half steps

Intervals smaller than an octave are called simple intervals. Intervals larger
than an octave are compound intervals . For example, the interval between C and
its adjacent D is a major 2nd, but between C and D above the octave C is a 9th.
You can make a rough estimation of the size of an interval by counting the keys
between the two notes. From C to E, for example, a major third, you count C, D,
E, three notes. But B to D is a minor third
(B-C -D); therefore it is important to be aware of the amount of half steps in an
interval.
A good rule of thumb is that major and perfect intervals are those found
in the major scale and minor intervals are the minor scale. This rule does not
apply to diminished and augmented intervals. But it is easy to think of a
diminished interval as being shortened by a half step. Conversely, the
augmentation of an interval involves adding one half step.

10.

Ex. 2.1
SIMPLE INTERVALS

m2

M2

m3

M3

P4

aug.4

dim.5

P5

m6

M6

m7

M7

P8

COMPOUND INTERVALS

m9

M9

m10

M10

P11

aug.11

m13

M13

SCALES

The intervals above refer to pitches that are sounded together. Intervallic
relationships between two consecutive pitches work on the same principle.
Scales are pitches arranged in patterns of whole and half steps in an ascending
or descending order. Starting with the tonic , also known as the root, seven
pitches are played and the tonic is repeated one octave away. These pitches,
called degrees of the scale, are numbered 1 (root) through 8 (the root one
octave above). The fourth degree of a scale is known as the sub-dominant and
the fifth is the keys dominant.

11.

Major and minor scales have fixed

patterns of whole and half steps.
Ex. 2.2
C Major Scale

C Natural Minor Scale

Note that the patterns of whole and half steps are different in the
two scales. This difference is what gives each scale its special s o u n d .
MAJOR SCALES - WWHWWWH
MINOR SCALES - WHWWHWW

Play the examples on the piano. See if you can

find Major and minor scales in other keys, u s i n g
the same formula. If the pattern is played correctly,
they should sound the same - just higher or lower
depending on your starting pitch.

12.

A scale composed of half steps only is called a chromatic scale.

Ex. 2.3

C Chromatic

Scale

Scales made completely of whole steps are called whole tone scales.

Ex. 2.4

Whole Tone Scale

Other scales that Jazz musicians use are alterations of the Major and minor
scales. Well look at some altered scales in Chapter X.

ENHARMONICS

Some of these intervals have two designations, because pitches can have
two different names. These are called enharmonics - a term meaning same pitch,
different name. For example, E flat and D sharp are the same note, as is F sharp
and G flat. C to C sharp is a minor 2nd as is C to D flat. An augmented 4th (C F sharp, e.g.) sounds the same interval as a diminished 5th (C - G flat).
Minor and diminished intervals are also known as flat , as in a
flat(ted) 7th.

13.

Which enharmonic we use depends on the key signature - flats with flats and
sharps with sharps, although, in common practice, jazz charts allow for more
flexibility in this area.

TRIADS
A chords quality refers to its tonality - whether it is major or minor and
what, if any, extra pitches are added to the basic triad. A triad is a three note
chord, containing the root, 3rd, and 5th. The root is the most important pitch
and the one the chord is named for. Next in importance is the third, for it is the
pitch that determines whether the chord is major or minor.
So, when we talk about a triad being made up of the root, 3rd, and 5th
degrees of a scale, can you see what those intervals are? Jazz chords nearly
always add the 7th, as well as upper structure pitches (compound intervals) such
as the 9th, 11th, and 13th. These pitches can also be flatted or sharped, further
altering the chords quality. The pitches that make up a chord are called c h o r d
t o n e s . When they are used in an improvised line, they can also be called
consonant tones.
The player or composers choice of pitches and where they place them in
relation to each other is how they voice the chord, hence a chord played in a
certain way is called a v o i c i n g .
The term derives from early classical
compositions written for four to six voices. Each melodic line moved
independently in a vertical direction, the voices sounding simultaneously in a
pleasing manner. If you took a horizontal sweep of all the voices in one spot,
the notes would constitute a chord. That assemblage of pitches is the chords
particular voicing.
You can also think of these chords as a series of major or minor thirds
stacked on top of each other. A major triad is a minor third sitting on a major
third; a minor triad is a minor third below a major third. Adding the 7th to the
chord gives you a third third above the triad, major or minor depending on
whether the 7th is major or minor. A diminished chord is minor thirds stacked
on top of each other.

Ex. 2.5
Major Triad

14.

Major 7th

Dom. 7th

Minor Triad

Minor 7th

Dim. Triad

Dim. 7 t h

PROGRESSIONS
Jazz musicians often work with chord charts. Instead of the traditionally
arranged piece of sheet music with a fully realized piano accompaniment, a
chord chart contains only chord symbols laid out on a graph representing the
measures, with or without the melody. The musician learns what kinds of
chords these symbols represent, as well as hip voicings to play. The chords in a
jazz chart are referred to as the changes, as in the chord changes to this and
then it changes to that. A series of changes is known as a chord progression.
Lets look at a basic progression using the tonic (root), sub-dominant
(4th degree), and dominant (5th degree). These changes are the foundation of
all western music. Everything else is just an elaboration of this basic
progression.

Play the c h ords on the piano. Memorize

the sound of the root m o v e m e n t .
Ex. 2.6

C:

N.B.

IV

We identify the intervals of a chord with Arabic n u m b e r s .

When we want to number the c h ords in a progression,
we use the same intervals but with Roman n u m e r a l s .

So the numbers work two ways:

1. Vertically (individual chord tones - Arabic numbers)
2. Horizontally (progression - Roman numerals).
Chords in root position , which are voiced with the root at the bottom, can
be awkward to execute and make the progression sound disjointed, not flowing.
That is the reason we play inversions , changing the placement of the basic
pitches.

15.

Here is the same progression in inversions.

Ex. 2.7

C:

IV

Play it and compare the sound w i t h Ex. 2.6.

DIATONIC RELATIONSHIPS
If you take a scale and build chords on top of each pitch without adding
any sharps or flats (accidentals) you are working within the key, or diatonically.
Each chord will have a specific quality that remains the same no matter what
key you are in. See Ex. 2.8.

Ex. 2.8

I
M7

N.B.

ii
m7

iii
m7

IV
M7

V
dom.7

vi
m7

vii
m7b5

Minor chords are designated with an i and a

lower case v, instead of I and V
Here is a description of each c h o r d :
NAME
Major 7th
Minor 7th
Dominant 7th
Minor 7 5

DESCRIPTION
- Major triad with a major 7th (I, IV)
- Minor triad with a minor 7th (II, III, VI)
-Major triad with a minor 7th (V)
-Minor triad with a lowered 5th & 7th (VII)3

16.
3

Also known as a half diminished chord.

Minor keys have another harmonic progression in accordance with the

scales different formula of half and whole steps. When working with minor
harmony, the seventh degree of the scale is raised, creating what is known as
the Harmonic Minor Scale . This raised seventh is the third pitch of the five chord,
making the chord a V7, rather than a v7 (minor 7).

Heres a example in C Harmonic Minor

(E , A , B is the regular key s i g n a t u r e4 )
Ex. 2.9

i
m +7

ii
m7-5

+III
Aug7

iv
m7

V
dom7

VI
Maj7

vii
dim.7

T o n i c is the most important chord in a progression. It is the home chord

and sounding it gives the progression a sense of completion. Dominant is the

second most important, for it leads to tonic and subdominant leads us to the
dominant. All of the other chords in a progression are stepping stones to or
from tonic to dominant to tonic.
In most styles of music, except for classical, any major triad with a minor
seventh is referred to as a dominant seven because it only occurs naturally, or
diatonically, on the fifth degree of the scale. These are also known as V7 chords
(pronounced five-seven chords) for the same reason. They might not be the
actual dominant of the key but are called dominant sevens nonetheless. Is your
brain overheating? Hang on, were almost through.

MODES

Youll need to be familiar with major and minor scales and their key
signatures in order to use m o d e s , special kinds of scales. Often called church
17.
4

You can opt to use the flat or raised seventh in your soloing, but when writing progressions you'll want to use the raised
seventh (third of the V) in your V7 chords.

modes, they were developed in the middle ages for chantsinging in the Catholic
church.
You can think of modes as alterations of the major and minor scales. They
are used in jazz improvisation because they make a good match over different
chords without the excessive use of accidentals.
Using the keyboard again as a guide, think of a scale played only on white
keys from D - D. That is the Dorian mode and it works perfectly over a Dm7
chord which is also only white notes. The Mixolydian mode (G - G, e.g.) is
comparable to a major scale with a lowered seventh, just like a Dominant 7th
chord which is a major triad with a lowered seventh. This is far easier than
learning each modes distinct pattern of whole and half steps.
See Example 2.10.

Ex. 2.10

Youll find the seven modes and their names on page 23. My advice is to
become acquainted with the modes and their names and then set them aside
for now. There are easier ways to think modally and well talk about that in
Chapter V.

18.

EAR TRAINING

Part of a musicians education is ear training. Although important for any

style of music, it is critical for a Jazz musician to be able to identify intervals
and chord qualities by ear since we do most of our playing off the page.
Playing by ear has a pejorative connotation to non-musicians, implying as it
does that no real work is involved, the musician was just lucky enough to be
born with the ability to play anything that they hear. Nothing could be farther
from the truth, for ear training can be as much if not more difficult than musicreading skills and technical mastery of an instrument.
But this in an area where you, as a singer, can shine. As a matter of fact,
its an area where you n e e d to shine, for you dont have the security of being
able to look at your instrument and pick out by sight the pitches that you have
learned to use over a particular chord. If youre serious enough about singing
to have purchased this book, you probably already possess the necessary tools a pleasing voice with good intonation and the ability to replicate pitches that
you hear. Non-singing musicians study ear training diligently but their voices,
unlike yours, may not be as reliable, may not respond as readily to what the
musician asks it to do.
Sit down at your piano and learn the intervals by playing and singing
them until you have each ones particular sound memorized. Many students
use a cheat sheet of well-known songs to help them get started. For example,
the first two notes of Here Comes The Bride constitute a perfect fourth. The
signature tones of the NBC callsign are a major sixth going down a major third.
You can have fun with this, finding little melodic bits of songs that you
recognize as you study intervals. It wont be long before the interval sounds
like what it is, and not just the first two notes of Love Story (minor sixth). Make
yourself a tape with a series of intervals and listen to it away from the piano, in
your car, at the beach, wherever you can. Intervals are the basic building blocks
of chords and progressions and you need to make them your best friends.

Complete the following exercises.

Check your work on the piano.
19.

A.

20.

Build diatonic seventh chords over these scales.

Label them with Roman numerals below and chord
names above. Remember to use the accidentals
found in the key.

B.

Build chords based on the Harmonic Minor scale.

NB: The raised seventh allows for a Dominant fifth

chord r ather than a minor fifth c h o r d .

21.

C.

22.

Fill in the seventh chords in each progression, using the

Roman numerals as a guide. Write the names of the c h o r d s
(C Maj7, F7, etc.) under each one. When you have finished,
play them on the piano to hear how t hey sound.

THE SEVEN MODES

1. Ionian - Identical to the major scale

2. Dorian - Natural minor with a raised 6th ( 3, 7)

3. Phrygian - Natural minor plus flatted 2nd ( 2, 6, 7)

4. Lydian - Major scale with raised 4th ( 4)

5. Mixolydian - Major scale with a flatted 7th ( 7)

6. Aeolian - Identical to the natural minor scale ( 3, 6, 7)

7. Locrian - An altered minor scale ( 2, 3, 5, 6, 7)

23.

III
WHERE ARE WE?

Question:
Answer:

How do you know when a singer is knocking at

your door?
Because she cant find her key and she doesnt
know when to come in.

Ouch. That old musicians joke hurts - mainly because it is so often true.
An improvised solo is created out of the scales and chord tones available within
the harmonic framework of a song. This framework is known as the songs form.
Form is an integral part of the language of Jazz that you must learn before
you join in the musical dialogue. There is an exception, called Free Jazz, but
that style of playing is only done well by master musicians who have learned
the rules thoroughly enough to toss them away and paint their musical pictures
outside of the lines. Well look at improvisation in Chapter VI. First, lets talk
about form.

FORM

The length of the improvised solo can be short or long but it is governed
24.

by the form of the piece, that is the progression of chords that the composer
has chosen to make up his composition. One time through a song from
beginning to end (excluding any intros and/or codas which are played just
once) is called a chorus. The first chorus is played with the lead instrument(s)
or the vocalist stating the melody, with or without the lyrics. This is called the
head. Singing or playing the melody as written is called stating the head.
Subsequent c h o r u s e s minus the main melody are then repeated while the
soloists take turns playing their improvisations. Then we have a final chorus,
often referred to as the out chorus , where the melody is restated. Usually a coda
(special ending) is added to the out chorus and the tune is finished. Think of
the head or main melody choruses as bookends enclosing the solos of the
participating players.
You do not start or end your solo at any spot that you choose! There are
few things more jarring than a perky (and clueless) vocalist jumping in and
abruptly cutting short an instrumentalist just as he or she is building up a head
of steam. Inadvertent as it may be, its as rude as interrupting someone in the
middle of a sentence. Unless something different is planned, either with a
written or orally agreed upon arrangement, solos begin at the t o p, or
beginning of the chorus. Their ending can be either at the bottom of the
chorus or, as is common practice when the song features a vocalist, just before
t h e bridge. This is a standard protocol that allows the next soloist to prepare for
his or her entrance or for the head to be replayed and the tune ended.

SECTIONS
Okay, wheres this bridge and how much is the toll? Most Jazz standards
are written in a format called AABA or song form. This is a 32 bar (measure)
chorus broken up into four eight-bar sections. Duke Ellingtons Satin Doll and
Take the A Train are two classic examples. The first group of eight bars (A)
contains a melody and progression identical to the second one. The lyrics are
different but because of the melodic and harmonic repetition, this second
section is also designated as A, often referred to as the second A . The third
section of eight bars is different both melodically and harmonically, hence the
label B, or B section . This section is also referred to as the release , or less
commonly, the refrain or chorus.
Why chorus? Isnt that the whole piece one time through? It is now, but
when many of these tunes were written in the 20s and 30s, especially
25.

Broadway show tunes, there was another section that preceded the chorus. Over
the years this section, the original verse of the song, was dropped and over
time, forgotten. Now what was once the chorus of the longer song is considered
the entire piece.
Why these verses are not more popular today is a mystery, for many of
them have beautiful melodies and poignant, well-crafted lyrics. One reason
could be the fact that verses were often played tempo rubato , that is, at no set
tempo, or just more slowly than the chorus, and didnt set the right mood when
a bandleader wanted something lively to wake up the crowd. Also, in the case
of Broadway tunes, the lyrics of the opening verses tend to be very specific to
the plot of the show while the chorus relates a story or mood that is more
general in nature.
Its not hard to dig up these lost verses in older anthologies or single-song
sheet music and well worth the trouble. Including one or two of these fully
restored songs into an evenings performance adds a refreshing diversity to
your program, and following an unfamiliar verse with a well-known chorus
never fails to delight the audience.

BRIDGELESS STANDARDS

Some compositions fit the definition of a bridgeless standard in that they have,
you guessed it, no bridge. Their form can be defined as being AA or AB, for
example and they are often composed of two sixteen bar halves. Some wellknown bridgeless standards are My Romance, Just Friends, The Days of Wine
and Roses, and Autumn Leaves.

BOSSA NOVA

Bossa Nova is a Brazilian style of music that became popular in the United
States in the 1960s. Frank Sinatra recorded many Bossa Nova songs in concert
with one of the styles main composers, Antonio Carlos Jobim. Sometime later,
the saxophonist Stan Getz recorded an album, Getz a Go Go, with a Brazilian
singer named Astrid Gilberto; this album cemented Bossa Novas popularity
with the Jazz audience and Bossa Nova was immediately enfolded into the
repertoire.
26.

Bossa Nova songs generally follow the standard AABA format, but often
with harmonic distinctions such as chromatic and step-wise modulation (more
about that later). The main characteristic of Bossa Nova is the rhythm,
specifically the bassline. The term Bossa Nova means new bass in Portuguese
and it was truly a brand new thing to American ears.
In Chapter I, we talked about jazz eighths, the swing feel that
distinguishes Jazz from other styles of music. Bossa Nova is one of the few subgenres of Jazz, Jazz-Rock Fusion being another, that incorporate straight eighth
r h y t h m s5 .
You can count out the triplet feel of a swinging eighth note beat like this:
1 (e) a, 2 (e) a, 3 (e) a, 4 (e) a (one (ee) ah, two (ee) ah etc)6 .
The basic quarter note in straight eighths is divided into four segments,
sixteenth notes counted like this:

1 e & a - 2 e & a - 3 e & a - 4 e & a.

(one ee and ah...)

The Bossa Nova bassline centers on beats one and three, but the second
hit is anticipated, that is played on the second half of beat two, with another
hit on beat four. The pitches played are the root and fifth.

Ex. 3.1
C Maj7

You are probably familiar with many Bossa Nova songs, such as The Girl
From Ipanema, Meditation, and How Insensitive.
Unfortunately, these wonderful songs have gotten a bad rap from overuse
by lounge performers and their smooth style seems to have ingratiated
themselves with the programmers of elevator music. But there are many more
less overdone Bossas, Trieste, Gentle Rain, No More Blues, to name a few. Pick

27.
5

Dixieland Jazz, the first jazz style, also uses a straight eight as did some uptempo big band arrangements, such
as Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy, by the Andrews Sisters.

Remember, the 2nd part of a triplet in jazz eighth feel is felt, not articulated.

up the Stan Getz album or one of the many recorded by Jobim and you will fall
in love with the style.

RHYTHM CHANGES

Rhythm Changes refers to a group of Jazz compositions that use the

changes (chords) originally found in the old standard, Ive Got R h y t h m. Some
pieces written on rhythm changes are Oleo, a Sonny Rollins composition, and
Charlie Parkers Anthropology. The Flintstones Theme Song is also loosely
based on rhythm changes.
The form is AABA, but sometimes there is no melody written for the B
section (O l e o is an example). That means that when playing the head of a
rhythm changes song, the soloist improvises on B and goes back to the melody
for the last A section.
Rhythm changes tunes are popular sit-in selections for the same reason as
Twelve Bar Blues; the form or progression is the same, the only variable being
the key. Someone may call rhythm changes in B flat, for example, and start
playing any number of heads.

