Kim Temme

Art 1D
November 28, 2013
Traditional Asian Art History
Term Definitions
Post-colonialism
Post-colonialism's goal is to show that one culture is not better than the other and to have a
mutual respect for one another. It is a study that followed colonialism and imperialism and it's
effects on a dominated culture (third world countries). Colonialism happened to take over other
countries in order to save them. They turned the natives into second-class citizens and basically
destroyed their original way of life. Rid the world of imperialism and racism and the effects they
had on the world. Even today, they are drilled in our minds as normal and continue to suppress
these cultures as second class. Part of post-colonialism was to revive the lost cultures and to view
them as they are meant to be viewed and not adding western view.
Non-western
A demeaning term used by western cultures. It means everything else that is not North America
or Europe. This label causes those who are not western to be labeled as unimportant and secondclass. Their way of life is incorrect. Non-western cultures were colonized and dominated by
imperialistic countries. Natives were seen as low class, barbarians, and needed saving. Postcolonialism is used to fix this view.
Prehistoric
It is a time in history when there is no written language or a written language that we cannot
read. Prehistoric is an unclear time frame because when a culture gained a written language
varied. For example, Japan did not gain a written language much later than China. Without a
written language, it is unclear what many items were meant for. This causes guessing and often
putting western views on an items use.
Indus Valley Civilization
c. 2600-1900 BCE (early Indian civilization)
Mohenjo-Daro w/ population size ranging to about 40,000. From some sculptures found, it is
believed they were possible ruled by priests with power of kings. The cities were complex with
buildings ranging from two stories and built with fired uniformed bricks. Not much is officially
known about them because we are unable to read their writing. Therefore, we have to make
educated guesses about them, which can lead to a western view added to them.
Yangshao Culture
5000-2750 BCE
Part of the Neolithic culture in China. They were mainly stationary, relying on agriculture as a
way of life. They were the first to use stone tools. At the Banpo excavation site, 170 graves were
found. It is unclear what type of burial roles people have. Their pottery had specific uses.

Liangzhu Culture
3300-2000BCE
Jade was an important outcome from this culture. Bis (heaven) and Congs were often found in
tombs. The Tao-Tie motif is seen which is a dragon. It was clearer that only men received burials
in tombs. Women were treated like objects and were often murder to serve men in the afterlife.
Haniwa
Kofun period. They are clay statues that marked sacred space in Japanese culture. They also
surround royal tombs to protect the spirits. Haniwa act as little homes to the spirits. Sometimes,
they are soldiers and other times they are houses. Keeps them in and out. Practically, they help
prevent the erosion of the earth because sacred space is on higher ground. Haniwa are never
perfect or symmetrical because it showed individuality.
Amaterasu
Japanese sun goddess of Shinto religion. She is the queen of heaven. Her grandson eventually
becomes the first emperor of Japan and gives them gifts: jewel, mirror, and sword. She is
worshipped at Ise Shrine. The shrine architecture is based off rice storehouses because the Shinto
ideas of purity and the fact that Amaterasu is also a goddess of agriculture. A Torii gate based off
story marks the shrine.
Shinto
The primary religion of Japan. Originally, Shinto was practiced individually before the imperial
family established it in the 20th century. Shinto means way of the gods. It follows purity laws:
take care of environment and yourself. Kami, gods, are worshipped. The Shinto belief is nature
base and that everything is animistic. This means everything has a soul. Nature is beautiful.
Amaterasu is the main goddess of the Shinto religion. Her grandson becomes the first emperor of
Japan. Sacred/pure space is marked by shimenawa or Torii.
Torii
A marker/gate of sacred space in the Shinto religion. Torii means bird perch. Torii were created
from the story of Amaterasu. When she was hiding in the cave because of her brother, roosters
were used to draw her out of the cave. They perched themselves on the gate and crowed.
Kami
Part of Shinto religion. Everything in nature has a soul that a known as kami. Kami are
gods/spirits that the Japanese worshipped. They are part of trees, mountains, or rivers. Their
homes are marked as sacred space by shrines or shimenawa.
Ancestor Worship
It was a large Chinese belief that everyone had an afterlife. Ones ancestors were treated as divine
spirits. The living offered their ancestors food, wine, and incense as tribute. The first-born male
was the one who carried on the family line. It was important for him to worship his ancestors
because if he did not his ancestors would not have an afterlife. Even after you are dead, you must
worship your ancestors in the afterlife. In order to do that, items, such as Fang Ding and other
similar items, are left in their tomb. Ancestors acted as the go between with the heavens in order
to obtain favors. Bronze became important in ancestor worship because of its high value and it

was more appealing to the ancestors.

Bronze
A powerful item that developed during the Shang Dynasty. Bronze is extremely difficult to make
and labor intensive. To make bronze, copper and tin are needed. Only the king learned the secret
of how to make bronze. It prevented the knowledge from spreading to the enemy. Bronze made
strong weapons that helped win wars. Then it could be melted down and made into something
else. One way a king stayed in power was the use of bronze in ancestor worship. Bronze was
more appealing to ones ancestors and better at obtaining favors. It "proved" that he was
connected to the divine. Bronze was more durable than ceramic. Making items out bronze
showed wealth. To make difficult items, the piece-mold casting method was used. Three large
developments from Bronze Age: ancestor worship, writing/divination, and bronze technology.
Shang Dynasty
1500-1100 BCE
Originally believed to be a legend until tombs from this time were found. They found many
ritual bronze items for worship and other dead skeletons: human and animal. This was for taking
people in the afterlife with them. It can range from a few, to nearly a whole army. A written
language had been developed through pictographs and ideographs. It was commonly used to ask
questions to ones ancestors. That was used by king to prove position though he did all of the
readings himself. The beginning of bronze was being used. They made powerful weapons to win
wars. Bronze was a secret that only the king would know.
Zhou Dynasty
1100-221 BCE
Shortly came after the Shang Dynasty. Bronze has become less of a secret. Now it is given as an
award for loyalty. It gave everyone else the right to worship their own ancestors. The king was
the son of heaven. He was chosen by god, but he had to serve the people. If he lost the throne, it
was because he failed. The Zhou was still big on sacrificing people to follow in the afterlife.
Tombs more war-like, having soldiers and chariots with horses. Nobles related to the king ruled
over smaller states. 300 years after establishment, suffered defeat and had to move capital to the
east. Eastern Zhou had problems. States became independent from kings, which caused them to
lose power. Became known as the Warring States Period. Many philosophies were surfacing.
Piece-mold Casting
A technique that was developed for bronze. First, a clay replica is made with all the detail. Then
soft clay is pressed on the outside of piece. Allowed to dry, then cut away. Those pieces are
fired. The main mold is shaved down. The mold is reassembled ready for casting. Molten bronze
is poured into mold. Once cooled, polishing begins. This method has allowed more complex
pieces to be made, for example the square Fang Ding.
Confucianism
Master Kong (551-479 BCE) A Chinese philosophy that came out of the Han Dynasty. Official
philosophy. It is both a political and social philosophy. Five right relationships: emperor to
subject, father to son, brother to brother, husband to wife, friend to friend. One was always
superior to the other. One offered obedience while the other offered protection. If everyone stays

