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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.

Naghash

Trajectory Optimization of Space Manipulators with


Flexible Links Using a New Approach
Mohsen Bahramia*, Reza Jamilniab, Abolghasem Naghashc
a-Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, mbahrami@aut.ac.ir
b-PhD Candidate, Aerospace Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, jamilnia@aut.ac.ir
c-Assistant professor, Aerospace Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, naghash@aut.ac.ir
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: July 22, 2009
Received in revised form: October
11, 2009
Accepted: December 1, 2009

Keywords:
Space Manipulators
Flexible Links
Trajectory Optimization
Differential Flatness
B-spline Curves
Direct Collocation Method
Nonlinear Programming.

ABSTRACT
In this paper, the problem of trajectory optimization of flexible space robots is considered
and an efficient approach is proposed for solving it. The space robots are considered as
mechanical manipulators having rigid and flexible links. The main duty of these robots is to
translate a payload mass between two specified points. To derive dynamic model of these
manipulators, their flexible links are assumed as a set of rigid links connected together. By
adding strain potential energy to Lagrange equations, the flexible behaviour of flexible links
is modeled with good accuracy. In present paper, the problem of trajectory optimization of
space manipulators is defined based on minimum joint torque (minimum control effort)
objective function. A new approach, that is a developed form of direct collocation method, is
used for solving this problem. This new approach is based on simultaneous using of
differential flatness to decrease dimensional space of the problem and B-spline curves to
approximate trajectories. In this approach, state equations and path constraints are applied at
specified time nodes and control points of B-spline curves are considered as optimization
variables. In this approach, the problem of trajectory optimization is converted to a nonlinear
programming problem and exactly solved by nonlinear programming methods. By using this
approach, the numbers of optimization variables and constraints are significantly decreased
and the possibility of online trajectory optimization is provided.

Flexible Manipulators (FM) to minimize energy


consumption or mission time is a desired strategy. However,
TO problem of FM, because of nonlinear, coupled and large
scale dynamic models is a very complicated problem in the
field of optimal control.
Up to now, several approaches have been reported to solve
TO problem of FM. Meirovitch and Chen [1] and Ghariblu
and Korayem [2] have used linearized dynamic model to
find optimal solutions. Zhao and Chen [3,4] have found
optimal solutions by using decoupled dynamic model and
stable inversion method. Eisler et al. [5,6] have defined the
problem by planar decoupled dynamic model and solved by
recursive quadratic programming method. Hwang and

1. Introduction
The robotic technology has various potential applications in
space exploration. The use of light weight flexible structure
robots is necessary when the weight and volume of robots
are the main concerns to prevent unnecessary energy
consumption during launch to space and work in space.
This, however, results in considerable challenges in the
control of these robots. Some of the problems in the control
of flexible robots are vibration due to structural flexibility,
reducing positioning capability due to flexibility and lack of
sensing and complexity of modeling the motion of a flexible
mechanism.
In space missions, the Trajectory Optimization (TO) of
* Address for correspondence: mbahrami@aut.ac.ir

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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

Eltimsahy [7] and Lee and Yamakawa [8] have used


specified path to minimize mission time. In all of these
approaches, various simplifications such as linearization and
decoupling of equations have been considered for solving
TO problem. Therefore, the exact and optimal solutions
have not found in these works and only near optimal
solutions have been achieved.
In this paper, a new approach is used for exact and rapid
solving TO problem of FM. This new approach is based on
simultaneous using of differential flatness to decrease
dimensional space of the problem and B-spline curves to
approximate trajectories. In this approach, state equations
and path constraints are applied at specified time nodes and
control points of B-spline curves are considered as
optimization variables. By using this approach, the problem
of TO is converted to a nonlinear programming (NLP)
problem and exactly solved by NLP methods.
In order to illustrate the concepts and capabilities of this
approach, the remainder of the paper is organized as
follows: In Section 2, the dynamic model of FM is derived.
In Section 3, the problem of TO is defined. Direct
collocation method and new approach are described in
Sections 4 and 5, respectively. In Section 6, a numerical
example is presented and solved. Finally, concluding
remarks appear in Section 7.

considered [6]. The proposed approach for approximating


flexible links is based on finite elements approach and has
been used by several researchers [5,6,9]. Comparison
between the simulation results of this approach with actual
behavior of FM demonstrates the good approximating and
modeling of flexible links [9].