TWELVE BAR BLUES

The prevailing Blues form used by Jazz musicians is the Twelve Bar Blues.
Just as the name implies, a chorus is twelve bars long, significantly shorter than
the AABA form. There are eight bar and sixteen bar Blues formats as well,
though less common in the Jazz repertoire. A Blues piece also has a
distinguishing harmonic progression that is more structured than in the AABA
form. Well discuss the specifics of Blues harmony in Chapters V and VI.
When considering the poetic form of the lyric, Twelve Bar Blues can be
described as AAB. The first line, extending over four bars, is repeated in the
second four bar section. The final four bars have a different line which rhymes
with the first two lines.
Unlike the AABA Form, which usually contains only one set of lyrics, a
Blues song can have a number of verses exploring a certain situation or state of
mind. Song Form, which sprang from Tin Pan Alley in the early part of the
twentieth century, is a relative youngster when compared to its cousin, the
Blues. Because of this long history, most Blues songs are associated with a
certain singer or group, the original composer having long faded into the misty
realms of the past.
28.

This makes the Blues a more fluid form compositionally speaking, with
singers playing with and adding to the lyrics, passing these nuances down to
t h e next generation.
So, the bulk of the Jazz vocal repertoire draws from these forms: AABA,
the Blues, and Rhythm Changes. But there are exceptions. S u m m e r t i m e , a
popular standard from George Gershwins opera, Porgy and Bess, has a discrete
form that is not quite AABA and not quite Twelve Bar Blues, though it bears
similarities to both.
The harmonic format of Heres That Rainy Day, written by Jim Van
Heusen, is ABAC. Johnny Mercers Autumn Leaves is AABC.

FOUR BAR PHRASES

All of these examples share a four bar foundation in their composition.

Just as in Western classical music, the four bar grouping is a basic phrasing
unit, a rhythmic and harmonic building block of the form. As your saxophone
player heads into his thirteenth chorus you may find yourself beaming
beatifically while your foot is tapping like a jackhammer and your brain is
frying as you frantically count bars. Thats okay, for with practice you will soon
be able to feel four and eight bar phrases, even whole choruses. This author
once played behind a singer who actually dozed off during an instrumental
solo, only to have his subconscious timekeeper jerk him awake at the top of the
tune!
One last joke:
Just before they were to begin their nightly gig, the pianist says to the
vocalist: "OK, this is how we're going to do the first tune. We play the first 8
bars as usual, but add a beat on the last measure of the1st ending. On the
repeat, go back to 4/4, but modulate up a minor 2nd. Skip the last bar of the
second ending and go straight to the bridge in 3/4 and modulate up a minor
3rd. Modulate back down a major 2nd on the second bar and I'll take a solo. On
the 5th bar of the bridge you come back with the lyrics, skip the last '8' and go
directly to the coda, but only the first 3 bars. Then go back to the first 8 bars
and end in the 7th bar with you singing the flat 9th on the MAJ 7th chord. But
don't worry, I'll quickly change chords so you'll be singing a nice sounding
note. Then end it!"
The vocalist, confused, gapes at the pianist and mumbles, "That sounds
complicated, I don't think I can remember all that!"
"Why not?" he replies, "that's how you did it last night!"
29.

STUDY THE FORMS OF THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES

Prom Night Barbie

AABA
'Song Form'

Count out the eight measure sections. Don't forget to factor in

the 1st and 2nd endings. Notice the 2nd set of lyrics in A2. Do you
notice any chordal or rhythmic patterns in the 4 bar groupings?

30.

12 Bar Blues

STORMY MONDAY

Study the three 4-bar sections.

What do you notice about the melody?
What is the rhyming pattern of the lyrics?

31.

Hurry Up and Love Me

Copyright 1996 - JazzMedia Music

All Rights Reserved

32.

33.

IV
DID YOU BRING YOUR CHARTS?

Vocalists, lacking an instrumental range, often transpose the key of a song

from the one it was written in, known as its standard key . Even if the range of a
song rests comfortably within our reach, we may want a certain feel or tone in
our presentation. This is comparable to a saxophonist picking up a tenor sax
for one song and switching to soprano for another.
Singing at the top of your range can sound youthful or naive, qualities
that may work for a particular dramatic situation but do not always convey the
image you want to create for yourself. Female vocalists, in particular, tend to
sing in a lower voice these days compared to singers in the 1940s and 50s. On
the other hand, a song placed too low in your register can sound muddy and
restrict projection.
So we change the key, a perfectly legitimate thing to do. The problem
occurs when we expect our accompanists to do the changing for us, sometimes
right there on the bandstand with a restless audience waiting to hear some
music. Most Jazz musicians are comfortable transposing standards into other
keys and will do it graciously. But not all musicians have this level of expertise
at their disposal and so, when forced to do so may feel put upon, even angry
that their shortcoming has been revealed.

34.

Lets look at it another way: youve been called up to the stage by a friend
in the band to sit in, that is to sing something impromptu and unrehearsed. You
give the band your selection and the pianist asks you for a key. So far, so good.
You mumble something about not being sure. The pianist, nice guy that he is,
runs the first couple of bars of the tune in a few different keys so you can judge
which one is best for your voice. You settle on one and, crisis averted, you turn
to face the audience and start the tune.
What do you think is going on in the minds of the musicians behind you
as they play? Maybe the pianist is thinking, boy, I had to memorize the melody,
the chords, the form, and be able to play it in several different keys. All she
had to do was learn the melody, the lyrics, and a letter in the alphabet from A
to G so she could give us a key. You have given them an estimation of your
abilities and commitment before you even opened your mouth to sing a note.
But I sing well, you may counter, people like to listen to me. Thats
great and the musicians may truly enjoy listening to you sing. But all that
means, in their minds, is you are someone with a nice voice who knows a few
songs. You are not a dedicated musician who deserves respect and honor for all
the hard work you have put into your craft. If you are young, theyll cut you
some slack, if youre pretty or handsome, ditto, but dont expect to be treated
as an equal. You wont be called for future gigs because you dont have a
repertoire, charts, and experience.
Believe it or not, these are some of the things said by singers to
instrumentalists as they step up to the stage, and the instrumentalists (silent)
replies:
What key do I sing in?
(Youre asking me? Ive never seen you before in my life!)
I sing in C.
(Every song in the world? You sing them all in C?)
Heres my key - [sings] la, la, la, la....
(Oh, brother...)
Sound silly, dont they? Silly or not, theyve been said countless times to
countless instrumentalists over the years. It may be unfair but you can see why
you have to work hard to counter the prejudgments of instrumentalists toward
you.

35.

SITTING IN
The bandstand is not some happy, flower-strewn land where everybody
loves each other all the time. But it can be, and when it is, its the most
wonderful place to be on earth. Quite often though, especially at jam sessions
and sit-in situations, its a battlefield. Among instrumentalists, complicated
tunes are called at breakneck tempos to test the mettle of the new guy brave
enough to step into the fray. As a singer, you have a bit more control, for you
would generally be choosing the song and the tempo at which it would be
performed. But the same attitude of checking out your wares, so to speak,
prevails. Believe me, you want to be well armed and well prepared.
So, what do I do, you ask, quit before I even get started? Not at all! Youre
learning more about music every day and you dont have to wait until youve
gotten everything together before you sing with a band. There are a few
techniques you can use to make your debut with your friendly neighborhood
combo smooth and hassle free.
Think of the golden rule, or a variation of it: dont ask anyone to do what
you cant do yourself, or could but just havent taken the time. In other words,
dont make them do your job (unless youre paying them to help you). If youve
figured out a good key for a song at home by plunking out the changes or the
roots on your piano, youve done some preparation. Now you can give them
the right key with confidence.
If it is a key that is used often, there shouldnt be a problem. For
example, Misty has a standard key of E . You need to lower it a little. Do you
pick D ? Why, when C is so much more familiar to most musicians? Blues in G ?
F is only a half step away and a more traditional key for Blues than G .
Now the musicians know that you know enough to choose commonly used
keys. I dont like to get into terms like hard and easy keys, lets just say more
familiar or less commonly used. After all, youre asking the players to step
outside of their comfort zone by changing the key in the first place. Why not
make it as easy for them as possible? Nobody wants to look bad on the
bandstand and anything you can do to make them sound better makes you
sound better, too.
Sitting in with a band at a club or restaurant is the best way to get
yourself known in your area. You may find a few ads in music-oriented
newspapers but youre going to have to audition for those jobs as well. And
getting acquainted with working professionals, people who already have gigs, is
a better bet than throwing your lot in with a guy just getting himself together
and advertising for players. The working band may have a wedding gig next

36.

week and need a singer. Wouldnt you like to fill the bill?
There are a number of things you can do to make sitting in a positive
experience. If you dont have charts yet, and truthfully, no one expects you to
carry music around with you when youre out for the evening, you can have a
few songs prepared that dont require charts. As mentioned earlier, some of
those songs could be well-known standards that you can sing in standard key or
can be transposed into an equally familiar key. Just by acknowledging that you
are asking for something that not all musicians are capable of doing, rather
than simply expecting it, gives the accompanists their due for the hours theyve
spent honing that special skill.
Do some investigating to find those songs that you can sing comfortably
in the standard or book key. Here is where the guys have it a little easier,
more standards seem to fit their range than they do for the ladies. But there are
some out there.
Another great option is having a few Blues heads in your repertoire.
Asking for a twelve bar Blues in F or C or B , to name a few common Blues keys,
is perfectly acceptable. Musicians do it all the time. You just need to know the
melody and the verses, count out a tempo, and youre on your way.

YOUR BOOK

So youre getting experience in the evenings interacting with a band and

performing in front of an audience. What are you doing with your free time
during the day? Writing your charts and building your book.
A singers book is a collection of charts written out in her key. They can
be elaborately arranged or just basic chord charts, the melody with chord
symbols, also known as lead sheets. Simple or complex, your book shows that
youve done your homework and are committed to making the experience as
effortless and enjoyable as possible for all concerned.
Unless you are part of a start-up band, you probably wont get a lot, if
any, time to rehearse for an upcoming gig unless you want to pay the
bandmembers for their time. Local jazz gigs, called club dates, are usually done
off the cuff, that is either by playing standards that everyone knows or
working from charts for vocal pieces or original instrumental compositions.
The nature of a Jazz musicians study, learning the standard repertoire, chord
symbols, voicings, developing the ability to sightread and transpose, enables
him or her to be performance ready with little or no rehearsal.
As you book more engagements for yourself and your band, the ensemble
37.

playing will begin to gel and arrangements will develop over time. This is why
your book is so important. The more charts you have, the more versatile you
can be in planning your sets.
But even if you are calling the same guys for your gigs and really getting
comfortable with them, you must be prepared for the unavailability of a certain
player or last minute substitutions. Unlike many up and coming rock or pop
groups who play together exclusively and sometimes even share living quarters,
jazz musicians do not generally throw their lot in with one band; theres just
not enough work in the jazz arena to sustain them. A good player is going to be
in demand and you will find yourself calling your favorite sidemen first, but
often working down your list to fill out the date. Having your music charted out
is essential.

CASUALS

Another good reason to have your book together is the always available
bread and butter work playing weddings, private parties, and other one-time
special events. Called casuals on the West Coast, general business (or more
commonly, GeeBee) in Boston and New York, outside gigs in Philadelphia, they
are commonly booked by special music agents called contractors , who put
players together for a performance. A contractor can range from a musician
who hustles casual work for his or her own band to a corporate entity booking
hundreds of musicians over the course of a busy weekend.
Getting yourself on the roster of some or all of the contractors in your
area is a great source of steady income as well as a venue for gaining invaluable
experience working in impromptu situations in front of a live audience. Youll
meet new musicians at each date and learn to follow various bandleaders cues.
Although playing casuals is not a stated career goal for any serious musician,
even the most mundane wedding gig can garner you a couple of hundred bucks
and dinner for a few hours work. If you live in or near a large city, you may
find yourself playing art gallery openings, movie premiere parties, and other
high profile gatherings full of interesting people and possible professional
contacts. Many casual musicians can earn a weeks income over the course of a
weekend, leaving them plenty of free time with which to pursue their loftier
musical goals.
When presenting yourself as a prospective employee to a contractor, the
first thing they will ask is how versatile you are, for casual work can range from
jazz standards to pop and rock tunes in the course of a single performance. The
38.

second thing they will ask to see is a songlist and your book.

FAKE BOOKS

Youll need some reference material to find copies of the tunes you would
like to perform. Fake books are compendiums of jazz compositions written out
with the melody and the chord changes. Youll want to get a vocal fake book so
you can get the lyrics as well. Although not perfect, some of the changes are
wrong, the Real Vocal Book (fake book - real book, get it?) is the first one you
should start with. You can purchase it at most music stores that sell sheet
music. Another good one is the New Real Book (Sher Music). Of course, the best
way to get charts is to do a transcription from records. Well talk about
transcribing in Chapter IX. Once you have selected a song, youll need to
transpose it into your key.

TRANSPOSING

How do you transpose keys? Its easy. In Chapter II, we looked at intervals
and how they relate to chord progressions (the horizontal relationship of the
harmony). Transposing is taking the music that you want to chart out, figuring
out the intervallic relationships of the harmony and just moving those
relationships to a new key. You can do it by figuring out the Roman numerals
of the original progression (i.e. II - V - I) or just make the transition from letter
to letter using your piano to help you.
Remember, Jazz musicians only need chord charts to make music, that is
the melody with chord symbols. You wont need to write out basslines for the
bassist to play or chord voicings for the pianist. Though you may find the
process slow going at first, it will become easier with practice.

39.

Heres an example:
Ex. 4.1
C Ma7

Dm7

Em7

ii

iii

A7

VI7

Dm7

ii

G7

C Ma7

Fill in the chords of the progression in the new key of F Major

ii

iii

VI7

ii

If you dont want to use Roman N u m e r als you can t r a n s p o s e

the chords directly. The next example is the first eight bars o f
Autumn Leaves in E minor. Try taking them down a whole s t e p
to D minor. Be sure to check your work on the piano .

Ex. 4.2

40.

Autumn Leaves

Write in the chords in the new key.

Autumn Leaves

Do you want to transpose the melody as well? Move t h e

notes down a major second just as you did with the chords.

Ex. 4.3

41.

Autumn Leaves

CHORD SYMBOLS

The symbols we use to designate the different types of chords do not have
a precise methodology at this time. Jazz theory and the conventions that apply
to this young style of music are still in a state of growth and flux. Youll need to
become familiar with several different ways of writing a particular chords
symbol. In your own charts, it is recommended that you use one type of chord
designation to maintain consistency.

Here are some commonly used chord symbols:

Major 7
Dom. 7
Minor 7
Minor 7 5
Dim. 7

:
:
:
:
:

C, CM7, C Maj7, Cs,C6

C7, C dom7, C9, C11, C 1 3
Cm7, C min, C-7
Cm7-5, C - 7 5, C
C dim7, C 7

Note the two chords, C6 and C13. One asks you to add the sixth to the
chord and the other asks for the thirteenth. If youve been studying your
intervals you know that the sixth and thirteen degrees of the scale in C are both
A - an octave apart from each other. So, why the difference?
If you see a C6, it is telling you to add an A to a Major seventh chord. If
the chord is named C13, you add the A to a Dominant seventh chord. Like
figured bass, it is a situation where more information is being conveyed than
meets the eye. Another example is C2 and C9, both asking for a D to be added.
C2 is often a pop tune chord symbol used with an arpeggiated no-frills triad or
block chord (a triad with the root doubled on the top). A general rule would be
the higher numbers added to the chord indicate a flatted seventh (9, 11, 13)
while the lower numbers ask for a major seven or a triad (2, 4, 6).
The designation Diminished 7 is clouded in confusion, for there are
conflicting theories on exactly what it signifies. A true diminished chord is
composed of stacked minor thirds, resulting in Root, 3, 5,
7. The is
called double flat and refers to a pitch being lowered two half steps instead of
one. Therefore, a C diminished 7th chord would spell as C, E , G , and B , B
double flat being the enharmonic of A. This is a true or fully diminished chord.
Another school of thought asserts that since C dim. is a fully diminished triad,

42.

adding the 7 instructs the player to sound a regular 7. This is also known as a
half diminished', as in only half of the chord is diminished, signified by a circle
with a line through it. Other strict fundamentalists (the musical kind, not the
religious kind) insist that a Cm7 5, which describes exactly what the chord is, is
not a real chord, whatever that means. So beware, be clear, and be consistent in
your choice of symbols.
Another troublesome area is the use of the delta after a letter to designate
a Major 7th chord. It is common practice but not recommended. If written by
hand, it can look like a 7 or a circle, which of course will change the chord.
This is also true with the use of a minus sign to write a Minor 7th chord. You
can use the common large M or small m to show Major or Minor but, again,
your manuscript must be very legible or problems can occur. The abbreviations
Maj., Min., and Dim. are your best bet.
Keep in mind that many times you will be throwing a chart in front of
your accompanists with little or no practice. It is in your best interest to have
the symbols clearly written and unambiguous. Sightreading is challenging
enough without having to figure out what you want played and not all potential
disasters (also known as train wrecks) can be anticipated. This author once
wrote out her charts in festive red ink only to have them disappear into a blank
white page under the red stagelights at that evenings performance!
As you become more experienced at writing your charts you may want to
purchase a computer music writing program. The charts in this book were
written with the Overture program but there are several on the market. Once
you become familiar with the application, it is fast, convenient, and as clean
and easy to read as commercially printed music. And transposition into other
keys is readily accomplished with just a few clicks of the mouse.

KEY SIGNATURES

If you are writing a simple chord chart without the melody you dont
need to use a key signature. But as you become more adept at this practice, you
will want to use the melody and its corresponding key signature.
There are twelve key signatures for the twelve Major and Minor keys.
Each Major key has a corresponding Minor key which share the same key
signature. Theyre relatives, harmonically speaking, and thats just what we
call them. G Major, which has an F in its key signature is the relative major of E
Minor. A Minor, with no sharps or flats, is the relative minor of C Major.
43.

For organizational purposes, the twelve keys are classified into a circle of
fifths . Looking at the keyboard again, start at C (no sharps or flats). Move up a
perfect fifth to G with one sharp (F) in its key signature. A fifth up from G is D
which has two sharps (F,C) in its key signature. As you continue around the
circle you will keep adding a sharp to each key signature until you get to F (6
sharps) where you can switch to its enharmonic, G , which has six flats.
Continuing on in the flat keys, you now remove one flat with each key until you
are back to C. The Minor keys also can be grouped in this fashion, starting with
A Minor and moving around the circle.

CIRCLE OF FIFTHS

Ex. 4.4

C Maj
(no sharps or flats)
A Min
F Maj
(B )
D Min

G Maj
(F )
E Min

B Maj
(B , E )
G Min

D Maj
(F , C )
B Min

E Maj
(B , E , A )
C Min

A Maj
(F , C , G )
F Min

A Maj
(B , E , A , D )
F Min
D Maj
(B , E , A , D , G )
B Min

44.