in his or her place, harmony is achieved. It was a public affair. It was to show knowledge of
Confucianism, insure good jobs, wealth, and to see if following which can lead to ostracized.
Stories were written to show how to behave. Public duties are more important than private
desires. For example, a woman's duty is to her brother's lineage first. Save his son instead of her
own. If she fails, she is shamed. This brought filial piety (doing ones duty).
Lacquer
A varnish used to decorate wood or ceramic. It is very difficult to work with. It is made from the
sap of the Asian Lacquer tree and is very poisonous. The lacquer is purified and then painted on
item. It can be combined with colors and used for decoration.
Laozi
A philosopher who developed Daoism during the Han Dynasty. Wrote Daodejing. Contemporary
with Confucius. Daoism is the Way or process of the universe. It teaches how to behave in life
and achieve harmony. A perfect balance: yin yang. Out of balance can cause pain and war. Don't
try too hard. Go with the flow. Gaining immortality.
Qin Shihuangdi
First emperor of China from the Qin Dynasty. He began the Great Wall. He formed a military,
centralized the government, standardized everything (money, weight, wagon size, road size,
writing). Whatever he said became law which including burning thing he did not agree with
people or scripts. He was very paranoid and built wall to keep people out. Constantly believed
someone would kill him. He was looking for immortality and tried numerous things eventually
poisoning him. Huge tomb. Brought terra-cotta soldiers instead of real people. Full of grave
goods. Killed everyone who worked on tomb to keep location a secret. Was not liked, seen as
unworthy in Nine Ding.
Filial Piety
Part of Confucius philosophy of doing ones duty. If you fail to do so, you can bring shame on
your family. Brings harmony on a social standing.
Ashoka
Maurya Period (273-232 BCE) After a great war period, first emperor Ashoka declared
Buddhism as the official religion of the land. Brilliant b/c Buddhism is against fighting and
prevents people from rising up against you. He had built monuments across the land, primarily
stupas and capital pillars. They had scriptures that stated the laws of Buddhism and the law of the
land. The iconography on the capitals had a double meaning for example the four roaring lions
were a symbol of spreading Buddha's teachings and also a sign of kingship. Had 10,000 stupas
built including the Great Stupa which a reliquary for Buddhism.
Four Noble Truths
The main teachings of Buddhism:
1.Life is suffering
2.Suffering is caused by attachment
3.There is a way to end suffering

4.The way is the eight-fold path (middle way)

Material objects bring suffering so the less you physically have, the easier it is to become
enlightened.
Nirvana
The place that Buddha went after his death. Nirvana is oblivion, the end of existence after
reaching total enlightenment. It is the end of reincarnation. Once reaching Nirvana, you are no
longer reborn and your suffering ends. You become one with the universe. It is the final goal of
Buddhism.
Middle Way
Also known as the eight fold path, it is a balance that Buddha tries to maintain to reach
enlightenment. The eight spokes on the wheel or wheel of Dharma, the center is middle way
(balance). Ex: String too lose the instrument will not play, too tight the string will snap. Do not
starve self, but do not be a glutton. Be content.
Stupa
Religious monuments that are solid and enclose a relic relating to Buddhism. Devised by Ashoka
who supposedly divided the original Buddha into 10,000 pieces and buried them beneath each
stupa. The stupa cannot be entered. They are used for both physical and mental meditation. A
person would walk around the stupa, climbing each level, until they 'reached' the fourth level.
They would think about Buddha's life and their problems until they reach enlightenment. One
stupa is the Great Stupa in India. It is extremely large w/ four torana gates, railings, dome,
umbrellas, and axis mundi. Represents the 4 corners, learn 4 Noble Truths.
Axis-mundi
A physical or metaphoric pillar that served as the axis of the world that joined together earth with
the cosmos. The vertical component in Buddhist architecture signifying the universe and creation
of sacred space. Example: free standing pillar.
Aniconic
A form of storytelling or art "without image". The actual subject matter is never directly depicted
in the art. An example is in early Buddhist art. The story of Buddha's life is told, but an actual
image of him is never shown. Servants with fly whisks or umbrellas are shown instead. Buddha
has reached Nirvana, therefore, he no longer exists. Being represented in an image is conceited
or vain causing an ego. Left his body, do not put him in one. The stories are meant to be
teachings about Buddhism, not Buddha.
Urna
The third eye of Buddha. A symbol of divine wisdom. Sometimes depicted as a curl of hair or an
eye. The urna means to see beyond illusion.
Ushnisha
A hair bun often seen on representations of Buddha or other enlightened beings that was a
physical sign of enlightenment. Not only does ones soul become enlightened, the body is
enlightened. It can take different shapes and forms from culture to culture. Some ushnisha has a

snail shell motif used to show Buddha's naturalistic beauty.

Chakra
The Dharma, the law, the middle way. The wheel on the hand, foot, or behind a Buddha. The
spokes of the wheel represents the eightfold path. It symbolizes both the various states of
existence and the Buddhist doctrine. The exact meaning of the chakra depends on how many
spokes it has. Common iconic image in Buddhist art/architecture.
Microcosm
Mini Cosmos. A term used in architecture interpreting the universe through a building or
structure. Taking something that is large in scale and reproducing it on a smaller scale, such as
the universe. For example, a mandala, Great Stupa.
Mudra
A symbolic hand gesture in Buddhist art that denotes certain behaviors, actions, or feelings.
Mudras also depict moments in Buddha's life or teachings.
Dharmachakra: counting fingers, gesture of teaching, setting the chakra (wheel) of the dharma
(law or doctrine) in motion.
Dhyana: gesture of meditation and balance, symbolizing the path toward enlightenment. Hands
in lap.
Vitarka: stands for intellectual debate, thumb and forefinger of either hand touching.
Abhaya: gesture of reassurance, blessing, and protection, "have no fear"; right hand, palm
outward shoulder level.
Bhumisparsha: gesture calls upon earth to witness Shakyamuni Buddha's enlightenment. Right
hand touches ground.
Varada: gesture of charity, symbolizing the fulfillment of all wishes. Left hand turned outward.
Bamiyan
Located in Afganistan. 20,000 caves for worship for Buddhism. 1,000 monks lived there. They
were the ones who had carved the caves. It was used for meditation to occupy the mind. Very
detailed. Princes and kings paid for the monks to be able to do this to gain good karma. Bamiyan
is the the former home of the Colossal Buddha which was blown up by the Taliban in 2001. It
was an indirect show of impermanence for Buddhism.
Mathuran Style
Common material used is red sandstone with white spotting. The bodies of Buddha are realistic
but the face is more like a cartoon. (Round w/ goofy smile). Three folds on the neck.The clothes
are see through. Stomach is fleshy but some features are stylized like the elephant arm to
represent his natural beauty. This is one of the last styles that Buddha was depicted as a human
instead of a god. Kushan Period in India.
Gandharan Style
Style of Buddha from the West. It was a combination of Indian and Hellenistic styles (Alexander
the Great was coming through with his army). More detailed, buffed with muscles and powerful
and athletic in appearance than a normal person, idealized. More god like than the Mathura style.
Loss of goofy grin, more serious expression. Wears a toga (roman clothing). Clothing is less

