BCVT - Ly Thuyet Thong Tin - Pgs. Ts. Nguyen Binh, 227 Trang PDF

Tai Lieu Cua Ban .
Com
HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

------- -------
BI GING
L THUYT THNG TIN

Bin son : PGS.Ts. NGUYN BNH
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2006
Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com
LI NI U
Gio trnh L thuyt thng tin l mt gio trnh c s dng cho sinh vin chuyn ngnh
in t Vin thng v Cng ngh thng tin ca Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng.
y cng l mt ti liu tham kho hu ch cho cc sinh vin chuyn ngnh in - in t.
Gio trnh ny nhm chun b tt kin thc c s cho sinh vin hc tp v nm vng cc
mn k thut chuyn ngnh, m bo cho sinh vin c th nh gi cc ch tiu cht lng c bn
ca mt h thng truyn tin mt cch c cn c khoa hc.
Gio trnh gm 6 chng, ngoi chng I c tnh cht gii thiu chung, cc chng cn li
c chia thnh 4 phn chnh:
Phn I: L thuyt tn hiu ngu nhin v nhiu (Chng 2)
Phn II: L thuyt thng tin v m ha (Chng 3 v Chng 4)
Phn III: L thuyt thu ti u (Chng 5)
Phn IV: Mt m (Chng 6)
Phn I: (Chng II). Nhm cung cp cc cng c ton hc cn thit cho cc chng sau.
Phn II: Gm hai chng vi cc ni dungch yu sau:
- Chng III: Cung cp nhng khi nim c bn ca l thuyt thng tin Shannon trong h
truyn tin ri rc v m rng cho cc h truyn tin lin tc.
- Chng IV: Trnh by hai hng kin thit cho hai nh l m ha ca Shannon. V
khun kh c hn ca gio trnh, cc hng ny (m ngun v m knh) ch c trnh by mc
cc hiu bit c bn. c th tm hiu su hn nhng kt qu mi v cc ng dng c th
sinh vin cn phi xem thm trong cc ti liu tham kho.
Phn III: (Chng V) Trnh by vn xy dng cc h thng thu ti u m bo tc
truyn tin v chnh xc t c cc gi tr gii hn. Theo truyn thng bao trm ln ton b
gio trnh l vic trnh by hai bi ton phn tch v tng hp. Cc v d trong gio trnh c
chn lc k nhm gip cho sinh vin hiu c cc khi nim mt cch su sc hn. Cc hnh v,
bng biu nhm m t mt cch trc quan nht cc khi nim v hot ng ca s khi chc
nng ca cc thit b c th
Phn VI: (Chng VI) Trnh by c s l thuyt cc h mt bao gm cc h mt kha b
mt v cc h mt kha cng khai. Do khun kh c hn ca gio trnh, mt s vn quan trng
cn cha c cp ti (nh trao i v phn phi kha, xc thc, m bo tnh ton vn )
Sau mi chng u c cc cu hi v bi tp nhm gip cho sinh vin cng c c cc k
nng tnh ton cn thit v hiu su sc hn cc khi nim v cc thut ton quan trng.
Phn ph lc cung cp mt s kin thc b xung cn thit i vi mt s khi nim quan
trng v mt s s liu cn thit gip cho sinh vin lm c cc bi tp c ra cc chng.
Gio trnh c vit da trn c s cng mn hc L thuyt thng tin do B Gio dc

v o to v c c kt sau nhiu nm ging dy v nghin cu ca tc gi. Rt mong c
s ng gp ca bn c.
Cc ng gp kin xin gi v
KHOA K THUT IN T 1 - HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
KM 10. NG NGUYN TRI - TH X H NG
Email:
KhoaDT1@hn.vnn.vn
Hoc nguyenbinh1999@yahoo.com
Cui cng ti xin chn thnh cm n GS. Hunh Hu Tu cho ti nhiu kin qu bu
trong cc trao i hc thut c lin quan ti mt s ni dung quan trng trong gio trnh ny.
NGI BIN SON
Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn
CHNG I: NHNG VN CHUNG V NHNG KHI

NIM C BN
1.1. V TR, VAI TR V S LC LCH S PHT TRIN CA L THUYT
THNG TIN
1.1.1. V tr, vai tr ca L thuyt thng tin
Do s pht trin mnh m ca k thut tnh ton v cc h t ng, mt ngnh khoa hc
mi ra i v pht trin nhanh chng, l: L thuyt thng tin. L mt ngnh khoa hc nhng
n khng ngng pht trin v thm nhp vo nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nh: Ton; trit; ho;
Xibecnetic; l thuyt h thng; l thuyt v k thut thng tin lin lc v t c nhiu kt
qu. Tuy vy n cng cn nhiu vn cn c gii quyt hoc gii quyt hon chnh hn.
Gio trnh L thuyt thng tin ny (cn c gi l C s l thuyt truyn tin) ch l
mt b phn ca l thuyt thng tin chung N l phn p dng ca L thuyt thng tin vo k
thut thng tin lin lc.
Trong cc quan h ca L thuyt thng tin chung vi cc ngnh khoa hc khc nhau, ta phi
c bit k n mi quan h ca n vi ngnh Xibecnetic.
Mi quan h gia cc hot ng khoa hc ca con ngi v cc qung tnh ca vt cht
c m t trn hnh (1.1).
Qung tnh ca vt cht
Thng tin
Nng lng
Nng lng hc
Khi lng
Cng ngh hc
iu khin hc
(Xibecnetic)
Cc lnh vc hot ng khoa hc ca

con ngi
Hnh 1.1. Quan h gia hot ng khoa hc v qung tnh ca vt cht
- Nng lng hc: L mt ngnh khoa hc chuyn nghin cu cc vn lin quan ti cc

khi nim thuc v nng lng. Mc ch ca nng lng hc l lm gim s nng nhc ca lao
ng chn tay v nng cao hiu sut lao ng chn tay. Nhim v trung tm ca n l to, truyn,
th, bin i, tch lu v x l nng lng.
3

- Xibecnetic: Bao gm cc ngnh khoa hc chuyn nghin cu cc vn c lin quan n
khi nim thng tin v tn hiu. Mc ch ca Xibecnetic l lm gim s nng nhc ca tr c v
nng cao hiu sut lao ng tr c. Ngoi nhng vn c xt trong Xibecnetic nh i tng,
mc ch, ti u ho vic iu khin, lin h ngc. Vic nghin cu cc qu trnh thng tin (nh
chn, truyn, x l, lu tr v hin th thng tin) cng l mt vn trung tm ca Xibecnetic.
Chnh v vy, l thuyt v k thut thng tin chim vai tr rt quan trng trong Xibecnetic.
- Cng ngh hc: gm cc ngnh khoa hc to, bin i v x l cc vt liu mi. Cng
ngh hc phc v c lc cho Xibecnetic v nng lng hc. Khng c cng ngh hc hin i
th khng th c cc ngnh khoa hc k thut hin i.
1.1.2. S lc lch s pht trin

Ngi t vin gch u tin xy dng l thuyt thng tin l Hartley R.V.L. Nm 1928,
ng a ra s o lng thng tin l mt khi nim trung tm ca l thuyt thng tin. Da vo
khi nim ny, ta c th so snh nh lng cc h truyn tin vi nhau.
Nm 1933, V.A Kachenhicov chng minh mt lot nhng lun im quan trng ca l
thuyt thng tin trong bi bo V kh nng thng qua ca khng trung v dy dn trong h thng
lin lc in.
Nm 1935, D.V Ageev a ra cng trnh L thuyt tch tuyn tnh, trong ng pht
biu nhng nguyn tc c bn v l thuyt tch cc tn hiu.
Nm 1946, V.A Kachenhicov thng bo cng trnh L thuyt th chng nhiu nh du
mt bc pht trin rt quan trng ca l thuyt thng tin.
Trong hai nm 1948 1949, Shanon C.E cng b mt lot cc cng trnh v i, a s
pht trin ca l thuyt thng tin ln mt bc tin mi cha tng c. Trong cc cng trnh ny,
nh vic a vo khi nim lng thng tin v tnh n cu trc thng k ca tin, ng chng
minh mt lot nh l v kh nng thng qua ca knh truyn tin khi c nhiu v cc nh l m
ho. Nhng cng trnh ny l nn tng vng chc ca l thuyt thng tin.
Ngy nay, l thuyt thng tin pht trin theo hai hng ch yu sau:
L thuyt thng tin ton hc: Xy dng nhng lun im thun tu ton hc v nhng c
s ton hc cht ch ca l thuyt thng tin. Cng hin ch yu trong lnh vc ny thuc v cc
nh bc hc li lc nh: N.Wiener, A. Feinstain, C.E Shanon, A.N. Kanmgorov, A.JA Khintrin.
L thuyt thng tin ng dng: (l thuyt truyn tin)
Chuyn nghin cu cc bi ton thc t quan trng do k thut lin lc t ra c lin quan
n vn chng nhiu v nng cao tin cy ca vic truyn tin. Cc bc hc C.E Shanon, S.O
RiCe, D. Midleton, W. Peterson, A.A Khakevich, V. Kachenhicov c nhng cng trnh qu
bu trong lnh vc ny.
1.2. NHNG KHI NIM C BN - S H TRUYN TIN V NHIM V CA N