E Maj
(F , C , G , D )
C Min

F Maj
(F , C , G , D , A , E )
D Min
(enharmonic) G Maj/E Min
(B , E , A , D , G , C )

B Maj
(F , C , G , D , A )
G Min

N.B. The keys of G and D are more commonly used i n

Jazz compositions than their enharmonics, F and C .
One interesting thing to note, as you move up from C Major the 7th
degree of the scale is raised, adding a sharp to each successive key. As we
round the bend into the flat keys, the 7th degree is again raised, naturalizing
one flat each time as we work our way back to C Major.
The sharps and flats are organized on the staff in a diagonal pattern in
the order that they appear in the circle of fifths sequence. In other words,
writing a key signature in A Major (3 sharps), you first put the F , then the C ,
followed by the G . With the flats you can work backwards, which is a circle of
fourths, starting from the key of F Major - B , then E , then A , and so forth.

Ex. 4.5

When discussing keys with other musicians, it is perfectly acceptable to

refer to them by the number of sharps or flats that they contain rather than
their name. Designating D Major as two sharps or G minor as two flats is
economical and efficient, most musicians know whether a particular standard is
written in a major or minor key. In some cases, it can be preferable, for it saves

45.

confusion in calling tunes that fluctuate between a Major key and its relative
minor, such as Autumn Leaves or All The Things You Are.

TIME SIGNATURES

You will also want to put a time signature at the head of your first staff.
Even if you are only charting chords without the melody, a time signature helps
the musicians identify the meter immediately. If nothing is marked, the
assumption would be that the piece is in 4/4 time, also known as common time.
The use of a large C to represent 4/4 time is common practice.
The first or upper number in a time signature refers to the amount of
beats in a measure. The second or lower number tells us what note gets one
beat. So in 3/4 time, also known as waltz time, there are three beats in a
measure and the quarter note gets one beat. Waltz time with a swing feel is
called jazz waltz. Six-eight time is six beats per measure with the eighth note
getting one beat.
Another helpful addition to your charts is a note regarding the rhythmic
feel or style of the piece. In the upper left hand corner you could write Bossa
Nova , Uptempo Swing, or Ballad, whatever the case may be. You can also
use descriptive terms such as airy or dark, whatever you think best describes
the mood you had in mind for the arrangement. Anything you can add to your
chart to help your accompanists understand what you want is a plus, especially
in unrehearsed playing situations. The perfect chart would be one that you
place on the music stand with no explanation needed, just count it out and
youre off and running. If you are fielding a lot of questions from the
musicians regarding your chart or the arrangement, you may need to look at it
again.

SIGNS AND TERMS

Were you one of those singers who followed the form of the song by
reading the lyrics? Now you wont have to.
The repeat sign is a double barline with two dots to one side. Repeats
enable you to save space on your chart when one identical section follows
another. They come in pairs, often with first and second endings. The two dots
46.

go inside the repeated section, that is, the first repeat has the dots on the right
of the barline and the second has the dots on the left. If there is no other
indication, you only repeat sections once. You can request more than one
repeat by writing a large X with the number of times to be played just below the
repeated section - such as 3X.
First and second endings allow us to repeat a section that has a variation
at the end of the progression, used often for A sections in AABA form.

Ex. 4.6
REPEATS

These four bars would be played twice

Ex. 4.7
FIRST AND SECOND ENDINGS
The first time through, stop at the repeat sign. This is the first ending . The
second time, skip the first ending and play the second ending. If there is no
repeat sign at the second ending, continue on to the next section.

The following are some other common symbols, signs and terms found in
charts:
Da Signe al Coda means from the sign to the ending. It is often

abbreviated as D.S. al Coda. When you see D.S. al Coda at the end of a chorus,
instead of going back to the first bar, you go to the bar with the sign and play
from there.
The sign looks like this:

47.

A coda is a special ending. It only happens once. The sign that alerts
you to jump down to the coda (at the outchorus, or end of the tune) looks like
this:
The coda section can be marked with this sign:

Da Capo al Signe tells you to go back to the first bar for your repeat and

continue until you reach the signe, or sign.

Why all the Italian terminology? The first musical printing press was
created in Italy in the early part of the sixteenth century. For a brief while,
every piece of printed sheet music in Europe came from Italy. Any directives
on that music were given in Italian. It wasnt long before the rest of the
continent figured out how to print their music but by then the use of the Italian
language for guides such as ritardo (slow down), forte, (loud), or Da Capo al
Signe (from the head to the sign), had become a tradition.
We will look at options for codas and intros in Chapter VIII. For now, you
have all the tools you need to write some basic, solid charts. Check your work
carefully on the piano, making sure that the chords have the same roots and
qualities as in the original key. When the chart is error-free, copy it out neatly
and put it in your book. Give it a number as well as a title. Its easier to call a
number on the bandstand than its title. Youre on your way!

48.

V
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE BLUES

Blues, a musical genre, a style of performance, as well as a discrete

harmonic form, not only predates Jazz, it is a major component of the Jazz
idiom. No study of Jazz can be complete without a recognition of the Blues
importance and a familiarity with its sound and style.
The Blues genre evolved from an amalgamation of European and African
folksong tradition. As is the manner of folkways, the history and exact dating
of this uniquely American music is a matter of conjecture based on the study of
early published compositions and the recordings and recollections of its first
practitioners and their listeners.
For Europeans of the Middle Ages, mostly illiterate, tucked away in small
farming villages or laboring on noble estates, the traveling bard, or minstrel,
was their main source of information on current events taking place outside of
their isolated environment. Along with the musical stories of kings and battles,
songs of love and hardship mirrored the day to day travails of the working
class.
The early settlers brought this musical tradition to America. Historic
accompanying instruments like the lute and the fife gave way to the banjo,
guitar, and violin. The age-old stories of love and hardship conveyed with a
full-throated and emotionally sincere style became the roots of Bluegrass,

49.

Country and Western, and the modern folk music that we hear today.
The African griot, or master musician, fulfilled a similar function as the
European minstrel, being the vessel of historic memory for the tribe. Some were
independent, others were attached to the tribal chieftain or a kings court and,
like the European court composers, wrote and performed music for official
celebrations. Historian Eileen Southern, (The Music of Black Americans7 )
recounts the observations of a seventeenth century English sea captain, Richard
Jobson, on the similarities of the independent African griot and what he calls an
Irish Rimer... sitting in the same manner upon the ... ground, somewhat remote
from the company8 , relating the adventures of kings and celebrated warriors or
spontaneously composing songs to praise members of the company or highlight
the purpose of the gathering.
The itinerant nature of the early African American Bluesmen followed the
peripatetic tradition of the European and African traveling musicians. The
performance arenas were usually public gathering places; rail stations, fairs,
and street corners. The Bluesman sang of misfortune, tribulations, and love lost,
as well as political realities that translated into personal hardship for the
African American community. When performers moved indoors around the
turn of the twentieth century, it was to the honky tonks and bordellos; the
Blues was not a favored entertainment of the Black bourgeoisie.
Southerns book contains a wonderful, well researched history of the
African foundations of American Blues and Jazz. Another great resource is
Gunther Schullers Early Jazz - Its Roots and Musical Development9 .

AMERICAN FOLKSONG

T h e chordal outline of the Celtic folksong that became the basis for the
Twelve Bar Blues form had a slow harmonic rhythm, relying on tonic and
subdominant for the most part, with a brief change to the dominant. Frankie
and Johnnie, an American descendant of the Celtic model, is a good example of
this early form. See Example 5.1.

50.
7

W.W.Norton & Co., 1981, New York

Ibid, p. 9

Oxford University Press, 1968, New York

Ex. 5.1

The
increases
1-3 gives
at which

Ex. 5.2

FRANKIE AND JOHNNY

tradition of multiple verses repeated over the same f o r m

the repetition of tonic. Following measures 11- 12 w i t h
us six measures of C; a very slow harmonic rhythm, the rate
chords change.

FRANKIE AND JOHNNY

N.B. The C7 in measure 4 leads us to the IV chord.

C Dom7 is the V of IV ("five of four").
51.

HARMONIC DEVELOPMENT
As the Blues progressed, the harmonies became more complex with the
addition of chord changes that enhanced the progression without changing its
basic nature. In the case of Frankie and Johnny, one change was the
introduction of the dominant to lead into the tonic in measures 1, 3, and 7.

Ex. 5.3

FRANKIE AND JOHNNY

THE MODERN BLUES FORM

Lets go back to the original progression of Frankie and Johnny.

52.

Innovations such as the addition of the subdominant in measures 2 and

10 and the I - VI change in measures 7-8 improved the somewhat plodding
harmony of six measures of tonic followed by three measures of sub-dominant.
Also, in measure 12, the dominant is added to the repeated verses to lead us
back to the I chord at the top of the chorus.

Ex. 5.4

LOWERED SEVENTH
Lowering the seventh on all of the Major chords is the most important
step toward the modern Blues form, giving it the distinctive sound that is the
foundation of the genre. So distinctive, in fact, that lowering the seventh of
Major chords in any type of song gives it a bluesy sound. The flat seventh is an
African American contribution, based on African modality.

Ex. 5.5

53.

SUBSTITUTION CHORDS

Jazz musicians like the challenge and creative opportunities of a faster

harmonic rhythm (more chord changes) to improvise upon. One of the most
common ways to speed up the rhythm is the insertion of substitution chords.
As the name implies, a substitution chord is a chord that replaces all or part of
another chords space in a progression.
A substitution chord (commonly referred to as sub chord) must comply
with at least two criteria to be placed correctly in a progression.
1.
2.

The sub chord must share at least two common pitches with the
original c h o r d .
The progressions basic sound and outcome must not be altered.

JAZZ BLUES FORM

In the case of the Blues form adapted and adopted into the Jazz
repertoire, substitutes such as the II-V progression in place of the V, and a I-VIII-V turnaround at the end of the chorus add harmonic variety. In Chapter VII,
well look more closely at the whys and wherefores of these mini progressions.

Play the progressions, with chords or just the root, in

Examples 5.5 and 5.6. Compare the difference in their s o u n d s .
Ex. 5.6

54.

In measure 4, a G minor 7 is substituting for two beats of C7. This wo r k s

for two reasons - firstly, a II7 chord can be inserted as a lead-in to its
corresponding V7 chord. Also, G min.7 and C7 are the II-V of the F found in the
next bar, therefore functioning as a II-V of IV.

BLUES VARIATIONS
There are many alterations of the Twelve Bar form. Charlie Parkers
uptempo Bebop classic, Nows The Time, uses a diminished chord (B dim.), an
inversion (F7/C), and a II-V (Am-D7) to G minor to embellish the basic
progression.

Ex. 5.7

NOW'S THE TIME

An example of an eight bar Blues is a ballad, Tell me Where To Scratch,

written by the great Blues singer Joe Williams; recorded on the album, Joe
Williams Live in 1973 for Fantasy Records. See Example 5.8.

55.

Ex. 5.8

TELL ME WHERE TO SCRATCH

(Youll have to buy the record to find out what all the scratching is about.)

MINOR BLUES
Blues compositions dont always have to be in major keys. A minor Blues
would have a minor chord as its tonic and use minor scale pitches as the basis
of its head.
Stolen Moments, by Oliver Nelson, is a sixteen bar Blues in C minor.
The only difference between this particular sixteen bar blues and a twelve bar
progression is the last four bars have been repeated, harmonically speaking.

Ex. 5.9

56.

STOLEN MOMENTS

The head contains some interesting sub chords in mms 8 - 16, but
soloing is done over the standard minor twelve bar Blues progression.

Ex. 5.10

C MINOR BLUES

There are lyrics to this song and nobody sings them better than Mark
Murphy, who has recorded it several times (see discography in the index).

ROCK AND ROLL

When Bluesmen traded in their acoustic guitars for electric models and
sped up the tempos, they invented something called Rock and Roll.
Johnny B. Goode, written by Chuck Berry and recorded in 1951 for Chess
Records, is a lively Twelve Bar Blues that exemplifies the exuberance of early
Rock and Roll. See Example 5.11.

57.

Ex. 5.11

JOHNNY B. GOODE

And the Blueswomen? Big Mama Thornton recorded a song called

H o u n d d o g in 1953. Three years later, a young white man named Elvis Presley
was so profoundly influenced by not only the song but Big Mamas spirited
delivery that he recorded it himself. Interfacing the raw emotional energy of
the Bluesmen he idolized with the heartfelt sincerity of the Country and
Western singers he grew up with, he forged a personal style that made him a
worldwide phenomena.
The Beatles, Rolling Stones, and the Beach Boys are just a few of the early
Rock and Roll artists who used the Blues as the basis for much of their
repertoire, as did later rock artists like Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, and Bruce
Springsteen. And the Blues itself, the granddaddy of twentieth century popular
music, remains a viable and popular genre, with festivals, radio shows, and
nightclubs dedicated to its performance and preservation.

58.

VI
IMPROVISATION ON THE BLUES

We have looked at the basics of music theory, studied various harmonic

forms, and learned how to transpose and write charts. You probably purchased
this book because you wanted to figure out that mysterious thing known as
scatting. When do we get to that? Lets start now.
Many beginning improvisers, unable to hear the chord tones that make
up the changes in a progression, use their ear to find a few common tones pitches that can be found in more than one chord. Thus limited, they sing a
tentative melodic line that if graphed out would look nearly horizontal.
Common tones are not a bad thing; on the contrary, they are an integral part of
the Blues style. The problem occurs when common tones are used exclusive of
any other pitches to create a solo.
The way to overcome this is to get vertical - what we call digging into or
outlining the changes. We do that by learning t he chord tones and scales.
But you cant hear a chord tone unless you can first hear the root of the
chord. If you can hear the root and you know the chords quality, you can find
any note available in the chord or its corresponding scale.
Chord tones are the focal points of your solo, pearls hung on a string of

59.

scales and approach notes . We emphasize chord tones by singing them on strong
beats, sometimes holding them longer than we do other notes.

SOLFEGE
You may be wondering what syllables to use when singing the exercises in
this chapter. You could use solfege syllables as you learn the triad and
arpeggio exercises. Solfege is a good tool when you want to look at where a
particular pitch places on different chords. For example, C in C7 is the root (do)
but relative to the IV chord, F7, it is the fifth (sol). This system is called
movable Do and means that Do is whatever the root of a particular chord is.
Most Jazz curriculums use movable Do.
Another component of movable Do is the alteration of the basic solfege
syllables - do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti - to represent sharps and flats on the pitches.
A raised do, for example, is called di (pronounced dee), la would be li, and so
on. A flatted la is le (pronounced lay).

Ex. 6.1

In this system a C Major 7 chord would be spelled do, mi, sol, ti, but a
C minor 7 would be do, me, sol, te.
Fixed Do is a system where Do is always C, no matter what chord you are
sounding or what key you are in. There are no alterations of the syllables with
fixed Do, the pitches are observed diatonically. That means if you are in the key
of A Major, for example, do is C sharp, not C natural. Another difference is the
use of the European si instead of ti for the seventh degree of the scale. Fixed Do
is standard in classical sightsinging and is a good system for reading orchestral
scores.
Singing numbers is another good learning tool. Singing 1, 3, 5, 7 on the
root, 3rd, 5th, and 7th pitches while keeping the root of the chord in your ear
will help you to learn these important intervals.
60.

SCAT SYLLABLES

Students are often bewildered when it comes to choosing scat syllables.

The anguished cry, But what do I sing?, sails out of teaching studios across the
land as struggling Jazz vocalists rack their brains trying to come up with clever
and original scat.
Here is my advice - stop thinking so hard. As a matter of fact, stop
thinking, period. When a small child playing in her backyard hears a wailing
fire truck pass by she doesnt stop and ponder, hmm, what syllables would best
represent the sound of a fire truck siren? No, she doesnt think about it at all.
She just imitates the sound, rrao, rrao and goes back to what she was doing.
This technique is also successfully used for barking dogs, honking horns, and
motor boat engines.
Eavesdrop on a group of boys playing together - bombs fall from the sky,
machine guns rat-a-tat, trucks roar down a miniature highway. Did they hold a
meeting or conduct a symposium on proper sound effect technique before they
started? No, they are simply vocalizing to enhance whatever game they are
creating for themselves. Most likely, they are not even aware they are doing it.
The soundtrack becomes part of the scenario.
Remember, scatting is the imitation of instruments. Listen to horn players
and sing along, reproducing the various sounds and articulations that they
make. How do they sound on legato (connected) notes? What about fast, clipped
phrases? Is it a crying tone or does it bite? Is their approach aggressive and
high energy or muted and introspective? Are they mournful or bursting with
joy?
If you have been singing the arpeggio exercises on Do only, youre
probably sounding more like Homer Simpson than John Coltrane. To sing a
legato phrase like those in Examples 6.9-10, you can use vowel sounds, ah, ooh, ee,
oh. Some or all of them could be preceded by a consonant to clarify and
separate the pitches - dee, or bee, or wee, for example. Mix up your vowels and
consonants - Do, bee, ah, dwee, or Do, bah, dah, wa - and focus on the
appropriate articulation for the phrase.
Listen to your favorite scatting Jazz artists and copy their sounds. Believe
me, just like the little girl imitating the fire siren, Ella Fitzgerald did not stop to
choose what consonant-vowel combinations to use before scatting a phrase of
music, whether stating the head or improvising. Like any instrumentalist, she
simply chose what kind of sound she wanted for her solo and made it happen.

61.

Arpeggios with sample scat syllables over the C Blues.

They look sort of silly written out but you get the idea .

Ex. 6.2

Youll notice in Ex. 6.2 that some of the arpeggios a r e

inverted (see inversions p. 15) in order to facilitate a
smooth transition from one chord change to the other.
But its critical that you hear the roots of each c h o r d .

62.

Lets start our practice with a Twelve Bar Blu e s .

Ex. 6.3

BASIC TWELVE BAR BLUES

* The chords with an asterisk are non-diatonic. The V chord in bar 4 is minor,
creating a II-V of the IV chord that follows in bar 5. The VI chord in bars 8 and
11 is traditionally played as a dominant 7 chord rather than the diatonic
minor.

N.B. The slashes are used to delineate the beats in each

measure. When you have two or more chords in a

bar you want to show exactly on which beats the
chords fall.

Now lets look at this progression in the key of C Major with the roots
placed in the treble clef to facilitate singing. Play them on the piano and sing
along, keeping a steady four beat count. See Ex. 6.4

63.

You can sing the solfege syllable Do.