transparent with more detail and intricate folds of the cloth. Gods of wisdom appear in actual
space or reality. Made from gray schist.
International Gupta Style
This is the style of Buddha that spread throughout Asia: China and Japan. It is a combination of
Mathura and Gandharan style. Still has the three rolls on neck like in the Mathuran style. The
gods that are usually behind Buddha are floating above him again. Like the Gandharan style,
Buddha has more clothing but you can still see through it. The details are not exaggerated or
cartoony.
Sukhothai Style
The Thai version of Buddha. Brings in the International Gupta style. More elegant. This Buddha
has a Thai face. Facial appearance depends on region of worship. Sash. Buddha has see through
clothing, fleshy, body depicts different animal parts to show natural beauty. Spike-like flame hair
ornament: Fire of Enlightenment. Made of metal.
Bracketing
A complex systems of brackets to support heavy ceramic tiled roofs. Without them, the roof
would collapse. The bracketing can be seen in the Kondo, Pagoda, traditional Chinese
architecture. The wide, heavy tiled roofs signified importance and wealth. Adopted into Buddhist
architecture and brought to Japan. Brackets are paired with posts and lintels to support the
building to allow windows. Even with the heavy roofs, bracketing allowed the building to be
complex.
Mandala
Cosmic Map. Square levels represent matter/Earth. Circle levels represents heaven. Physical
journey around levels represents the mental journey to enlightenment. Mandalas can be large
buildings or small sand paintings. The mandala shows the four directions, axis mundi. A
mandala represents the universe on a smaller scale. Buddhists use mandalas for meditation.
Mahayana
Another category of Buddhism that has allowed other pathways to enlightenment. Mahayana
means greater vehicle. Examples: Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan. Some paths are quicker than
others. Bodhisattva of compassion came to be. Supported idea that the opportunity and potential
for enlightenment was within everyone and only needed to 'uncovered.' Became worldwide.
Bodhisattva
A figure of Mahayana Buddhism. Someone who has reached enlightenment. Has Ushnisha to
show enlightenment. They choose to not go to Nirvana until everyone has reached
enlightenment. The ultimate compassion b/c they choose to endure suffering. Chooses to stay
and be reincarnated. Not a true Buddha because they still have earthly attachments such as
jewelry and are depicted in a princely pose.
Zen
Meditational Buddhism. Intense effort and will through meditation to reach enlightenment.
Either one had to meditate for a very long time to slowly reach enlightenment or it is a

spontaneous enlightenment. For meditation objects or tasks are used; Simple things such as
sewing, making a mandala, or cutting bamboo. Koan or unanswerable riddles are used to occupy
the mind during mediation. Bodhidharma, an indian monk, meditated in a cave even cutting his
own eyelids off. One of his students cut his arm to show he understood.
Kofun, Kofun Period, 6th century CE
A monumental tomb that is located in Japan. The kofun can range in size. This particular Kofun
is the largest one of them all, over 400 meters long. They are key-hole shaped mounds. The
ground is elevated and surrounded by Haniwa.
The Kofun is part of the Shinto religion. Major part of the Shinto is purity and being kind to
nature because of kami. The Kofun is made of natural materials to continue this trend.
The tomb houses the deceased and grave goods for them to bring with them to the afterlife. The
tomb is very private and inaccessible to everyone but the royal family. The emperor has forbid
excavation because who would want someone to disturb their family's tomb. The tomb is to
remain undisturbed and pure.
To show that Kofun is a place of sacred space the ground is elevated. Things that are important
are often higher up (toward the heavens). Second, it is completely surrounded by water. The
moat makes accessing the Kofun very difficult. In addition, a wall surrounds the moat as well.
An important key to prove that the area is sacred are the Haniwa that surround it. Haniwa are
clay figures or houses that act as homes for spirits. They help keep the spirits in or out of the
sacred space. Haniwa also help prevent land erosion around the tomb.
Inner Shrine at Ise, Yayoi Period, 1st-3rd century CE
Major architectural elements for this Japanese Shinto shrine are that it is elevated off of the
ground on stilts and it is made out of wood. The roof is made of thatch. The shrine is closed to
keep the inside pure and the structure is based off of the rice storehouse.
The entire structure of the shrine is made of natural materials. There are no man-made items,
such as nails, used to build it. Having all natural materials follows the Shinto religion of purity
by using only materials taken directly from nature. The Shinto religion follows closely with the
environment and taking care of it. In addition, they believe that everything has a soul.
The shrine is private. The only people who have access to it are the royal family and the head
priest. It is a temple to worship the Kami or gods. In this case the main goddess of Shinto,
Amaterasu the Sun Goddess. This shrine contains the three gifts believed to be given to the first
emperor from Amaterasu herself. The three items are a sword, mirror, and jewel. The shrine
shows impermanence because it is rebuilt every twenty years. This process keeps the shrine pure
by replacing it with new materials from nature.
There are many elements used to create sacred space. For starters, the building is off the ground
on stilts. The elevation shows importance and keeps the building pure by keeping it off the
ground. To reach the shrine, one must pass through the Torii gate (an element from the story of
Amaterasu). Then a large set of stairs must be climbed. A series of fences surround the shrine to
keep people out. To continue the tradition in Shinto purity, a person must cleanse themselves in
the water.
Shrine of Ning Mao, Northern Wei, 529 CE
Despite being made entirely out of stone, it "uses" traditional Chinese architecture. The roof is