2. Dynamic Model
Creating a dynamic model that accounts for link flexibility
adds additional challenges beyond the standard rigid link
robot dynamics. Although a rigid robot's dynamics is
defined by a set of second order ordinary differential
equations, a flexible robot's dynamics is defined by a set of
fourth order partial differential equations with
corresponding boundary conditions. A flexible structure
contains state variables not only in the form of joint angles
and angular velocities but also in the form of link curvatures
and their derivatives. In FM, the most apparent complexity
arises due to the additional degrees of freedom associated
with deformations of links. Although in theory this adds an
infinite number of degrees of freedom, in practice only a
finite number are used to generate a model that is
sufficiently accurate for simulation and control design.
In this paper, FM are assumed as a set of rigid and flexible
links. The main duty of FM is to translate a payload mass
between two specified points. The motion of these FM is
controlled by joint torques. To derive dynamic model of
these manipulators, we can convert each flexible link of FM
to a set of rigid links connected together. By adding strain
potential energy term to Lagrange equations, the flexible
behaviour of flexible links is modeled with acceptable
accuracy. In Fig. 1, conversion a flexible link to three rigid
links has been demonstrated. Clearly, by choosing more
rigid links for each flexible link, more accurate model is
achieved. In this approach, for each replaced rigid link, two
angular positions at the start and end of link are considered
and for each actual rigid link, one angular position is

The kinetic energy of links of a manipulator is calculated


using following equation:

q4
q3
q2
q1
Fig. 1: Conversion a flexible link to three rigid links

To derive dynamic model of FM, we use Lagrange


equations. The general form of Lagrange equations is as
follows:
d L

dt q i

q Qi
i

(1)

where L is Lagrangian, q is the angular velocity of link, q is


the angular position of link, Q is the torque acted on link
and t is the time. In Eq. (1), Lagrangian is the difference
between kinetic energy (T) and potential energy (U) of
links:
L q , q T q , q U q
(2)

T q, q

1 T
q M(q)q
2

(3)

where M is inertia matrix. The inertia matrix for a multilink


manipulator is calculated as follows [10]:
M (q) mi J vi q J vi q
n

i 1

J i q R i q I i R i q J i q
n

(4)

i 1

where m is the mass of link, Jv is the velocity Jacobian


matrix, J is the angular velocity Jacobian matrix, R is the
translation matrix, I is the inertia tensor and n is the number
of links.
The potential energy of FM consists of gravitational
potential energy (for rigid and flexible links) and strain
potential energy (only for flexible links). Usually, in space
robots, the gravitational potential energy is neglected. We
can compute the strain potential energy of each flexible link
using following equation [11]:
Ui

li
0

qi
s

EI i

ds

(5)

where l is the length of link and EI is the flexural rigidity of


flexible link.
According to described approach, to derive dynamic model
(conversion each flexible link to some rigid links), we can
discretize Eq. (5) as follows [11]:

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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

q q j 1 q j

s
lj
Ui

1
EI i
2

nf

q j1 q j 2

j 1

lj

motion. In this case, the angular velocities and accelerations


of links should be zero at the start and end of motion.
For these TO problems, we can define various constraints
for obstacles avoidance and allowable work area. Also, we
can set bounds for state and control variables.
For FM, we can define other TO problems to maximize
payload mass and to minimize mission time. However, in
space missions, the maximum payload mass is specified and
the design of FM has been done based on this maximum
payload mass. Hence, in this paper, we assume that the
payload mass is specified. Also, the mission time in space
missions is not the main concern and required energy is the
main concern because of limited energy resources.

(6)

(7)

where nf is the number of replaced rigid links.


Therefore, the total potential energy is equal to sum of
strain potential energies of flexible links:
U q

(8)

i 1

Finally, the closed form of dynamic equations is achieved


as follows:
Bq, q Gq Q
Mq q
(9)

4. Direct Collocation Method


For solving TO problems (optimal control problems), there
are three main methods: indirect method, direct shooting
method, and direct collocation method. Other solution
methods are the developed forms of these main methods.
Direct collocation method is a powerful numerical method
for solving complicated TO problems. In [12,13], the TO
problems of FM have been exactly solved by this method.
In Direct collocation method, by full discretization of state
and control variables, the possibility of using NLP is
provided to solve TO problems. This discretization converts
differential and integral equations of TO problems to simple
algebraic equations. In other words, by full discretization, an
TO problem is converted to a standard NLP problem. This
discretization is done by dividing time interval to smaller
subintervals. The individual time points are called node,
mesh or grid points. The values of state and control
variables at these nodes are new optimization variables in
NLP problem [14,15]. In Fig. 2, time nodes and discrete
optimization variables have been shown.