Ex. 6.4

C Blues - Roots

Did you notice all of the chords are Dominant Sevenths with the exception
of the two minor chords? Remember, the exclusive use of Dominant Seventh
chords is another quality that defines the Blues (in major keys), giving it its
own special sound.
When youve learned the roots and can sing them easily, add the chord
tones that form the triad: the 3rd and the 5th. Sing the pitches in the rhythm as
written. Dont forget to swing!

You can use the scat syllables Dut doo wha.

Ex. 6.5

64.

Triads Over C Blues

Now sing them in reverse.

Ex. 6.6

Triads Reversed

Sing the root, 2nd, and 3rd of each c h o r d .

Ex. 6.7

Do you notice that you are singing a partial scale

when moving from C7 to F7 or Dm7 to G7? Thats
the concept of modes.
65.

Ex. 6.8

Try improvising using only these pitches, both the triads and the first
three notes of each scale. When you feel comfortable with these exercises and
can hear and sing the pitches, go to Ex. 6.9 where the 7th degree of each chord
has been added. These broken chords are called arpeggios.

Ex. 6.9

Arpeggios

Over C Blues

Sing them in reverse while you accompany yourself

on the piano playing the roots or shell voicings.

66.

A shell voicing is a chord made up of the root and 7th only. You could
also get a play-along CD, Jamey Aebersold has one just for Blues, and sing along
to a slow or medium tempo Blues.
N.B.

Ex. 6.10

Arpeggios

in Reverse

MODES AND THE BLUES FORM

Lets expand a bit on the modal idea. There are two types of chords in
the Twelve Bar Blues exercise, a Dominant seventh and a minor seventh.
Since a Dominant seventh chord is simply a major chord with a lowered
seventh, we could sing a Mixolydian mode over it, that mode being also a
major scale with a lowered seventh. The two minor seventh chords in the
progression would coordinate with the Dorian mode for both are altered
from the natural minor scale by flatting the third and the seventh only,
leaving the sixth natural.

67.

Start by singing the scale up to the fifth.

Ex. 6.11

Blues Modes - Root To Fifth

Fitting all of the pitches over the chords is a challenge; just keep the
tempo slow and steady. A fast tempo isnt as important at this point as keeping
the harmonic rhythm correct. Remember, harmonic rhythm is the rate at which
the chords change in relation to the measures. In other words, you need to
make sure that the scales in the measures with two chords are sung twice as fast
as the scales in the bars with one chord. Right now our priority is training the
ear. Vocal dexterity will come with practice.

The next step is the entire mode over t h e

changes. Sing the progression very slowly.
Your focus should be hitting each pitch r i g h t
on target. See Ex. 6.12

68.

Ex. 6.12

Blues Mode - One Octave

Okay, what happened to G minors scale in bar 4? This is where modal

theory comes in. The G Dorian mode has one flat, B , just like the G minor
chord. C Mixolydian also has a B . They are the same scale with different
starting points. So we can sing C Mixolydian over both chords. The same rule
applies for the D minor - G7 chords. Both D Dorian and G Mixolydian have no
sharps or flats.

Ex. 6.13

69.

When you have a measure of II-V, you can sing the scale or mode that
works over the V chord. But what about measure 11? C7 and A7 are both
dominant chords that use Mixolydian modes. C Mixolydian and A Mixolydian
a r e different scales. This is a situation where you can alter the scale to fit the
harmonic situation. Ive chosen the C Mixolydian, over an A7 chord it contains
the altered chord tones 9 ( 3 ), 9 (C natural) and 13 (F natural). Its not
perfect but it works for our purposes right now. Well take a closer look at these
altered pitches in Chapter X.

BLUE NOTES
The pitches we call Blue Notes are the 3, 7, and less commonly, 5, of a
scale played over a major chord. They have an unstable tonality, which is a
fancy way of saying that the scale pitches are not as fixed, or permanently
placed, as we are accustomed to hearing.
The fundamental unit of the half step that we use is based on a European
methodology passed down from the Greeks. Other cultures, notably those of
ancient India and Africa, have their own systems using intervals differently
sized than our European model.
One theory of the origin of Blue notes is that they derive from the African
scale which contains pitches located between our 3 - 3 and 7 - 7. Early
African Americans found that by overleafing their traditional scale onto the
European Major scale they were able to approximate the tone of their
indigenous music. Sliding from 3 to 3, for example, would give us the pitch
between those two notes. This is one of the hallmarks of a bluesy sound.
On string or wind instruments, as well as with the voice, this slide can be
accomplished easily. A pianist or organist, with their fixed pitch instruments,
must slip from the 3 key to the 3 or play them simultaneously.

BLUES SCALE
There are several variations of the Blues scale but they all contain the
blue notes 3, 7. A Blues scale that contains all of the intervals in the major
scale as well as the Blue notes can be broken up into two tetrachords. A
tetrachord is the building block of our major and minor scales and spans a

70.

Perfect fourth. The octave divides equally into two perfect fourths. Note that
both tetrachords in Ex. 6.14 use the same pattern of whole and half steps.

Ex. 6.14

BLUES SCALE

In practice, the Blues scale contains less pitches than those in Ex. 6.14.
There are several variations. Ex. 6.15 is one of the most common types.

Ex. 6.15

Because of the unique tonal qualities of Blues h a r m o n y ,

the C Blues scale works over the entire 12 bar f o r m .
Ex. 6.16

71.

Here is the same scale transposed for each individual Blues Dom. 7 chord.

Ex. 6.17

Blues Scale Over C Blues

Try the scales over the progression. Sing them slowly with
accompaniment. You can drop or raise octaves if any of the
scales are out of your r a n g e .
Ex. 6.18

Individual Blues Scale Over C Blues

Note that in measure 9, the scale is placed over a D min.7 chord. It works
because the Blues scale is neither major nor minor but a combination of both.
Playing this scale with its flatted three over a dominant seven chord with a
major third gives us that sliding or unstable tonality of 3 - 3 played together.
In measures 11 and 12 youll find the first half of each scale to fit the two
chords/measure harmonic rhythm.
72.

Sing Ex. 6.18 in reverse. We dont sing all of our

improvised lines from low to high and we shouldnt
limit our practice of scales to one direction either.

Ex. 6.19

Blues Scale Reversed

At this point, you have the roots, arpeggios, and two types of scales in
your arsenal. Go back to Ex. 6.4 and try putting them together into an
improvised solo.
Keep it simple and dont feel that you need to fill up every beat with
notes. Space, in music called a rest, is just as effective as the lines you fill it
with.

73.

A solo utilizing some of the concepts weve discussed:

Ex. 6.20

Sample Solo

MOTIVES
The solo begins with a motive, or short melodic p h r a s e .
Ex. 6.21

N.B.

The part of a melody that begins before t h e

first downbeat of the form is called a pickup.

This opening motive, built on the root, third, and fifth of C Major, is
expanded as the improvisation progresses.
74.

Return t o Example 6.20 and label all of the roots,

thirds, and fifths in C major, writing R, 3, 5, a b o v e
the staff. Note how the three original c o m p o n e n t s
of the opening motive are modified and e x p a n d e d .

PASSING AND APPROACH NOTES

Any pitches that fall outside of a chords tonality, that is, are neither
chord tones nor found in the chords mode, can be labeled A for approach or
P for passing tone. An approach note10 is a pitch that leads to a target note , a
chord tone played on a strong beat. The D sharp grace note in the pickup is an
approach note.
A passing tone is an approach note situated between two target notes,
connecting them either chromatically (by half step) or in a s t e p - w i s e m a n n e r
(within the scale).

Measures 9 - 10 contain several passing tones.

Ex. 6.22

11

11

13

Study Ex. 6.20, analyzing the pitches in relation t o

their underlying chord. Identify the pitches y o u
havent already analyzed by number - 1, 3, 5, 7, e.g.,
placing the number under the staff as in Ex. 6.22.
Dont forget the upper structure chord tones.

75.

10

Also known as auxiliary tones or grace notes.

BUILDING A SOLO
The repetition of a short melodic line is an integral part of the Blues style.
These repeated lines, whether in the melody or improvised, are called riffs. In
Blues heads, the first and second phrases are identical, mirroring the repetition
in the lyric, with a different melody for the third line.

Heres an example of a traditional Blues head:

Ex. 6.23

The main theme in Ex. 6.23 contains common tones that work over most or
all of the changes. Also, the melodic lines end on tonic, the home pitch, which is
another facet of the blues style.

Using the melody in Ex. 6.23 as a starting p o i n t ,

sing a few choruses of improv, developing
and expanding the lines with rhythmic a n d
melodic variations.

76.

When a player works and reworks themes in the course of his solo he is
drawing on the stylistic traditions of the Blues. As the solo progresses, the
opening motives are elaborated by adding passing tones, scales, and approach
notes, creating a sense of growing excitement. The need for a faster rhythm to
accommodate the denser melodic lines further adds to the excitement. This is
the arc of a good solo, opening with a relaxed statement and developing it as far
afield as your taste and ears will take you. The vocal song Twisted, originally a
recorded saxophone solo by Wardell Gray on a C Blues, is a great example. This
technique is also used for non-blues tunes, giving them what we call a bluesy
or down home sound.
You can present a great improvised solo without using a lot of notes or
singing at a dazzling rate of speed. The tastiest solos are often the simplest,
built around basic bluesy motives sung with conviction and a smooth swinging
feel.

77.

VII
HARMONY IN JAZZ STANDARDS

In the last two chapters we focused on the Blues Form. Now lets look at
some progressions commonly found in the Song Form. These compositions,
though longer and more harmonically complex than the Blues progression are
usually based on short four bar segments combined in a set pattern to make up
the whole of the piece. Becoming familiar with these progressions makes it easy
to learn tunes and sing improvisation over the changes.
As noted in Chapter II, all styles of European based music, from Classical
to Country and Western are at heart variations and elaborations of the basic IV-I progression: tonic-dominant-tonic.

I-VI-II-V PROGRESSION
Even
Heart and
children at
the melody
78.

if you never studied piano as a child, you are probably familiar with
Soul, written by Hoagy Carmichael, often performed as a duet by two
the piano, one playing the progression while the other plinks out
on top. This progression is I-VI-II-V. See Example 7.1.

Heart and Soul

Ex. 7.1

Play it a few times on the piano. Sound familiar? You probably recognize
this progression from countless pop songs and Jazz standards.
The A section of Stormy Weather is a good example of a I-VI-II-V
progression in a standard with a sharp I diminished chord substituting for the
VI chord1 1 in measures 2 and 4.

Ex. 7.2

Stormy Weather

79.

11

F# dim. and D7 (the VI chord in the key of F) share the common tones F#, A, and C. T h e
substitution of #I dim. does not alter the basic progression, but enhances the root movement F, F#, G.

TURNAROUNDS

The I-VI-II-V progression is an example of what Jazz musicians call a

turnaround because harmonically it turns itself around to where it started, in
this case the I chord, or tonic.
A turnaround repeated over and over is called a vamp. Turnaround vamps
are used for intros (think Vegas lounge singer patter with the band vamping in
the background), codas, and open sections (vamping on one or two chords for
extended soloing).
The great thing about turnaround vamps is the flexibility they provide,
for they are ended on a cue from the soloist. This allows the soloist to adapt the
arrangement of a song to fit the mood of the moment - both hers and the
audience. If the first four bars of a song constitute a turnaround, they can be
used as an intro. Using a turnaround as an intro gives a singer a little time to
prepare; she can jump into the song when shes ready, provided she comes in at
the top of the turnaround, or on tonic.

II-V-I PROGRESSION
The II-V-I progression is the basic building block of many Jazz standards.

Here it is in the key of C major:

Ex. 7.3

C Major:

ii

V7

Play Ex. 7.3, singing the roots as you play. Pay

close attention to the sound of the root m o v e m e n t .

80.

The II-V-I progression is diatonic. In other words, each chord shares the
same key signature. In Ex. 7.3, the key is C major2 .
Youll want to recognize II-V-I and its shorter version, II-V, any time you
hear it in a composition so you can use key centered scales or motives over the
progression. Youll be able to do this by learning what the root movement
sounds like, in other words, their intervallic relationships.
II and V are a fourth or fifth apart, depending on the direction you take.
Combining that knowledge with the sound of the chords quality - minor 7,
dominant 7, major 7, is an easier way to learn tunes than memorizing each
tunes specific chord in a specific key. Think of II-V-Is as members of a family,
harmonic cousins, sharing a common background - their key signature.

Ex. 7.4

Bb Major:

D Major:

ii

ii

V7

V7

N.B. People often think of C major and A minor as having no key signature,
unlike the other eleven major and minor keys. The key signature of
C major and A minor is no sharps or flats.

When deciding which scales or modes to use over a II-V-I progression, we

again use the key signature. Look at the progression in C major once more, this
time with the appropriate modes over each chord (See Ex. 7.5) .
81.

D minor 7 chord and its corresponding mode D Dorian, have no sharps

or flats, as does G Dominant 7 (G Mixolydian mode), and C Major 7 (C Major
scale).

Ex. 7.5

D Dorian

G Mixolydian

C Major (Ionian)

Play and sing the modes with chords o r

the root for accompaniment.

TONAL CENTERS
When II-V-Is are found in various keys in one composition they are called
are called temporary tonal centers, temporary key centers, or just tonal centers.
Why temporary? Because most songs are written in one key and therefore
there is only one true II, V, and I chord in a composition. Any other II-V-Is or IIVs are temporary. Classical theory is a bit more specific, every V7 chord in a
composition must be classified in relation to its tonic and are called Secondary
Dominants or Non-resolving Dominants . For example, a C7 in the key of C major
would be called a V of IV, or five of four because C7 is diatonically the five
chord of F major.

82.

PARENT SCALES
As you learned in Chapter II, modes are simply major scales beginning on
pitches other than the tonic of the parent scale. The three modes in Ex. 7.5 are
variations of the C major scale. Here is the parent scale over the three chords:

Ex. 7.6

SOLOING OVER II-V-I

Basing your improv on a single scale over a progression gives your lines a
coherent arc, what we call singing over the changes. Its easier to think one scale
or one key signature as you move over chord changes, even if its only two
chords in a single measure. This is why, when we introduced modes in Chapter
II, it was suggested that you learn the general concept without worrying too
much about every individual mode. As you become familiar with the most
commonly used modes, you may start to think of D Dorian, for example, as a
D minor scale. G Mixolydian could be called a G7 scale.

Heres a sample solo line over II-V-I in C m a j o r

using chord tones - all found in the C major scale.
Ex. 7.7

83.

Its a bit dry because there are no approach, neighbor, or passing tones,
nor rhythmic diversity. Using supplementary pitches and altering rhythms
makes your improv line more interesting.

Ex. 7.8

N.B. Augmenting the pitches found in the scale (diatonic pitches) with those
outside of the scale is called chromaticism, a hallmark of modern Jazz
improvisation that came to the forefront in the Bebop era of the late
1940s. Well take a closer look at Bebop and chromaticism in Chapter IX.

ANALYSIS - SATIN DOLL

Lets look at Duke Ellingtons Satin Doll, to analyze the tonal centers.
Here are the first four measures of the A section:

Ex. 7.9

The first two measures are in the key of C major, the main key of the
song. Measures 3-4 are II-V in D major.

84.

Ex. 7.10

Measure 5 is G major, followed by one measure of G flat. Measure 7

returns to tonic with a turnaround in D in measure 8.
Placing Mixolydian modes over the II-V changes, and a Major scale over
bar 7, looks like this:

Ex. 7.11

Sing the scales slowly, accompanying yourself

with chords or root in the left h a n d .

Why choose Mixolydian for the II chord as well as the V7? Remember, the
parent chord is the same for Dorian and Mixolydian if they share the same key
signature and the target chord in a II-V progression is the V chord. You could
also use Dorian mode (the II chords scale) or the parent chord of each diatonic
group. Its all about choices and the choice is yours to make.

85.

Many AABA type standards go to the IV chord in the bridge and Satin Doll
is no exception.

Ex. 7.12

The first four bars of this section sets us squarely in F major, with II-V-IIV-I. The following two bars modulates the II-V progression up to G major
without going to G majors I chord. Then we modulate back to II-V in C major
which leads us back into the last A section.
Going from a major chord, whether Major seven or Dominant seven, to
the same roots minor chord is a common way for composers to modulate
through several key centers in a composition. The term for this is Step-Down
Progression.
And the modes or scales? We can use Mixolydian again over the II-Vs and
a major scale and Dorian mode over the major seven and minor seven chords.
See Ex. 7.13.

Ex. 7.13

86.

Youre wondering what happened to the flat 9 in the Mixolydian mode

over the G7 9 chord? Youre getting smarter with this stuff. Adding the altered
pitches found in a chord to a scale gives us what we call altered scales. Makes
sense, huh? The ninth of G (same as the second) is A and a flat nine is A . Try
singing the G7 scale with an A , it makes an interesting change. Well look at
some altered scales in Chapter X.

THE LADY IS A TRAMP

The Lady Is A Tramp, written by Rodgers and Hart and popularized by

both Frank Sinatra and Ella Fitzgerald, feels like a thirty-two bar AABA type
tune, but the first two A sections are sixteen bars long rather than eight, while
the B section and the last A are eight bars each. So, the form is more specifically
AAB, each section consisting of sixteen bars for a total of forty-eight.
If youre not familiar with this composition, find a recording and get to
know it. The analysis is not going to be of any use to you if you dont know the
song.
The Lady Is A Tramp doesnt modulate around tonal centers like the
sprightly Satin Doll, remaining solidly in its home key of C major. But there are
some interesting quirks that liven up the harmony.
The opening progression is a variation of I-VI-II-V, with a
III dom.7
substituting for the VI chord. E 7 doesnt strictly share chord tones with Am71 2
but it doesnt alter the progressions I-VI-II-V nature.

87.
12

If pressed, we could go way out and align the chord tones of E 7 with the altered tones of Am ( 5,

9).

N.B. The following examples contain the root of the chord. Play and/or
sing the roots to familiarize yourself with the progression.

Ex. 7.14

The use of a flat III dominant 7 chord instead of the VI creates a pleasant
sounding root movement - E down a half step to D. Also, the addition of a
foreign V7 chord (E being the V7 of A and therefore sharing A s key
signature of four flats) gives the progression a harmonic kick, a little variety to
spice up our improv.

Ex. 7.15

This progression is repeated in bars 5 - 9, followed by a II-V of the IV

chord - F Major.

Ex. 7.16

88.

Remember, modulating from a major chord to its corresponding minor (in

other words, the same root) is a common way to move a progression around to
different key centers. In this case, tonic (C major) changed to a dominant seven
chord (C7 - mm 10) to get us to the subdominant (F major) which then
modulates to an F minor (mm 12) to lead us back to tonic.
How does F minor lead us back to C major? With a commonly used
harmonic technique we could call a descending cadence, a chromatic
progression.