hipped and gabled (extends further out and is slightly curved). It shows the use of the heavy tile
on the roof to show importance.
The main material used to build this burial shrine was stone. On the stone, stories are etched in.
Material used is important to Confucianism because it is permanent. It creates a place to have a
permanent place for your family to have ancestor worship. Without being worshipped, you will
not have an afterlife. Therefore, your lineage will not continue. It is your public duty to worship
your ancestors. The shrine is located in a public cemetery. Anyone can go to it to worship and
admire the family. Stories are written on the shrine to show what one's duty is (filial piety).
Being able to complete one's public duty is one of the ways to rise in status because it allows you
to have more job opportunities and meritocracy. The shrine also allows the family to show off
their knowledge of the Confucianism.
Even though it is found in a cemetery where ancestor worship takes place, the only true proof of
sacred space that it is slightly raised up. It is more public.
The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Maurya Period, 400-50 BCE
The Stupa is inaccessible. You cannot go inside of it. The first obvious architectural element of
the Stupa is the dome. The dome is completely solid with a relic piece related to Buddha. On top
of the dome is three umbrellas. The are a marker of status. Surrounding the dome is series of
railings which represent a journey. To enter to the dome, one must pass a torana gate. The gate
contains stories of Buddha's life. The final architectural element is the axis mundi (a pillar that
connects the heavens to earth).
The stupa is made of stone, rubble and dirt and some areas were covered in plaster (which has
broken away through the years). On the stone torana gates, figures are carved such as the yakshi.
The stupa is a place of worship for early Buddhism. The place is public, so anyone can come to
do personal worship. A person would travel around the stupa, thinking about their problems and
the stories of Buddha's life (though Buddha is never actually shown). They journey up each level
until they "reach" symbolically to the fourth level. The goal is to reach enlightenment.
One way the Great Stupa creates sacred space is the gates and railings. They separate the inside
from the outside. The point of Buddhism was to let go of all attachment and the dirt of the world,
while within the stupa was pure. Another way the stupa created sacred space was the size and
elevation. The structure is large showing absolute importance.
Chaitya Hall at Karla, Andhra Period, 1st century BCE- 1st century CE
The Chaitya Hall is made entirely out of stone from within a cliff. The "braces" of the ceiling are
carved to look like wood. Individual pillars line the hall on either side. In the hall, much smaller
stupa is located.
Monks were the ones that had carved out the Chaitya Hall out of the cliff. It is part of the
Buddhist Temple caves. The process of making the hall was used as meditation. It served as a
distraction during meditation. It occupied the mind. Royal families paid for monks to build these
cave temples to earn good karma. Lion and elephants are carved throughout the cave.
The stupa in the hall is completely solid, therefore, nothing is buried underneath it. It is simply
symbolic of Buddha. Stupas are normally relic monuments. The hall is a place of meditation and
a place to think about life and Buddhism, similar the Great Stupa. A person would walk or run
the various rings around the hall until they reach the stupa. Their goal is to reach enlightenment.
The temples are open for the travelers along trade routes for lodging. They could use the
sanctuary for worship.

The stupa within the cave is slightly elevated off of the ground. To show sacred space is the size.
The Chaitya Hall is large (about 15 meters x 15 x 40). Size shows importance. Torana gate and
Ashoka pillar motif at the front of the hall.
Nanchan Temple, Tang Dynasty, 750 CE
The Nanchan Temple uses traditional Chinese architecture. The roof is covered in heavy tiles
that if not properly supported, the roof could collapse. It is hipped and gabled and supported by a
bracketing system. There are posts and lintels used to help support the roof. The posts and lintels
allow there to be doors and windows around the building. This makes the building more inviting
to everyone.
This Buddhist temple is made of a series of different material. The majority of it is made out of
wood, while the roof is made of ceramic tile. Since there are no actual relics of Buddha that
reached China, statues and paintings are found instead.
The Nanchan Temple is a place of worship for Buddhism (Pure Land). It is open to everyone
who would like to follow the path of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism allows everyone, rich
or poor, to reach a path of enlightenment through pure faith and belief. Buddha is seen more of a
deity than before. The Nanchan Temple is where they can come to express that faith. The people
would pray to statues or paintings instead of walking around a stupa.
To show a creation of sacred space, the temple is elevated off of the ground causing people in
having to look up at it. To enter the temple, a person must climb a set of stairs. Usually if it has
stair, it gives a feeling of importance.
Horyu-ji, Asuka Period, 7th Century CE
Within the walls of the Horyu-ji, two structures can be seen. One of them is a pagoda, which is a
reliquary and is not entered. The other is a kondo, also known as the Golden Hall. The entire
temple uses traditional Chinese architecture. For example, the Horyu-ji uses the heavy tiled roof
that is hipped and gabled. Posts and lintels are used to allow windows and doors. The roof is so
heavy that additional posts are needed to support it. Many of the structures have multiple roofs.
The Horyu-ji is one of Japan's oldest wooden temples. The majority of the structure is made of
wood, such as the walls and posts. The roof is made of ceramic tiles that need support or the roof
would collapse. The bracketing system is also made of wood. It is complex with many pieces
interlocking in order to support the heavy roof. Since there are very few Buddhist relics that
made it to Japan, the majority of the interior is filled with statues and paintings.
The Horyu-ji is a temple that is open to the public. It served as a home to Buddhist monks. The
purpose of the pagoda was a reliquary and is not entered. The kondo, however, is entered and is
used for worship and ceremonies. It is filled with various Buddhist paintings, for example, the
Hungry Tigress Jakaka (Tamamushi shrine). The painting tells the story of Buddha's lives and an
act of compassion he had. There is a lecture hall as well.
One way the Horyu-ji showed sacred space was that the Kondo and Pagoda are surrounded by a
wall. The two buildings have multiple roofs, drawing on the umbrella from the stupa to show
importance and a symbol of Buddhism. To access the Kondo (which is elevated) one must climb
a set of stairs. The stairs are on all four sides. The pagoda can also symbolize the axis mundi.
Byodo-in, Heian Period, 11th century CE
The Byodo-in (Phoenix Hall) continues the use of traditional Chinese architecture. The roofs are
large and made of ceramic tile that need support. The buildings usually have multiple roofs and