1.2.1. Cc nh ngha c bn
1.2.1.1. Thng tin
nh ngha: Thng tin l nhng tnh cht xc nh ca vt cht m con ngi (hoc h
thng k thut) nhn c t th gii vt cht bn ngoi hoc t nhng qu trnh xy ra trong bn
thn n.
Vi nh ngha ny, mi ngnh khoa hc l khm ph ra cc cu trc thng qua vic thu
thp, ch bin, x l thng tin. y thng tin l mt danh t ch khng phi l ng t ch
mt hnh vi tc ng gia hai i tng (ngi, my) lin lc vi nhau.
Theo quan im trit hc, thng tin l mt qung tnh ca th gii vt cht (tng t nh
nng lng, khi lng). Thng tin khng c to ra m ch c s dng bi h th cm.
Thng tin tn ti mt cch khch quan, khng ph thuc vo h th cm. Trong ngha khi qut
nht, thng tin l s a dng. S a dng y c th hiu theo nhiu ngha khc nhau: Tnh ngu
nhin, trnh t chc,
1.2.1.2. Tin
Tin l dng vt cht c th biu din hoc th hin thng tin. C hai dng: tin ri rc v
tin lin tc.
V d: Tm nh, bn nhc, bng s liu, bi ni, l cc tin.
1.2.1.3. Tn hiu
Tn hiu l cc i lng vt l bin thin, phn nh tin cn truyn.
Ch : Khng phi bn thn qu trnh vt l l tn hiu, m s bin i cc tham s ring
ca qu trnh vt l mi l tn hiu.
Cc c trng vt l c th l dng in, in p, nh sng, m thanh, trng in t
1.2.2. S khi ca h thng truyn tin s (Hnh 1.2)
T cc ngun khc
Ngun
tin nh khun
dng
m1
M
ngun
M bo
mt
M
knh
Dn
knh
iu ch
S1(t)
Tri
ph
H thng ng b
( Synchronization )
Dng bit
a truy
nhp
Dng sng s
My
Pht
(XMT)
N
H
u ra s
Nhn
tin nh khun
dng
Gii m
ngun
m1
Gii m
mt
Gii m
knh
Chia
knh
Gii iu
ch
p
ph
Ti cc b nhn tin khc

Khi c bn
Khi tu chn
Hnh 1.2. S khi h thng truyn tin s.
a truy
nhp
MY
THU
(RCV)
Nhiu
u vo s
1.2.2.1. Ngun tin

Ni sn ra tin:
- Nu tp tin l hu hn th ngun sinh ra n c gi l ngun ri rc.
- Nu tp tin l v hn th ngun sinh ra n c gi l ngun lin tc.
Ngun tin c hai tnh cht: Tnh thng k v tnh hm .
Vi ngun ri rc, tnh thng k biu hin ch xc sut xut hin cc tin l khc nhau.
Tnh hm biu hin ch xc sut xut hin ca mt tin no sau mt dy tin khc nhau
no l khc nhau.
V d: P(y/ta) P(y/ba)
1.2.2.2. My pht
L thit b bin i tp tin thnh tp tn hiu tng ng. Php bin i ny phi l n tr
hai chiu (th bn thu mi c th sao li c ng tin gi i). Trong trng hp tng qut, my
pht gm hai khi chnh.
- Thit b m ho: Lm ng mi tin vi mt t hp cc k hiu chn nhm tng mt ,
tng kh nng chng nhiu, tng tc truyn tin.
- Khi iu ch: L thit b bin tp tin ( hoc khng m ho) thnh cc tn hiu bc x
vo khng gian di dng sng in t cao tn. V nguyn tc, bt k mt my pht no cng c
khi ny.
1.2.2.3. ng truyn tin
L mi trng vt l, trong tn hiu truyn i t my pht sang my thu. Trn ng
truyn c nhng tc ng lm mt nng lng, lm mt thng tin ca tn hiu.
1.2.2.4. My thu
L thit b lp li (sao li) thng tin t tn hiu nhn c. My thu thc hin php bin i
ngc li vi php bin i my pht: Bin tp tn hiu thu c thnh tp tin tng ng.
My thu gm hai khi:
- Gii iu ch: Bin i tn hiu nhn c thnh tin m ho.
- Gii m: Bin i cc tin m ho thnh cc tin tng ng ban u (cc tin ca ngun
gi i).
1.2.2.5. Nhn tin
C ba chc nng:
- Ghi gi tin (v d b nh ca my tnh, bng ghi m, ghi hnh,)
- Biu th tin: Lm cho cc gic quan ca con ngi hoc cc b cm bin ca my th cm
c x l tin (v d bng m thanh, ch s, hnh nh,)
7

- X l tin: Bin i tin a n v dng d s dng. Chc nng ny c th thc hin
bng con ngi hoc bng my.
1.2.2.6. Knh truyn tin
L tp hp cc thit b k thut phc v cho vic truyn tin t ngun n ni nhn tin.
1.2.2.7. Nhiu
L mi yu t ngu nhin c nh hng xu n vic thu tin. Nhng yu t ny tc ng
xu n tin truyn i t bn pht n bn thu. cho gn, ta gp cc yu t tc ng vo mt
trn hnh 1.2.
Hnh 1.2 l s khi tng qut nht ca mt h truyn tin s. N c th l: h thng v
tuyn in thoi, v tuyn in bo, raa, v tuyn truyn hnh, h thng thng tin truyn s liu,
v tuyn iu khin t xa.
1.2.2.8. Cc phng php bin i thng tin s trong cc khi chc nng ca h thng
iu ch
nh dng/ M ngun
M ho k t
Ly mu
Lng t ho
iu ch m xung
(PCM)
- PCM vi phn
- iu ch Delta (DM)
- DM c tc bin i
lin tc (CVSD)
- M ho d on tuyn
tnh (LPC)
- Cc phng php nn:
M Huffman, m s hc,
thut ton Ziv_Lempel
M knh
Dng sng
Cc dy c cu trc
Tn hiu M_tr
Tn hiu trc giao
Tn hiu song trc
giao
- M khi
- M lin tc
Khng kt hp
- PSK: Manip pha

- FSK: Manip tn s
- ASK: Manip bin
- Hn hp
- OQPSK: Manip pha
tng i 4 mc
- MSK
- PSK vi phn
- FSK
- ASK
- Hn hp
Dn knh/ a truy cp
Tri ph
- Phn chia tn s:
FDM/ FDMA
- Phn chia thi gian:
TDM/ TDMA
- Phn chia m:
CDM/ CDMA
- Phn chia khng gian:
SDMA
- Phn chia cc tnh:
PDMA
- OFDM
Dy trc tip (DS)

Nhy tn (FH)
Nhy thi gian (TH)
Cc phng php hn
hp
- Hon v
- Thay th
- X l bit
- Cc phng php hn hp
M bo mt
M ho theo khi
M ho dng s liu
Kt hp
Mt m c in
Mt m kho cng khai
- Thut ton RSA
- Thut ton logarit ri rc
- Thut ton McElice
- Thut ton Merkle-Hellman
- Thut ton s dng ng
cong Elliptic
ng b
- ng b sng mang
- ng b du
- ng b khung
- ng b mng
1.2.3. Nhng ch tiu cht lng c bn ca mt h truyn tin

1.2.3.1. Tnh hu hiu
Th hin trn cc mt sau:
- Tc truyn tin cao.
- Truyn c ng thi nhiu tin khc nhau.
- Chi ph cho mt bit thng tin thp.
1.2.3.2. tin cy
m bo chnh xc ca vic thu nhn tin cao, xc sut thu sai (BER) thp.
Hai ch tiu trn mu thun nhau. Gii quyt mu thun trn l nhim v ca l thuyt thng
tin.
1.2.3.3. An ton
- B mt:
+ Khng th khai thc thng tin tri php.
+ Ch c ngi nhn hp l mi hiu c thng tin.
- Xc thc: Gn trch nhim ca bn gi bn nhn vi bn tin (ch k s).
- Ton vn:
+ Thng tin khng b bp mo (ct xn, xuyn tc, sa i).
+ Thng tin c nhn phi nguyn vn c v ni dung v hnh thc.
- Kh dng: Mi ti nguyn v dch v ca h thng phi c cung cp y cho ngi
dng hp php.
1.2.3.4. m bo cht lng dch v (QoS)
y l mt ch tiu rt quan trng c bit l i vi cc dch v thi gian thc, nhy cm
vi tr (truyn ting ni, hnh nh, .)
10
Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu
CHNG II: TN HIU V NHIU

2.1. TN HIU XC NH V CC C TRNG VT L CA CHNG
Tn hiu xc nh thng c xem l mt hm xc nh ca bin thi gian t (s(t)). Hm
ny c th c m t bng mt biu thc gii tch hoc c m t bng th. Mt trong cc
c trng vt l quan trng ca tn hiu l hm mt ph bin phc
S() . Vi tn hiu s(t)
kh tch tuyt i, ta c cp bin i Fourier sau:
S() =
s(t)e
j t
dt
(2.1)
1
s(t) =
2
S()e
j t
(2.2)
Sau y l mt s c trng vt l quen thuc ca tn hiu:

- Thi hn ca tn hiu (T): Thi hn ca tn hiu l khong thi gian tn ti ca tn hiu,
trong khong ny gi tr ca tn hiu khng ng nht bng 0.
- B rng ph ca tn hiu (F): y l min xc nh bi tn s khc khng cao nht ca tn
hiu.
- Nng lng ca tn hiu (E): Nng lng ca tn hiu c th tnh theo min thi gian hay
min tn s.
1
E = s (t)dt =
S(
) d
[J]
(2.3)
(nh l Parseval)
- Cng sut ca tn hiu (P):
P=
E
T
[W]
2.2. TN HIU V NHIU L CC QU TRNH NGU NHIN