where q is the angular accelerations vector, B is the


nonlinear terms matrix and G is the strain terms matrix.
We can express Eq. (9) in state space form. In this case,
angular positions and velocities of links are state variables
and joint torques are control variables.
The dynamic equations of FM have nonlinear and coupled
terms. Adding each extra link to these robots increases the
nonlinear terms of equations, significantly. Hence, the TO
of FM is very complicated, because of their nonlinear,
coupled and large scale dynamic equations.
3. Definition of Trajectory Optimization Problem
According to described structure of FM, we can define
different TO problems based on various objective functions.
In this paper, the problem of TO of FM is defined based on
minimizing joint torques. This objective function is equal to
minimizing control effort and energy consumption. In
considered TO problem, the objective is to translate a
specific payload mass between two specified points with
minimum joint torques:
F

Q
tf

ti

Q2 2 dt

(10)
x

where ti is the initial time and tf is the final time.


In this TO problem, we should find optimal values of joint
torques (optimal control) and angular positions and
velocities of links (optimal trajectory) such that the
objective function is minimized.
Because of neglecting gravitational force in TO problems of
FM, the minimum joint torques leads to infinite mission
time. Therefore, we should determine acceptable ranges for
mission time based on operational considerations.
In these problems, we should define boundary conditions
based on two specified points (where payload mass should
be translated between them) and desired initial and final
conditions of links. If the robot has multiple flexible and
rigid links, we can find different sets of initial and final
conditions. Therefore, the designers of mission should
choose a set of them. Usually, for mechanical manipulators,
the boundary conditions are determined for rest to rest

t(1)

t(2)

t(3)

t(4)

t(5)

t(6)

t(7)

Fig. 2: Time nodes and discrete optimization variables

In direct collocation method, we can collocate TO


problems using different methods such as Euler, trapezoidal,
Simpson, Runge-Kutta and so on. For example, if we

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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

assume the equations of motion in the following general


form:
x f (x(t), u(t), t)
(11)

In this paper, a new approach is proposed for solving TO


problems. This new approach is a developed form of direct
collocation method.

where f( ) is the vector of nonlinear state equations, x(t) is


the state vector, u(t) is the control vector and x (t ) is the first
derivative of the state vector.
These equations can be applied as equality constraints
between two successive nodes using trapezoidal rule [15]:
x ( k 1) x ( k ) 0.5h f ( k ) f ( k 1) 0
(12)

5. New Approach
Direct collocation method is the fastest solution method of
TO problems because of directness of method and implicit
integration in this method. Therefore, this method is a good
choice to develop and convert to an online solution method.
In direct collocation method, large numbers of optimization
variables and constraints are generated because of full
discretization of TO problems. These large numbers of
optimization variables and constraints lead to a long solution
time. The numbers of optimization variables and constraints
are related to the numbers of state and control variables,
state equations and time nodes. Therefore, we should find an
approach to decrease the numbers of state and control
variables, state equations and time nodes in order to
decrease solution time without any reduction in solution
accuracy.
In this section, a new approach is presented for exact and
rapid solving of TO problems. This new approach is based
on simultaneous using of differential flatness to decrease
dimensional space of TO problems and B-spline curves to
approximate trajectories. The details of this approach are
described in three subsections.
5.1. Differential Flatness
In direct collocation method, all of state and control
variables are discretized [15]. Some researchers show that it
is possible to eliminate control variables in direct methods.
In this case, only state variables are discretized [18]. In
recent years, some researchers show that it is possible to
eliminate the part of state variables (in addition of control
variables). In this case, only the reminder state variables are
discretized and some state equations are eliminated from
problem because of finding the relation between eliminated
state and control variables and remainder state variables.
This method can be used in differentially flat systems. A
nonlinear system is differentially flat, if there exists a
change of variables p given by an equation of the form:
p h(x, u, u ,...., u ( p) )
(13)