are many stories tall. The roof is hipped and gabled and need posts and lintels to hold it up.
There are windows and doors. The posts are thin to give the building a more airy feeling.
The temple is made of wood, tile, and other man-made materials (paint). To support a majority
of the building, a complex bracketing system is used. The entire temple is supported on wooden
stilts. It rests over an artificial pond made to look like a sanskrit "a". The layout of the temple is
believed to be in the shape of a phoenix. The interior of the temple has a statue of Amida Buddha
to honor him in Pure Land Buddhism.
The purpose of this temple was to create a real life version of the Western Paradise. The goal of
Pure Land Buddhism was to have absolute faith and belief that they would be reborn in the
Western Paradise. Once they are there, they can try to reach enlightenment. The nice thing about
Pure Land Buddhism is that anyone can do it. They do not have to give up everything in their
current life. For the original path of Buddhism, not everyone could give up all of their
attachments and leave their families. Especially, if they are poor. With a real life Western
Paradise, a person would not have to wait to be reborn into the actual Western Paradise. They
could reach enlightenment now. This temple was originally meant for someone who was
wealthy.
To show sacred space, the temple is surrounded by water. The water makes it more difficult to
access and shows importance. The buildings are raised up on stilts to help it from being damaged
by the water. It also represents that something is above you.
Borobudur, Java, 800 CE
The Borobudur is in a pyramid shape with multiple levels. Throughout the structure, carvings
with stories of Buddha Shakyamuni can be found. At the top of the structure, mini stupas can be
found. Within the stupas are small statues of Buddha. At the center of the top level is a larger
stupa.
The entire structure is made of dirt and stone. The architects had to figure out how to prevent the
structure from collapsing after the dirt settled under the heavy stone. Multiple levels were built as
a path toward the top. Each level has stories of Buddha.
The Borobudur is a place of worship. It is open to the public. A person would meditate as they
walked around each floor, thinking about Buddha and their own life. The process is similar to
that of the Chaitya Hall or Great Stupa. When you reach the top, you are supposed to have
reached enlightenment. The overall structure is built as a giant 3D mandala. A mandala is cosmic
map of the universe. The center stupa acts as the axis mundi that connects the heavens to earth.
The circles represent heaven, while the squares represent matter and Earth.
The giant structure itself makes it sacred. It is large and causes you to have to look up at it. The
tiered structure creates sacred space because the higher you go, the closer you are to the heaven.
It is a giant mandala. Other than that, there is no clear way to know this place is sacred.
Haniwa, Kofun Period, 6th century CE
The Haniwa are part of the Japanese religion, Shinto. They mark sacred space. The Haniwa come
is several shapes and sizes. Some of them are little homes for the spirits or Kami. Other kinds of
Haniwa are figures of soldiers or ordinary people. No two Haniwa look the same because the
Japanese believed in individuality and that life is not perfect. The Haniwa are believed to serve
two different purposes. One was to mark sacred space around tombs and temples. They are also
meant to keep certain spirits in or out in order to prevent them from causing chaos. The second
purpose was to prevent land erosion. Most sacred areas were built on earth mounds. The Haniwa

blocked the earth from eroding . The Haniwa are made from ceramics and are left unglazed.
They are all handmade with slight imperfections. The Shinto religion believes that everything is
animistic meaning that everything has a soul known as Kami. The Kami need a home, that what
the Haniwa is sometimes used for. The Shinto religion also believes in purity. The Haniwa
divides the outside world from the sacred world.
Fang Ding, Shang Dynasty, 12th century BCE
The Fang Ding is an important item for Ancestor Worship. It is a ritual vessel used to offer food
to ones ancestors in this life or during their own afterlife. The afterlife is an important part of
Chinese culture. In order for you to have an afterlife, your descendants must worship you.
Ancestor worship keeps your family lineage alive. People would rely on their ancestors for
favors. To continue ancestor worship, the fang ding were buried in people's tombs so they could
worship in the afterlife. Someone in your family lineage is always worshipped. The Fang Ding
was made of bronze because it was a more expensive and it showed that you really cared about
your ancestors. It was square in shape, which was a difficult shape to make let alone cast in
Bronze. To make it, one had to use the piece-mold method. A unique feature of the Fang Ding is
it has four legs instead of three. The fang ding had intricate designs such as the Tao-Tie mask
(duality), dragons, and leiwan (thunder). The images are very stylized and abstract. The symbols
usually represent nature.
Bronze Bells, Zhou Dynasty, 433 BCE
The Bronze Bells are another item that would be found in a tomb. Not all the items found in
tombs are specifically for ancestor worship. Items are needed for entertainment in the afterlife.
The Bronze Bells are a pleasurable item. They are complex with each bell making different
sounds. They require multiple people to play them. Often, servants are sent to afterlife to play
them. It is believed that music was used in rituals for communicating with the supernatural. You
used you ancestors to gain favors from them and to continue you family line. They are made
from Bronze and attached to a timber frame. The Tao-Tie appears on the front and back of each
bell. They have gold inlaid inscriptions on each of the bells.
Painted Banner, Han Dynasty, 160 BCE
This Painted Banner is found in the Tomb of Lady Dai. The imagery is closely tied to Daoism.
Daoism was about creating a balance in life. If you behaved a correct way, harmony could be
achieved. If things were to fall out of balance, it could bring pain, suffering, and war. Daoism
was more about going with the flow and not fighting. Stay in their place. The second part of
Daoism was to achieve immortality, which some ways are shown in the imagery on the banner.
The purpose of the banner was to show the teachings of Daoism. It is for a more personal matter.
They believed the close relationship between human and the supernatural worlds. The painting is
divided into underworld, earth, afterlife, and heaven. One of the common icons of Daoism is the
9 suns and crows. It tells the story of the Suns trying to be in the sky at once and having to be
shot down. Another icon is the frog and the moon. The frog is believed to make special pills the
grant immortality. One of these pills are given to the man the shot the suns. The mushroom,
another method of immortality, is seen next to the frog.
Incense Burner, Han Dynasty, 113 BCE
Tells the story of the Land of Immortals in the Eastern Sea. An item that is found in a tomb. One

of the main parts of Daoism is to seek immortality. They had different methods of trying to find
immortality. Some were find a certain fountain, or eating specific items, such as the mushroom.
The incense burner shows the desire to find immortality. The second part of Daoism is the close
relationship between human and nature. It is concerned with bringing the individual life into
harmony with the Dao, or the Way. It is made of bronze with gold-inlay. The stand represents the
earth. The middle is ocean. They are stylized. While the top is the mountains. Little figures can
be seen climbing the mountains to find immortality. A motif of the mushroom can be seen on the
waves. The incense burner demonstrates the ultimate development of bronze technology. When
burning an incense, the smoke looks like the mist found in the mountains.
The Nine Ding, Wu Family Shrine, Han Dynasty, 151 CE
The Nine Ding is a Confucian story about public duty. A major part of Confucianism is filial
piety, which means doing one's duty. The Nine Ding tells the story of the Nine Ding that
determined the rightful ruler. The Ding were a part of ancestor worship and if you had them you
could worship your ancestors and become king. One day, they disappeared. Time passed and Qin
Shihuangdi found them. As his servants were pulling them out of the water, a dragon snaps the
line and is lost forever. The true purpose of the Nine Ding painting was propaganda that showed
that Qin Shi was as bad king. He dominated and murdered many of his subjects. The fact that he
lost the Nine Ding proved he was unworthy to be king. If the king fails in his duty to his subjects,
get rid of him. The Nine Ding was meant to show that the Hans brought social harmony and
honor new emperor. The style of this painting is to have multiple scenes in one painting. The
people are representational (you can tell they are people).
Gu Kaizhi, Admonitions of the Court Instructress, Six Dynasties Period, 4th century CE
The entire piece is written on a scroll that is read right to left. The thickness of the lines are used
to define figures. According to Confucianism, everyone has a public duty they must perform in
order for there to be social harmony. Their duties follow the Five Relationships: Emperor to
Subject, Father to Son, Brother to Brother, Husband to Wife, and Friend to Friend. In order for
there to harmony both sides must fulfill their duty. For example, the subject must be obedient to
the emperor and in return the emperor will give the subject protection. In the case of this
painting, the emperor's wife must protect her husband from the bear because that is her public
duty and that is what makes her a good wife. The other women cower in fear from the bear
making them terrible women. The purpose of this series of paintings is teach the women of the
court what their duty is. Some examples: Do not be a distraction to the emperor, he has other
duties before you; You will not be popular at all times, so deal with it. The style of this painting
is storytelling, sometimes there are multiple actions going on in one image. The figures are
idealized on how someone should look, but we know they are people making them more
realistic.
Lion Capital, Maurya Period, 250 BCE
After a great warring period, King Ashoka decided to declare Buddhism as the main religion of
the empire. Therefore, he had many stupas and capitals built. The capital was made out of
sandstone. The capital served two purposes: Spread Ashoka's law and Buddha's law. The four
lions symbolize not only kingship, but also the Shaka clan. The lions' heads look more idealized
while their legs look strong and realistic. Their mouths are open and facing the four directions.
They are spreading the laws of the land. The dharmachakra can be seen on the capital as well.