2.2.1. Bn cht ngu nhin ca tn hiu v nhiu
Nh xt trn, chng ta coi tn hiu l biu hin vt l ca tin (trong thng tin v tuyn:
dng vt l cui cng ca tin l sng in t). Qu trnh vt l mang tin din ra theo thi gian, do
v mt ton hc th khi c th c, cch biu din trc tip nht cho tn hiu l vit biu thc
ca n theo thi gian hay v th thi gian ca n.
11

Trong l thuyt c in, d tn hiu tun hon hoc khng tun hon nhng ta u coi l
bit trc v biu din n bng mt hm tin nh ca thi gian. l quan nim xc nh v tn
hiu (tn hiu tin nh). Tuy vy, quan nim ny khng ph hp vi thc t. Tht vy, tn hiu
tin nh khng th dng vo vic truyn tin tc c. Vi cch coi tn hiu l biu hin vt l ca
tin, nu chng ta hon ton bit trc n th v mt thng tin, vic nhn tn hiu khng c
ngha g. Nhng nu ta hon ton khng bit g v tn hiu truyn i, th ta khng th thc hin
nhn tin c. Bi v khi khng c ci g lm cn c phn bit tn hiu vi nhng ci khng
phi n, c bit l vi cc nhiu. Nh vy, quan nim hp l nht l phi k n cc c tnh
thng k ca tn hiu, tc l phi coi tn hiu l mt qu trnh ngu nhin. Chng ta s gi cc tn
hiu xt theo quan im thng k ny l cc tn hiu ngu nhin.
2.2.2. nh ngha v phn loi nhiu

Trong qu trnh truyn tin, tn hiu lun lun b nhiu yu t ngu nhin tc ng vo, lm
mt mt mt phn hoc thm ch c th mt ton b thng tin cha trong n. Nhng yu t ngu
nhin rt a dng, chng c th l nhng thay i ngu nhin ca cc hng s vt l ca mi
trng truyn qua hoc nhng loi trng in t cm ng trong cng nghip, y hcvv
Trong v tuyn in, ngi ta gi tt c nhng yu t ngu nhin y l cc can nhiu (hay nhiu).
Tm li, ta c th coi nhiu l tt c nhng tn hiu v ch (tt nhin l i vi h truyn tin ta xt)
c nh hng xu n vic thu tin. Ngun nhiu c th ngoi hoc trong h. Nu nhiu xc nh
th vic chng n khng c kh khn g v mt nguyn tc. V d nh ngi ta c nhng bin
php chng n do dng xoay chiu gy ra trong cc my khuch i m tn, ngi ta cng bit
r nhng cch chng s nhiu ln nhau gia cc in i v tuyn in cng lm vic m chng
c ph tn hiu trm nhauvv Cc loi nhiu ny khng ng ngi.
Ch :
Cn phn bit nhiu vi s mo gy ra bi c tnh tn s v c tnh thi gian ca cc thit
b, knh truyn (mo tuyn tnh v mo phi tuyn). V mt nguyn tc, ta c th khc phc
c chng bng cch hiu chnh.
Nhiu ng lo ngi nht vn l cc nhiu ngu nhin. Cho n nay, vic chng cc nhiu
ngu nhin vn gp nhng kh khn ln c v mt l lun ln v mt thc hin k thut. Do ,
trong gio trnh ny ta ch cp n mt dng no (sau ny s thy y thng xt nht l
nhiu cng, chun) ca nhiu ngu nhin.
Vic chia thnh cc loi (dng) nhiu khc nhau c th lm theo cc du hiu sau:
1. Theo b rng ph ca nhiu: c nhiu gii rng (ph rng nh ph ca nh sng trng gi
l tp m trng), nhiu gii hp (gi l tp m mu).
2. Theo quy lut bin thin thi gian ca nhiu: c nhiu ri rc v nhiu lin tc.
3. Theo phng thc m nhiu tc ng ln tn hiu: c nhiu cng v nhiu nhn.
4. Theo cch bc x ca nhiu: c nhiu th ng v nhiu tch cc.
Nhiu th ng l cc tia phn x t cc mc tiu gi hoc t a vt tr v i ta xt khi
cc tia sng ca n p vo chng. Nhiu tch cc (ch ng) do mt ngun bc x nng lng
(cc i hoc cc h thng ln cn) hoc my pht nhiu ca i phng cha vo i hoc h
thng ang xt.
12

5. Theo ngun gc pht sinh: c nhiu cng nghip, nhiu kh quyn, nhiu v trvv
Trong gio trnh ny khi ni v nhiu, ta ch ni theo phng thc tc ng ca nhiu ln
tn hiu, tc l ch ni n nhiu nhn hoc nhiu cng.
V mt ton hc, tc ng ca nhiu cng ln tn hiu c biu din bi h thc sau:
u(t) = s(t) + n(t)
(2.4)
s(t) l tn hiu gi i
u(t) l tn hiu thu c
n(t) l nhiu cng
Cn nhiu nhn c biu din bi:
u(t) = (t).s(t)
(2.5)
(t): nhiu nhn, l mt qu trnh ngu nhin. Hin tng gy nn bi nhiu nhn gi l
suy lc (fading).
Tng qut, khi tn hiu chu tc ng ng thi ca c nhiu cng v nhiu nhn th:
u(t) = (t).s(t) + n(t)
(2.6)
y, ta coi h s truyn ca knh bng n v v b qua thi gian gi chm tn hiu

ca knh truyn. Nu k n thi gian gi chm ca knh truyn th (2.6) c dng:
u(t) = (t).s(t ) + n(t)
(2.7)
2.3. CC C TRNG THNG K CA TN HIU NGU NHIN V NHIU

2.3.1. Cc c trng thng k
Theo quan im thng k, tn hiu v nhiu c coi l cc qu trnh ngu nhin. c trng
cho cc qu trnh ngu nhin chnh l cc quy lut thng k (cc hm phn b v mt phn b)
v cc c trng thng k (k vng, phng sai, hm t tng quan, hm tng quan). Cc quy
lut thng k v cc c trng thng k c nghin cu trong l thuyt hm ngu nhin, v
vy y ta s khng nhc li.
Trong lp cc qu trnh ngu nhin, c bit quan trng l cc qu trnh ngu nhin sau:
- Qu trnh ngu nhin dng (theo ngha hp v theo ngha rng) v qu trnh ngu nhin
chun dng.
- Qu trnh ngu nhin ergodic
Ta minh ho chng theo lc sau:
13
QTNN
dng
rng
QTNN
dng
hp
QTNN
chun
QTNN chun dng

QTNN
QTNN ergodic
Hnh 2.1
Trong nhng c trng thng k ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin, hm t tng quan v hm
tng quan l nhng c trng quan trng nht. Theo nh ngha, hm t tng quan s bng:
R x (t1, t 2 ) = M X(t1 ) m x (t1 ) . X(t 2 ) m x (t 2 )
[ x(t1) m x (t1)].[ x(t 2 ) m x (t 2 )].W2 (x1, x 2 , t1, t 2 )dx1dx 2
(2.8)
R x (t1, t 2 ) c trng cho s ph thuc thng k gia hai gi tr hai thi im thuc cng
mt th hin ca qu trnh ngu nhin.
W2 ( x1, x 2 , t1, t 2 ) l hm mt phn b xc sut hai chiu ca hai gi tr ca qu trnh

ngu nhin hai thi im t1 v t 2 .
Khi t 1 = t 2 th (2.8) tr thnh:
R x (t1, t 2 ) = M [ X(t) m x (t) ]
} = D (t)
x
(2.9)
Nh vy, phng sai l trng hp ring ca hm t tng quan khi hai thi im xt trng
nhau.
i khi tin tnh ton v so snh, ngi ta dng hm t tng quan chun ho c nh
ngha bi cng thc:
x (t 1 , t 2 ) =
R x (t 1 , t 2 )
=
R x (t 1 , t1 ).R x (t 2 , t 2 )
R x (t 1 , t 2 )
=
x (t1 ). x (t 2 )
D dng thy rng:
x (t 1 , t 2 ) 1 .
14
R x (t 1 , t 2 )
D x (t1 ).D x (t 2 )
(2.10)
2.3.2. Khong tng quan

Khong tng quan cng l mt c trng kh quan trng. Ta thy rng hai gi tr ca mt
qu trnh ngu nhin (t) ch tng quan vi nhau khi khong cch gia hai thi im xt l
, th coi nh hai gi tr y khng tng quan vi nhau na. Tuy vy, trong
thc t, i vi hu ht cc qu trnh ngu nhin ch cn ln th s tng quan gia hai gi
hu hn. Khi
tr ca qu trnh mt. Do , i vi tnh ton thc t ngi ta nh ngha khong (thi gian)
tng quan nh sau:
nh ngha 1:
Khong tng quan
thi gian trong
K l khong
()
() khng nh hn
0,05. (hnh v 2.2). Nh vy,
> K th
xem nh ht tng quan.