Ex. 7.17

If you play the chords of bars 12 - 15, you will hear the descent of
the progression: F major to F minor to E minor, followed by E - A, D - G,
then C: III-VI -II-V-I.

Ex. 7.18

89.

Since minor III is a common substitute for major I, you can see that bars
13-15 are just our old friend I-VI-II-V again, repeated in bars 15-16 as a
turnaround back to the top.

SUB CHORDS IN TURNAROUNDS

III-VI-II-V can be varied in several ways. One possibility is to substitute the
VI chord in measure 13 with a III (either a minor or major III works).

Ex. 7.19

If you want a completely chromatic progression, that is descending in half

steps, you can substitute a flat II for the V chord in measure 14.

Ex. 7.20

Get a lead sheet for this song and experiment with different sub chords in
measures 13-15 while singing the melody. Mixing and matching substitutions
can be a fun and creative way to personalize your own arrangements.

90.

LADY IS A TRAMP BRIDGE

Now, how about the bridge? Its fairly straightforward, harmonically
speaking, with a little added sparkle in measure 34 in the form of a
diminished sharp IV.

Ex. 7.21

Youll remember from Stormy Weather (Ex. 7.2) that a I diminished chord
can substitute for a VI chord (F dim. for D7). The rest of the bridge is III-VI-IIV in C major, with variations in the harmonic rhythm.
You could play the E min.7 chord in mm. 35 with a G in the bass (the 3rd
of E min.) which would give you a bassline of F - F - G - A in measures 33-36.

The last eight bars of the bridge, a recap of the A section, also contain an
F diminished chord in measure 44. But since we are back in tonic, C major, the
F is a raised fourth, also known as a tritone. The tritone of a chord can be used
as a substitute for the purpose of modifying or prolonging a progression. This
practice is called tritone substitution and the substituted chord is called a tritone
sub.

91.

Ex. 7.22

In measure 48, the last bar of the song, a II-V has been placed in
parentheses. This is because the actual chord of this measure is C major but in
general practice a turnaround is played for all repeated choruses. You write
your turnaround chords in parentheses to acknowledge that they are a change
from the original composition.
You can also leave the measure empty, for an experienced musician will
automatically play a turnaround when going back to the top of the tune. This is
fine if the first chord of the piece is the I chord, but many times it isnt (Satin
Doll for example). Writing in your preferred turnaround insures that you will
hear what you expect to hear at that particular place in the form.

ARPEGGIOS ON LADY IS A TRAMP

Take a deep breath (youll need it for singing) and go over the chord
tones of the changes in the form of arpeggios as illustrated in the next example.
Sing slowly, aiming for accuracy rather than speed. Outlining or spelling the
changes in this manner helps you to hear the pitches that you will want to use
in your improv and familiarize yourself with the harmonic rhythm of the form.
See Ex. 7.23
92.

Ex. 7.23

LADY IS A TRAMP ARPEGGIOS

It's not very creative, musically speaking. But it is an important part of the
preparation for improv.
93.

Heres a sample solo on the A section, u s i n g

arpeggios, scales, and approach notes.
Ex. 7.24

The B section:

94.

STEP DOWN PROGRESSION

A step down progression is a series of II-V-Is where the I chord turns to a
minor 7th or II chord, leading us down one step to a new tonic. Examples of
step down progressions can be found in How High The Moon, Ill Remember
April, and the bridge of Cherokee.

TEXT-FOCUSED IMPROV
Now, after all that would you believe that you dont have to scat on any of
these songs to be considered a Jazz singer? You can use your creativity
improvising on the melody. But that doesnt mean you dont need to be familiar
with the harmonic form in your songs, for you must be able to hear where you
are and what your back-up musicians are playing. And text-focused improv is
not done well without a solid familiarity with the chord changes.
Check out Ella Fitzgeralds rendition of Lady Is A Tramp on Ella In Berlin
(Verve). Its exciting, creative, and swinging, all without the scatting improv of
which she was an absolute master. She plays with the melody and even changes
the lyrics, transforming the song into a personal statement.
Think of the songs that you approach as if they are people - some are
straightforward, easy to get to know, while others are full of subtle complexities
it can take a lifetime to fully understand. Learning the lyrics, the melody, and
the form of a song is just the beginning. Finding the songs core, its special
uniqueness, and melding that uniqueness with your own is the key to creating
an individual style of expression. And that is the cornerstone of Jazz - having a
distinctive voice or sound that is exclusively yours.

SHOUT CHORUS

Another Jazz technique inherited from the Blues is the shout chorus. A
shout chorus is defined as replacing the melody in uptempo tunes with higher
placed common tones, usually altered pitches or blue notes, which creates
excitement and a sense of heightened emotionalism. Its a great method to use
in performance, if not used too frequently.
95.

Once again, depending on your own personal style, you may choose not
to sing shout choruses. An intimate, laid-back vocalist like Peggy Lee or Diana
Krall would probably never use this technique. Its an aggressive style of singing
(and playing - Blues based horn players like Cannonball Adderly used it all the
time) that, if applied at all, works best as a flavoring - not the main course. It is
most effective when used toward the end of the last chorus or just for the coda,
for once you go up, racheting up the mood and the passion in your delivery,
you cant come down again.

Heres the first verse of Stormy M o n d a y a traditional

Blues head, as the m e l ody is commonly s u n g .
Ex. 7.25

The same verse with a shout-type melody. As you can see the rhythms
have been simplified along with the melodic line:

Ex. 7.26

96.

This technique could be used during the last eight bars of Lady Is A
T r a m p.

Ex. 7.27

Why the repetition of the last line? Well discuss that in the next Chapter
when we look at intros and codas.

97.

EXERCISES
Fill in the seventh chords of a II-V-I progression in each of the keys i n
the manner illustrated below. Dont forget to add the p r o p e r
accidentals. You can refer to the chart on page 44 for key signatures.

98.

Analyze the following songs for sections (A, B, etc.), tonal centers,
and turnarounds. Define the tonal centers with Roman n u m e r a l s .

TAKE A TRANE

Purchase a copy of Duke Ellington's "Take The A Train" for the melody and lyrics. Legend
has it that Billy Strayhorn wrote the lyrics after Ellington gave him directions to his house.

99.

FALL FOLIAGE

100.

VIII
INTROS, TAGS, AND CODAS

Satin Doll has a unique intro and a popular t a g , or coda. If you are not
familiar with it, listen to one of the many vocal or instrumental recordings of
this song made over the years. Im not going to give it to you here because
digging up recordings and doing the listening is an important part of your
preparation work as a Jazz musician.

INTROS

Often, in casual playing situations, the band will vamp on a I-VI-II-V

progression in a medium or uptempo songs key for an intro. Its an easy set-up
and, after the last chapter, you should be able to recognize that progression in
your sleep! All you have to do is get comfortable and come in at the top of the
progression, on the I chord.
Better yet, when sitting in, you can specify what intro youd like to hear.
Even if all you can think of is our old standby, I-VI-II-V, asking for it shows
that you speak the language and avoids confusion, both yours and the bands.
Better still, if youre using charts, is to write out the changes for the intro, again
even if its the old saw, I-VI-II-V. No confusion equals no problem.

101.

Often, when vamping on a I-VI-II-V, a minor III will be substituted for the
I chord as the progression is repeated. In the key of C major, that would mean
E minor.

Ex. 8.1

You can see in these root position chords that C m a j o r

and E minor share the common pitches E, G, and B.

ROOTLESS VOICINGS
Jazz pianists voice their chords in a certain way to facilitate a smooth
movement from one change to another. They also often leave out the root in
their voicings, leaving the root to either the bass player or to played with the
pianists left hand. These are called rootless voicings .
Leaving out the root also frees up a finger to play extra pitches in the
voicing, such as the 9th, giving the chord a full jazzy sound that youll want to
be able to recognize as well as you do the chords in root position.

Ex. 8.2

Play these voicings, comparing the sound w i t h

those in Ex. 8.1.
102.

N.B:

When in doubt, listen to the bass player. He will be playing the roots of
the chords, anchoring the harmony, as well as laying down the rhythm.

Another standard intro format is to play the last four or even eight bars
of the composition. This is an intro that you wouldnt necessarily have to write
out on the chart - you could just request it before counting out the tune.
Autumn Leaves is a good choice in which to use the last eight bars for an intro.
The distinctive progression lets the audience know what song you are about to
begin, and the changes bring you solidly around to the top of the tune.
Tunes that start on chords other than tonic, the II chord or the IV chord,
for example, usually have an intro that ends with the V7 of whatever is the first
chord of the form.
For Twelve Bar Blues tunes, a whole chorus is usually played as an intro.
You give the count, setting the tempo, and let the band play the form one time
through before you come in. The special rhythm of Bossa Nova works well with
a I chord to a flat II dominant 7 (or its enharmonic - sharp I) introduction.
Heres a common intro for The Girl From Ipanema, similar to the last four bars
of the song.

Ex. 8.3

103.

This progression also works for other types of tunes; for example, a slow
swing tune like Peel Me A Grape, written by Dave Frishberg.

Ex. 8.4

PEEL ME A GRAPE

I - II7 intro is also a turnaround vamp, because it turns back to tonic and
can be played for an unspecified amount of bars.
To intro into ballads, the band might play a II-V, or just the V chord with
a fermata (pause), leaving you to take the pick-up into the tune, with the tempo
starting on the first full measure.

Ex. 8.5

MISTY

N.B. Fermata is commonly called birds eye because of the way the mark looks.

Another way to start ballads is what we call right on

and the soloist begin together on beat one, with no intro.
would count out one measure and boom, the song begins.
your note first! Its a common mistake with young singers.
104.

it, meaning the band

You or the bandleader

Dont forget to get
See Ex. 8.6.

Ex. 8.6

BODY AND SOUL

Starting a tune right on it is also common for fast tempos, also known as
bright tempos. When you begin a fast tune in this manner, it creates excitement
right away, sort of like going from zero to sixty in a race car.
Many melodies have a pick-up, and rather than intro with a turnaround,
you may want to take the pick-up, meaning you will sing the pick-up without
accompaniment, and have the band come in on beat one of the first full bar.
Its a tricky thing to do, counting out the tempo and taking the pick-up but,
with practice, you can learn to do it smoothly and discreetly. An alternative
would be to have one of the bandmembers make the count for you, leaving you
to come in at the appropriate moment with the pick-up.

COUNTING OFF A TUNE

While we are on the subject, a few words about counting off a tune. A
tunes tempo is counted off so that everyone begins the song at the same speed.
Before you count off, youll want to make sure everyone knows what type of
tune it is, ballad, swing, Bossa, etc.
There may be a need to describe the feel of the tune as well. This could
mean explaining that a slow tune has a rock ballad feel, or 12/8, which
means the quarter note is divided into triplets, common with 50s type ballads
like You Send Me. Medium tempo rock-type tunes might have a shuffle feel,
comparable to a boogie woogie piano style. You might want to experiment and
do a song normally done in one feel but changing to another, like doing Body
and Soul, a ballad, as a Bossa Nova. Youll want to be sure that everyone is
aware of your change.
So, the feel is set and now all you have to do is count it out. Youll want to
go over a few bars of the tune in your head to remind yourself of the tempo
and feel that you like to sing it with. The tempo of the quarter note is what you
want to convey to the band. When youve got the tempo set in your mind, you
count it out loud.
105.

For ballads, it is pretty simple. You could just count out the quarter notes
in one measure (see Ex. 8.6). Another common way is a count with two bars up
front, that is a two measure lead-in to the top of the tune, whether with an intro
or right on it. On the first bar of the count, you count half notes, 1...2..., then
you count quarter notes, 1, 2, 3, 4.

Ex. 8.7

Bossa Novas also can be counted off in this manner, just remember to
keep your count straight, to accommodate the straight eighths of the Bossa
Nova feel.
When counting off uptempo swing tunes, because of their faster tempo,
four bars are given up front.

Ex. 8.8

Usually, your verbal count is accompanied with a finger snap. You snap
your fingers on beats two and four as you count. Please dont snap on one and
three - its a dead giveaway that somebody is L 7 (a square to you L 7s out
there).

TAGS

Tags are also fairly codified, making the transition to ending a tune in
casual or sit-in situations sound like the band had rehearsed it for hours. Once

106.

again the final tonic is often replaced with a minor III chord and the last four
bars are repeated once, twice, or many times in the case of a shout chorus type
of ending. The harmonic rhythm is often doubled in ballads or swing tunes, in
other words two measures of III-VI | II-V | before the tonic would double to four
measures: III | VI | II | V |.

Here is a tag o n Centerpiece, a popular Twelve Bar Blues.

Ex. 8.9

An extra eight bars have been added to the 12 bar form. Tonic (F7) in
bars 11-12 has been replaced with the III-VI progression, A minor to D7. The
last line (nothings any good...) is repeated two times after the original end of
the form. The III-VI-II-V progression is also repeated.
Often in the final I chord of a tag, a melody line is added that originally
came from Take The A Train. Youve probably heard it many times. Its an easy
out but a bit overused.

Ex. 8.10

107.

Lets go back to Lady Is A Tramp and analyze another typical tag to an

uptempo swing tune.

Ex. 8.11

Lady Is A Tramp Tag

As in Centerpiece, the tonic in bar 48 has been replaced with the III
chord, E minor. The III-VI-II-V progression is repeated as is the last line of the
lyric two more times, once again adding eight bars to the original form.
Youll notice that a tritone sub progression has been placed at the very
end of the tag, echoing the progression found in measures 45-47 of the form.

108.

TRITONE SUBSTITUTION
As we noted in the last chapter, tritone substitution is substituting a sharp
IV diminished chord for tonic, followed by a descending cadence down to tonic.

Ex. 8.12

As you can see in measures 56-59 in Ex. 8.11, a tritone substitution in the
key of C leads to a progression of | F dim7 F7 | Em7 A7 | Dm7 G7| C |. You
can alter the substitution chords as we did in Ex. 7.19 in the last chapter.

Ex. 8.13

Using a tritone substitution as a tag is a nice touch, especially in ballads,

as long as it is not done too many times in the course of one evenings
performance.
I Thought About You, written by Jimmy Van Heusen and Johnny Mercer,
often opens with a tritone sub, creating a haunting and wistful mood. Here it is
in the key of Bb major.

Ex. 8.14

Note that although the usual opening tonic chord has been replaced by the
tritone sub, tonic is spelled out in the first four notes of the melody: B , D, F, A.
109.

Compare this with the songs original I chord as an opener.

Ex. 8.15

A tritone sub used as a coda in a ballad like

Heres That Rainy Day would work like this:

Ex. 8.16

BOSSA NOVA CODAS

You can use the same I - II7 progression for the coda of Bossa Nova tunes
as in their intros. The progression lends itself well to an improvised vamp over
the two changes. You can sing the I chord (major) scale over both chords,
making F major an altered scale over G 7 .

110.

Ex. 8.17

Dont believe it? Heres a solo line using the F major scale.

Ex. 8.18

You could go on and on with this two chord vamp, adding extra pitches,
using your ears to work off the changes as well as injecting altered scales like
the ones well look at in Chapter X.
This subject is one more reason why you should be wearing the grooves
out of your old Jazz records. There are a finite number of interesting and
creative intros and codas for standard tunes and most of them have already
been done.
But you can recycle old ideas and make them new again, sometimes just
by changing the forum. There is a great and unique intro to Star Eyes that you
can find on a Cannonball Adderly record called The Best Of Cannonball
Adderly, recorded on the Riverside label. Some years later, Betty Carter
recorded a vocal version of Star Eyes, improvising over the same intro. An old
treat but with a new package. Jazz is learning from and building on the past,
making it new again, laced with your own personal creative style.
Isnt Jazz fun?

111.

IX
ADVANCED IMPROV

The preceding chapters have given you a lot of information to assimilate

and it can seem overwhelming. But, music isnt a race, its a journey. Take your
time.
All the book learning in the world cant give you what you can get from
careful and enthusiastic listening to live and recorded Jazz. Each and every one
of the great Jazz musicians who moved this style of music from its infancy to
the sophisticated art form that it is today have something to teach you.
The massive accumulation of Jazz recordings produced over the course of
the twentieth century is a great big gift wrapped up and delivered to you. Each
track is full of passion and skill and deep, measured reflection, the end product
of years of honing a specialized craft. You can absorb every ounce of their
experience and ingenuity with the artists blessing. All you have to do is open
your mind and listen.

112.

TRANSCRIPTIONS

A Jazz musician does a lot of transcribing in the course of his or her

studies. Transcribing, in the musical sense, is the act of writing out recorded
music. The notes are written down on staff paper with the correct rhythmic
notation, whether a single melodic line of a horn solo or an entire big band
arrangement.
Every good teacher assigns transcriptions to his or her students and they
are an important part of the curriculum of university Jazz Studies programs.
Great musicians do them all of their lives, for they know the value of the
process to their growth as artists.
There are a lot of commercially available transcriptions, like the Charlie
Parker Omnibook, published by Atlantic, that you can purchase in any music
store. Using these books as a guide while you learn transcribing can be a
positive thing. But if you use them in place of doing your own work, you wont
be doing yourself any favors. Its the process that makes you a better musician,
not the big pile of transcriptions in your folder.
Transcribing takes a lot of repeated listening and mental conce n t r a t i o n
that can be very difficult at first. But the rewards are a finely tuned ear, a welldeveloped memory, great musical ideas, and an ability to speak the language of
Jazz like a native.
Needless to say, youll have to be able to read and write musical notes to
do transcriptions. But even if you are just learning to read now, you can still
learn solos by heart. As a matter of fact, its the best way to do them.
Jazz is
traditionally an aurally transmitted art form and that should be the heart of
your studies. You may be a whiz at taking down transcriptions, but if you cant
sing them without reading the music, you havent really learned them.
Start small, with a simple Blues line or a vocal rendition of a song that you
are already familiar with. Although you know the melody, you may even be
performing it at gigs, there is always something to learn from a great artists
interpretation. An improvised line here, a little rhythmic change there; tone,
delivery, and feel, are all subtle aspects of a performance that can be gleaned
from countless listenings.
And there will be countless listenings. Make a cassette recording of the
solo you wish to transcribe and listen to it everywhere - in the car, at the beach,
on your morning jog. Sit at the piano and stop and start the tape until you
have figured out each and every note and can sing along with the record like a
ghostly double.

113.

