CHEMISTRY STUDY NOTES IGCSE EDEXCEL;

SECTION A: Particles

Solid
Liquid

Gas

Particle
arrangement
Closely, regularly
packed
Touching with
some gaps
Further apart

Movement

Forces of attraction

Vibration in a fixed
position
Can be pushed
aside and slide
over each other
Move randomly in
all directions

Strong
Not as strong or
effective
Extremely weak
considered as nonexistent

When a solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster and faster until they are fast
enough that the forces of attraction are no longer able to hold them in a solid. The
solid then melts into a liquid. When it is cooled, the liquid particles will move around
much slower enough that the forces of attraction between them hold them into a
solid, it is then frozen.
In liquids or gases, the speed of the particles varies with the temperature however
at each temperature some particles will move faster than others. Those faster
particles will have enough energy to break away from the surface of the liquid. No
bubbling is seen and the liquid slowly disappears if the liquid is open to the air.
Boiling is when the liquid is heated so strongly that the particles are moving fast
enough to break all the forces of attraction in the liquid.
Showing that gases diffuse very easily; Put two jars on top of each other, one
containing bromine and the other containing air. Remove the lid blocking them from
each other and you should observe that both jars become a very uniform brown.
This is due to the bromine particles bouncing around at random to give an even
mixture.
Showing that particles in different gases travel at different speeds; place a piece of
cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia at one end of a glass tube and
another piece of cotton wool soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid. A white
precipitate of ammonium chloride would form in between both ends; however it
would be closer to the hydrochloric acid. This is due to the fact that ammonia
particles are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles.
Diffusion in liquids is extremely slow due to the fact that there are only small gaps
between the liquid particles for other particles to diffuse into.
Proton

Relative charge
+1 positive

Relative mass
1

Where it is found
Inside the nucleus

Electron

-1 negative

1/1899

Neutron

0 /no charge
/neutral

Outside the
nucleus
Inside the nucleus

The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number or the proton
number. The mass number or the nucleon number counts the total numbers of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. Isotopes are atoms that have the
same atomic number but different mass numbers due to them having a different
number of neutrons whilst having the same number of protons and electrons.
Atoms are electrically neutral and the positiveness of the protons is balance by the
negativeness of the electrons. Atoms are arranged in the periodic table in order of
increasing atomic number.
The electrons are found at considerable distance from the nucleus in a series of
levels called energy levels or shells. Groups contain elements with similar
properties. Their similarity depends on the fact that elements in the same group
have the same number of electrons in their outer levels.
Group 8 are considered as being full levels. However it is only true for the first 2 as
the rest contain 18 electrons. They are considered as being noble gases because
they are completely unreactive as they are almost completely unreactive.
In any bond, particles are held together by electrical attractions between something
positively charged and something negatively charges. In a covalent bond, a pair of
electrons is shared between two atoms. Each positively charged nucleus is attracted
to the same negatively charged pair of electrons. In an ionic bond the electron pair
is attracted much strongly to one than the other. This causes the electrons to be
pulled to one rather than being in the middle. This causes one to have a positive
charge and the other to have a negative charge.
Molecules contain a fixed number of atoms which are joined together by covalent
bonds. The more bonds an atom can form, the more energy is released and the
more stable the system becomes.
When atoms bond covalently, they tend to do so in a way that forms the maximum
number of bonds that makes the final molecule more stable. Electrically charged
particles are called ions, positive ones are cations and negative ones are anions.
Ionic bonding is when there has been a transfer of electrons from one atom to
another to produce ions. The substance is held together by the strong electrical
attractions between positive and negative ions.
What happens in metallic bonding; the outer electron of each atom becomes free to
move throughout the whole structure. They are delocalized and create a sea of

electrons. When the electron has been transferred, a sodium ion is left behind. The
attraction of each positive ion to the delocalized electrons holds the structure
together. The more electrons being delocalized the stronger the attractions between
the positive ions and the sea of electrons and therefore the stronger the metal.
Forces of attraction between separate molecules are called intermolecular forces.
They are much weaker in comparison to covalent or ionic bonds. Intermolecular
forces arise from slight electrical distortions in molecules. During melting some of
the intermolecular forces are broken however in boiling the attractions are totally
disrupted and the molecules become free to move around as a gas.
Giant metallic structures; they consist of a regular array of positive ions in a sea of
electrons. They tend to have high melting and boiling points due to the powerful
attractions involved. They tend to conduct electricity due to the delocalized
electrons being able to mode throughout the structure. They are good conductors of
heat. Metals are easy shaped due to either regular packing which allows them to
slide over each other. They are said to be malleable (beaten into shape) and ductile
(pulled into wires). In alloy, the different metals have different sized atoms. This
breaks up the regular arrangement and makes it more difficult for the layers to slide
and therefore making them stronger.
Giant ionic structures; all ionic compounds consist of huge lattices of positive and
negative ions packed together in a regular way. A lattice is a regular array of
particles. They tend to have high melting and boiling points because of the strong
forces holding the lattices together. They tend to be crystalline. They tend to be
brittle because when any force is applied to the crystal, the crystal will be pushed
along and will meet with an iron with a like charge. Ionic substances tend to be
soluble in water this is because oxygen is slightly negative due to electrons being
attracted towards it. This means that water is a polar molecule. The slightly positive
hydrogen cluster around the negative ions and the negative oxygen are attracted to
the positive ions. Ionic compounds tend to be insoluble in organic solvents. This is
because the molecules in organic solvents are less polar than water and therefore
arent strong enough to break the lattice. Ionic compounds dont conduct electricity
when solid because they dont have any mobile electrons. When they are melted
they are able to as the ions are free to move.
Giant covalent structures; diamond: in diamond each electron is bonded strongly to
four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. It is very hard with high
melting and boiling point because of the strong carbon to carbon covalent bonds.
Diamond doesnt conduct electricity because all of the electrons in the outer levels
of the carbon atoms are tightly held in covalent bonds and therefore means that
they arent able to move. Diamond doesnt dissolve in water or any other solvent
because the carbon to carbon bonding is too strong and cant be broken by any
solvent.

Graphite: It is a soft material with a slimy feel because the attractions between the
layers are much weaker and can therefore be flaked off and therefore is used in
pencils. It has a high melting and boiling point and is insoluble in any solvents
because it has very strong covalent bonds. Graphite is less dense than diamond
because the layers in graphite are relatively far apart and this means that graphite
crystals have a lot of wasted space in comparison to diamond crystals. Graphite
conducts electricity because graphite has an extra delocalized electron which is
able to conduct electricity.
Simple molecular structures: They tend to be liquids, gases ore solids with low
melting points due to their weak intermolecular attractions. They tend to be
insoluble in water unless they react with it because the intermolecular forces
between water are too strong and cant be broken that easily. Molecular substances
are often soluble in organic substances. Molecular substances dont conduct
electricity.

For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide. Collisions with
too little energy do not produce a reaction. The collision must have enough energy
for the particles to react. The minimum energy needed for particles to react is called
the activation energy.
Changing concentration or pressure
If the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased, or the pressure of a
reacting gas is increased:
There are more reactant particles in the same volume. There is a greater chance of
the particles colliding. The rate of reaction increases.
Changing particle size
If a solid reactant is broken into small pieces or ground into a powder:
Its surface area is increased. More particles are exposed to the other reactant. There
is a greater chance of the particles colliding. The rate of reaction increases.
Changing the temperature
If the temperature is increased:
The reactant particles move more quickly. More particles have the activation energy
or greater. The particles collide more often, and more of the collisions result in a
reaction. The rate of reaction increases.
Using a catalyst

Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without being used up. They do this by
lowering the activation energy needed. With a catalyst, more collisions result in a
reaction, so the rate of reaction increases. Different reactions need different
catalysts.