Nu cho biu thc gii tch ca ( )
th K c tnh nh sau:
0,05
1
K = () d
2
(2.11)
Hnh 2.2
ngha hnh hc:
K l na cnh y ca hnh ch nht c chiu cao bng n v K, c din tch bng din
tch ca min gii hn bi trc honh v ng biu din ( ) .
Trong thc t, ta thng gp nhng qu trnh ngu nhin ergodic. V d: tp m ca cc
my thu v tuyn in, i vi cc qu trnh ngu nhin ergodic, ta c th xc nh cc c
trng thng k ca chng bng thc nghim mt cch d dng.
Ta bit rng, nu X(t) ergodic v vi T ln th ta c th vit:
R x () = M {[ X(t) m x ].[ X(t ) m x ]}

T
1
[ x(t) m x ].[ x(t + ) m x ] dt
T0
Trung bnh thng k = trung bnh theo thi gian
15
(2.12)
2.4. CC C TRNG VT L CA TN HIU NGU NHIN V NHIU. BIN

I WIENER KHINCHIN
2.4.1. Nhng khi nim xy dng l thuyt ph ca qu trnh ngu nhin - mt ph
cng sut
Mc trc ta mi ch a ra mt s c trng thng k ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin (tn
hiu, nhiu) m cha a ra cc c trng vt l ca chng. V mt l thuyt cng nh thc t,
cc c trng vt l ca tn hiu ngu nhin (qu trnh ngu nhin) ng mt vai tr rt quan trng
nhng chng sau khi ni n c s l thuyt chng nhiu cng nh xt cc bin php thc t
v cc thit b chng nhiu ta khng th khng dng n nhng c trng vt l ca tn hiu ngu
nhin v nhiu. Khi xt cc loi tn hiu xc nh trong gio trnh L thuyt mch, chng ta
lm quen vi cc c trng vt l ca chng nh: nng lng, cng sut, thi hn ca tn hiu,
ph bin phc, mt ph, b rng ph, C s hnh thnh cc c trng vt l ny l
chui v tch phn Fourier.
i vi cc tn hiu ngu nhin v nhiu, ta khng th dng trc tip cc bin i Fourier
xy dng cc c trng vt l ca chng c v nhng l do sau:
- Tp cc th hin
{x i (t)} , i =1, 2,..., ca qu trnh ngu nhin X(t) cho trn khong T
thng l mt tp v hn (thm ch n cng khng phi l mt tp m c).

- Nu tn hiu ngu nhin l dng cht th tp v hn cc th hin theo thi gian ca n
thng s khng kh tch tuyt i. Tc l:
T 2
lim
x(t) dt =
T 2
trnh khi nhng kh khn trn, ta lm nh sau:

Ly hm
x T (t) trng vi mt th hin ca qu trnh ngu nhin trung tm X(t) (QTNN trung
tm l QTNN c k vng khng) trong on
x(t)
x T (t) =
0
T (2.13), ta thy
T T
2 , 2 v n bng khng ngoi on :
t T 2
(2.13)
t >T 2
x T (t) tho mn iu kin kh tch tuyt i nn c th dng bin i
Fourier cho n c. Ta bit rng ph bin phc
ST ( ) ca x T (t) c xc nh bi
tch phn thun Fourier sau:
ST ( ) =
T 2
T 2
x T ( t ) e jt dt
Theo nh l Parseval, ta c biu thc tnh nng lng ca

16
(2.14)
x T (t) nh sau:
ET =
xT
Cng sut ca th hin
1
(t)dt =
S
T () d
2
(2.15)
x T (t) s bng:
2
E
1
1
PT = T =
S
(
)
d
=
T
T
2T
2
Ta thy v tri ca (2.16) l cng sut ca th hin
ST ()
(2.16)
x T (t) trong khong thi gian tn ti hu
T d . R rng l m
hn T, cn v phi l mt tng lin tc ca cc i lng ST ()
ST ()
bo s bnh ng v th nguyn gia hai v ca (2.16) th lng
d phi biu th cng
ST ()
sut trong gii tn v cng b
d . Nh vy,
s biu th cng sut ca th hin
trong mt n v tn s [W/Hz] tc l mt ph cng sut ca th hin
x T (t)
x T (t) . n y ta t:
ST ()
T
v gi
= G T ()
(2.17)
G T () l mt ph cng sut ca th hin x T (t) trong khong T hu hn.
G T () c trng cho s phn b cng sut ca mt th hin x T (t) trn thang tn s. Khi cho
T
ta s tm c mt ph cng sut ca mt th hin duy nht x T (t) ca qu trnh
ngu nhin:
2
ST ()
G x () = lim G T () = lim
T
(2.18)
G x () cng c ngha tng t nh G T () .

T (2.18) ta thy rng xc nh mt ph cng sut ca c qu trnh ngu nhin (tc l
tp cc th hin ngu nhin) th phi ly trung bnh thng k i lng
17
G x () , tc l:

2
G() = M {G x ()} = M lim
ST ()
(2.19)
(2.19) l cng thc xc nh mt ph cng sut ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin.
2.4.2. Cp bin i Wiener Khinchin

thy c mi quan h gia cc c trng thng k (ni ring l hm t tng quan) v cc
c trng vt l (ni ring l mt ph cng sut) ta vit li v thc hin bin i (2.19) nh sau:
2
ST ()
G() = M lim
M ST ()
= lim
*
1
= lim M ST ()ST () do (2.14)
T T
T2
T2
jt1
jt 2
= lim M x T (t1 )e
dt1. x T (t 2 )e
dt 2 =
T T
T 2
T 2
T/2 T/2
1
M {x T (t1 ).x T (t 2 )} e j(t1 t 2 )dt1dt 2
= lim
T T
T / 2 T / 2
Nhng theo nh ngha (2.8), ta thy ngay
qu trnh ngu nhin trung tm (c
M {x T (t1 ).x T (t 2 )} l hm t tng quan ca
m x = 0 ) nn ta c th vit:
M {x T (t1 ).x T (t 2 )} = R T (t1, t 2 )

Nu
= t 2 + t1 th i vi nhng qu trnh dng, ta c:

M {x T (t1 ).x T (t 2 )} = R T ()
Ta c th vit li biu thc cho
G ( ) :
T 2 + t2
T/2
1
j
G() = lim
R T ()e
d dt 2
T T
T t 2
T / 2
2
= lim
T +t
2 2
R T ()e
T t 2
2
18
T/2
1
d. lim
dt 2
T T
T / 2
G() =
R()e
(2.20)
Tt nhin y phi gi s tch phn v phi ca (2.20) tn ti. iu ny lun lun ng

nu hm t tng quan R( ) kh tch tuyt i, tc l:
R()d <
(2.20) l mt ph cng sut ca qu trnh ngu nhin dng. N biu din mt cch trung
bnh (thng k) s phn b cng sut ca qu trnh ngu nhin theo tn s ca cc thnh phn dao
ng iu ho nguyn t (tc l nhng thnh phn dao ng iu ho v cng b).
Nh vy, t (2.20) ta c th kt lun rng ph cng sut
dng l bin i thun Fourier ca hm t tng quan
G() ca qu trnh ngu nhin
R() . Hin nhin rng khi tn ti bin
i thun Fourier th cng tn ti bin i ngc Fourier sau:
1
R() =
G()e jd
(2.21)
Cp cng thc (2.20) v (2.21) gi l cp bin i Wiener Khinchin, l s m rng cp

bin i Fourier sang cc tn hiu ngu nhin dng (t nht l theo ngha rng).
R rng t nh ngha (2.17) ca mt ph cng sut, ta thy hm
ca i s
G() l hm chn
. Do sau khi dng cng thc Euler ( e j = cos jsin ) bin i
(2.20) v (2.21), ta c:
G() = 2 R()cos d
0
R() =
(2.22)
1
G()cos d
0
Ch 1: T mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu ngu nhin, khng th sao li bt c mt th

hin no (l hm ca thi gian t) ca n, v G() khng cha nhng thng tin (nhng hiu bit)
v pha ca cc thnh phn ph ring l. i vi tn hiu xc nh th t mt ph hon ton c
th sao li chnh tn hiu nh tch phn ngc Fourier. l ch khc nhau v bn cht gia
bin i Fourier v bin i Wiener Khinchin.
Ch 2: Nu phi xt ng thi hai qu trnh ngu nhin th ngi ta cng a ra khi
nim mt ph cho. Mt ph cho v hm tng quan cho ca hai qu trnh ngu nhin c
lin h dng cng tho mn cp bin i Wiener Khinchi.
2.4.3. B rng ph cng sut

19

Mt c trng vt l quan trng khc ca
cc tn hiu ngu nhin l b rng ph cng sut,
n c nh ngha bi cng thc sau:
G()
G()d
0
(2.23)
G(0 )
Trong :
0,05
G( ) l mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu

ngu nhin.
0
G( 0 ) l gi tr cc i ca G( ).
l b rng ph cng sut (cn gi l

b rng ph) ca qu trnh ngu nhin.
Hnh 2.3
ngha hnh hc:
chnh l y ca hnh ch nht c chiu cao bng G( 0 ) v c din tch

bng din tch ca min gii hn bi trc v ng cong biu din G( ). (Hnh 2.4).
B rng ph
ngha vt l:
B rng ph c trng cho s tp trung cng sut (hoc nng lng) ca tn hiu ngu nhin
quanh mt tn s trung tm, ngoi ra n cng c trng cho c s bng phng ca ph quanh
tn s trung tm
0 .
2.4.4. M rng cp bin i Wiener Khinchin cho trng hp R( ) khng kh tch

tuyt i
Nu qu trnh ngu nhin X(t) cha cc thnh phn dao ng iu ho dng:
X K (t) = A K cos(K t K )
trong
A K v K ni chung c th l cc i lng ngu nhin, th hm tng quan trung bnh:

R *X K ()
A 2K
cosK khng tho mn iu kin kh tch tuyt i.
=
2
Nu s dng biu din sau ca hm delta:
ixy
dx =
cos(xy)dx = (y)
v biu din ph nng lng ca
X K (t) di dng:
20
G*K ()
A 2K
=
[( K ) + ( + K )]
4
th nh l Wiener Khinchin s ng c i vi nhng qu trnh ngu nhin c nhng

thnh phn tn s ri rc, k c thnh phn mt chiu tn s
K = 0.
Ph bin SK()
AK/2
- K
Ph nng lng GK()