The importance of listening to and transcribing Jazz cannot be

overemphasized. And its so easy for us compared with the Jazz musicians of
the past who didnt have cassette recording equipment, Walkmans, or the high
tech stereo systems available to us today. They did their listening on old
victrolas without stop and start playback, no half speed functions. And they
listened to live music nearly every night, going out to the clubs to hear their
idols and to make their mark at the jam sessions. They grew big ears from all
that careful listening and you can, too. And, after all that listening, if someone
tells you that you have big ears too, say thank you to the compliment, and
thank yourself for all the time you put it on your transcriptions.

VOCALESE

Vocalese is a transcribed instrumental solo with original lyrics added and

performed by a vocalist. Probably the most well known vocalese is Twisted,

based on a C Blues solo by the saxophonist Wardell Gray with lyrics written by
Annie Ross. She recorded it with her group, Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross, but
there have also been interesting renditions recorded by Joni Mitchell and Bette
Midler. Moodys Mood For Love, written by King Pleasure and based on a
trumpet solo played on Im In The Mood For Love, by James Moody, is another
popular vocalese.
Eddie Jefferson was one of most prolific jazz vocalists who wrote and sang
vocalese. His area was hard bop and his voice, while not traditionally pretty,
was fluent, pitch perfect, with a rock solid sense of swing. The vocal group
Manhattan Transfer did a number of wonderful vocaleses, most notably
Weather Reports Birdland, in which the vocalists sing all of the instrumental
parts, with lyrics.
Vocalese lyrics, due the stricture of setting them to an instrumental solo
line, run the gamut from the truly inspired to the simply goofy. The real
attraction is in the skill required to sing lines created by an instrument with its
much larger range and percussive abilities.
This special style is arguably the most important vocal contribution to the
Jazz repertoire. Every musical genre, be it pop, rock, or classical, has vocalists.
But only Jazz has vocalese. Its fun to sing as well as a challenging venue for a
vocalist to express herself creatively as a lyricist. And, because it is performed
so rarely, audiences eat it up.

114.

UPPER STRUCTURE CHORD TONES

There is an important aspect that defines Jazz from other styles of music;
the use of not only the root, 3rd, 5th, and 7th, of a chord but the upper structure
chord tones13 as well - that is pitches that are found above the octave: the 9th,
11th, and 13th. These upper chord tones are often altered by raising or
lowering a half step; most commonly 9, 9, 11, and 13, dissonant sounds
that are an integral part of the Jazz lexicon. The 11 on minor chords is usually
left natural.

Here are the main tones in three types of C chords dominant seventh, minor seventh, and major seventh.
Ex. 9.1

Play the chord tones on the piano one at a time

with a root or chord in the left h a n d .

As you can see, the upper structure pitches spell triads of other chords D major over the C7 and C major7 chords and D minor over the C minor.
Placing a chord over another one, rather than just over a different bass note is
called polychordalism, also known as polyharmony. Polychordalism isnt only a
Jazz technique, it is one of the qualities that shaped the sound of twentieth
century Classical music as well.
Ex. 9.2 shows the superimposed triads that can be found in the upper
structure pitches over the chords in a C Blues.
115.
13

Also known as extensions.

Ex. 9.2

C7

F7

A7

Dm

Play the shell voicing with the left hand, h o l d i n g

down the keys to let the pitches ring. With the right
hand, starting with the 9th, play one note at a time,
listening carefully and noting how each p itch sounds
against the chord in the bass clef. Over each voicing
write the name of triad and the parent c h o r d .

N.B. Chords with a bass note different from the root are written with the chord
name followed by a slash and the bass note (C7/E, for example). Polychords
are written with the two chords stacked vertically and a straight line dividing
them:
C
E
Think of tonic as a planet and the chord tones satellites that revolve
around that home base. The farther you fly away from tonic, the more outside
you are playing. Most musicians use these tones sparingly, spices added to the
meat of their solo.
Improvising solely on outside tones is one of the hallmarks of the Free
Jazz style, an acquired taste not to every listeners or performers liking. And
for singers, there is a thin line between singing out and just plain singing out
of tune.
Staying within the octave in your soloing style, that is utilizing mostly the
root, 3rd, 5th, and 7th, is called playing inside. Either style is valid, its just a
matter of your personal taste.
Lets go back to the arpeggios over C Blues that we looked at in Chapter VI.
116.

Ex. 9.3

Here are arpeggios on the third through the ninth. Notice that
the VI chord, A7, uses the flat 9. Sing them slowly. As you can see,
Upper Structure does not necessarily mean high pitched .

Ex. 9.4

117.

Shall we continue on to the outer orbits? Here are the chord tones up to
the eleventh.

Ex. 9.5

Lets go all the way up to the thirteenth. Now we are for the most part
totally in the upper structure of the chords.

Ex. 9.6

Crazy sounds, huh? These upper pitches turn the harmony inside out,
making us aware of different possibilities and combinations of chords. John
Coltrane made extensive use of upper structure pitches to reharmonize
standards, giving them a unique new sound.
118.

Listening to people like Coltrane and practicing these exercises will open
y ou ears. You cant sing something that you dont hear.
What do upper structure chord tones sound like in a solo?

Heres a sample:

Ex. 9.7

BEBOP STYLE

Bebop is a genre of Jazz that emerged in the 1940s spearheaded by New

York based musicians like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie. Hallmarks of the
Bebop style of improvisation are chromaticism, fast tempos, and sharp,
a n g u l a r1 4 melodic lines. Lines start and end in unusual places, i.e. starting a
half beat
before a barline and/or ending between two beats. Starting and ending phrases
on off-beats adds energy and excitement to the sound.
A Bebop line is usually made of eighth notes and eighth note triplets, with
short off-beat rests defining the phrase. There is also extensive use of
substitution chords which results in rapid harmonic rhythms.
119.
14

Angularity is defined as the use of uncommonly

wide intervals.

Bebop lines have a Baroque quality, in that they turn around on

themselves, moving up a scale in steps or skips and then changing direction.
Upper structure chord tones were brought into the forefront in the Bebop
solo, resulting in a new sonority that permanently changed the sound of Jazz.
All of the styles of Jazz that grew out its the early days are still popular
today, to greater and lesser degrees. Big bands still play their lush swing
arrangements, though the genre is kept alive for the most part in high schools
and universities. Blues and Dixieland, or traditional Jazz, have its fans and
preservationist societies. Jazz-rock fusion, Latin Jazz, all are alive and well in
the clubs and concert halls. But it is Bebop that has attracted and held the
greatest amount of fans and players.
At first glance, a transcription of a Charlie Parker solo would seem to be
just a random aggregate of notes spilling over the staff. But there is a method to
the melodic line, and precise practices. One of these practices is the 7-3 and 9-5
resolution.

7-3 AND 9-5 RESOLUTIONS

Pitch resolution is the act of moving from a non or lesser chordal tone to

an important chord tone, or a chromatic or step-wise neighbor tone placed on a

weak beat moving up or down to a chord tone on a strong beat.
One of the most commonly used resolutions in Jazz improv is the 7-3 and
9-5 resolution. That is to say the seventh degree of one chord change moves
down a half step to the third degree of the next change. The same thing occurs
with ninth movement down to fifth. 7-3 and 9-5 resolutions are an integral
part of the sound of modern Jazz improvisation. This application usually occurs
on II-V progressions.

Ex. 9.8

120.

When you do your transcriptions, analyze them to f i n d

the 7-3 and 9-5 resolutions. You should find quite a few.

APPROACH NOTES

We looked at approach notes in the Blues solo in Chapter V. Like the 7-3
and 9-5 resolutions, approach notes highlight and resolve to important pitches
on strong beats, called target notes . There are several types of approach notes.
Stepwise approach means approaching the target note diatonically, within the
scale, which would be either by whole step or half step. Chromatic approach is an
approach by half step. You can approach your target note from below or from
above.

Ex. 9.9

A double chromatic approach is two half steps from above or below.

Ex. 9.10

121.

Combination approach notes approach the target note from above and

below. One commonly used combination is stepwise from above and chromatic
from below.

Ex. 9.11

Combination Approach From Above And Below

This is chromaticism, going outside of the scale, that we touched on in the

last chapter. Adding these tonal expansions to your improvised line gives it the
harmonic complexity and circular, Baroque type movement that is integral to
the Bebop sound.

BOP STYLE MOTIVES

Practicing some Bop type motives can give you a feel for this type of
improvised line. These motives work over a dominant seven chord, G7 in this
case.

Pick out one at a time to practice and analyze.

Ex. 9.12

122.

BOP STYLE MOTIVES OVER G7

You can plug them into this cycle of dominant 7th chords.

Ex. 9.13

Want some more? Here are some over C7.

Ex. 9.14

123.

BOP STYLE MOTIVES OVER C7

SIDESLIPPING
Sideslipping , an improv technique common in Bebop playing, is where you

move chromatically up or down a half step to repeat a motive. You are

temporarily slipping outside of the key center.

Ex. 9.15

Because the chromaticism creates altered tones, sideslipping adds

interesting colors to your solo line, but is best used sparingly and at faster
tempos.

SEQUENCES

A sequence is similar to sideslipping in that a motive is repeated. But the

sequence usually fits diatonically with the changes, and is repeated several
times. The use of Pentatonic Scales, that is a scale of five notes in the pattern of
1-2-3-5 in Major keys and 1- 3-4-5 in minor keys, is an example of
sequencing.

QUOTES

Quotes are snippets of well known melodies that a soloist inserts in his or

her improvised line. The first phrase of songs like Take The A Train or I Love
Y o u , are two commonly used quotes. Just like sideslipping, quotes are whimsical
and fun when used sparingly, but overuse can sound a bit too precious.

124.

USING MODES

In the last chapter we looked at tonal, or key centers. Working from key
centers doesnt mean that you will never think modally or use them in your
improv. On the contrary, modal playing adds a unique aspect to the sound of
your solo. There was a modal movement in Jazz in the 1950s and 60s that
based entire compositions on this practice.

Contrast the sounds of these three different

modes over a C Maj. 7 c h o r d .

Ex. 9.16

Do you understand the concept of modes more clearly now? Depending

on your choice, and Jazz improvisation is all about choices, you can alter the
flavor of your solo by choosing different modes. Modal playing and key
centered playing are both great approaches and not mutually exclusive of each
other. You can mix and match according to your personal inclinations. They are
useful devices to have in your bag of licks.
Thinking modally can make it easier to improvise over large sections of
songs. Lets look at a Bossa Nova-type progression. See Ex. 9.17.

125.

Ex. 9.17

126.

Zen Thought

Sing an A Major scale (Ionian mode) over the e n t i r e

A section.

Ex. 9.18

One scale works beautifully over all of the changes. Of course we would
expect the parent scale to work over the diatonic changes - II, V, I. But the scale
works over the chromatic changes, G7, B dim., G , because the pitches in the A
major scale are altered pitches on these chord changes, 9, 13, etc.

127.

Here is a sample solo using only A m a j o r .

Ex. 9.19

Not bad for one little scale, wouldnt you say? Zen Thoughts bridge is a
little more complicated. In Ex. 9.20, youll find some scales that you could use
over the changes.

Ex. 9.20

The first four bars of the bridge have different chords but the last four
bars, the turnaround, find us back in A .
128.

A sample solo:

Ex. 9.21

What about the four bar coda? You can choose some scales for t h a t
yourself.
An A major scale over a G7 chord is a type of altered G7 scale. Well look
at some more altered scales in the next chapter.

TONAL CENTERS

We explored tonal centers in an earlier chapter. Now, lets look at how we

can break down a harmonically complex song into its tonal centers.

129.

Ex. 9.22

Chord Progression of "All The Things You Are"

Please purchase the sheet music for the melody and lyrics.
130.

ANALYSIS - ALL THE THINGS YOU ARE

At first glance, you can see patterns and sequences in both the melody
and the harmony. Also, youll note that it starts in a minor key (F) and ends up
in its relative Major (A ). But the progression takes a lot of modulatory detours
along the way. Thanks to the composers brilliance, all of the twists and turns
make sense and they all work beautifully.
If you try to improvise over the changes in this song by memorizing the
root movement only, youre going to have a harder time of it than you would
breaking up the entire progression into its smaller components, the temporary
key centers. Lets do the breakdown:
The first chord of the progression is F minor. Since the key signature is
four flats and songs often begin on the I chord, we could think of it as tonic
modulating quickly to its relative major, but we can forgo the modulation by
analyzing F minor as the VI chord of A . F minor moves to B minor, up a
perfect fourth. This works for two reasons. First, B minor is the diatonic IV
chord in the key of F minor, so our ear readily accepts that chord change. But
B minor is also the II chord in the key of A , and following it with A s V7
chord puts us unequivocally in the songs major key tonic. A s IV chord, D ,
moves to G7, a tritone substitution for D , which leads the temporary key of
C Major.

Ex. 9.23

Maj:

VI

II

IV
C Maj:

VII7 (tri. sub.)

V7

V7

NB:
In traditional analysis, modulations are illustrated by starting the new
key on the next line down, with the transitional chord(s) having two numeric
designations.
131.

Here are some parent scales and modes over these first eight bars. A
Major works with the first five measures, making the scale over D a Lydian
mode, a commonly used Jazz scale. G Mixolydian fits over the G7, followed by a
C Major scale.

Ex. 9.24

C Major moves to C minor and the opening sequence is repeated (VI-II-V-I-IV), effecting a modulation to E . Then another tritone substitution
moves the key center to G Major.

Ex. 9.25

A Maj: III
E Maj: VI

VI
II

IV
G Maj:

VII7 (tri. sub.)

V7

V7

E Major parent scale works over the first four measures and the tonic
scale can be used over A . Following the pattern of the previous eight bars,
D Mixolydian is placed in measure six with a G Major scale in the last two
measures.
132.

Ex. 9.26

Major Scale

Major Scale

D Mixolydian

G Major Scale

Now on to the third eight bar grouping. The first four measures stay in
G Major, a change in progression consistent with a B section. The progression
then modulates to E Major. Stretching traditional analysis a bit, we could call
the transition chord, F minor, the seven chord of G Major, although the
diatonic seven chord of a key is a half diminished rather than a minor 7th
( 5 added to a minor 7th).
Putting a C aug.7 chord in the E Major progression is a chromatic rather
than diatonic progression. Its a dissonant modulation similar to the tritone
substitutions we saw earlier and puts us back in the home key - C7 being the
V7 chord of F minor. The augmentation of the 5th in the C7 (G / A ), beside
being the melody pitch, aids the transition to F minor.
See Ex. 9.27.

Ex. 9.27

G Maj: II

G Maj:
E Maj:
133.

V7

VII
II

V7

VI aug.

By now, you can probably figure out the parent scales for this section
yourself. Note that an altered scale has been placed over the C Aug. 7, tailored
to the requirements of the chord. This is kitchen sink analysis, part of the
creativity of Jazz improvisation.

Ex. 9.28

G Major Scale

E Major Scale

C Aug. 7 ( 6

7)

The last section of the song is twelve bars long consisting of a recap of the
opening progression followed by a descending cadence and a four bar II-V-I
ending.

Ex. 9.29

134.

And the parent scales over the chords? The usual suspects, except for the
B dim.7 over which we can use an alteration of the A parent scale - a scale well
discuss in Chapter X.

Ex. 9.30

Weve gone through the entire composition section by section and now,
after some practice, you should be able to improvise intelligently over the
entire progression.
This is as complicated as it gets. Any song can be broken down and
absorbed in this manner. Dont be intimidated by a complex piece full of
chromatic modulations and other harmonic twists. Once youve learned the
root movement and the chords harmonic relationships, you can focus on the
fun part - choosing which scales to use and expressing yourself with
confidence.
Remember, all of the technical information in the world wont give you an
authentic sound without listening to the music. What is swing? How much swing
do you use? At what point does the tempo become so rapid that swing eighths
become straight eighths?
You can pick up all sorts of method books and get opinions on everything.
But in the end, they are just words. Jazz needs to be heard to be properly
understood. Dont get too caught up in intellectual pronouncements and
theoretical fervor.
Listen, imitate, practice, and get out there and sing.
135.

X
ALTERED SCALES AND CHORDS

Major and natural minor scales are the meat and potatoes of melodic
improvisation. But, like the culinary artists who have devised hundreds of ways
to serve up this basic fare, there are countless variations of these two scales.
Well look at a few of them in this chapter, along with the altered chords that
they work over.

ALTERED DOMINANTS

Any scale or chord that has pitches found outside of its key signature is
referred to as being a ltered. Minor chords sometimes have major sevenths, and
major chords can contain so many raised and lowered pitches as to become
barely recognizable.
The most commonly altered chord is the dominant seventh and one of the
most common altered dominant is what we call a sharp nine chord. See Ex. 10.1.
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Ex. 10.1

The sharp nine chord is blues-based, containing as it does both a major

third and a minor third (the enharmonic of the raised ninth). As you remember
from Chapter V, the sliding between major and minor third sounds a tonality
between the two pitches, sonority associated with African based American
Blues.
This chord probably developed in the playing of Blues influenced Jazz
musicians and then, as is the usual procedure in all types of music, the theory
guys came running up behind the players and gave it a name. They couldnt
call it a major/minor chord, that would be too ambiguous for music theorists,
who rival taxonomists in their fervent desire to bring order and classification to
the messy fluctuations that occur with an ever evolving art form.
Another commonly used altered dominant is the flat 9 - flat 13 chord.
Sometimes referred to in lead sheets simply as alt., as in G alt., or C7 alt.

Ex.10.2

137.

ALTERED SCALES
An altered mixolydian mode works over altered dominant chords. It is
composed of an alternating series of half and whole steps and is called a Half
Diminished scale.

Ex. 10.3

C Half Diminished

The half diminished scale has eight pitches (not counting the octave),
with both a major third and a minor third, similar to the blues scale. There is
also a flat 9 (enharmonic of a 2) and a sharp 11 ( 4 ) .
The Whole Diminished scale is also a series of alternating whole and half
steps, this time beginning with a whole step. It is used over a diminished
chord - root, 3, 5, and
7, or 6.

Ex. 10.4

C Whole Diminished

BEBOP SCALES
Adding an extra note to a basic seven note scale aligns the consonant
pitches metrically. An example would be to place a 5 between the 5 and 6
pitches in a Major scale. In a Dorian mode, you could add a major 3rd between
the 3 and 4. In a Mixolydian, or Dominant 7 scale, you could add the major
7th. See Ex. 10.5.

138.