SECTION B: Some essential background chemistry

Showing that air contains about one-fifth oxygen; use copper: Add 100cm3 of air in
the gas syringe. Push it forwards and backwards over the heated copper. Stop the
reaction when the volume starts becoming constant and when the copper turns
black. You must cool because the air molecules would be too hot. To find the
percentage, subtract the volume of air left by the initial volume of air and multiply
by 100.
Use iron rusting: Put a tube upside down filled with damn iron wool and air over a
beaker full of water. The water level rises in the tube as the oxygen is used up. To
find the percentage, subtract the final volume of water by the initial volume and
multiply by 100.
Oxygen is made in the lab by decomposing hydrogen peroxide using manganese
(IV) oxide to make water and hydrogen. You would test for hydrogen by the
relighting a glowing splint.
Burning elements in oxygen; magnesium: magnesium burns in air with a bright
white flame to give a white powder, powdery ash of magnesium oxide. The flame is
extremely bright in pure oxygen.

Sulfur: sulfur burns in air with a tiny almost invisible, blue flame. In oxygen it burns
much more strongly, giving a bright blue flame. Poisonous, colorless sulfur dioxide
gas is produced.
Burning carbon: carbon burns if it is heated very strongly in air or oxygen to give
colorless carbon dioxide gas. The carbon may produce a small yellow-orange flame
and perhaps some sparks.
Most metal oxides dont either react with, or dissolve in, water- those that do tend
to form alkaline solutions. Non-metal oxides often react with water to form acidic
solutions- common exceptions are water and carbon monoxide.
Acid rain is caused when water and oxygen in the atmosphere react with sulfur
dioxide to produce sulfuric acid or with various oxides of nitrogen to give nitric acid.
They both come from power stations and factories burning fossil fuels or from motor
vehicles. Acid rain is worrying due to its devastating effect on trees and on life in
water. Acid rain also reacts with metals and limestone in nature. To stop acid rain,
you must use catalytic converters to help convert oxides of nitrogen into harmless
nitrogen gas. A disadvantage of this is the fact that it has no effect on sulfur oxides
and it only works when it is really hot.
Making carbon dioxide in the lab; react dilute hydrochloric acid with calcium
carbonate. To test for carbon dioxide, react the carbon dioxide with limestone to
give you a white precipitate of calcium carbonate. If there is an excess of carbon
dioxide, then the precipitate dissolves to give a colorless solution of calcium
hydrogencarbonate.
A displacement reaction is when a more reactive metal displaces or replaces a less
reactive metal from a compound. The reactivity series is as follows; potassium,
sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen,
copper, silver and gold.
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen and the loss of electrons. Reduction is the loss of
oxygen and the gain of electrons. A redox reaction is one which both reduction and
oxidation are occurring at the same time. A reducing agent is a substance which
reduces something else and an oxidizing agent is a substance which oxides
something else.
Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with water to produce
hydrogen. If the metal reacts with cold water, then metal oxide is formed however if
it is reacted with hot water then metal hydroxide is formed. Metals below hydrogen
in the reactivity series dont react with water or steam and therefore sometimes
used in water pipes; copper.
Calcium reacts gently with cold water to create a white precipitate of calcium
hydroxide with heat. Magnesium doesnt react with cold water because as soon as

the reaction starts, magnesium hydroxide is formed. Since it is insoluble, the water
cant come into contact with the magnesium and the reaction immediately stops.
Magnesium reacts with steam to make a bright white flame and produce hydrogen.
Zinc and iron react with steam to create a yellow solid when hot which turns into
white when it is cooled or it reacts to form a slightly darker grey to create an oxide
called triiron oxide.
Metals above hydrogen react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen. Potassium,
sodium, lithium and calcium have very vigorous reactions with acids. Magnesium
reacts vigorously with cold dilute acids and the reaction gets very hot and forms a
colorless solution. Aluminum reacts very slowly but after warming it, the reaction
gets much faster. This is because the strong insoluble layer of aluminum oxide
prevents the acid from entering, the heating removes this layer. Zinc and iron react
slowly with cold acids but more rapidly on heating.
Finding the approximate position of a metal in the reactivity series; add a small
piece of metal to cold water, if there is any rapid reaction then the metal must be
above magnesium in the reactivity series. If there isnt any reaction, then add a
small amount of metal to some dilute hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. If there is no
reaction then it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, however if there is a
reaction then it is between magnesium and hydrogen in the reactivity series.
Universal indicator is made from a mixture of dyes which change color in a gradual
way over a range of PH. It changes through a variety of colors from PH 1 right up to
PH 14 but it isnt that accurate. Litmus paper is used to show whether something is
neutral or not as it changes color right about PH 7 whist other indicators such as
methyl orange or phenolphthalein change at 4 or 9.
Metal + acid -> salt + hydrogen
Metal oxide + acid -> salt + water
Metal hydroxide + acid -> salt + water
Metal carbonate + acid -> salt + carbon dioxide + water
All acids in solution create ions, so a metal reacting with a different acid would
create the same exact reaction because the ions are same because the spectator
ions are left out of the reaction.
Making hydrogen in the lab; react zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid with copper (II)
sulfate as a catalyst. To test for hydrogen, you use the squeaky pop test. Put a lit
splint on top of the solution. If there is a squeaky pop noise, then hydrogen is
present as that noise implies that hydrogen has just reacted with the oxygen in the
air to make water.

All acid/metal oxide reactions have the same ionic equation; O2- + 2H+ -> H2O.
This is because all of the ions in this reaction are spectator ions and therefore dont
have to be included as they dont contribute to the reaction. This is called a
neutralization reaction.
Bases are substances that combine with hydrogen ions. They include, metal oxides,
metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and ammonia as they all have the ability to
combine with hydrogen ions.
Since the most commonly used metal hydroxides are soluble, they will would make
the solution colorless and make it impossible to determine whether the solution is
neutral or not. This is why we use titration. Methyl orange is yellow in alkaline
solution; red in acids and orange is neutral. You run acid in from the burette while
swirling the flask all the time. When the solution turns orange that is when you stop.
You then repeat the experiment with the measurements of the acid and alkaline
volumes without the indicator. Ionic equation for acids and metal hydroxide
reactions: OH- +H+ -> H2O.
Ionic equation for acid and metal carbonate reactions: CO3- + 2H+ -> CO2 + H2O.
Arrheniuss theory wouldnt accept the reaction between gases as being acid-base,
because it doesnt involve hydrogen and hydroxide ions. An example which
contradicts his theory is the ammonia gas reacting with hydrogen chloride gas.
Bronsted-Lowry theory: an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
When this happens, the acid transfers a hydrogen molecule to the base to create a
hydroxonium ion. Acids in solution are acidic because of the presence of
hydroxonium ion. What happens it the hydroxonium ion donates a proton to the
base, however it is simplified to H+ + OH- > H2O rather than H3O+ + OH- -> 2H2O.
If you dissolve hydrogen chloride gas in methylbenzene, the solution doesnt show
hydrochloric acids simple acidic properties such as; it wont turn blue litmus paper
red, it wont react with magnesium ribbon to make hydrogen gas and it wont react
with marble chips to produce carbon dioxide.
Solubility patterns; all group 1 metals and ammonium compounds are soluble. All
nitrates are soluble. All chlorides are soluble except for lead and silver. All sulfates
are soluble except for lead and barium. All carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble.
Making soluble slats; either of the following: acid and metal (metal has to be from
magnesium to iron), acid and metal oxide, hydroxide or carbonate. Add enough of
the metal to some dilute acid so that there is an excess amount once the solution
has stopped bubbling; this is to make sure that all the acid has been used up. The
unused metal is then filtered off and the solution is then concentrated by boiling it
until crystals form when it is cooled. The solution is then left out to form crystals.
Any uncrystallised solution can be poured off the crystals and the crystals can be
dried with some tissue paper. Evaporating to dryness wouldnt give you magnesium