where h is the time difference between two successive nodes


and k is the number of node.
The other parts of an TO problem (objective function, path
constraints and boundary conditions) can be discretized with
the same method. With these discretizations, a large scale
NLP problem is achieved with many optimization variables
and equality and inequality constraints.
To solve this problem, we use an NLP solver code, namely
IPOPT (Interior Point OPTimization). This solver uses
primal dual interior point method for solving large scale
nonlinear constrained optimization problems [16,17].
To define NLP problems in IPOPT, we should define the
objective and constraints functions and their first and second
derivatives with respect to all optimization variables as
Jacobian and Hessian matrices.
For exact solution of TO problem, it is necessary to scale all
variables because of their different variation ranges. By
using simple linear mapping, we can set variation ranges of
state and control variables in an identical range. Good initial
guess and bounding of variables are effective in the speed of
convergence and solving the problem.
In an TO problem with free final time, we should define an
optimization variable for final time. The optimal value of
this variable is calculated during the optimization.
Direct collocation method, like all direct solution methods
of TO problems, can be applied without deriving the
necessary conditions, adjoint, transversality, maximum
principle. This feature makes the method appealing for
complicated applications and promises versatility and
robustness. Also, in contrast to all other techniques, this
method does not require an a priori specification of the arc
sequence for problems with path inequalities.
The combination of direct collocation method and NLP has
several advantages. Direct collocation method is
independent of used equations, because of fully numerically
nature of this method. Hence, adding, modifying and
improving the equations do not change the general structure
of solution. Direct collocation method is not very sensitive
to initial guesses and has a good convergence speed.
Direct collocation method, in spite of many advantages, has
some disadvantages. In this method, the optimal solutions
have the discrete nature because of full discretization of TO
problems. Another disadvantage is the long solution time
because of large numbers of optimization variables and
constraints.

Such that the states and inputs may be determined from


equations of the form:
(14)
(x, u) w(p, p ,...., p (l ) )
In these equations, h and w are the vectors of nonlinear
functions. We will refer to the change of variables p as the
flat outputs. The flat outputs are not necessarily the sensor
outputs of a system [19,20].
The significance of a system being flat is that all system
behavior can be expressed without integration by the flat
outputs and a finite number of their derivatives. There is no
need to solve a two-point boundary value problem if the
system is differentially flat. Once all the boundary
conditions and trajectory constraints are mapped into the flat

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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

output space, optimal trajectories will be planned in the flat


output space and then lifted back to the original state and
input space. The idea is that this methodology will alleviate
adjoining the system dynamics in the TO problem
formulation. Consequently, the numbers of variables and
constraints in the TO problem will be reduced to expedite
computation.
In order to a more clear description of using differential
flatness in TO, we present an example. Assume that we have
a manipulator with five rigid links that is controlled by a
joint torque acted on first link. By using Lagrange
equations, the dynamic model of this manipulator is
achieved as 10 equations of motion in state space form
including 10 state variables (5 angular positions and 5
angular velocities) and a control variable (joint torque).
If we use direct collocation method, we have 11 state and
control variables and 10 state equations. If we eliminate
control variable using the proposed approach in [18], we
have 10 state variables and 9 state equations. One of the
state equations is eliminated to compute control variable by
state variables. If we use differential flatness, we can
consider the angular positions as flat outputs and we can
express the entire problem by these flat outputs and their
first and second time derivatives. In this case, we have 5
state variables and 4 state equations. Therefore, we should
only approximate flat outputs to directly solve TO problem.
Clearly, by using differential flatness, the numbers of
optimization variables and constraints are significantly
decreased and the speed of convergence and solution is
considerably increased.
5.2. B-spline Curves
In direct collocation method, state and control variables are
approximated as a set of discrete points at time nodes.
Hence, the solution of TO problem by this method has a
discrete nature. Also, the exact computation of derivatives
and integrals of problem is impossible. Creating discrete
optimization variables is necessary for using NLP to solve
TO problems. Therefore, we should find a method to
parameterize TO problems with discrete variables that lead
to a continuous solution. By using curves, we can generate
continuous
trajectories
with
discrete
parameters
(coefficients of polynomials or control points). In this paper,
we use B-spline curves to approximate flat outputs with
discrete parameters. A B-spline curve is a set of connected
Bezier curves with the following general equation:

to compute basis functions [21]:


1 if ti t ti 1
Bi ,0 (t )
0 otherwise

Bi,k (t )

i, k (t )Ci

t0 t t f

(17)

Control points in a B-spline curve are the points around the


curve that form the curve. In Fig. 3, a B-spline curve with its
control points is demonstrated.