( + K)
AK/2
( - K)
- K
2.5. TRUYN CC TN HIU NGU NHIN QUA CC MCH V TUYN IN

TUYN TNH
i vi cc tn hiu xc nh, trong gio trnh L thuyt mch, ta xt bi ton phn
tch sau: Cho mt mch tuyn tnh c cu trc bit (bit hm truyn t
K() hoc bit phn
ng xung g(t)). Ta phi xt tc ng u vo theo hng ng u ra v ngc li. i vi cc tn

hiu ngu nhin nu s th hin l m c v hu hn th ta c th xt hng ng ra i vi
tng tc ng u vo nh bi ton trn. Nhng khi s th hin ca tn hiu ngu nhin l v hn
th ta khng th p dng c nhng kt qu ca bi ton phn tch i vi cc tn hiu xc nh.
Sau y ta s xt bi ton ny.
2.5.1. Bi ton ti thiu

2.5.1.1. Bi ton:
Cho mt mch tuyn tnh (c tham s khng i v bit
K() ca n. Bit mt ph
G v () ca qu trnh ngu nhin tc ng u vo. Ta phi tm mt ph cng sut

G ra () v hm t tng quan R ra () ca qu trnh ngu nhin u ra.
cng sut
GV()
K()
Gra())
2.5.1.2. Gii bi ton:

gio trnh L thuyt mch ta bit hm ph bin phc ca tn hiu u ra mch
v tuyn in tuyn tnh bng:
Sra () = K().Sv ()
21
(2.24)
Trong :
K() l hm truyn ca mch bit.
Sv () l ph bin phc ca tn hiu vo
Ch : i vi cc qu trnh ngu nhin ta khng bit c
Sv () . Khng th tnh c
Sv () , mt khc ta bit theo (2.19):

2
G v () = M lim
Sv T ()
T
1 Sra T ()
= M lim
T T
K()
Sra T ()
M lim
2
K()
Hay:
.G ra ()
K()
G ra () = K() .G v ()
(2.25)
Ngi ta chng minh c rng hng ng ra ca h thng tuyn tnh c tham s khng
i l mt qu trnh ngu nhin khng dng ngay c khi tc ng u vo l mt qu trnh ngu
nhin dng.
Tuy vy, trong trng hp h thng tuyn tnh th ng c suy gim th nhng thi im
t >> t 0 = 0 (thi im t tc ng vo) th qu trnh ngu nhin u ra s c coi l dng.
Khi hm t tng quan v mt ph cng sut ca qu trnh ngu nhin u ra s
lin h vi nhau theo cp bin i Wiener Khinchin. Ta c:
1
R ra () =
G ra ()e j d
(2.26)
Nhn xt:
T (2.25) ta thy mt ph cng sut ca hng ng ra c quyt nh bi bnh phng
mun hm truyn ca mch khi cho ph cng sut ca tc ng vo, n khng ph thuc g
vo c tnh pha tn ca mch.
Cng sut ca qu trnh ngu nhin u ra (khi qu trnh ngu nhin vo l dng):
22
1
1
=
=
R ra (0) = =
G
(
)d
P
K(
ra
ra
) G v ()d
2
2
2
Nu ph cng sut ca tc ng vo khng ph thuc tn s, tc l
(2.27)
G v () = N0 (qu
trnh ngu nhin c tnh cht ny c gi l tp m trng) th:

2
1
Pra =
N 0 K() d
2
(2.28)
V mun hm truyn lun l mt hm chn nn:

2
2
Pra =
N 0 K() d
2
0
Mt khc, nu gi
(2.29)
G 0 l ph cng sut thc t (phn ph cng sut tri t 0 ) th
G 0 = 2 N 0 v (2.29) c th vit li nh sau:

G
Pra = 0
2
K()
(2.30)
Hm t tng quan ca qu trnh ngu nhin u ra trong trng hp ny s bng:

2
) e jd
R ra () =
G
(
)
K(
v
2
2
1
=
N 0 K() e jd
2
N0
=
K() e jd
G
R ra () = 0
2
K()
cos d
(2.31)
2.5.1.3. V d 1
Mt mch v tuyn in tuyn tnh c tham s khng i v c tnh truyn t dng ch
nht (hnh 2.4b) chu tc ng ca tp m trng dng. Tm hm t tng quan ca tp m ra.
| K() |
GV()
2N0
23
Theo gi thit:
K 0
G v () = 2 N 0 v K() =
0
1 < < 2
(1, 2 )
Theo (2.31), ta c:
N
R ra () = 0
K 02 cos d
N 0 K 02
=
(sin 2 sin 1)
2 cos
.
0
N 0 K 02
R ra () = 2ra
th
sin
2 cos
0
2
sin
(2.32)
R ra ( ) nh hnh 2.5.
(2.32) c th vit gn li nh sau:
R ra () = R 0ra ()cos0
(2.32a)
sin 2
2
(2.32b)
Trong :
R 0ra () = 2ra
(2.32b) gi l bao ca hm t tng quan ca hng ng.
0 =
1 + 2
2
(2.32c)
gi l tn s trung bnh.
24
Rra()
2ra
2/
Hnh 2.5.
Vy, bao ca hm t tng quan ca tp m ra l mt hm ca i s
dng
sin x
. Cc
x
i ca hm t tng quan ca tp m ra t ti = 0 v bng 2ra , tc l bng cng sut trung

bnh ca tp m ra.
By gi ta s chuyn sang xt mt tham s vt l na nh gi mc truyn tp m qua
mch tuyn tnh.
| K()|2
2.5.1.4. Gii thng tp m

| K()|2max
nh ngha:
Gii thng tp m ca
mch tuyn tnh (hay b lc
tuyn tnh) c xc nh theo
biu thc sau:
2
t =
K()
0
0
ta
Hnh 2.6.
(2.33)
K() max
25
ngha hnh hc:
t chnh l y ca hnh ch nht c din tch bng din tch ca
min gii hn bi ng cong
nht ny l
K() v na trc honh (0, ); cn chiu cao ca hnh ch
K() max.
ngha vt l:
t c trng cho kh nng lm suy gim tp m ca cc b lc tuyn tnh. Vi cng
K(0 ) , b lc no c t cng hp th cng sut tp m u ra ca b lc y cng b.

2.5.2. Bi ton ti a
G R () v BR () cha c trng y cho qu trnh ngu nhin.

Ni dung: Tm hm mt xc sut ca tn hiu u ra mch v tuyn in tuyn tnh.
2.5.2.1. M u
Tm mt xc sut n chiu ca tn hiu ngu nhin u ra mch tuyn tnh l bi ton rt
kh, n khng gii c di dng tng qut. Di y ch xt hai trng hp n gin:
- Tm mt xc sut mt chiu ca tn hiu ra b lc tuyn tnh khi tc ng u vo l tn
hiu ngu nhin chun (c v hn th hin). Trong trng hp ny ngi ta chng minh c
tn hiu ra cng l mt tn hiu ngu nhin chun.
- t vo b lc tuyn tnh mt tn hiu ngu nhin khng chun. Nu
t
<< 1 (F l
2F
b rng ph ca tn hiu vo) th tn hiu ngu nhin u ra s c phn b tim cn chun.

Ngi ta bo l s chun ho (Gauss ho) cc qu trnh ngu nhin khng chun bng b lc
gii hp.
2.5.2.2. V d 2
Cho tp m gii hp, chun c dng:
n(t) = c(t)cos0 t + s(t)sin 0 t = A(t)cos(0 t )

vi c(t) v s(t) c phn b chun cng cng sut trung bnh v vi
A(t) = c2 (t) + s 2 (t) - ng bao ca nhiu.
26
= arctg
(*)
s(t)
c(t)

Cng sut trung bnh ca c hai thnh phn ca nhiu bng nhau v bng hng s:
c2 = s2 = 2 . Khi n(t) dng, ngi ta coi l hai thnh phn ca nhiu khng tng quan.
Tc ng n(t) ln b tch sng tuyn tnh. Hy tm mt xc sut mt chiu ca in p ra
b tch sng bit rng b tch sng khng gy mo ng bao v khng gy thm mt lng dch
pha no. Thc cht ca bi ton l phi tm
W1 (A) v W1 () .
Trong gio trnh l thuyt xc sut, ta c cng thc tm mt xc sut mt chiu ca

tng i lng ngu nhin theo mt xc sut ng thi ca chng, nn ta c:
W1 (A) =
W2 (A, )d ; W1 () = W2 (A, )dA
Do , vn y l phi tm
W2 (A, ) .
V b tch sng khng gy mo ng bao v khng gy thm mt lng dch pha no nn
W2 (A, ) u ra cng chnh l W2 (A, ) u vo.