sulfate crystals. Instead it would produce a white powder of anhydrous magnesium

sulfate.
You always react carbonates and magnesium with cold dilute acids and everything
else should be reacted with hot dilute acids.
For making sodium, potassium and ammonium salts just read the earlier
procedures. For making sodium chloride crystals, you dont leave it to crystallize as
it has no water of crystallization. For ammonium sulfate crystals you still crystallize
them rather than heat them as heating would break the ammonium salts.
For making insoluble salts you use the precipitate reaction. It is when you react two
solutions once containing the correct positive ion and the other correct negative ion.
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Carbon dioxide
Chlorine
Ammonia

Downwards
No
No
Yes
Yes
No

Upwards
No
Yes
No
No
Yes

Overwater
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No

Testing for water; water turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulfate blue. Turns cobalt
chloride paper from blue to pink.
Testing for ions; a flame test is used to show the presence of certain metal ions in a
compound. A Platinum or nichrome wire is cleaned by dipping it into concentrated
hydrochloric acid and then holding it in a hot Bunsen burner, this is repeated until
no color is given out by the flame. The wire is then dipped into the solid and back on
the flame. The colors are as follow;
Metal ion
Lithium
Strontium
Sodium
Calcium
Potassium

Color of flame
Red
Red
Strong orange
Brick red
Lilac

Testing for positive ions using sodium hydroxide; most metal hydroxides are
insoluble, so if you add sodium hydroxide solution to a solution containing metal
ions, you will get a precipitate of the metal hydroxide.
Metal ion
Copper
Iron (II)
Iron (III)
Ammonia

Color of precipitate
Blue
Green
Orange-Brown
No precipitate, but it turns damp red

litmus paper blue

Testing for carbonates; if you add dilute acid to a solid carbonate then carbon
dioxide is formed in the cold. It is best to use nitric acid as some acid-carbonate
combinations can produce an insoluble salt that coats the solid carbonate and stop
the reaction. The ionic equation would be CO32- + 2H+ -> CO2 + H2O.
Testing for sulfates; Make a solution of the sulfate by adding water, enough dilute
hydrochloric acid to make it acidic and then add some barium chloride solution. If
sulfate is present, then a white precipitate of barium sulfate will be produced. You
acidify the solution to destroy other compounds which might also produce white
precipitates when you add the barium chloride solution, for example carbonate ions.
Testing for halides; Make a solution of the halide by adding enough dilute nitric acid
until the solution is acidic then add some silver nitrate solution. The acid is reacted
to remove other substance which might also produce precipitates with silver nitrate
solution.
Halide
Chloride
Bromide
Iodide

Color of precipitate
White
Pale cream
Yellow

Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic number. Inner
transition elements are usually dropped out of their proper places and written
separately at the bottom of the periodic table because it isnt very subtle. If they
are put where they need to be then everything will be too small for the person to
read.
Differences between metals and non-metals; metal: tend to be solids with high
melting and boiling points. Are shiny when polished and tend to be easily workable.
Are good conductors of heat and electricity? Form positive ions in their compounds.
Have oxides which tend to be basic and react with acids to form salts and water.
Non-metals: tend to have low melting and boiling points. Tend to be brittle and dont
shine as well as metals. Dont usually conduct electricity. Are poor conductors of
heat, Tend to for negative ions and covalent bonds. Have oxides which are acidic or
neutral.
Noble gases; they are all monatomic. The density increases as the atoms get
heavier. The boiling points also increase as you go down the group. This is because
the attractions between one molecule and its neighbor get stronger as the atoms
get bigger as their intermolecular attractions are getting stronger. Noble gases dont
form stable ions and therefore dont produce ionic compounds. They are reluctant to
form covalent bonds as it costs too much energy to rearrange the full energy levels

to produce the single electrons that an atom needs if it is to form simple covalent
bonds. This is why these gases are relatively unreactive.
The alkali metals; their melting and boiling points decrease as you go down the
group. Their densities tend to increase and also get softer as you go down the group
but tarnish as soon as they are exposed to air. All these metals are extremely
reactive and all react quickly with air to form oxides, and react with air to form
oxides and react with water to form strongly alkaline solutions of metal hydroxides.
To stop these reactions, they are stored under oil and rubidium and caesium have to
be stored in sealed glass to stop and oxygen from entering. All these metals react
with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. Sodium: it floats due to it
having a lower density than water and it melts due to it having a low melting point
which is reached by the amount of heat reacted by this reaction. The sodium
whizzes as the hydrogen isnt symmetrically given off. It also leaves a trail of white
sodium hydroxide which dissolves to make a strongly alkaline solution.
Lithium: its melting point is higher compared to sodium and heat isnt produced as
quickly and therefore the lithium doesnt melt.
Potassium: it is much faster and enough heat is produced which then ignites the
hydrogen to burn with a lilac flame.
Rubidium and caesium: they react more violently than potassium and can be
explosive.
In every single atom in this group, the outer electron will feel an overall attractive
force of 1+ form the nucleus, but the effect of the force falls very quickly as
distance increases. The bigger the atom, the more easily the outer electron is lost.
Predicting the properties of francium; it is very soft with a very low melting point, its
density is about 2 g/cm3, francium will be silvery and will tarnish quickly, would
react very violently with water to make francium hydroxide and hydrogen and
francium compounds are white and dissolve in water to give colorless solutions.
Halogens; as the molecules get larger towards the bottom, melting and boiling
points increase. They go from gas to liquid and then to solid and also get darker as
they go down.
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

State
Gas
Gas
Liquid
Solid

Colors
Yellow
Green
Dark red
Dark grey

Whenever using bromine, you should always have some dilute sodium thiosulfate
solution as it reacts at once with any bromine.

All halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides. They are soluble in
water and react with it to make solutions of acids. The reactivity of the halogens
decrease as you go down the group. The incoming electron is further and further
from the nucleus as you go down the group, and so it is less strongly attracted. That
means the ion is less easily formed and that means that the elements get less
reactive as you go down the group.
Transition metals; they are all good conductors of heat and electricity; they are
workable, strong and have high densities. They are much less reactive and dont
react with water as rapidly. They mostly make colored compounds. Example of
transition metals include; iron in the manufacture of ammonia, vanadium in the
manufacture of sulfuric acid and manganese (VI) oxide in the decomposition if
hydrogen peroxide.
Electrolysis is a chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a
compound which is either molten or a solution. An electrolyte is a substance that
undergoes electrolysis. They all contain ions and the ions are responsible for
conduction of electricity and the chemical changes that take place. Electricity is
passed into and out of the electrolyte through two electrodes. Carbon and platinum
are examples of electrodes. A positive electrode is called an anode and a negative
electrode is called a cathode.
In an ionic compound, the solid consists of a giant structure of positive ions and
negative ions packed regularly in a crystal lattice. It doesnt have any mobile
electrons and the ions are packed tightly in the lattice and arent free to move. As
soon as the solid melts, the ions become free to move around and that enables the
electrons to flow into the circuit. When a cation reaches the anode or the anion
reaches the cathode, the ions are discharged.
Not all ionic compounds can be electrolyzed molten as they break up into simpler
substances before their melting point. Others have such high melting points, its
impossible to be melted in a lab.
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions; water is a very weak electrolyte. It ionizes very
slightly it give hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. If the metal is higher than
hydrogen in the reactivity series then hydrogen will be made, if the metal is lower
than hydrogen in the reactivity series then the metal will be made instead and if
you have a halogen, the halogen will be produced otherwise it will
be oxygen.
A reaction that gives off a lot of heat is said to be exothermic.
Examples of exothermic reactions include combustion,
reactions of metals with acids, neutralization reactions and
adding water to calcium oxide. CaO + H2O ->Ca (OH) 2.

In an exothermic reaction, the reactants have more energy than the products. As
the reaction happens, energy is given out in the form of heat.
A reaction that absorbs energy is said to be endothermic. Most carbonates split up
to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide when you heat
them. In an endothermic change, the products have more
energy than the reactants. During chemical reaction, bonds in
the reactants have to be broken and new ones formed to
make
the products. Breaking bonds needs energy and energy is
released when new ones are made.
A dynamic equilibrium is when reactions are still continuing
and they are always changing and never constant.
Le Chateliers principle; if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the
conditions, the reaction moves to counteract the change.
Removing a substance as soon as it is formed will cause the system to generate
more products. Increasing the pressure on the reactants will cause the system to
create more products as it would want to reduce it. If you decrease the temperature
for an exothermic reaction then the system will create more products as it wants to
create more heat. A catalyst is only added to increase the rate at which equilibrium
is reached.

SECTION C: Large scale inorganic chemistry

The Haber process takes nitrogen from the
atmosphere and hydrogen from methane/natural
gas to make ammonia. It needs 400 degrees
temperature, 1:3 nitrogen to hydrogen volumes,
200 atmospheres pressure and iron as a catalyst.
A 1:3 ratio is used as an excess of either would
clutter the reaction vessel with molecules which
wouldnt have anything to react with. Since the reaction is an exothermic reaction, it
would be favored by a low temperature however too low of a temperature would
make the reaction too slow and 450 degrees is the compromise temperature which
produces a reasonable yield of ammonia in a period of time. A reaction that
produces fewer gaseous molecules is favored by a high pressure. A high pressure
would also produce a fast reaction rate because the molecules are brought closer
together. The 200 atmospheres actually used is high but not very high. This is the
compromise pressure as a larger pressure would be too expensive and would cause
a loss. The iron catalyst speeds the reaction up but has no effect on the proportion
of ammonia in the equilibrium mixture. If the catalyst isnt used the reaction would
be so slow that virtually no ammonia would be produced. Ammonia is used to make
fertilizers, make nitric acid and to make nylon.
The contact process is the making of sulfuric acid. You first have to make surfur
dioxide by burning sulfur in air. S + 02 -> SO2. You then make sulfur trioxide by
using an excess if air. An excess of oxygen is used in this reaction, because it is
important to make sure as much sulfur dioxide as possible is converted into sulfur
trioxide as it is wasteful and could cause pollution. Since the reaction is exothermic,
there would be a higher percentage conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide
at a low temperature however at a low temperature the rate of reaction would be
very slow. There are 3 molecules on the left side and 2 on the right side. Reactions
in which the numbers of molecules decrease are favored by high pressures but the
conversion is so good at low pressures that it isnt economically worthwhile to use
higher ones. The catalyst has no effect on the percentage conversion but helps to
speed up the reaction. Without the catalyst, the reaction would be extremely slow.
You then make sulfuric acid by reacting sulfuric acid with sulfur trioxide. Sulfuric

acid is then made by making adding water to the sulfuric acid in double amounts.
Uses of sulfuric acid include making fertilizers,
making paints and detergents.
The chlor-alkali industry takes sodium chloride
solution and creates chlorine, hydrogen and sodium
hydroxide. The cell is designed to keep the products apart. If the chlorine
comes into contact with sodium hydroxide solution, it reacts to make
bleach. At the titanium anode, chloride ions are discharged to produce
chlorine gas. At the steel cathode, it is too difficult to discharge sodium
ions, so hydrogen ions from the water are discharged instead to produce
hydrogen gas. More and more water keeps splitting up to replace the
hydrogen ions as soon as they are discharged. Each time water molecules splits up
it produces a hydroxide ion as well. There will then be a build-up of sodium ions and
hydroxide ions which make a solution of sodium hydroxide. Most of the sodium
chloride crystallizes out as solid salt. This can be separated, redissolved in water
and recycled back through the cell again.
Sodium hydroxide is used to purify bauxite to make aluminum oxide and to make
paper by breaking the wood down into pulp. It is also used in
the making of bleach as it is made when sodiumhydroxide and
chlorine react together in the cold. Chlorine is used to
sterilize water, make hydrochloric acid and to make
bleach.

Most metals are found in the Earths crust combined with

other elements. An ore contains enough of the mineral for it to be
worthwhile to be extracted. There are only few unreactive metals
such as gold and silver which are found native.
Many ores are either oxides or compounds that are easily converted into oxides. The
heating of compounds in air to make an oxide is called roasting. To remove the
metal from the oxide, you then have to remove the oxygen. The removal of the
oxygen is called reduction. Metals exist as positive ions in their ionic compounds
and to produce the metal you would have to add electrons to the positive ion, also
known as reduction.
How a metal is extracted depends to a large extend on its position in the reactivity
series. A manufacturer obviously wants to use the cheapest possible method of
reducing an ore to the metal. These factors include; the cost of energy and the cost
of the reducing agent.
For metals up to zinc in the reactivity series, the cheapest method of extracting the
ore is often to heat it with carbon or carbon monoxide. Carbon is cheap and can also

be used as a source of heat. Ores of metals higher in the reactivity series than zinc
cant be reduced using carbon at reasonable temperatures, which therefore makes
is extremely dangerous and expensive.
Metals above zinc are usually produced by electrolysis. The metal ions are given
electrons directly by the cathode. Unfortunately, large sums of electricity are
needed in this expensive process and therefore needs much more money.
Other metals, titanium, need to be extracted by heating the compound with a more
reactive metal. This is more expensive as initially extracting the more reactive
metal costs much more money.
Bronze is an alloy of copper tin, both of which are low in the reactivity series. They
can both be extracted by heating them with carbon. They are extracted when
stones containing copper or tin ores react with fires made from charcoal.
Iron can be made from its ores by heating them with carbon, however at much
higher temperatures. The iron produced is also much more difficult to purify.
Aluminum is above carbon in the reactivity series, it cant be made accidentally by
burning it in air with carbon. It has to be extracted using electrolysis which needed
the invention of electricity.
Extraction of aluminum:
Aluminum is the most common metal in the Earths crust. The main ore is bauxite.
Bauxite is first treated to produce pure aluminum oxide. Since aluminum is a
reactive metal, it has to be extracted using electrolysis. Since aluminum has a very
high melting point, the aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite. Cryolite is
another aluminum compound that melts at a more
reasonable temperature. The temperature needed
to melt it is 1000 degrees Celsius.