Fig. 3: A B-spline curve with its control points

Control points in B-spline curves are discrete parameters


that generate a continuous trajectory. If we approximate
state and control variables or flat outputs with B-spline
curves, we can consider control points as optimization
variables in NLP problem. In B-spline curves, we do not
need to define additional constraints to apply continuity
between Bezier curves. We can specify the level of
continuity in computation of basis functions. B-spline
curves have local behavior. When we change a control
point, the form of curve around this point is changed. The
variation range of control points is nearly equal by variation
range of approximated variable. By using the functions of
B-spline curves, we can exactly compute the derivatives and
integrals of problem.
5.3. Direct Collocation and Nonlinear Programming
In direct collocation method, time nodes are defined and
used for two reasons: approximating differential and integral
terms and applying state equations and path constraints. By
using B-spline curves to approximate variables, it is not
necessary to choose large number of time nodes to
approximate differential and integral terms. Hence, we can
choose low number of time nodes only for applying state
equations and path constraints.
For solving TO problem of space FM with new approach,
first, we should approximate flat outputs (angular positions
of actual and replaced rigid links) with B-spline curves.
Then, we should consider control points of B-spline curves
as optimization variables of NLP problem. During the
solution of NLP problem, according the values of control
points at each iteration, we can compute the values of flat
outputs at each time. Then, we can compute the values of
eliminated state and control variables. After convergence
and solving NLP problem we can find optimal trajectories
of flat outputs such that the objective function is minimized
and state equations and constraints are satisfied.

x(t )

t ti
t t
Bi,k 1 (t ) i k
Bi 1,k 1 (t )
ti k 1 ti
ti k ti 1

(16)

(15)

i 0

where Bi,k(t) are basis functions, Ci are the control points and
k is the order of Bezier curves.
In order to compute basis functions, first, we should
determine the number of Bezier curves and the needed
orders of them based on the complexity of trajectories. Also,
we should specify the level of continuity between Bezier
curves. Then, we can use the following recursive equations

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International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

and second derivatives. In this problem, joint torque is


control variable. This joint torque is directly acted on only
first rigid link (actual rigid link). By using Lagrange
equation of first rigid link, we can find the relation of
control variable with flat outputs. Hence, this Lagrange
equation and control variable are eliminated from state
equations. Finally, four remainder equations and the
objective function are as follows:

6. Trajectory Optimization of a Planar Flexible


Manipulator
In this section, we present and solve a numerical example to
demonstrate the capabilities of proposed approach. In this
example, we consider a planar FM with a rigid link and a
flexible link connected together. A torque motor, by
applying torque to rigid link, moves the robot and translates
the payload mass (connected to flexible link) from initial
point to final point. The schematic of FM and its initial and
final situations are shown in Fig. 4. Also, the specifications
of FM are listed in Table 1.

1 , q
2 ,..., q
5 0
wq1 , q2 ,..., q5 , q1 , q 2 ,..., q5 , q

ti

hq1 , q 2 ,..., q5 , q1 , q 2 ,..., q 5 , q1 , q2 ,..., q5 dt

initial situation

q2 (deg)
q2 (deg)

Fig. 4: The schematic of FM and its initial and final situations


Table 1: The specifications of robot

Rigid Link Flexible Link


0.5
1
0.5
1.5

10

100
50

q4 (deg)
q (deg)

50

-45

Mass (Kg)
Length (m)
Flexural Rigidity (N.m2)

0
0
-50

0
-50

10

15

20

10

15

20

q2

50
50

0
0

10

15

20

10

15

20

-500

10

15

20

10

15

20

q3 (deg)
q3 (deg)

50

0
0

50

50

q1
Q

50

100

-50
0

10

15

20

100

10

15

20

10
Time (s)

15

20

100

Fig. 5: The schematic of FM (converted form)


q5 (deg)

q2 (deg)

By this conversion, we have five angular positions for50 actual


and replaced rigid links. We can consider these angular
0
positions as flat outputs based on system differential
flatness. In this case, it is not required to convert-50closed
form of motion equations to state space. Therefore, we0 have 5
only five equations with respect to flat outputs and their first

15

20

10

15

20

q3 (deg)

100

50

53
0

-50
0

50

-50
10

10

10

10
Time (s)
10
Time (s)

50
50

0
0

-50

0
-50

100

-50

0
0

-50

100

-50

0
0
-50

100

100

q4 (deg)

q3

q1 (deg)

q5

50

100

-50

The mission of this FM is to translate a 5 Kg payload mass


between initial and final points. The desired motion of this
robot is rest to rest. In this example, the mission time is
assumed 20 s.
For solving this problem, first, we convert the flexible link
to three smaller rigid links as shown in Fig. 5.