Tm
W2 (A, ) : V u bi ch cho W1 (c) v W1 (s) nn ta phi tm W2 (A, ) theo
W2 (c,s) .
Theo gi thit c(t) v s(t) khng tng quan nn:
W2 (c,s) = W1 (c). W1 (s)

2
1
W2 ( c,s ) =
ec
2
W2 ( c,s ) =
22
(2.34)
2
1
.
es
2
exp 2 A 2
2
2
2 2
c2 + s 2
=
exp
2
22
2
(2.35)
Ta thy xc sut mt im c to (c,s) trong h to cac ri vo mt yu t din
Pdcds = W2 (c,s) dcds . n (*) ta thy xc sut ny cng chnh l xc

sut mt im c to (A, ) trong h to cc ri vo mt yu t din tch dAd . Ta c:
tch dcds s bng:
27
d
dA
S + dS
S
c + dc
Hnh 2.7.
Pdcds = W2 (c,s) dcds = W2 (A, ) dAd (2.36)

T :
W2 (A, ) = W2 (c,s)
dc ds
dA d
(**)
T H.2.7 ta thy vi dA, d nh ta c: dc ds = Ad . DA

T (**) ta c:
A 2
W2 ( A, ) = W2 ( c,s ) =
exp 2
22
2
Do :
W1 ( A ) =
(2.37)
2
A 2
W2 ( A, ) d =
exp 2 d
2 2
2 0
A 2
W1 ( A ) = 2 exp 2
2
A
(2.38) gi l phn b Reyleigh (H.2.8).
28
(2.38)
W1(A/)
W1()
0,6
1/2
0,4
0,2
Hnh 2.9.
A/
Hnh 2.8.
Vy nhiu gii hp m tr tc thi c phn b chun th phn b ca ng bao l phn b

khng i xng Reyleigh. S d nh vy v gi tr tc thi c c gi tr m v gi tr dng nn
phn b mt xc sut s i xng qua trc tung (phn b Gausse). Cn xt ng bao tc l
ch xt bin (gi tr dng) nn mt phn b xc sut l ng cong khng i xng v ch
tn ti na dng trc honh.
A 2
1 A
1
W1 ( ) = W2 ( A, ) dA =
exp 2 dA W1 ( ) =
W1 ( A ) dA (2.39)
2
2
0
0
0
Vy mt phn b xc sut pha u ca nhiu gii hp, chun l phn b u trong

khong (0,2 ). (H.2.9).
2.5.2.3. V d 3:
u vo b tch sng tuyn tnh t hn hp tn hiu v nhiu:
y(t) = x(t) + n(t)
Vi:
x(t) = U 0cos0 t l tn hiu xc nh.

n(t) = A n (t)cos [ 0 t (t)] l nhiu gii hp, chun.
Tm mt phn b xc sut ng bao v pha ca in p u ra b tch sng tuyn tnh.

Ta c:
y(t) = U 0 cos0 t + c(t)cos0 t + s(t)sin 0 t

= [ U 0 + c(t) ] cos0 t + s(t)sin 0 t = A y (t)cos 0 t y (t)
Trong :
A y (t) =
[ U0 + c(t)]2 + s2 (t)
y (t) = arctang
l bao ca hn hp tn hiu v nhiu.
s(t)
l pha ca hn hp tn hiu v nhiu.
U 0 + c(t)
Lm tng t nh VD2, ta c:
29
( )
W1 A y =
Ay ( t )
2
A 2y ( t ) + U 02 A y ( t ) + U 0
exp
.I0
(2.40)
(2.40) gi l phn b Rice (H.2.10a).

I 0 l hm Bessel bin dng loi 1 cp 0.
1
I 0 (z) =
2
zcos
I 0 (z) c th vit di dng chui v hn sau:
1 z
I 0 (z) =
2 2
(n!)

n =0
2
z2
+ ... ez
4
I 0 (z) =1 +
Khi z << 1:
2n
Nhn xt:
- Khi a = 0 khng c tn hiu, ch c nhiu gii hp, chun phn b Rice tr v
phn b Reyleigh.
- a cng ln, phn b Rice cng tin ti phn b Gausse.
Gii thch:
a >> 1 tn hiu mnh, nhiu yu. Tn hiu tc dng vi thnh phn khng trc giao vi
n ca nhiu (khi tn hiu cng mnh th hn hp ny cng t khc tn hiu), cn thnh phn ca
nhiu trc giao vi tn hiu th khng chu s chn p ca tn hiu. Do mt phn b xc
sut bao ca hn hp s mang c im ca thnh phn nhiu trc giao vi tn hiu.
( )
W1 y
2
U 0cos y
U 02 U 0cos y
1
U 0 sin y
=
exp 2 +
1 +
exp
(2.41)
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
Trong :
(z) =
2
2 2
e
d l tch phn xc sut.
2 0
th (2.41) biu din trn hnh H.2.10b.
W1(y)
W(Ay/)
a=5
a = U0/ = 0
a=2
0,4
0,2
30
a=4
a = 2 U0/ = 0
Nhn xt:
- a = 0 ch c nhiu
W1 ( y ) chnh l W1 () xt VD2.
- a >> 1 ng cong
W1 ( y ) cng nhn, hp.
Gii thch:
Vi a cng ln th c th b qua nh hng xu ca nhiu. Do ng bao (bin tn
hiu) khng c gia s (khng thng ging) v cng khng c sai pha. Khi
trong khong (-
y nhn gi tr 0
, ) vi xc sut ln.
2.6. BIU DIN PHC CHO TH HIN CA TN HIU NGU NHIN TN HIU
GII HP
2.6.1. Cp bin i Hilbert v tn hiu gii tch
2.6.1.1. Nhc li cch biu din mt dao ng iu ho di dng phc
Cho: x(t) = A 0 cos
( 0 t + 0 ) = A(t)cos(t)
(2.42)
Trong :
Im[x(t)]
0 : tn s trung tm; (t) : pha y ;
x(t)
0 : pha u.
M
A
Trong L thuyt mch, ngi ta rt hay

dng cch biu din x(t) di dng phc sau:
(t)
x(t) = x(t) + jx(t) = A(t)e j (t)
(2.43)
Trong :
Hnh 2.11
x(t) = Re [ x(t) ];
x(t)
x(t) = Im [ x(t) ] = A 0 sin (t)

31
Re[x(t)]
Ta c th biu din
x(t) di dng mt vecteur trn mt phng phc.
Khi A(t) = const th qu tch ca im M s l mt vng trn tm O, bn knh OM.
(t) = d(t) dt l tn s ca dao ng (H.2.11)

2.6.1.2. Cp bin i Hilbert Tn hiu gii tch
a. Cp bin i Hilbert v tn hiu gii tch:
d dng biu din di dng phc nhng th hin phc tp ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin,
ngi ta dng cp bin i Hilbert. N cho php ta tm
x(t) khi bit x(t) v ngc li.
Hilbert chng t rng phn thc v phn o ca hm phc (2.43) lin h vi nhau bi cc
bin i tch phn n tr hai chiu sau:
1 x()
x(t) = Im [ x(t)] =
d = h [x(t)]
t
(2.44)
1 x()
x(t) =
d = Re [ x(t)] = h
t
[x(t)]
(2.45)
Cp cng thc trn c gi l cp bin i Hilbert. Trong (2.44) gi l bin i thun

Hilbert, cn (2.45) gi l bin i ngc Hilbert.
Ch :
Cng ging nh tnh cht ca cc tch phn, bin i Hilbert l mt php bin i tuyn
tnh.
(Mt php bin i f c gi l tuyn tnh nu c:
f(x 1 + x 2 ) = f(x 1 ) + f(x 2 )
f(kx)
= k f(x), k = const)
Cc hm x(t) v
x(t) c gi l lin hip Hilbert i vi nhau. Tn hiu phc x(t) c
phn thc v phn o tho mn cp bin i Hilbert gi l tn hiu gii tch (tng ng vi tn
hiu thc x(t)).
b. Bin i Hilbert i vi tn hiu hnh sin:
Trong mc ny ta s chng t
cos0 t v sin0 t tho mn cp bin i H. Tht vy:
32
1 cos0
1 cos[0 (t ) 0 t ]
x(t) =
d =
d=
t

t
1 cos0 (t ).cos0 t + sin 0 (t ).sin 0 t ]

=
d =

t
cos0 t cos0 (t )
sin 0 t sin 0 (t )
=
d
+
t
t d

cosaz
dz = 0 v
Ch rng:
z
sin az
dz =
z
x(t) = sin 0 t
Vy (
sin 0 t ) l lin hp H ca ( cos0 t )
Tng t ( -
cos0 t ) l lin hp phc H ca ( sin 0 t )
c. Bin i H i vi cc hm tng qut hn:

- i vi cc hm tun hon x(t):
Trong L thuyt mch ta bit, chui Fourier ca hm tun hon (tho mn iu kin
Dirichlet) l:
x(t) =
(a K cos K0 t + bK sin K0t)
(2.46)
K =0
V bin i H l bin i tuyn tnh nn bin i H ca tng bng tng cc bin i H ca

cc hm thnh phn, nn:
x(t) = h [x(t)] =
(a K sin K 0 t bK cos K0t)
(2.47)
K =0
(2.46) v (2.47) gi l chui lin hip H.