The molten aluminum is siphoned off from time to

time, and fresh aluminum oxide is added to the cell. The cell
operates
at about 5-6 volts, but with currents of up to about 100,000
amps.
The heat generated by the huge current keeps the electrolyte molten. This is
extremely expensive.
Aluminum ions are attracted to the cathode and are reduced to aluminum by
gaining electrons;
Al3+ + 3e- -> Al
The molten aluminum produced sinks to the bottom of the cell. The oxide ions are
attracted to the anode and lose electrons to form oxygen gas;

2O2- -> O2 + 4eThis creates a problem, because the high temperatures cause the carbon anodes to
burn with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The anodes therefore have to be
replaced regularly; this causes it to be even more expensive.
Pure aluminum isnt very strong, so aluminum alloys are normally used instead. The
aluminum can be strengthened by adding other elements such as silicon, copper or
magnesium. Aluminums uses depend on its low density and strength when
alloyed, its ability to conduct electricity and heat, its appearance and its ability to
resist corrosion.
Extraction of iron:
piped
impure

The hot waste gases at the top of the furnace are

away and used to heat the air blast at the bottom. Coke is
carbon, and it burns in the hot air blast to form carbon
dioxide. This is a strongly exothermic reaction.

C + 02

-> CO2

At
dioxide

higher temperatures in the furnace, the carbon

us reduced by more carbon to give carbon monoxide.

CO2 +

C -> 2CO
It is the carbon monoxide which is the main
reducing agent in the furnace especially in the
pooler parts.
Fe203 + 3CO-> 2Fe + 3CO2

The iron melts and flows to the bottom of the furnace, where it can be
tapped off. In the hotter parts of the furnace, some of the iron oxide is also reduced
by carbon itself.
Fe2O3 + 3C -> 2Fe + 3C02
The limestone is added to the furnace to remove impurities in the ore which would
otherwise clog the furnace. The furnace is hot enough for the limestone to undergo
thermal decomposition. Itsplits up into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. This is an
endothermic reaction and it is important not to add too much limestone to avoid
cooling.
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2
Calcium oxide is a basic oxide, and its function is to react with acidic oxides such as
silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide occurs naturally as quartz.

CaO + Si02 -> CaSi03

The product is calcium silicate. This melts and trickles to the bottom of the furnace
as a molten slag, which floats on top of the molten iron and can be tapped off
separately.
Molten iron straight from the furnace can be cooled rapidly and solidified by running
it into sand moulds. This is known as pig iron. If the pig iron is remelted and cooled
under controlled conditions, cast iron is formed. This is very impure iron, containing
about 4% carbon. Cast iron is very fluid when it is molten and doesnt shrink much
when it is solidified and that makes it ideal for casting.
Mild steel is iron containing up to about 0.25% of carbon. This small amount of
carbon increases the hardness and strength of the iron. It is used for wires, nails, car
bodies and bridges.
Wrought iron is pure iron. It was once used to make decorative gates and railings,
but they are now being made by mild steel. The purity of the iron makes it very
easy to work because it is fairly soft, but the softness and the lack of strength
means that it isnt useful for structural purposes.
High-carbon steel is iron containing up to 1.5% carbon. Increasing the carbon
content makes the iron harder, but at the same time it gets more brittle. Highcarbon steel is used for cutting tools and masonry nails.
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron with chromium and nickel. Chromium and nickel
form strong oxide layers in the same way as aluminum, and these oxide layers
protect the iron as well. Stainless steel is therefore very resistant to corrosion.
Examples include; kitchen sinks, knives, forks and chemical vessels.
Types of iron
Wrought iron

Iron mixed with

Pure iron

Mild steel

Up to 0.25%

High-carbon steel

0.25-1.5%

Cast iron

About 4%

Stainless steel

Chromium and nickel

Some uses
Decorative work such as
gates and railings
Nails, car bodies and ship
building
Cutting tools and masonry
nails
Manholes covers,
guttering and engine
blocks
Cutlery, cooking utensils
and kitchen sinks

Iron rusts in the presence of oxygen and water. Rusting is accelerated in the
presence of electrolytes such as salt.

Preventing rusting by using barriers:

The most obvious way to prevent rusting is to keep water and oxygen away from
the iron. You can do this by painting it, coating it in grease, covering it in plastic
however as soon as it is broken the iron will rust. Coating the iron with a metal
below it in the reactivity series is just a barrier method.
Preventing rusting by alloying the iron:
You can turn the iron in to stainless steel by alloying the iron with chromium and
nickel. The disadvantage of this is that it is expensive.
Preventing rusting by using sacrificial metals:
Galvanized iron is iron that is coated with a layer of zinc. Even if the layer is
scratched, the iron is safe because the zinc is still more reactive than the iron and
so corrodes instead of the iron. During the process, the zinc loses electrons to form
zinc ions:
Zn -> Zn2+ + 2eThose electrons flow into the iron. Any iron atom which has lost electrons to form an
ion immediately regains them. If the iron cant form ions, it cant rust. Underground
pipelines are also protected using sacrificial anodes. In this case, sacks containing
lumps of magnesium are attached at intervals along the pipe.
SECTION D: Organic chemistry
A molecular formula simply counts the number of each sort of atom present in the
molecule, but tells you nothing about the way they are joined together. For example
the molecular formula of ethene is C2H4.
They arent used very often because they dont give any useful information about
the bonding in the molecule.
A structural formula shows how the atoms are joined up. There are two ways of
representing structural formula. They can be drawn as displayed formula or they
can be written out e.g. CH3CH2CH3.
A displayed formula shows all the bonds in the molecule as individual lines, each
line represents a pair of shared electrons.
One part of the name tells you how many carbon atoms are in the longest chain and
another part tells you whether there are any carbon-carbon double bonds.
Code letters
Meth
Eth

Number of carbons in a chain

1
2

Prop
But
Pent

3
4
5

Alkanes are a family of similar hydrocarbons in which all the carbons are joined to
each other with single covalent bonds. Compounds like this are coded with the
ending ane e.g. ethane. They are described as being saturated as they contain the
maximum possible number of hydrogens for the number of carbons.
Alkenes are a family of hydrocarbons which contain carbon-carbon double bonds.
This is represented with the ending ene e.g. ethene. They are described as being
unsaturated because they have double bonds and therefore dont have the
maximum amount of hydrogen as there should be.
Name
But-1-ene
But-2-ene

Description
A four- carbon chain with a double bond
starting on the first carbon
A four- carbon chain with a double bond
starting on the second carbon

Example of breaking down an organic compound name:

2, 3-dimethylbut-2-ene
The di indicates that there are 2 CH3 side chains, one on the second carbon and one
on the third carbon. The but indicates that it is a 4 carbon chain with a double
bond in-between the second and third carbons. The ene indicates that there is a
double bond included.
Structural isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but with
different structural formula.
Alcohols all contain an OH group attached to a hydrogen carbon chain. This is
coded for in the name by the ending -ol.
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only.
A homologous series is a family of compounds with similar properties because they
have similar bonding.