The wheel symbolizes the eight-fold path or middle way. One of the goals of Buddhism was to
follow the middle way meaning do not take too much or too little. Four other animals appear on
the capital. The final piece is the Lotas flower that symbolizes the purity. At the time, Buddha
was never directly shown in any image. He was aniconic. Instead other elements are used to
symbolize him and his teachings. The Lion Capital draws on many regional influences in the
image, such as the four animals that appear toward the base. The differences of the head and legs
of the lion also are created from using a combination of styles. This form of Buddhism believed
in the Four Noble Truths, Middle Way, compassion, and impermanence.
Standing Buddha, Kushan Period, 2nd-3rd century CE
This version of Buddha is from the Gandharan Style. This style occurred on the west side of
India. One reason this style is so different from the Mathurana Style is because at the time
Alexander the Great was passing through. It was a combination of both Indian and Hellenistic
styles. The figure of Buddha is more idealized with muscles and he appears to be heroic and
athletic. He wears Roman clothing that covers him much more than the Mathuran style. The
clothing has more folds and detail. His face is more serious and idealized. This Buddha still
possess much of the iconography of Buddhism. He still has the urna (eye to see through illusion),
the ushnisha (physical enlightenment), the elongated ears (attachment), chakra, and mudra (in
this case it was broken off so we do not know which one). The mudra symbolize the teachings,
ideas and moments of Buddha's life.
Buddha and Attendants, Kushan Period, 1st-2nd century CE
This version of Buddha is from the Mathuran Style. A common characteristic seen in this style is
that it is made of red sandstone with white spotting. The torso of Buddha is very lifelike and
fleshy. His clothing is transparent allowing us to see his flesh. Parts of his body have animal
characteristics, such as the elephant shoulder, to show Buddha's natural beauty. His face is very
cartoony and idealistic with his round head and goofy smile. Behind him are two attendants that
represent Buddha's importance. Above are gods of wisdom. He possess all of the iconography of
the Buddha: urna (eye to see through illusion), the ushnisha (physical enlightenment), the
elongated ears (attachment), chakra (the wheel on his feet), and mudra (Abhaya- have no fear).
On the bottom are the four lions facing the four directions. Buddhism follows the middle way
and wish to reach enlightenment.
Standing Buddha, Gupta Period, 474 CE
This version of Buddha is from the Gupta Style. This is the style of Buddha that spread
throughout Asia. It is a combination of the Mathuran and the Gandharan style. This Buddha is
not as muscular as the Gandharan style Buddha. His clothing is highly detailed with the folds,
but still slightly transparent to see fleshy underneath. Possess Buddha characteristics: urna (eye
to see through illusion), the ushnisha (physical enlightenment, with snail shell motif), the
elongated ears (attachment), chakra (the wheel), and mudra (they are broken but look like
Abhaya-have no fear and Varada-charity). Follow the middle way and reach enlightenment.
Hungry Tigeress Jataka, Asuka Period, 650 CE
Two of the main characteristics of Buddhism is impermanence and compassion. Jataka is one of
Buddha's pervious reincarnations. Jataka finds a starving tigress and her cubs. As the ultimate act
of kindness, he sacrifices himself to the tigress and says eat me to feed yourself and your cubs.

This life does not matter because everyone will get reincarnated again. Everything does not last
forever. This piece is found on a portable shrine in the Horyu-ji. There are very few relics that
make it to China let alone Japan. So instead, paintings and statues are used to worship Buddha
and his teachings. In this case, the painting teaches you about compassion. Multiple scenes of the
story happen all on one panel. It is lacquer on wood. The figures are not highly realistic, but we
can still tell they are people. The cliff and bamboo are stylized. Still a bodhisattva. Jataka stories
helped popularize Buddhism in Japan.
Kao Ninga, Monk Sewing, Kamakura Period, 14th century CE
At one point, Buddhism began to split into different forms. One form was Zen Buddhism. Zen
Buddhism is part of the Mahayana. Zen Buddhism offered a new path toward enlightenment
through meditation. The main person for Zen Buddhism is Bodhidhrama. The Path was through
extreme and long meditation or it could be spontaneous enlightenment. They still believed in the
Middle Way and the Four Noble Truths. To meditate, some individuals just sat and emptied their
mind. Others did activities to occupy their busy mind while they tried to meditate. Similar to this
monk sewing. The action of sewing is occupying his mind while he meditates. One function for
this painting is to show how individuals meditate to reach enlightenment. It is not an easy path.
The style is Japanese painting. The different brush strokes create the figure of the monk in mid
action. There is no color, just black brush strokes. Even the action of making this painting could
have been for meditating.
Kosho, Kuya Preaching, Kamakura, 1207 CE
Pure Land Buddhism is part the Mahayana branch of Buddhism. Not everyone could just give
everything up and spend all of their time meditating. Therefore, Pure Land Buddhism follows the
path of pure faith and belief that they would be reborn in the Western Paradise where they could
then reach enlightenment. This form of Buddhism was more appealing to everyone because
anyone could follow. The Buddha that was worshipped was Amida Buddha. Kuya was a monk
that traveled to spread the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism. He carries a deer staff (symbol of
fear) and a gong. Six little Buddhas appear in front of his mouth symbolizing the chant. The
figure of Kuya is highly realistic and life size. You can see the individual straps on his sandals
and the charms and pendants around his neck.The material used is painted wood, meaning the
entire piece was carved. The function of this piece is to continue the spread of the Pure Land
teachings after Kuya's death.
Achala Tangka,Tibet, 19th century CE
Tibetan Buddhism is another form of the Mahayana branch. To reach enlightenment in Tibetan
Buddhism, one must participate in the knowledge and study. They must learn all of the sutras
and deities. There are so many, that it is a difficult process. They use a Tangka or study guide to
learn all of the deities and the iconography that is associated with them. For example, Manjushri
is associated with a sword, lotas throne and flower with a sutra. If you do not know the
iconography with the deity, then you will not know who it is. The Tibetan Buddhism allows a
faster path toward enlightenment. Many of their deities are Bodhisattvas. A Achala Tangka is a
more personal item that is carried around with you, compared to a statue of Buddha. The
individuals depicted in each picture are life like and fleshy. Despite having a different path
toward enlightenment, they still follow the act of compassion, Middle Way, and the Four Noble
Truths.