Ex. 10.5

Here are some variations:

Ex. 10.6

Ex. 10.7

Jazz Melodic Minor

Ex. 10.8

Bebop Dominant

MINOR II-V-I
In minor keys, tonic is a minor chord. Therefore, the chords in a minor
progression must be altered in order to be diatonically compatible.
The II chord in a minor key has a flatted 5th and the V chord has a flatted
9th and 13th.
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Ex. 10.9

C minors key signature is three flats - B , E , and A . The flat 5 of the II

chord (A ) is the same pitch as the 9 of the V chord.
The modal concept, or parent scale, is the same in minor keys. You can
think key signature or use altered scales over the chords.
A half diminished scale works over the altered dominant.

Ex. 10.10

UPPER STRUCTURE PIANO VOICINGS

Jazz musicians who play chordal instruments, piano, guitar, vibes, use
upper structure chord tones in their voicings. As mentioned earlier, they often
voice their chords without the root, leaving them ten fingers with which to
place all kinds of colors in their chords.
If you are working on your piano skills and want to play some hipper, fuller
chords, try the voicings in the next example. They are given in a II-V-I
progression because it is such a common format for organizing these chords in
Jazz standards. Heres one way to voice II-V-I chords. Call them A Form
voicings.
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A Form Voicings

Ex. 10.11

C:

II

With roots in the left hand or played by the bassplayer, we have four note
chords in the voicing. The minor 9 chord has, from bottom to top, the 3rd, 5th,
7th, and 9th. The dominant 13 chord contains the 7th, 9th, 3rd, and 13th.
And lastly, the major 6 chord has the 3rd, 5th, 6th, and 9th.

Here is another way to voice the same pitches. Call it B Form.

B Form Voicings

Ex. 10.12

C:

II

B Form In Minor Key

Ex. 10.13

Cm:

II

N.B. Remember from Chapter IV 13 chords imply a lowered seventh.

141.

ALTERED MOTIVES
Some Bop-style motives to play over altered II-Vs.
Ex. 10.14

PHRASING

Weve covered a lot of ground in the last ten chapters. This theoretical
knowledge, acquired through long hours of study and practice, is a challenge
that rewards the vocalist with the ability to hold his or her own as an equal
partner on the bandstand with an unlimited freedom expression.
And when it comes to relating to the audience, the singer has a built-in
advantage over the instrumentalist - words. Words tell a story and draw us in,
crossing the gap between performer and listener that no melody, no matter how
thrilling or heartbreakingly beautiful, can never completely close. The
challenge for the vocalist is to find that happy medium between pure emotion
and studied intellect, forging a personal style that is a unique statement of her
own experience.
Keep your presentation personal, informal. Whether scatting or singing
lyrics, you want to express yourself in a conversational manner. You are telling
a story. Think about the best storytellers you know. They draw you in, slowly,
like gently playing a fishing line. Youll hook your audience if you give them a
chance to become interested in what you have to say. Dont hit them over the
head with your brilliance. Lay back. Stay relaxed. Invite them to share in your
delicious secret.
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XI
YOU ARE FEELING VERY RELAXED...

Most of you are already familiar with the technical aspects of vocal
production, the concepts of support and placement. If not, get yourself to a
qualified instructor right away! Books are a great supplement to private lessons
in the theoretical areas but there is no substitute for personal coaching in vocal
production. The instructor doesnt have to be a Jazz singer. On the contrary, a
classical or legit teacher may be your best bet when it comes to developing the
right technique and avoiding the pitfall of struggling to unlearn bad habits.
Having said that, if theres one thing that bears a word or two it is the
importance of relaxation in the upper part of the body when singing specifically the shoulders, neck, lower jaw, lips, and tongue. This is especially
important because the mental concentration required for a person learning to
improvise, not to mention doing it in front of an audience, can create tension in
the body. It is critical that you refrain from tightening or holding in these areas.

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The muscles of the larynx are divided into two groups:

(a) those inside the larynx which directly control phonation (intrinsic).
(b) those which move the larynx as a whole and keep it suspended in the
neck (extrinsic).
If you can keep the outer voluntary muscles relaxed, the inner ones will
follow suit.

RELAXATION EXERCISES

The following are some exercises that can be used before starting your
singing practice to relax these important muscles:

1) Starting at the hairline and working down to the lower neck, gently
massage the muscles with your fingertips. Allow the face to fall into as limp a
condition as possible. Rub the fingers over your closed eyes. Slacken the jaw.
2) Allow the tongue to hang limply over the top of your lower front teeth
as if you were unconscious. This means hang, do not push it.
3) The swallowing muscles are attached to the mandible (jawbone) from
the base to the tip, converging upon the hyoid bone at the top of the larynx.
Using the fingertips of both hands, gently press the soft part of the throat on
either side of the larynx, starting at the hinge of the jaw and working under the
chin and down to the neck. Massage until the muscles are soft and pliable.
4) Closing your hand into a fist, press it upwards against the bottom of
the jaw while pushing the jaw down in an isometric type of resistance. Continue
until you feel a stretch in the muscles at the joints of your jawbone. You will
find that the jaw opens more freely with a wider range of movement after doing
this exercise.
5) Take the chin between the thumb and forefinger and move it up and
down. There may be resistance at first, with the muscles of the jaw either
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fighting the movement or making it happen. Not until you are able to perform
this exercise successfully will the jaw be completely relaxed.
6) Finish with neck and shoulder rolls and stay loose!

THE JAW AND THE TONGUE

The jaw is a critical tool in vocal production and is one of the most
difficult areas to relax in the body. Aside from the fact that the muscles of the
jaw are extremely powerful, exerting some five hundred pounds of pressure in
the act of chewing food, they are also postural muscles like those of the back,
constantly working against gravity. And, as in the back, we tend to hold the
tension and stresses of everyday living in the muscles of the jaw.
Why do we need to relax the jaw? Firstly, because that is the aperture of
our instrument and it is a lot easier to push air out of a large opening than a
small one. Check out your album covers and you will see that the best singers
often have the biggest mouths!
We also want our tone to resonate and sound resonates more readily
through soft tissue, that is relaxed muscles, than it does through the denser
material of bone, cartilage, and tightened muscles. Remember how it feels
when youve just had a cavity filled, before the novocaine has worn off? That
stupid look where you jaw and tongue just kind of hang there is actually
perfect for singing. Another way to get this feeling is to imagine that small
weights are attached to your lower jaw, pulling it down gently.
The tongue is the second strongest muscle in the body after the heart, and
it extends down to the middle of the neck where it is attached to a clump of
muscles in the throat. It takes a lot of practice and concentration to keep it
relaxed, especially when producing the varied colors and tones that are used by
Jazz singers. A good way to check it is to place a thumb directly under the chin.
It should feel soft and pliant. Now start to sing. Has it suddenly become a brick
wall? You need to keep practicing until you are singing everything with a
relaxed tongue.

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BREATHING

After a lesson spent vocalizing with a good teacher, you may find yourself
floating out of the door as if on a cloud. Its easy to see why, youve just passed
an hour doing something you love with someone who cares about singing as
deeply as you do. But youve also energized your body with a concentrated
session of deep breathing.
Most people dont give much thought to breathing, after all it is
something that happens naturally. But singers, like all wind players, power their
instruments with their breath and therefore are more aware of minor daily
fluctuations in lung capacity. Factors outside of our control such as infection,
stress, allergies, and smog, can be mitigated with conscious breathing.
Conscious breathing does much more than refresh the oxygen supply in
our bodies, it uses the energy of air flow to do the work of singing for us. In
India, this energy is called prana , a metaphysical concept that encompasses
much more than simply air moving in and out of the lungs. Prana is the vital
force that animates our souls. It is literally the breath of life.
We singers are fortunate in that we get to make full use of the energizing
and cleansing aspects of deep breathing in the course of our work. When we
learn how to breath properly for singing, the technique becomes a natural part
of our existence and improves every aspect of our lives - physical, mental, and
emotional.

SUPPORT

All sorts of hazy concepts such as using the diaphragm and breathing
from the stomach are tossed about when singing is discussed. Lets make a
quick tour of the basics of respiration.
The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscles that separates the thorax or
chest cavity from the abdominal region. When the brain is alerted that carbon
dioxide must be expelled and oxygen replenished, it sends a signal to the
diaphragm. The diaphragm stretches downward, pulling the lungs with it and
creating a vacuum inside the lungs. Air rushes in to fill up this empty space. To
create the deep breath and correspondingly deep release needed for singing we
need to stretch the diaphragm to its utmost capacity. We do that by utilizing
the abdominal muscles.
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If you expand your chest when taking a breath, you are not using the full
potential of your diaphragm. Also, holding air in the upper part of your lungs
creates tension in the chest and shoulders and weve already learned that
tension in the upper body constricts vocal production.
It can a challenge to retrain our bodies out of life-long habits, especially
when faced with cultural pressures that adhere to a certain standard of posture.
Watch a baby in her crib and you will see proper breathing technique, her tiny
stomach moving in and out with each breath. As children we breathed properly,
only to become stifled as we matured by the admonitions of adults advocating
the military stance - shoulders back, chest out, stomach in, and so forth.
You may find it nearly impossible to expand the abdominals to facilitate
the breath after years of holding in your gut and thousands of crunches at the
gym. Dont worry, flexing these muscles in a convex manner will only increase
their tone.
A good way to practice is by lying down on your back on the floor and
breathing deeply. Youll feel a greater expansion in the abdominals as it is
difficult to lift the chest in this position. While still on the floor, try singing
something. Youll be surprised at how easy it is. Part of that ease is because the
floor is supporting your head which allows the neck and shoulder muscles to
relax. But the main reason is that you are breathing deeply.
When you stand up, youll have to consciously expand the abdominals as
you breathe to replicate what occurred naturally on the floor. Put a hand on
your stomach and push it out as you take a breath. Another trick is to imagine
an opening in your lower back where the air rushes in as you inhale. It wont be
long before you are breathing this way as a matter of course, not only when
singing but all of the time.
Another aspect of the support mechanism is the use of the lowe r
intercostals, the muscles surrounding the ribcage. Right around your natural
waistline, push outward with these muscles, holding that expansion as you take
a few breaths. Try this exercise to access the intercostals: breath out in a sssst
fashion, like air leaking from a hole in a bicycle tire. Continue until you are
completely out of air. You will feel the intercostals tense and expand as they
fight the natural tendency to collapse the ribcage as you reach the end of your
breath. The intercostals help us, especially in the higher register of our voice,
by powering the sound into the upper parts of the head where it needs to
resonate.
All this talk of holding and tensing seems antithetical to the relaxation
advised in the beginning of this chapter. You need to mentally separate the
upper and lower half of your body and relate to them in two different modes.
Everything above the diaphragm should be completely relaxed, just open space
where the air and the sound it carries can flow unimpeded. But from the waist
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down you are a powerhouse - sturdy and strong. This fighting stance literally
starts from the ground up, where you grip the floor with your toes, balancing
your weight evenly between your two feet. The legs are strong, knees slightly
bent, the pelvis opened to accommodate the movement of the abdominals. If
youve ever studied ballet or karate you are already familiar with this posture.
Stand tall, as if a string were pulling you up from the top of your head without
losing the natural S curve of your back. Now youre ready to sing.

VISUALIZATION

Carrying your instrument around in your body can have its drawbacks. A
pianist can have a bad cold, but when he or she sits down to play, the piano
wont have laryngitis. Its tone will sound as clearly as on any other day.
But we have advantages. Just like any other part of our body, our minds
can exert a certain amount of control over our voice. This is where visualization
comes into play.
You can conjure what kind of sound you want by focusing on the qualities
that best describe the tone and timbre that you desire. Think lush, velvety,
warm round tones, honey dripping from every rounded vowel. Or maybe you
hear your sound ringing out - clear, direct, and clean. Imagine your range
stretching lower and higher.
As the philosophers say, we are only limited by the boundaries of our
imagination. Visualizing how you want to sound is the first step toward
developing your own style, the special qualities that distinguish you from
everyone else.

OPEN YOUR MOUTH AND SAY AH

It may seem like a no-brainer to say you need to open your mouth to sing.
But you really need to open your mouth wider for singing than you are
accustomed to for speaking. Its a lot harder to push sound through a small hole
than a larger one.
Look in the mirror and sing something. Can you see space between your
upper and lower teeth? If not, pull your jaw back, not down.
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Pulling your jaw down will distort the vowels you are singing. Remem b e r ,
we only sing vowels. Consonants make us able to be understood, but we close
our mouths or aspirate to make them, so you are really only singing (that is,
holding a sound) on the vowel sounds in a phrase. For example:

A foggy day in London town

sung is pronounced:

uh (ff)ah( g )e e(d)a-ee ee(n) (L)u h( n ) ( d ) u(n)

(t)a - o h(n)

So it is important that you keep your vowels true, as in properly

pronounced. It not only affects the clarity of what you sing, but keeps you on
the correct pitch as well.
Listen to yourself as you sing. Its amazing how little we actually listen to
our sound, as we are almost always focusing on other things - the lyrics, our
delivery, the audience when we are performing.
Keeping your vowels forward in the mouth is an important component to
good sound production. The ee vowel is a naturally forward vowel. due to the
shape the tongue makes when forming it. But ah, eh, oh, and oo have a flat
tongue and can be placed toward the back of the throat if we dont consciously
focus it toward the front of the mouth. Keeping energy in the cheeks and
upper lip when forming vowels will help in this forward placement.

SINGING PRINCIPLES

Put an ALWAYS before each of these singing principles:

1. Have a clear concept of the pure vowel before you sing it.
2. Think the vowel sound as you sustain the tone.
3.

Pronounce vowels in a forward manner.

4. Release each vowel externally. (No holding inside)

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5.

Release the tongue.

6.

Keep the back of the tongue high and w i d e. (Touching the upper molars)

7.

Rest tip of the tongue against lower front teeth for vowels.

8.

Maintain h i g h cheeks.

9.

Release the lower jaw.

10. Swing jaw down and back when opening. (Do not pull straight down)
11. Think of the cheeks bouncing up when opening mouth.
12. Keep a space between the back molars when singing vowels.
13. Release the throat muscles.
14. Allow the larynx to maintain a resting position.
15. As pitches rise, allow more space in the jaw and think a stretch in the nasal
pharynx.
16. Reinforce body support as pitches rise.
17. Think high resonance.
18. Allow resonance response to adjust for vowel and pitches changes.
(Resonance cannot be put in one spot - each vowel and pitch feels differ e n t )
19. Make sure tones feels floaty.
20. Maintain proper body alignment.
21. Breathe expansively and deeply.
22. Maintain body expansion and high ribs throughout.
23. Release upper abdominal muscles.

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24. Think notes on one level.

25. Begin ascending phrases with a concept of height.
26. Let the jaw and lips adjust for vowel and pitch changes - not the tongue and
the larynx.
27. Release the throat, tongue, and jaw on inhalation.
28. Prepare your p h r a s e .
29. Warm up the vocal system gently.
30. Let the brain and the breathe do your work.

SCATTING EXERCISES

There are some exercises you can do to open yourself up mentally to the
free fall of improvisation. They are fun, especially when done in a classroom
setting or with a partner. Theyll build trust and confidence in your individual
performance and help to release the natural inhibitions that we all feel.
Try the following drills on a Twelve Bar Blues, using a
slow playalong CD or accompanying yourself on the piano:
1. Ugly/Beautiful
First, sing a chorus of the worst sounding solo you can muster.
Then, sing a chorus of the most beautiful sounding one. Your
thought process is what is important here, not your performance.
2. Create/Imitate
Get a friend or your instructor to trade twos (alternating two bars
each) with you. Copy and improvise on each others ideas.
3. Talk/Play
Say something for two bars and then sing for two bars, alternating
through the chorus. Talk about whats going on in your life, talk
about your cat.
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4. Bragging Session
Brag on yourself for one chorus, telling the class or your partner
how great you are, and then scat one chorus.
5. Verbose/Laconic
Sing one chorus using as many notes as possible.
chorus with as few notes as possible.

152.

Follow that with a

XII
I NEED A GIG!

After all the hard work spent learning your craft, you want to get out
there and put it into practice. And thats just what you should be doing. There
is no book you can read to prepare you for actual performance situations, no
pill you can take to cure stage fright. The only way to learn how to perform is
on the job.
Another thing to ponder is the fact that singers are rarely sidemen,
musicians hired by a bandleader for a specific date. Young instrumentalists
learn the ropes as sidemen; they keep a low profile, watch and listen. They see
how tunes are counted out, learn the common keys and tempos, hand signals,
and body language - all the components of a live, unrehearsed playing
situation. It would be worth the extra money to hire an experienced pro to
function as your bandleader. It will make the engagement run more smoothly,
which makes for happier musicians, and you can watch and learn from him or
her.
Perhaps you were a theater or music person in high school and have
already done some time under the footlights. All the better, for you may be
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beyond that mind-numbing, fever-inducing, heart-palpitating physiological

response called stage fright.
But there is a big difference between lighthearted school productions and
professional playing situations, not to mention the added pressure of leading a
band, or at the very least, as the vocalist, being the center of attention. You
cant hide behind your drumset like that guy way in the back, or ease off the
piano when you are not sure of the changes. Youre out there, babe, right in the
front and when things go awry, guess who gets the strange looks from the
audience? Its something that every vocalist needs to confront at some point,
better now that two years from now.
Dont think you are ready? Youll never think youre ready so dont let
that stop you. You can spend the rest of your life singing to your cat in your
living room but its not as much fun as sharing yourself with other musicians
and an enthusiastic audience. Find a place to play and some musicians to play
with.
Because Jazz is a communal process, you need to find a community. This
is one of the side benefits of going to college for Jazz Studies or just music in
general. Youre seeing other aspiring musicians every day; friendships and
professional alliances grow easily out of that milieu of common goals and
aspirations. Many well known groups are composed of musicians who started
playing together in college.
If you are not in school, youll have to be proactive in order to find
kindred souls. Do you like to go out at night? Hopefully you do, for youll need
to become a fixture in the local Jazz clubs. Making the scene is, for better or
worse, a part
of the process when youre starting out. If your spouse, significant other, or
best friend is into Jazz youve hit the jackpot, for checking out the scene can be
as much of a social occasion as a serious work search.
Dont be shy. Walk up to musicians and introduce yourself (just not while
theyre playing!). They may not be in the mood to talk but the majority of
times you will find a welcoming response. Jazz musicians appreciate people who
are into Jazz - there are so few of them out there.
When the musician asks you if you are a player, tell them that you are
learning to sing Jazz. Depending on the type of show they are doing, theres a
chance they may ask you to sit in. Jump on it! As the old saw goes, success is
preparation meeting opportunity. Youve been practicing and have learned a
few good sit-in selections. Why not?
You are going to need at least one accompanist if you dont feel
comfortable accompanying yourself on piano or guitar. When you meet guys
who are receptive and friendly, feel them out as potential collaborators. If they
are just starting out as you are, they may be interested in getting together
informally to work up some tunes.
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Professional players, on the other hand, may not be so open to getting

together without some financial remuneration. Pay them for their time - its
worth it. Hiring a pianist to rehearse with you is as vital to your development as
is paying your voice teacher for your weekly lessons. An old hand can help you
with keys, intros and tags, writing out charts for your book, as well as just being
a goldmine of practical information on music and the business. Musicians are
generous people when it comes to sharing their knowledge and love for Jazz.
Your pianist may take you under his wing, giving you contacts and other help
to get you started.