Members of a homologous series have a general formula; alkanes have the

formula of CnC2n+2
Members of a homologous series gave trends in physical properties; as the
molecules get bigger, the intermolecular forces between them increase. This
means that more energy has to be put in to break the attraction between one
molecule and its neighbor.

Members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties.

Two simple reactions of the alkanes;

Combustion: all alkanes burn in air or oxygen. If there is enough oxygen, it will burn
completely to give carbon dioxide and water e.g. CH4 + 2O2 -> C02 + H20. If there
isnt enough oxygen, there is incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon, and you
get carbon monoxide or soot produced instead of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide
is colorless and odorless and is very poisonous. It is very poisonous as it combines
with hemoglobin, preventing it from carrying the oxygen. This can cause death as
not enough oxygen gets to the cells in your body.
Reaction with bromine: alkanes react with bromine in the presence of ultra-violet
light. A hydrogen atom in the alkane is replaced by a bromine atom. This is known
as a substitution reaction, because one atom has been substituted by a different
one. A mixture of methane and bromine gas is brown because of the presence of
the bromine. If it is exposed to sunlight, it loses its color, and a mixture of
bromomethane and hydrogen bromide gases is formed. CH4 + BR2-> CH3 Br + HBr.
Alkenes are compounds of carbon-carbon double bond. Alkenes are unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Alkenes have a general formula CnH2n. Alkenes go from gases to
liquids. Alkenes burn in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water e.g.
C2H4+302->2CO2 + 2H2O.
The addition of bromine: Alkenes undergo addition reactions. Part of the double
bond breaks and the electrons are used to join other atoms onto the two carbon
atoms. Bromine adds to alkenes without any need for heat or a catalyst. For
example bromine reacts with ethene to make 1, 2 dibromoethane which is a
colorless liquid. CH2=CH2 + Br2 -> CH2BrCH2Br.
Any compound with a carbon-carbon double bond will react with bromine in a
similar way.
If you shake an unknown organic compound with bromine water and the orange
bromine water is decolorized, the compound contains a carbon-carbon double bond.
If your known compound is a gas, just bubble it through bromine water. If it turns
colorless, it is an alkene. On the other hand, if it doesnt change color then it isnt an
alkene.
The production of ethanol:
Making ethanol by fermentation; Yeast is added to a sugar or starch solution and left
in the warm for several days in the absence of air (anaerobic conditions). Enzymes
in the yeast convert the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process is
called fermentation.

Sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose by water. C12H22O11+H2O>C6H12O6+ C6H12O6.
Yeast is killed more than about 15% of alcohol in the mixture, so it is impossible to
make pure alcohol by fermentation. The alcohol is purified by fractional distillation.
This takes advantage of the difference in boiling point between ethanol and water.
Water boils at 100 degrees whereas ethanol boils at 78 degrees.
The liquid distilling over 78 degrees is 96% pure ethanol. The rest is water. It is
impossible to remove the last water by simple distillation.
Making ethanol by hydration of ethene; react ethene with steam at conditions of
300 degrees, 60-70 atmospheres with phosphoric acid as a catalyst. CH2=CH2 +
H2O -> CH3CH2OH. Only a small proportion of the ethene reacts. The ethanol
produced is condensed as a liquid and the unreacted ethene is recycled through the
process.
Comparing the two methods of producing ethanol:
Use of resources

Type of process

Rate of reaction

Quality of product

Reaction conditions

Fermentation
Uses renewable resources
such as sugar beet or
sugar cane
A batch process which is
inefficient because it isnt
continuous and needs to
always stop.

It takes a very long period

of time such as several
days
The ethanol produced isnt
pure and would therefore
need more processing
Uses gently and ordinary
pressures and
temperatures

Hydration of ethene
Uses finite resources such
as oil which will eventually
run out
A continuous flow process
where a stream of
reactants is constantly
passed over the catalyst.
This makes is much more
efficient.
Very fast

It produces much purer

ethanol
Requires very high
temperatures and
pressures with lots of
input energy

All the countries that have a good access to crude oil produce ethanol from ethene,
however as soon as the oil runs out, they will need to use sugar cane as an
alternative.

All alcohols burn to form carbon dioxide and

water. For example: ethanol;
C2H5OH + 3O2 -> 2CO2 + 3H20
Biofuels are fuels made from biological sources
such as sugar cane or maize.
Ethanol is a Biofuel. Mixtures of ethanol and
petrol are very popular in countries which have
very little or no oil industry to create their own
petro; whilst also having a very good climate to
grow sugar cane. Other countries are introducing
Biofuels such as ethanol to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
The dehydration of ethanol produces ethene. Ethanol vapor
is passed over hot aluminum oxide acting as a catalyst.
CH3CH2OH -> CH2=CH2 + H2O
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are organic molecules as they
are made out of carbon.
How the properties of hydrocarbons change as their molecular size changes:

Boiling point increases; the larger the molecule, the higher the boiling point.
This is because large molecules are attracted to each other more strongly
than smaller ones. Therefore more heat is needed to break these bonds.
The liquids become less volatile. The bigger the hydrocarbon, the more slowly
it evaporates at room temperature. This is because if the fact that the ligger
molecules are more strongly attracted to their neighbors and so dont turn
into gas easily.
The liquids flow less easily and become more viscous. Liquids containing
small hydrocarbon molecules are runny and those which contain larger
molecules are stickier as they have greater attractions between the
molecules.
Bigger hydrocarbons dont burn as easily compared to smaller ones.

Crude oil is heated and passed into a fractionating column which is cooler at the top
and warmer at the bottom. The crude oil is split into various fractions
.

The hydrocarbons in the refinery gases have boiling points which are so low that the
temperature if the column never falls low enough for them to condense to liquids.

The temperature of the column isnt hot enough to boil some of the large
hydrocarbons found in the crude oil and they remain as liquid and as removed as a
residue form the bottom of the column. It also makes Bitumen which is used in road
making.
All hydrocarbons burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water and also release a lot
of heat in the process. They can therefore be used as fuels.
An example is the burning of methane (natural gas) in air:
CH4 + 202 -> CO2 + 2H20
If there isnt enough air, you get incomplete combustion. This leads to the formation
of carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide. If methane is burns with a lack of
oxygen, then you will receive carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide:
2CH4 + 3O2 -> 2CO + 4H2O
Refinery gases are a mixture of methane, ethane, propane and butane, which can
be separated into individual gases if required. These are gases are mostly used as
liquefied petroleum gas for domestic heating and cooking.
Petrol/Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons with similar boiling points. It is used in
cars as fuel.
Kerosine is used as fuel for jet aircraft as domestic heating oil and as paraffin for
small heaters and lamps.
Diesel oil is used for buses, Lorries, some cars, and railway engines where the line
hasnt been electrified. Some could be cracked to make other organic chemicals and
to produce more petrol.
Fuel oil is used for ships boilers and for industrial heating.
Bitumen is a thick, black material, which is melted and mixed with rock chippings to
make the top surfaces of roads.
Although the fractions from crude oil distillation are useful fuels, there are two main
problems:
1. The amounts of each fraction you get will depend on the proportions of
various hydrocarbons and not the amounts in which they are needed in. For
example far more petrol is needed than extracted from crude oil.
2. Apart from burning, the hydrocarbons in crude oil are fairly unreactive. To
make other organic chemicals from them, they must first be converted into
something more reactive.