Buddha Calling the Earth to Witness, Sukhothai, 13th-14th century CE

This version of Buddha follow the International Gupta style because it is the style that had spread
throughout Asia. A common occurrence in Buddhist art is regional influence. This Buddha has a
Thai face and some other Thai characteristics. Why worship someone who does not look like
you? This Buddha is showing an important part of Buddha's life. Demon Mara doubts
Shakyamuni's enlightenment, so Shakyamuni touches the earth with his right had and calls the
earth to be his witness to enlightenment (Bhumisparsha). This Buddha is very realistic with a
fleshy torso. His clothing is see through. He has the animal characteristics to show his natural
beauty. Possesses urna, ushnisha, elongated ears, mudra.

Garbhagriha
Also known as the womb chamber, it is a sacred space located in Hindu temples. The room can
hold only 1-2 people comfortable. It is where Darshan takes place. Within the Garbhagriha, a
statue of a deity, such Vishnu or Shiva, is located. The surrounding temple is quite large in
comparison to this one room. There is no light, except maybe a candle. The room only seems
dark if you are not enlightened. Before entering the chamber, a person must cleanse themselves
of the impurities of the outside world. The Garbhagriha is the place where a person can become
one with Brahman.
Darshan
Part of Hindu worship. This form of worship takes place at a temple. It is a special occasion that
happens at least once in a lifetime. You would take a pilgrimage to a Hindu temple to become
one with Brahman. You would enter the temple's garbhagriha and look upon the deity's statue.
The statue has no eyes. The worshipper would give the statue eyes so the god can see you. When
the deity's eyes look upon you, Brahman (the divine spirit) and the Atman (your soul) are
connected. In Hinduism, suffering is caused by separation. This pilgrimage to preform Darshan
allows your soul to become one with the Divine spirit. That way you are no longer alone. An
example of a place where Darshan would have taken place would be Vishnu Temple at Deogarh.
Puja
Part of Hindu worship. This is public ritual worship in villages. They do not need to travel far
for worship unlike Darshan, which is a great pilgrimage that occurs at least once in a lifetime.
They have public shrines/temples that contain statues of deities or relics to represent them. The
deity depends on who the village wants to worship. Part of the ritual is offering food, clothing,
flowers, and other items. The offering of gifts to deities shows self-sacrifice (good karma). You
go on living without and suffer. What items that are given can be determined by the deity. This
form of worship is a daily event. Showing good karma will help you be reincarnated in a better
life.
Ramayana

It is a Hindu epic story. The story of Ramayana teaches many of fundamentals of Hinduism, such
as fulfilling ones duties. It tells the story of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. Rama is a prince, who
passes a test and marries the beautiful Sita. Rama is banished, after one of his father's wives
demands it. Rama, Sita, and Rama's brother all live in the forest. The Demon Ravana falls in love
with Sita and decides to kidnap her. Rama goes to save her and eventually wins. However, Rama
rejects Sita because she has been with another man (though against her will). Her purity is in
question. To prove her purity, she throws herself into a fire. She is showing her woman duties:
loyalty and good housewife. She is saved by a fire god. Some versions of story Rama and Sita
live happily ever after. Some have Rama banishing Sita. The style of how the story is depicted
depended on artist training, region, and resources.
Shakti
An aspect of Hinduism. It is the female cosmic energy that is required for men to take action.
Men can not live without women. The Great Goddess Devi is bringer of that energy. An example
of shakti being present is Vishnu on the Cosmic Water. He receives a foot rub (sexual stimulant)
from his wife, which allows him to create the universe. It is half of the creative power. In
Hinduism, both male and female are usually represented in some way because together they
represent the whole or Brahman.
Gopura
It is a monumental tower that acts as a gateway to a temple. They are more commonly seen in
Southern Indian style temples. With limited space to build, new kings would often build new
Gopuras around an existing temple. Each one would be bigger than the pervious ones, always
trying to out do the pervious king. The Gopura helped show a king's power. At times they are
bigger than the temple. They help show sacred space. The outside of the towers has elaborate
designs and statues (gods, goddesses, mithuna couples). An example is at the MinakshiSundareshvara temple.
Five Pillars of Islam
They are the rules that Muslims have to follow.
1. Testimony- They must believe that there is no god but God; God is holy, divine, and
great.
2. Prayer- When they declare their testimony; they must pray 5 times a day toward Mecca.
Sometimes it takes place in a mosque, which already faces Mecca, or right where they
are.
3. Fasting- Occurs once a year during Ramadan; From sun up until sun down. There is no
eating. It represents giving up and being without.
4. Charity- They must give or share with those who are less fortunate than them.
5. Hajj- It is the great pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in your life.
Hajj
One of the Five Pillars of Islam. To be a good Muslim, they must travel to Mecca once in their

life. It is a great pilgrimage and is not an easy or inexpensive event. The idea is to travel to
Mecca and walk the steps of Ishmael and Hagar. At Mecca, Muslims go to pray at the Kaaba, a
giant black cube, which represents God. It is during these pilgrimages that the ideas of the
diverse groups of Muslims exchange with one another and intermingle.
Arabesque
In Islam, images are forbidden for representing the divine. Instead they used purely decorative
designs: some floral, frilly, geometric, abstract, colorful, patterns. The designs can be very
elaborate and complex to show God's divinity and amazingness. Arabesque is a Western word
that means Arab-like. It is a very generic term that misrepresents the region. To Westerners,
these designs were seen as unimportant because they did not understand the meanings behind
them. To Islam, it is a motif to represent God. To the west, it is just decoration.
Minaret
Tall spire towers located near mosques. In old times, someone would climb these towers and call
out prayer times. The call to pray is issued 5 times a day. They vary in design depending on
region and period. Minarets are often free standing; some have spiral staircases, while others
have onion-shaped crowns.
Mosque
A religious and social institution at the center of Islamic culture. It is a place where the Islam
people can go to pray. The style of the Mosque varies by region/period. Some are hypostyle
(forest of pillars). Outside a mosque are minarets, where the call to pray is done. Within the
mosque, there is a qibla wall. The qibla wall is indicated by the mihrab. a semi-circle niche in the
wall of the mosque. A qibla wall points to the direction of Mecca. The Muslims always pray
toward Mecca. Worship at a mosque usually occurs on Fridays. A prayer leader would stand on
the minbar to lead sermons. The mosque would be covered in arabesque designs to represent
God. Sometimes, the mosque is decorated by iwan (large unique arches) or muqarnas (beehive).
Cunfa
A Chinese painting technique that uses specific/stylized brush strokes to express texture.
Examples of cunfa are the Hemp-fiber stroke (Dong Yuan), Alum Lump Rock stroke (Juran),
Axe Cut stroke (Ma Yuan) and the Crab Claw tree (Li Cheng). Later painters and scholars would
use the cunfa to show knowledge of art history and keep the lineage alive by painting like the
classics. The cunfa possess a calligraphy style of brushwork. All of them except the Axe cut
stroke are used in later paintings.
Li-Guo Style
It is the official style of the Northern Song Dynasty. The artists commonly associated with the
Li-Guo are Li Cheng, Guo Xi, and Fan Kuan. It is how Chinese landscapes were painted in the
North. Landscapes were important to the Chinese because it served as an escape from the
stressful Confucian court life. The mountains and river were part of the Daoism. In the painting
done in this style usually contains a dominating peak surrounded by bands of mist. The painting