WHERE THE GIGS ARE

Perhaps making the club scene doesnt gibe with your lifestyle. You may
have small children or you may be a morning person who cant stay awake after
sundown. There are still some performing outlets available to you.
Check into a vocal jazz choir at your local community college. Chances
are they have one. With an audition and for a low tuition fee you could be
singing in rehearsals once or twice a week. Youd be meeting other vocalists,
building up your c h o p s (the actual physical part of your craft), and improving
your reading skills. These groups generally give a couple of performances each
semester, both on campus and off. Being part of a group is a great low pressure
way to ease into the act of performing in front of an audience.
If you are a Christian, find a church that features hip music, there are
quite a few of them these days, and join. Many of the larger churches pay
professional singers every week or at special holidays to sing at their services.
You could be one of those professionals. If you are Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist,
Hindi, Pagan, or otherwise; you dont need to be a member of a church to sing
there (but it probably helps).
Christmas is a busy season for musicians of all types. Beside church, there
are singers that get together only at this time of the year to form caroling
groups, both professionally and just for fun.
Early birds can also find daytime work doing casuals. Weddings are often
held on weekend days or early evenings. Brides-to-be hire singers for both the
ceremony and of course in bands for the reception. Some restaurants hold Jazz
jams during brunch on Sunday mornings.

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You night owls out there have even more options. There are small
restaurants and cafes that would hire a singer/pianist duo. Larger restaurants
and clubs feature trios and quartets. If you like to sing other types of music as
well as Jazz, you could find work in a pop or dance band that plays the local
bars, clubs, or hotels.

WHO TO CALL

That little cafe or restaurant around the corner could use some live music
to perk up the atmosphere; they just dont know it yet! They need you to
enlighten them.
Being a freelance musician, and all musicians are freelancers, means you are a
business concern with one boss, one employee, and a sales force of one - you.
This is not an occupation for the shy and retiring. And getting yourself gigs can
sometimes take as much time as practicing and rehearsing.
Patronize that little restaurant or cafe and check out the scene. Maybe
they already have live music. Is it the same band every week or do they rotate
several groups? What kind of music do they play? Beside you getting to know
the lay of the land, owners and managers are much more responsive to pitches
from people theyve seen before.
Once youve scoped out the situation, approach the manager or owner
and offer your services. If they are interested, the first thing they will want to
know is where else you have performed. Be honest, but its all right to put a
little spin on your resume. If you got up and sang with the band at cousin
Lucys wedding because your mother insisted, well, thats a place where you
have performed and you dont need to mention Lucy or mom.
Most likely youll be asked to audition or at least proffer an audio tape of
your performance. This means doing some preparation with the accompanist
you have already been working with. You can make a good tape in your living
room with some professional sound equipment and a DAT machine. If you dont
mind spending some money, you could make a really good tape at a small
recording studio.
Dont let a wily club owner talk you into auditioning for the enti r e
evening. Doing an hour or so is fine, perhaps you can offer a trade of music for
some food or drink. Unless youve hooked up with a fellow novice, youll
probably have to pay your accompanist - most pros wouldnt get too excited at
the prospect of hauling equipment and playing for dinner.

156.

Make one place your focus until you get an outcome - either a gig or a
definite never going to happen. Then set your sights on another possible
venue. Even if you have secured a gig, engagements dont last forever. Youll
want to get something else lined up. And its easier to get jobs when you are
already performing somewhere. You can record your performances or invite
future employers to come and see you.
Getting into the casual scene is also a matter of introducing yourself to
people. If you have met some musicians who do casuals, ask them who the
contractor is and call him or her. Once you get yourself into a scene there is a
snowball effect and your name will start to circulate. Then the phone will start
ringing. You wont have to sell yourself, your talent and competent work will do
the selling for you.
Check the bulletin boards at the local music stores, some bands put up
notices when they are looking for personnel. And then there are the classified
sections in local alternative newspapers. Larger cities often have musician
referral services although you will have to pay a fee to access their lists or have
your name added to the roster.

EQUIPMENT

Hopefully you have a piano or keyboard at home now to practice with.

What about the places that you are checking out? Do they have a piano? A
sound system? If not, you will have to provide the equipment yourself.
If a club doesnt have a piano, your accompanist should have one and an
amplifier to support it. Youll have to pay him or her more to bring their own
equipment, though. The best place to play when you are starting out is
someplace that has all the equipment you need, that way you just bring a
microphone and the pianist just brings him or herself.
Speaking of microphones, that is something you should have at the very
least. Youll be acquiring sound reinforcement equipment (called a P.A.) as you
start to work professionally, start with a microphone and cord.
Many people use the Shure SM-58 brand of microphones. They are
relatively inexpensive, you can buy a new one for under a hundred dollars, and
they are practically indestructible. Used SM-58s can be picked up for half that
amount. The cord, or cable that you use with it should have an SLR connection,
that is a three prong connection to accommodate most P.A. mixing boards. You
should also get a quarter inch adaptor for use with older sound systems or
small guitar amps.
157.

You could also use a portable guitar type of amp for rehearsals or gigs at
smaller venues. The sound isnt great for vocals but if you need to lug
something to a rehearsal, its good enough. Music schools dont always provide
amps and sound systems for everyone and you could find yourself trying to
shout over your assigned combo. Its more fun to sing rather than shout and
more respectable to be able to handle your own sound reinforcement needs.
Once you have acquired a mic and an amp, do some practicing with it at
home. Microphone technique opens up new possibilities of timbre and tone
depending on how closely you hold it to your mouth. Also, youll want to
acquaint yourself with the range of the microphone so you learn where to set
the speaker(s) to prevent feedback.
As you become more involved in performing, youll want to have your
own sound system. House systems in clubs can range from fabulous to
prehistoric and you want to present yourself in the best light possible.
Musicians who play electric instruments take great care selecting their
equipment. You
should, too. Your microphone, mixing board, and speakers are as much a part
of your sound as your voice. Go to the music stores that cater to pros and do
some research. If you cant shell out the money for all new equipment, check
the want ads after youve decided on what you need. Youll be upgrading your
system as you become more experienced. Start with the basics for now; a mic,
mic stand, cables, a mixing board with reverb, amplifier (they could be one
unit) and two speakers. As time goes by and you start to make some money
playing music, you may want to add items such as a stand alone reverb unit or
a better grade of microphone and board. Youll have to transport this
equipment so think portable or make arrangements to hire a cartage guy to get
your equipment to the gigs. Casual gigs will usually have a sound system
provided by one of the players who is paid an extra fee for his trouble, all youll
need to bring is a mic, cable, mic stand, music stand, and your book.
You are embarking on a wonderful new phase to your life, full of
frustrations tempered with sweet victories. Think big, stay focused, and dont
sweat the obstacles; bulldoze them out of your way. Is that your face on the
new CD in the record store?

158.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A Section
Abstract Improvisation
Altered Dominant
Altered Scales
Altered Pitches
Angularity
Approach Notes
Arc
Arpeggios
Auxiliary Tones
B Section
Behind The Beat
Birds Eye
Block Chord
Blue Notes
Book
Bridge
Bridgeless Standard
Bright
Casuals
Changes
Chops
Chord Charts
Chord Tones
Chorus
Chromatic Approach
Chromatic Scale
Chromaticism
Circle of Fifths
Club Dates
Coda
Comb. Approach Notes
Common Time
Common Tones
Compound Intervals
Consonant Tones
Contractors
Da Capo Al Signe
Da Signe Al Coda
159.

25
8
136
102
136
119
75
77
66
75
25
7
104
52
70
37
25
26
124
38
15
184
15
14
25
121
15
99
44
37
25
122
46
59
10
14
38
48
47

Descending Cadence
Degrees
Diatonically
Dominant
Dominant Seven
Downbeat
Downbeats
Enharmonics
Extensions
Fake Books
Feel
Fermata
First Ending
Five of Four
Fixed Do
Flatted Intervals
Form
Free Jazz
General Business
Grace Notes
Half Diminished Scale
Half Step
Harmonic Minor Scale
Harmonic Rhythm
Head
Intercostals
Intervallic Relationships
Intervals
Inversions
Jazz Eighths
Jazz Standards
Jazz Waltz
Lead Sheets
Legato
Modes
Motive
Movable Do
Non-Resolving Dominants
Open Sections

89
11
16
11
17
74
4
16
147
39
105
104
58
97
60
13
24
24
38
75
138
11
17
68
25
147
81
9
15
5
6
46
37
61
20
74
60
82
80

Out Chorus
Outlining the Changes
Outside
Outside Gigs
Parent Scale
Passing Tone
Pentatonic Scales
Pickup
Pitch Resolution
Polychordalism
Polyharmony
Prana
Progression
Quality
Quotes
Refrain
Reharmonize
Relative Major
Relative Minor
Release
Repeat Sign
Rest
Riffs
Right On It
Root Position Chords
Rootless Voicings
Rhythm Changes
Second A
Second Ending
Secondary Dominants
Sequence
Sharp Nine Chord
Shell Voicings
Shout Chorus
Shuffle Feel
Sidemen
Sideslipping
Simple Intervals
Singing Over Changes
Sit In
Six-eight Time
Slashes
160.

25
59
138
38
83
75
147
74
120
115
115
146
15
14
124
25
118
44
44
25
46
73
76
104
15
102
28
25
58
82
124
136
81
95
105
153
124
10
83
43
46
63

Standard Key
Stating The Head
Step-down Progression
Step-wise
Step-wise Approach
Straight Eighths
Sub-dominant
Substitution Chords
Superimposed Triads
Swing Feel
Tag
Take The Pickup
Target Note
Tempo Rub a t o
Temporary Key Centers
Temporary Tonal Centers
Tetrachords
Text-focused Improv.
Tonal Centers
Tonic
Top
Transcribing
Transpose
Triad
Tritone
Tritone Substitution
Turnaround
Twelve Bar Blues
Two Bars Up Front
Upbeats
Upper Structure Pitches
Vamp
Vamping
Vocalese
Voicing
Waltz Time
Whole Diminished Scale
Whole Step
Whole Tone Scale

34
25
86
75
121
31
11
54
115
5
101
105
75
30
82
82
85
7
82
17
25
113
39
14
91
91
80
28
106
4
14
80
80
114
14
46
138
11
13

Sample Discography
Cannonball Adderly
The Best Of Cannonball Adderly
Louis Armstrong
Louis Armstrong and Earl Hines
Betty Carter
Inside Betty C a r t e r
Now Its My T u r n
Betty C a r t e r
John Coltrane
Giant Steps
My Favorite Things
Blue Train
Miles Davis
Kind of Blue
Milestones
Round About Midnight
Someday My Pricnce Will Come
Ursula Dudziak
Midnight Rain
Duke Ellington
Duke Ellington - 1 9 4 0
Bill Evans
The Second Trio
Spring Leaves
The Tony Bennett Bill Evans A l b u m
The Village Vanguard Sessions
Ella Fitzgerald
Ella In Berlin
The Duke Ellington Songbook
Fine And Mellow
More Ella Fitzgerald
Aretha Franklin
Ten Years Of Gold
Herbie Hancock
Maiden Voyage
Round Midnight (Soundtrack)
Barry Harris
Tokyo - 1 9 7 6
Coleman Hawkins
Cool Groove
Billie Holiday
The Billie Holiday Story
Billies Blues
More Billie Holiday

161.

Riverside
Smithsonian
Capitol
Roulette
Bet-Car
Atlantic
Atlantic
Blue Note
Columbia
Columbia
Columbia
Columbia
Arista
Smithsonian
Milestone
Milestone
Fantasy
Milestone
Verve
Verve
Pablo
Priceless
Atlantic
Blue Note
Warner Bros
Zanadu
Drive Archive
Columbia
Columbia
Priceless

Freddie Hubbard
The Body And Soul
Straight Life
Al Jarreau
Look To The Rainbow
Eddie Jefferson
The Jazz Singer
The Main M a n
Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross
The Best Of Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross
Tania Maria
The Real Tania Maria:Wild!
Carmen McCrae
Im Coming Home Again
Bette Midler
Bette Midler
Thelonius Monk
Thelonius Monks Greatest Hits
Mark Murphy
Stolen ... And Other M o m e n t s
Anita ODay
Wave
Charlie Parker
Bird/ The Savoy Recordings
Charlie Parker/The Verve Years ( 1 9 5 2 - 5 4 )
Bird On Verve
(Vol. 8)
Bird At St. Nicks
King Pleasure
T h e Source
The Pointer Sisters
Pointer Sisters Live At The Opera House
Bud Powell
The Amazing Bud Powell (Vol 2 )
Flora Purim
500 Miles High
Open Your Eyes, You Can Fly
Sonny Rollins
Saxophone Collossus
Joshua Redman
Moodswing
Mel Torme
Live At The Maisonette
Sarah Vaughan
Crazy And Mixed U p
Sarah Vaughan and Count Basie
The Sarah Vaughan Years
Dinah Washington
The Jazz Sides
Joe Williams
Joe Williams Best Of Count Basie
Joe Williams Live

162.

Impulse!
CTI Records
Warner Bros.
Inner City
Inner City
Columbia
Picante
MCA
Atlantic
Columbia
32 JAZZ
Castle
Savoy
Verve
Verve
Fantasy
Prestige
Blue Thumb
Blue Note
Milestone
Milestone
Prestige
Warner Bros.
Atlantic
Pablo T o d a y
Roulette
Roulette
EMS
Verve
Fantasy

INDEX
7-3, 9-5 Resolutions
I-VI-II-V progression
Intros
II-V-I progression
Soloing o v e r
Minor II-V-I
V of IV
Abstract
improvisation
All The Things You A r e - anal.
Altered D o m i n a n t s
Altered Bop motives
Altered scales
American Folksong
Approach n o t e s

120-1
78-9
101-2
80-2
83-4
139-40
82
8
130-35
136-7
142
138-9
50-52
75, 1 2 1 - 2 2

Bebop style
119-20
Bop-style motives
122-3, 1 4 2
Scales
138-9
Behind the b e a t
7
Blue notes
70
Blues
Arpeggios
66-7, 1 1 7 - 1 8
Blues scale
70-3
Building a solo
76-7
Derivation of folksong
50-2
Harmonic d e v e l o p m e n t
52-4
History
49-53
Jazz Blues f o r m
54-6
Lowered s e v e n t h
53
Minor Blues
56-7
Modes
65-6, 6 7 - 7 0
Motives
74-5
Scales
70-73
Substitution c h o r d s
54
Twelve Bar F o r m
28-9, 53, 6 3 - 7
Upper struct. chord tones 1 1 5 - 1 9
Variations
55-6
Bridgeless S t a n d a r d s
26
Body And Soul - i n t r o
105
Book
37-8
Bossa Nova
26-7
Analysis
126-29
Codas
110-11
Intros
103
Breathing
146
Bridge
25-6

163.

Casuals
Centerpiece - tag
Changes
Chord c h a r t s
Chord symbols
Chord t o n e s
Upper s t r u c t u r e

38-9, 1 5 7
107
15
15,37
42-5
14
115-19

Chords, descriptions
Circle of fifths
Common t o n e s
Compound intervals
Counting off a tune

16
44
59
10-11
105-6

Diatonic relationships
Dominant
Dominant s e v e n

16-17
11
17

Ear training
Endings, first and s e c o n d
Enharmonics
Equipment

19
47-8
13-14
157-8

Fall Foliage
Fake b o o k s
Form
Four bar p h r a s e s
Frankie and J o h n n i e
Free Jazz
Gender issue
Gigs, finding
Girl From Ipanema I n t r o

100
39
24-5
29
50-2
24
2-3
153-7
103

Half Diminished scale

Half s t e p s
Harmonic minor scale
Harmonic r h y t h m
Heres That Rainy D a y Coda
Hurry Up And Love M e

138
9
17
68
110
32-3

I Thought About Y o u - i n t r o
Improvisation
Intervals
Intros
Inversions

109
6-7
9-11
101-11
15-16

Jaw and t o n g u e

145

Johnny B. Goode

58

Key signatures

43-6

Lady Is A T r a m p
A nalysis
Tag

87-94
108

Misty - i n t r o
Modes
Using

104
17-18, 2 3
82, 1 2 5 - 2 9

Nows The T i m e

55

Passing t o n e s
Parent scales
Peel Me A Grape - intro
Phrasing
Piano
Importance of
Jazz voicings
Upper structure voicings
Polychordalism
Progressions
I-VI-II-V
II-V-I
Soloing on II-V-I
Prom Night Barbie

75
83
104
142
3
102-3
140-1
115-16
15-16
78-9
80-84
83-4
30

Quotes

124

Relaxation
Repeats
Repertoire
Rhythm
Rhythm Changes
Rock and Roll
Root position c h o r d s
Rootless voicings

143-5
47
6
4-5
28
57-8
15
102

Satin Doll analysis

Scales
Scatting
syllables
exercises
Sections
Sequences
Sharp nine c h o r d
Shout c h o r u s
Sideslipping
Sidemen

84-7
11-13

164.

61-2
151-2
25-6
124
136-7
95-7
124
153

Signs and t e r m s
Simple intervals
Singers, Jazz
Singing Principles
Sitting I n
Solfege
Standard k e y
Standards
Step-Down Progression
Stolen M o m e n t s
Stormy M o n d a y
Stormy Weather (A section)
Subdominant
Substitution C h o r d s
Superimposed t r i a d s
Support

46-8
10-11
7-8
149-51
36-7
60
34-5
6
95
56
31, 96-97
79
11
54
115-16
146-8

Tags
Take A Trane
Tell Me Where To Scratch
Text-focused Improvisation
Time signatures
Tonal c e n t e r s
Tonic
Transcriptions
Transposing
Triads
Tritone substitution
Turnarounds
Sub chords in
Twelve Bar Blues

106-8
99
56
6, 9 5
46
82, 8 4 - 7
17
113-14
39-41
14
91, 1 0 9 - 1 0
80
90
28, 63-83

University, Jazz in
Upper structure chord t o n e s
Visualizati o n
Vowels
Vocalese

3
115-18
148
148-9
114

Whole Diminished scale

Whole s t e p s

138
9

Zen T h o u g h t

126