Cracking is a useful process in which large hydrocarbons are broken down into
smaller ones. The majority of the hydrocarbons found in crude oil have single bonds
between the carbon atoms. During the cracking process, molecules are also formed
that have double bonds between carbon atoms. The new molecules are much more
reactive and can be used to make many other things.
The gas oil fraction is heated to give a gas and then passed over a catalyst of mixed
silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide at about 6000-7000 degrees Celsius. Cracking
can also be carried out at high temperatures without a catalyst.
Cracking is an example of thermal decomposition i.e. a big molecule splitting up
into smaller ones on heating. Cracking produces a mixture of alkanes and alkenes.
An example would include;
C13H28 -> C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18
Ethene is one of the alkenes produced by cracking.
It is the smallest hydrocarbon containing carbon
to carbon double bonds.
Addition polymerization is when molecules
containing carbon to carbon double bonds join together to produce very
ling chains. Part of the double bond is broken and
the electrons in it are used to join up neighboring
molecules.
Polymerization is the joining up of lots of little
molecules i.e. monomers to make one big polymer
i.e. polymer.
An initiator is used to get the process started. It is
not a catalyst as it gets used up in the process.
When ethene is polymerized, it creates poly
(ethene).
Poly (ethene) comes in two types; low-density poly (ethene) and high density poly
(ethene). Low density is mainly used as a thin film to make polythene bags as it is
very flexible and not strong. High density poly (ethene) is used in areas where
greater strength and rigidity for example to make plastic bottles.
When propene is polymerized, poly (propene) is created.
Poly (propene) is stronger than poly (ethene) and is therefore used to make ropes
and crates.

Chloroethene is an ethene molecule where one of the hydrogen atoms has been
replaced with a chlorine atom. Polymerizing Chloroethene gives you poly
(Chloroethene).
Poly (Chloroethene) has many uses. It is quite strong and rigid and is therefore used
for drainpipes or replacement windows. It can also be mad flexible by adding
plasticisers. This then makes it useful for floor coverings and even clothing.
Nylon is different to addition polymerization as instead of having one monomer; you
often have two, joining together alternately. Each time the two monomers combine,
a small molecule is lost. This is called a condensation reaction.
One of the monomers is a six-carbon organic acid with a COOH group at each end
called hexanedioic acid. The COOH group is known as carboxylic acid group. It is
part of a family of compounds called dicarboxylic acid. The formula is;
HOOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COOH. The number of carbons in the compound, 6, is the
reason why it is called nylon-6, 6.
The other monomer is a diamine called 1, 6-diaminohexane. The amino acid is NH2
and here is one of these at the end of each 6 carbon chain. That is also why it is
called nylon-6, 6. It has the formula of H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2.
Under the right conditions, these two molecules can join together with the loss of a
molecule of water each time a new bond is formed.

If you break down many of these monomers, you will eventually make a chain
polymer.
Industrially, this reaction is done at 350 degrees but can be done in the lab at room
temperature by replacing one of the monomers with a more reactive molecule. The
OH groups in the hexanedioic acid are replaced by chlorine atoms to give
ClOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COCl. When this is condensed the H molecules react with the
Cl molecules to make HCl.
Nylon is used in textiles, the fibres are also used in ropes and nylon can be cast into
solid shapes for cogs and bearings in machines.

SECTION E: Chemistry calculations

Atoms are extremely small. In order to get 1 gram of hydrogen, you need 6.02
x10^23 atoms. It would be too hard to measure the masses of atoms in
conventional mass units such as grams; they are instead measured in comparison
to the carbon-12 isotope. On this scale, one atom of the carbon-12 weighs exactly
12 units.
The relative atomic mass of an element is given the symbol Ar or RAM. The relative
atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of the isotopes of the
element. It is measured on a scale on which a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly
12 units.
The weighted average is the percentage abundance of an atom in the world
multiplied by its atomic mass. For example for Chlorine 35 has 75% abundance
whilst Chlorine 37 has 25% abundance;
(35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100) = 35.5
The abundance data might also be given in graph form.
Relative molecular mass is only used for substances which are actually molecules,
basically covalent substances and therefore cant be used for ionic substances.
Relative formula mass is used for when talking about compounds.
Relative formula mass is given the symbol Mr.
To find the relative formula mass, you must add all of relative atomic masses of all
of the different elements. You get the relative atomic masses from the periodic
table. For example for MgCO3;
Mg + C + (O x 3) =24 + 12 + (16 x 3) = 84
To find the percentage composition of an element in a compound, you divide the
atomic mass of the element you are looking for and divide it by the relative formula
mass of the compound. For example the percentage by mass of copper in copper (II)
oxide, CuO;
RFM of CuO = 64 + 16 = 80

64/80 x 100 = 80%

The mole is a measure of amount of substance. A mole is a particular mass of that
substance. To find the mass of 1 mol of a substance, you must work out the relative
formula mass and just attach grams at the back. For example 1 mole of oxygen;
Relative atomic mass = 16
Relative formula mass = 16 x 2 = 32
1 mole of oxygen atoms = 16
1 mole of oxygen molecules = 32
Number of moles = mass/ RFM
For example the mass of 0.2 moles of calcium carbonate;
RFM of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 100g
1 mole of CaCO3 = 100g
Mass = number of moles x RFM = 0.2 x 100 = 20 g
1 mole of anything contains the same number of particles, Avogadros constant. So
every mole contains 6.02 x 10^23 particles.
Suppose 2.4 g of magnesium combined with 1.6g of oxygen. Finding the formula of
magnesium oxide:
Combining masses
Number of moles of atoms
=
Ratio of moles
Simplest formula/
empirical formula

Magnesium
2.4
2.4/24
0.1
1
Mg

Another more complicated example;

Mass of empty tube = 52.2g
Mass of tube + copper oxide = 66.6g
Mass of tube + copper after = 65.0g
Mass of oxygen = 66.6 65.0 = 1.6 g
Mass of copper = 65.0 52.2 = 12.8g

Oxide
1.6
1.6/16
0.1
1
O

Combining masses
Number of moles of atoms
=
Ratio of moles
Simplest formula/
empirical formula

Cu
12.8g
12.8/63.5
0.2
2
Cu2

O
1.6g
1.6/16
0.1
1
O

Converting empirical formulae into molecular formulae;

Find the ratio between the elements in the empirical formulae. Divide the mass of
the compound by RFM. Then multiply this number by the empirical formulae.
Water of crystallization: when some substances crystallize from solution, water
becomes chemically bonded with the salt. This is called water of crystallization. The
salt is said to be hydrated. An example is CuSO4.5H2O.
Finding the n in BaCl2.nH2O:
Mass of crucible: 30g
Mass of crucible + barium chloride crystals: 32.44g
Mass of crucible + anhydrous barium chloride: 32.08g
To find n you need to find the ration of the number of moles of BaCl2to the number
of moles of water.
Mass of BaCl2: 32.08 30 = 2.08
Mass of water = 32.44= 32.08 = 0.36
Combining masses
Number of moles
=
Ratio of moles
Empirical formula

BaCl2
2.08
2.08/208
0.01
1
BaCl2

H20
0.36
0.36/18
0.02
2
2H20

Typical calculations will give you a mass of starting material and ask you to
calculate how much product you are likely to get.
1. First write the equation:
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2
Interpret the equation in terms of moles. 1 mol of CaCO3 produces 1 mol of CaO
and 1 mol CO2.