is separated into distances (down, in, up + deep). They are monochromatic. The cunfa seen in
this style is the crab tree. It was the style taught at the Song Painting Academy. An example of a
Li-Guo style painting is the Li Cheng, A Solitary Temple Amid Clearing Peaks, Northern Song
Dynasty, 960.
Ma-Xia Style
After the North was lost, the Southern Song Dynasty lost some of its edge. It was an unpopular
time for China because part of China was lost to barbarians. The S. Song Dynasty was blamed
when the Yuan Dynasty had a non-Han-Chinese emperor. The Ma-Xia style became the official
style of the Southern Dynasty. The Academy was also reestablished with the emperor controlling
what art looked like. The associated artists are Ma Yuan and Xia Gui. This style tends to be more
lyrical landscapes or poetic spaces. It is calm and quiet. There are near and far spaces separated
by banks of mist. Often weighted to one corner (Ma). Skilled handling of the brush, such as the
silhouettes of distant mountains. The cunfa of this style is the axe-cut stroke. An example is XiaGui, Twelve Views From a Thatched Hut, Southern Song Dynasty, 13th century.
Literati
It was the style of the Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan Dynasty had a non-Han-Chinese emperor. This
displeased several Confucian scholars. They had two choices: be considered disloyal and serve
foreign government (cannot have two masters) or retire and become a Daoist. The scholars used
literati art as a form of silent political propaganda. It is very elitist because only Confucian
scholars would understand the reference. The literati art was amateur art done by scholars. They
have not had any artist training. They want to separate themselves from the working class artists.
Their art is purely expressive and the brush work is similar to calligraphy. The scholars would
reference many former artists by using cunfa. They believe naturalism is like lying. They think
being conceptual is more honest because it shows that it is a painting. The idea behind it is more
important. Literati art is known for its awkwardness (zhou) -showing you are not a professional,
and recalling the past (fugu)- looks old on purpose and quotes Chinese artists.
Song Painting Academy
Emperor Huizong first established the Song Painting Academy in the Northern Song Dynasty.
He was the 11th son of the previous emperor and was easily manipulated and naive. He loved art
and studied and copied many great works. Huizong had the school created and brought in many
great artists, such as Li Cheng. This school raised the status of artists. They were no longer just
craftsmen. It provided more access to education. At this school, the emperor was able to decide
which artists to study and what was good art. Three things studied: Realism, Traditions of the
Past, Poetic Ideal (calligraphy, poetry, art). Enhanced the three perfections and believed together
are needed to make good art. After the Northern Song Dynasty fell, the Academy was
reestablished in the South.
Three Perfections
The three perfections are calligraphy, painting, and poetry. These are the skills that Huizong
believed a person needed to possess to be a true gentleman. Combining a painting and poetry
written by a calligrapher into one artwork. Very rarely does a person possess all three skills. It
was the ultimate artistic achievement. In additions, it was uncommon for an artist to write on his
own paintings, unless they were a scholar. Someone else would write the poem in response to the

painting.
Hand-scroll
A handscroll is one of the formats of Chinese painting. When viewing a handscroll, you do not
unroll it all of the way. The scroll is viewed in sections. Each section is supposed to be a scene of
story or landscape. After you finished viewing one part, you roll that part up and unroll the next
section. It is one of the more popular formats of Chinese painting because it is easier to store.
Handscrolls are painted on silk.
Xie He's Six Laws
The Six Laws are what were used to determine a good painting
1. Spirit Resonance (Qi): The painting should have life, breath, movement, thought
2. Bone Method: Brushwork; how artist handled the brush, able to create lines like
calligraphy
3. Correspondence to the Object: Naturalism; objects should look like they should
4. Suitability to type: Use colors to imitate reality; colors that are appropriate for object
5. Division and Planning: Good, interesting composition; use of color, line, how above laws
work together
6. Transmission by Copying: Awareness of art history; Keep lineage alive by painting like
the classics; paying homage to the past.
Colophon
They are script that is written by someone who is not the artist. In early paintings, artists were
not considering sophisticated or worthy to write on their own paintings. The owner of the
painting may write something, or if they have an important visitor (usually a Confucian scholar),
they may have them write something. Sometimes the writing is of pointless things or it could be
poetry. It is considered an honor to have an important person to write something on the paintings.
The opposite of a colophon is an inscription which is script written by the actual artist.
Seal (Chop)
It is a red square that is stamped on a painting. It is a personal signature of who owned it.
Emperors usually owned the larger seals. The seals allowed historians to trace where this
painting has been and who owned it. The more stamps it has means it had multiple owners. A
seal was part of the materials used in calligraphy.
Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang is the most influential person in painting. He was a Confucian scholar who left
when trouble began in the Ming court. Qichang was a literati artist and art critic. He wrote
several theories about painting. The way to be a true gentleman was to read 1000 books and walk
1000 miles (study and travel the world). Painting should be for good health and reflect scholarly
taste. His most famous theory was the Theory of Northern School and Southern School of
Painting. It follows the idea of Zen Buddhism.
Northern School: Slowly study and gradually gain skills of an artist. These are artisans
who have trained and gone to school for years to become Professional style painters.
They focus on the representational part of painting. It lacks expression.
Southern School: Spontaneously understanding of art. These are the scholars who are

painting for fun and have never study painting. However, they are able to create art. Their
art is purely expressive and conceptual. Literati art is superior because only Confucian
scholars would understand it.
He shaped how historians look at art before him. They judge whether it is professional or
expressional. However, that view does not always work because it depended on the art style of
that time.
Four Masters of the Yuan Style
Huang Gongwang- Earlier artist of the Yuan Dynasty
Ni Zan- Famous for his restrained style. The composition seems to be split into two parts.
No people, an empty hut, and a couple of trees. Lived on a houseboat.
Wang Meng- Awkward, very busy, highly detailed.
Wu Zhen- Earlier artist of the Yuan Dynasty.
These men were scholars who were famous for their literati paintings. They all emulated work of
previous masters.