100
50

100

100

q4

(19)

+90

q5 (deg)
q (deg)

final situation

q1 (deg)
q1 (deg)

rigid link

tf

In order to approximate flat outputs (angular positions) with


B-spline curves, we use 20 fourth orders Bezier curves and
to apply motion equations, we use 30 collocation points
(time nodes). In Figs. 6 and 7, the results of TO and solving
NLP problem (time histories of flat outputs and joint torque)
are demonstrated.100
100

payload mass

flexible link

(18)

-50

-50

-50

0
5
10
International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

q2 (deg)

100

100

50

50

0.3
-50

-0.6

-50
0

10

15

20

10

15

20

10

15

20

10
Time (s)

15

20

100

-0.3

10
Time (s)

15

q3 (deg)

Joint Torque (N.m)

0.6

20

q5 (deg)

Fig. 6: Time histories of flat outputs (B-spline curves and control


points )

15

20

50

Fig. 7: Time history of joint torque

In Fig. 6, control points of B-spline curves have been


shown. These control points are optimization variables of
NLP problem. The optimal values of these100points New
have
been
Method
Collocation Method
computed by IPOPT solver. After convergence ofDirectsolution,
50
we can plot B-spline curves by using achieved
optimal
control points and computed basis functions as Fig. 6.
In Fig. 6, we can clearly see the fluctuating
behavior of
0
angular positions due to structural flexibility. As shown in
Fig. 6, the amplitude of fluctuations of farther
replaced links
-50
from actual link is larger than closer links. Because,
flexible10
0
5
link in considered manipulator is similar to a cantilever
beam. In order to see this fluctuating behavior, we should
100
choose sufficient number and orders of Bezier curves.
As shown in Fig. 7, joint torque has fluctuating nature
50
because of optimal control of fluctuating
behavior of
flexible link. High value torques act on the first link at start
and end of motion in opposite directions to0 drive and stop
the manipulator. Between these two torques a linear and
gradual change occurs in the joint torque. -50
0
5
By comparison of achieved solution for this
example
by10
proposed approach with achieved solution by direct
collocation method [13], we can see that these
solutions are
100
identical. But, the solution time of approach, is ten times
less than the solution time of direct collocation
method. In
50
Fig. 8, in order to compare optimal solutions, the achieved
angular positions by these two approaches are demonstrated.

-50

q4 (deg)

q1 (deg)

100

20

10

50

-50
0

10

15

20

100

100

q5 (deg)

q2 (deg)

20

7. Conclusion
In this paper, the problem of TO of FM was defined to
minimize joint torques and solved by a new approach. This
new approach is a developed form of classic direct
100 collocation method and is based on differential flatness, Bspline 20curves, collocation concept and NLP. By using
15
differential flatness, the numbers of optimization variables
50 and constraints are significantly decreased. In other words,
the dimensional space of problem is decreased. The closed
form of FM motion equations (Lagrange equations) is very
0 suitable for using differential flatness concept. In these
equations, choosing flat outputs and eliminating control
variables are very simple. By using B-spline curves, the
-50 possibility of continuous approximation of flat outputs with
points
0discrete control
5
10is provided.
15 B-spline
20curves are good
choice for approximating flat outputs because of their local

54
50

Fig. 8: Comparison between new approach () and direct collocation


method ()

-50
5

50

-50
15

q4 (deg)

q1 (deg)

q5 (deg)

100

-50
15

q2 (deg)

q3 (deg)

100

50

50

International Journal of Robotics, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2009) /M.Bahrami,R.Jamilnia,A.Naghash

behavior, continuity without definition of additional


constraints, capability to approximate complicated
trajectories and specified variation ranges of control points.
By using B-spline curves, we do not require to consider
large number of time nodes to provide required accuracy.
By using collocation concept (to apply state equations and
path constraints at specified time nodes), a complicated TO
problem is converted to a simple NLP problem. By this
conversion, the possibility of using various solution methods
for solving nonlinear constrained optimization problems is
provided. By using the proposed approach, the dimensional
space of TO problems is significantly decreased and the
solution speed is increased without any reduction in
accuracy. By applying this approach in a closed loop control
system, the possibility of online TO and optimization based
control is provided. In this paper, dynamic model of FM
derived without any simplifications such as linearization and
decoupling and TO problem defined in its complicated
form. The presented approaches for modeling FM and
solving TO problems can be used in different problems in
various engineering fields such as robotics, biomechanics,
and aerospace.

Engineering, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1990.


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