Substitute the masses into the equation. 1 mol of CaCO3 = 100g produces 1 mol of
CaO = 56 g. This is info is received from the periodic table.
If: 100 g makes 56 g then 1g of CaCO3 makes 56/100 calcium oxide = 0.56 . To find
how much is produced by a certain amount, just multiply it by the mass being used.

2. Lead is extracted from, PbS. The ore is roasted in air to produce lead oxide,
PbO.
2PbS +3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2
The lead is then reduced to lead by heating it with carbon in a blast furnace.
PbO + C -> Pb + CO
a- Calculate the mass of sulfur dioxide produced when 1 tonne o galena is
roasted.
b- The mass of lead that would eventually be produced from that 1 tonne of
galena.
Calculation for part a:
First write the equation:
2PbS + 3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2
Interpret the equation in terms of moles. 2 moles of PbS produce 2 mol of SO2.
Substitute the masses into the equation: 239g of PbS make 64g of SO2.
If 239 tonnes of PbS produces 64 moles of SO2 then 1 tonne of PbS gives 64/239 =
0.267 tonnes of SO2
Calculation for part b:
First write the equation:
2PbS + 3O2 -> 2PbO + 2SO2
PbO + C -> Pb + CO
Interpret the equation in terms of moles: 2 mol of PbS produces 2 mol PbO
2 mol of PbO make 2 mol of Pb
So 2 mol of PbS make 2 mol of Pb
Substitute the masses into the equation: 2 x 239 PbS makes 2x 207 Pb

=478 PbS makes 414 Pb

If 478 PbS makes 414 Pb then 1 tonne makes 414/478 = 0.866.
Calculations involving gas volumes
1 litre = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Avogadros law: equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain equal numbers of molecules. This means that if you 100cm3 of hydrogen at
some temperature and pressure, it contains exactly the same number of molecules
as there are in 100cm3 of carbon dioxide under those conditions.
1 mol of any gas contains the same number of molecules and so occupies the same
volume as 1 mole of any other gas at the same temperature and pressure.
The volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas is called the molar volume. At room
temperature and pressure, the molar volume is approximately 24 dm3.
1 mol of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at rtp
Calculating the volume of a given mass of gas:
Calculate the volume of 0.01g of hydrogen at rtp.
1 mol of H2 has a mass of 2g
0.01g of hydrogen is 0.01/2 = 0.005 mol
0.005 x 24,000 = 120 cm3
Calculating the mass of a given volume of gas:
Number of moles of hydrogen = 180,000,000/24 = 75,500,000 mol
Each mol weight = 2g
Mass of hydrogen = 7,500,000 x 2 = 15,000,000g
Working out the volume of gas produced during a reaction:
Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at room temperature and pressure
when an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid is added to 1g of calcium carbonate.
CaCO3 + 2HCl -> CO2 + CaCl2 + H20
Interpret it in terms of moles: 1 mol of CaCO3 makes 1 mol of CO2
Substitute the masses into the equation: 100 CaCO3 makes 44g of CO2
If 100g of CaCO3 gives 24dm3 CO2 at rtp

Then 1 g gives 24/100 = 0.24 dm3

So 1 g of CaCO3 makes 0.24 dm3 of CO2
Problem involving hydrogen:
What is the maximum mass of aluminum that you could add to an excess of dilute
hydrochloric acid so that you produce no more than 100cm3 of hydrogen at rtp.
2Al + 6HCl -> 2AlCl3 + 3H2
Interpret it in terms of moles: 2 moles of aluminum make 3 moles of hydrogen
2x 27 Al gives 3x 24,000 = 54g of Al gives 72,000 cm3 of hydrogen
If 72,000 comes from 54g of Al then 1 cm2 of H2 comes from 54/72,000 = 0.00075g
100 g of hydrogen = 100 x 0.00075 = 0.075g Al
An industrial example:
Coal contains sulfur compounds. When these burn, sulfur dioxide is produced. To
remove it from the waste gases from power stations, the sulfur dioxide is reacted
with limestone and air:
2CaCO3 + 2SO2 + O2 -> 2CaSO4 + 2CO2
The Drax power station uses 10,000 tonnes of crushed limestone every week.
Calculate the mass of calcium sulfate produced and the volume of sulfur dioxide the
limestone removes.
Interpret the equation with moles: 2 moles of CaCO3 make 2 moles of CaSO4
1 mol of CaCO3 makes 1 mol of CaSO4
Substitute the masses into the equation: 100 g of CaCO3 makes 136g of CaSO4
1 g of CaCO3 makes 136/100 g of CaSO4 = 1.36 g
10,000 tonnes of CaCO3 makes 13,600 tonnes of CaSO4
100 g of CaCO3 makes 24000 cm3 of SO2
1 g of CaCO3 makes 240 cm3 of SO2
10,000,000,000 x 240 = 2,400,000,000,000 cm3 of S02
10,000 tonnes of CaCO3 removes 2,400,000,000 dm3 of SO2
If you expected to 100 g of a certain substance, but only get 80g then the
percentage yield is 80%.

The percentage yield is the amount of product you actually make as a % of the
amount you should theoretically make.
Percentage yield = actual yield/ predicted yield x 100
Percentage yields are never 100%, this is because:

Reversible reactions may not go to completion

Some products may be lost
Some reactants may react in an unexpected way and therefore produce
unwanted products
The raw materials may not be pure and incorrect products will therefore be
made
Some of the products may be left behind in the apparatus. Not all of the
products will be collected
The reaction might not be fully completed and not all of the reactants have
been reacted.

The number of coulombs = current x time

1 faraday is the quantity of electricity which presents 1 mole of electrons passing a
particular point in the circuit.
1 faraday = 96,000 coulombs = 1 mole of electrons
An example of electrolyzing copper (II) sulphate solution:
What mass of copper is deposited on the cathode during the electrolysis of copper
(II) sulphate if 0.15 amps flow for 10 minutes?
The electrode equation is: Cu2+ + 2e -> Cu
Work out the number of coulombs:
Number of coulombs = amps x time = 0.15 x 10 x 60 = 90
2 moles of electrons give 1 mole of copper
2 x 96000 coulombs give 64 g of copper
192,000 give 64g copper
90 coulombs = 64/192000 x 90 = 0.03g
An example involving gases:
The electrode equation is: 2H+ + 2e -> H2
40H- -> 2H2O + 02 + 4e

Number of coulombs = amps x time = 1 x 20 x 60 = 12000

Calculating the volume of hydrogen:
2H+ + 2e -> H2
2 moles of electrons give 24,000 cm3 of hydrogen
2 x 96000 give 24,000 cm3
1200 coulomb gives 24,000/192000 x 1200 = 150 cm3
Calculating the volume of oxygen:
4OH- -> 2H2O + O2 + 4e
4 moles of electrons make 1 mole of hydrogen
4 x 96000 make 24,000 of hydrogen
384000 make 24,000
1200 x 24,000/384000 = 75 cm3
Reversed calculation:
How long will it take to deposit 0.5 g of silver on the cathode during the electrolysis
of silver nitrate using a current of 0.25 amps? The cathode equation is:
Ag+ + e -> Ag
1 mole of electrons makes 1 mole of silver
96,000 coulombs make 108 g silver
0.5g silver = 96,000/108 x 0.5 = 444.4 coulombs
Coulombs = time x amps
Time = coulombs / amps
Time = 444.4 / 0.250
Time = 1780 seconds