- x(t) khng tun hon:
Nu hm khng tun hon x(t) kh tch tuyt i th khai trin Fourier ca n l:
1
x(t) =
[a()cos t + b()sin t ]d
2 0
Khi :
33
(2.48)
1
x(t) = h [x(t)] =
h
2
[a(
)cos
t
+
b(
)sin
t]d
=
0
1
=
{H[a()cost] + H[b()sin t]} d
2 0
1
[a()sint - b()cost]d
=
2 0
(2.49)
(2.48) v (2.49) gi l cc tch phn lin hip H.

d. Cc yu t ca tn hiu gii tch:
T (2.46) v (2.47) (hoc t (2.48) v (2.49)) ta xy dng c tn hiu gii tch ng vi tn
hiu thc x(t) nh sau:
x(t) = x(t) + jx(t) = A(t)e j (t)
x(t) = Re [ x(t) ] =
A(t)cos(t)
(a)
x(t) = Im [ x(t) ] = A(t)sin (t)
(b)
- ng bao ca tn hiu gii tch:

T (a) v (b) ta thy:
A(t) = x (t) + x (t)
A(t) c trng cho s bin

thin (dng bin thin) ca bin
ca tn hiu (H.2.12).
(2.50)
A(t)
x(t)
A(t) c gi l ng bao
ca tn hiu (cn gi l bin
bin thin hay bin tc thi ca
tn hiu).
- Pha tc thi ca tn hiu

gii tch:
K hiu pha tc thi:
(t)
Hnh 2.12
bng:
x(t)
(t) = arctg
x(t)
(2.51)
34

- Tn s gc tc thi ca tn hiu gii tch (t) :
x(t) x(t)
(t)
d(t)
x(t)
x(t)
x
(t)
x(t)x
=
(t) =
= arctg
=
2
2
dt
x(t)
2
x (t)
x (t) + x (t)
1+ 2
x (t)
(2.52)
- Tnh cht ca A(t):

+ A(t)
x(t)
+ Khi
x(t) = 0 A(t) = x(t)
+ Xt:
A(t) =
x(t).x(t) + x(t).x (t)

2
x (t) + x (t)
Khi
x(t) = 0 A(t) = x(t)
Vy khi
x(t) = 0 th nghing ca A(t) v x(t) l nh nhau.
- Kt lun:
i vi cc tn hiu ngu nhin th cc yu t ca tn hiu l ngu nhin. Nh c

khi nim tn hiu gii tch nn ta mi nghin cu cc tnh cht thng k ca cc yu
t ca n c thun li, c bit l trong tnh ton.
2.6.2. Tn hiu gii rng v gii hp
G()
2.6.2.1. Tn hiu gii rng

Ngi ta gi mt tn hiu l tn hiu gii rng
nu b rng ph ca n tho mn bt ng thc
sau:
1
0
0 1
(2.53)
Hnh 2.13
Nhn chung tn hiu gii rng l tn hiu m

b rng ph ca n c th so snh c vi
Trong
= 2 1 v 0 =
0 .
2 + 1
gi l tn s trung tm (xem H.2.13).
2
35

V d: Cc tn hiu iu tn, iu xung, iu ch m xung, manip tn s, manip pha, l
cc tn hiu gii rng.
2.6.2.2. Tn hiu gii hp
1
0
G()
Nu tn hiu c b rng ph tho mn:

(2.54)
Th n c gi l tn hiu gii hp. (H.2.14).

V d: tn hiu gii hp l cc tn hiu nh:
tn hiu cao tn hnh sin, tn hiu cao tn iu bin,
tn hiu n bin .
1 0 2
Hnh 2.14
Nhn chung tn hiu gii hp l tn hiu m b

rng ph ca n kh nh hn so vi tn s
0 .
2.6.2.3. Biu din tn hiu gii hp

Nu mt tn hiu gii hp c biu thc gii tch sau:
x(t) = A(t)cos[0 t (t)] = A(t)cos(t)

Trong :
(2.55)
0 t l thnh phn thay i tuyn tnh ca pha chy (pha tc thi)
(t) l thnh phn thay i chm ca pha chy

A(t) l ng bao ca tn hiu
Th (2.55) c th khai trin nh sau:
x(t) = A(t)cos0 t cos (t) + A(t)sin 0 t sin (t)

= A(t)cos (t)cos0 t + A(t) sin (t) sin 0 t
= c(t). cos 0 t
+ s(t). sin 0 t
(2.56)
c(t). cos 0 t l tn hiu iu bin bin i chm

s(t). sin 0 t l tn hiu iu bin bin i chm
Vy mt tn hiu gii hp hnh sin bao gi cng c th biu din di dng tng ca hai tn
hiu iu bin bin i chm, vi cc yu t xc nh nh sau:
36
A(t) = c 2 (t) + s 2 (t)
s(t)
(t) = arctg
c(t)
d(t)
(t) =
dt
(2.57)
R rng l cc s hng v phi (2.56) tho mn cp bin i Hilbert.

Vic biu din mt tn hiu gii hp thnh tng ca hai tn hiu iu bin bin thin chm s
lm cho vic phn tch mch v tuyn in di tc ng ca n n gin i nhiu. Ta s xt li
bi ton ny phn sau.
2.7. BIU DIN HNH HC CHO TH HIN CA TN HIU NGU NHIN

2.7.1. Khai trin trc giao v biu din vecteur ca tn hiu
2.7.1.1. Nng lng ca chui Kachennhicov
Ta bit rt r khai trin trc giao Fourier cho cc hm x(t) c ph v hn. gio trnh
L thuyt mch, ta cng bit rng mt hm x(t) c ph khng cha tn s ln hn Fc c th
phn tch thnh chui trc giao Kachennhicov sau:
x(t) =
K =
Trong :
x(Kt)
sin 2Fc (t Kt)

2Fc (t Kt)
(2.58)
t = 1 2Fc
Nu ta ch xt tn hiu c ph hu hn x(t) trong khong thi gian T hu hn th ta c biu

thc gn ng sau tnh nng lng ca n:
2
n
sin c (t Kt)
E = x 2 (t)dt x K
dt
(t
K
t)
c
T 2
T 2
K =1
T 2
T 2
(*)
Trong n l s cc gi tr ri rc (cn gi l cc gi tr mu) ca th hin tn hiu x(t)

trong khong quan st T; cn x K l gi tr mu th K ca x(t) ti thi im ri rc
gn, ta t
Kt . cho
c (t Kt) = , khi (*) c dng:

2
n
1
sin
1 n 2
E
xK
d =
xK
c T 2 K =1

c K =1
T2
T 2
Ta c:
T 2
sin 2
2
d (vi T kh ln)
37
T2
T 2
sin 2
2
E=
n 2
1 n 2
x
=
K 2F x K
c K =1
c K =1
(2.59)
(2.59) cho ta tnh c nng lng ca chui
2.7.1.2. Biu din x(t) thnh vect
x trong khng gian n chiu
Khai trin Kachennhicov (2.58) l mt dng khai trin trc giao. Cc hm
K (t) =
sin c (t Kt)
l cc hm trc giao.
c (t Kt)
sin (t Kt) sin (t it)

c
c
c
.
dt =

c (t it)
0
c (t Kt)
i=K
i K
V vy ta c th coi mi hm l mt vecteur n v trn h trc to trc giao. Khi T hu
hn th K max = n cng s hu hn. Khi ta c th coi x(t) l mt vect

chiu c cc thnh phn (hnh chiu) trn cc trc to tng ng l
x trong khng gian n
x(Kt) , (K = 1,n ).
x(t) {x(t t), x(t 2t),..., x(t nt)}
x(t) {x1, x 2 ,..., x n } x
Theo nh ngha, di (hay chun) ca vecteur

n
x =
K =1
x 2K
x s l:
= (x, x)
(2.60)
n (2.59), ta c:
x = 2Fc E = 2Fc T.P = nP

(n
(2.61)
T
= 2F cT )
t
Trong P l cng sut ca th hin tn hiu trong khong hu hn T. Nh vy, vi thi

hn quan st v b rng ph ca th hin cho trc th di ca vecteur biu din t l vi cn
bc hai cng sut trung bnh ca n. Nu cho trc cng sut trung bnh P th di ca vecteur
x s t l vi
n (tc l t l vi cn bc hai ca y tn hiu B = F cT =
Nhn xt:
38
n
)
2

Nh vy, vi cng mt cng sut trung bnh tn hiu no c y cng ln (tc l tn hiu
cng phc tp) th di ca vecteur biu din n cng ln. Khi y ca tn hiu cng ln th
di ca vecteur tn hiu cng ln vecteur tng ca tn hiu v nhiu gii hp cng t khc
vecteur tn hiu ta s nhn ng c tn hiu vi xc sut cao. tnh chng nhiu ca tn
hiu cng cao th yu cu B cng phi ln.
T
Trong trng hp x(t) khng ri rc ho:
E x = x 2 (t)dt . Khi chun ca vecteur s

0
l:
x = ( x , x ) = 2Fc E x x = 2 Fc x 2 (t)dt
(2.62)
Ngi ta cn gi khng gian m chun ca vecteur cho bi tch v hng (2.62) l khng
2
gian Hilbert v k hiu l L . Khng gian L l s m rng trc tip ca khng gian Euclide hu
hn chiu ln s chiu v hn.
2.7.2. Mt xc sut ca vecteur ngu nhin - Khong cch gia hai vecteur tn hiu
2.7.2.1. Mt xc sut ca vecteur ngu nhin
a. Vecteur tn hiu:
tip tc nhng vn sau ny c thun tin, ta a vo khi nim vecteur tn hiu.
nh ngha:

Vecteur tn hiu
x 0 l vecteur sau: x 0 =
x
n
(2.63)
Trong
x l vecteur biu din tn hiu x(t) trong khng gian n chiu.
Tnh cht:
x 0 c phng v chiu trng vi x
+ ln (modul):
x0 =
x
n
= P
b. Xc sut phn b ca mt vecteur
x 0 v min xc nh ca n
Trong khng gian tn hiu, tn hiu c biu din bi vecteur. Do xc sut tn ti tn

hiu mt min (ni ring: ti mt im) no y ca khng gian chnh l xc sut mt
vecteur tn hiu ri vo min y (ni ring: im y) ca khng gian.
39
x 0 ch chim mt im trong khng gian n chiu.
Nu x(t) l xc nh th mt ca vecteur
Cn nu x(t) l ngu nhin c mt tp cc th hin
{x i (t)} th mt vecteur x 0
mt min no trong khng gian n chiu vi th tch:
ca n s chim
V = x1. x 2 .... x n . Khi y, xc sut
tn ti tn hiu ngu nhin trong min c th tch dV s l:
P {t / h NNdV} = P{mt vecteur t/h dV} =
= dP = Wn ( x1, x 2 ,..., x n ) dx1 dx 2 ...dx n = Wn (x 0 )dV
(2.64)
Sau y ta s xt min xc nh ca mt s dng tn hiu ngu nhin:

- Cc th hin ca tn hiu pht c cng y, cng cng sut:
Khi min cc nh ca vecteur tn hiu pht s l mt cu c bn knh bng chun ca
vecteur tn hiu pht
x0 =
P v c tm gc to ca vecteur y. (S d nh vy v x 0
c chun khng i nhng phng v chiu ca n thay i ngu nhin).
- Tp m trng:
Ta bit rng cc th hin
n i (t) ca tp m trng n(t) c cng cng sut P n . Nh vy
min xc nh ca tp m trng l mt cu c bn knh bng
n0 .
- Tng ca tn hiu x(t) v tp m n(t):
y(t) = x(t) + n(t)
y0 = x 0 + n 0
y0 = Py
Nu x(t) v n(t) khng tng quan th:
Py = Px + Pn (v B y (0) = Bx (0) + Bn (0) )
y 0 = Px + Pn y 0
y0
x0
= Px + Pn
n0
(*)
40
Pn , c tm l gc ca vecteur tp
T (*) ta thy
x 0 n 0 v y0 l cnh huyn ca mt tam gic vung c hai cnh l x 0
n0 .
Nu x(t) xc nh th min xc nh ca mt
y0 s l ng trn y ca hnh nn c nh
gc ta , chiu cao bng
x0
v bn knh bng
n0
. (H.2.15a).
n0
x0
y0
0
Hnh 2.15a
Nu x(t) ch l mt th hin no ca qu trnh ngu nhin X(t) c cc th hin cng cng
sut th lc min xc nh ca mt
y0 s l mt mt cu c bn knh bng
Px + Pn v c
tm gc to (H.2.15b).
0
Hnh 2.15b
2.7.2.2. Khong cch gia hai vecteur tn hiu

nh gi nh lng s khc nhau gia hai vecteur tn hiu, ta a ra khi nim khong
cch gia hai vecteur tn hiu.
nh ngha:
Khong cch gia hai vecteur tn hiu
u 0 v v0 c xc nh theo biu thc sau:
41

d(u 0 , v0 ) =
1
n
1
u v
n
d(u 0 , v0 ) = u 0 v0 =

d (u 0 , v0 ) =
Hay:
(u K vK )2
K =1
( n ) 2 K =1
2
uK
( n ) 2 K =1
2
vK
2 n
u K .v K
n K =1
2
2

1
1
2
=
=
=
u
u
u
u
.
u
c
(u
os
K n
0
0
0
0 ,u 0 )
( n ) 2 K =1
2
2
n
1

1
2
=
=
=
Ta c:
v
v
v
v
.
v
c
(v
os
0
0
0
0 , v0 )
2 K n
(
n
)
K =1

1
=
=
u
.v
(u
,
v
)
u
.
v
c
os
(u
0 0
0
0
0 , v0 )
n K K
K =1

d 2 (u 0 , v0 ) = u 0
2
+ v0
2
d (u 0 , v0 ) = u 0
2 u 0 . v0 cos(u 0 , v0 )
2
+ v0
Trong
2 u 0 . v0 cos
l gc hp bi u 0 v v0 trong khng gian n chiu.

cos =
u 0 .v0
(2.65)
u 0 . v0
2
d (u 0 , v0 ) = Pu + Pv 2 Pu Pv cos
Nu ta khng ri rc ho tn hiu th:
1
[u(t) - v(t)]2 dt
T0
d(u 0 , v0 ) = u 0 v0 =
42
(2.66)

T
1 2
1
2
Hay d (u 0 , v0 ) =
u (t) dt + v2 (t) dt u(t). v(t)dt
T0
T0
T0
2
= Pu + Pv 2R u v (t, t)
= Pu + Pv 2R u v (0)
R u v (0) l hm tng quan cho ca tn hiu u(t) v v(t).
Trong
R u v (0) = D u (t).D v (t) u v (0)
d 2 (u 0 , v0 ) = Pu + Pv 2 Pu .Pv u v (0)
(2.67)
So snh (2.66) v (2.67) ta thy ngay ngha hnh hc ca hm tng quan cho chun ho:
u v (0) ng vai tr cosin ch phng ca hai vecteur tn hiu.

cos = u v (0)
(2.68)
Kt lun:
- Vi mt mc nhiu xc nh, xc sut thu ng cng cao khi cc th hin ca tn hiu
cng cch xa nhau.
- Khong cch gia hai mt ca hai vecteur tn hiu cng ln khi di hai vecteur cng
ln.
2.7.3. Khi nim v my thu ti u

2.7.3.1. My thu ti u
Mt cch tng qut, ta coi mt my thu c trng bi mt ton t thu
ca ton t thu
(H.2.17). Yu cu
l tc dng vo y(t) (l tn hiu vo) phi cho ra tn hiu pht x(t).
Nu ta pht i mt th hin no ca mt qu trnh ngu nhin X(t):
X(t) = {x i (t)}
(i =1, m)
Ta coi nhng th hin ny c cng cng sut P x , c cng thi

hn T v c cng b rng ph F c .
Gi thit: trong qu trnh truyn t ni pht n ni thu ch c
tp m trng Gausse n(t), cc tn hiu pht l ng xc sut
Vecteur tn hiu ta nhn c:
y0 = y
43
y(t)
Hnh 2.16.
x(t)
Nu
y0 ny gn vi vecteur tn hiu x j0 nht so vi cc vecteur tn hiu khc, tc l:
xj
y
n
n
y
x
i
n
n
Vi
i : i = 1,m v i j
Khi my thu c tc dng ln y cho ra x j : [ y ]= x K , s c gi l my thu

ti u (theo ngha Kachennhicov trong trng hp cc tn hiu
x i ( t ) l ng xc sut).
2.7.3.2. Lin h gia my thu ti u K v my thu theo tiu chun lch trung bnh bnh
phng nh nht
lch trung bnh bnh phng (tbbp) gia tn hiu thu c v tn hiu pht th j l:
[y(t) - x j (t)]2
1
= [y(t) - x j (t)]2 dt
T0
My thu theo tiu chun lch tbbp nh nht l my thu m bo:
[y(t) - x j (t)]2
min
j
j = 1,m
Nh vy, my thu s cho ra tn hiu
[y(t) - x j (t)]2
x j (t) nu:
[y(t) - x i (t)]2
Hay
i j, i = 1, m
1
1
[y(t) - x j (t)]2 dt
[y(t) - x i (t)]2 dt i j, i = 1, m
T0
T0
Nng ln lu tha 1/2, ta c:

T
1
[y(t) - x j (t)]2 dt
T0
1
[y(t) - x i (t)]2 dt i j, i = 1,m
T0
Theo nh ngha ca khong cch, ta c th vit li nh sau:
d(y0 , x j0 ) d(y0 , x i 0 ) i j, i = 1,m

y chnh l h thc m bo bi my thu ti u K.
44
BI TP
2.1. th gi tr trung bnh a(t) v gi tr trung bnh bnh phng
( t ) ca cc qu trnh ngu
nhin X(t), Y(t) v Z(t) v trn hnh 1 di y. Hy ch ra trn th min cc gi tr c th c

ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin ny, bit rng bin gii ca cc min c xc nh bi cc gi tr
ca
( t ) .
ay(t)
ax(t)
0
t
0
az(t)
z ( t )
y ( t )
t
0
t
0
t
0
Hnh 1.
2.2. Trn hnh 2 v hm ngu nhin dng ri rc X(t), gi l dy xung in bo. Dy xung c bin
khng i bng n v, c rng ngu nhin.
x(t)
1
0
Hnh 2.
Phn b xc sut cc gi tr (0 hoc 1) ca X(t) tun theo lut Poisson:

45
Pn ( t )
Trong
n
t ) t
(
e
=
t>0
n!
l s cc bc nhy ca hm X(t) trong mt n v thi gian, cn Pn ( t ) l
xc sut xy ra n bc nhy ca hm X(t) trong thi gian t.

Hy tm hm t tng quan, hm tng quan chun ho v thi gian tng quan ca qu
trnh ngu nhin, bit rng P(1) = P(0) = 0,5.
2.3. Tm hm t tng quan ca qu trnh ngu nhin dng sau:
X ( t ) = A cos ( 2 f0 t + )
Trong A = const, f0 = const,
l i lng ngu nhin c phn b u trong khong
( , ) .
2.4. Tm hm t tng quan v mt ph ca tn hiu in bo ngu nhin X(t) cho bi hnh

di y. Bit rng n nhn cc gi tr + a; - a vi xc sut nh nhau v bng 1/2. Cn xc sut
trong khong c N bc nhy l:
P ( N, )
N
)
(
e
=
N!
>0
(theo phn b Poisson).

2.5. Hy chng t rng ng bao ca tn hiu gii tch c th biu din bng cng thc sau:
A ( t ) = S a ( t ) .S *a ( t )
Trong :
S *a ( t ) l hm lin hp phc ca S a ( t ) :
S a ( t ) = x ( t ) + j x ( t ) l tn hiu gii tch.

2.6. Mt qu trnh ngu nhin dng c hm t tng quan:

a.
R x1 ( ) = 2 .e
b.
R x2 ( ) = 2 .e
.cos 0
Hy tnh ton v v th mt ph ca cc qu trnh ngu nhin trn.
46
Chng 3: C s l thuyt thng tin thng k
CHNG 3 - C S L THUYT THNG TIN THNG K

3.1. THNG TIN - LNG THNG TIN XC SUT V THNG TIN N V
O THNG TIN
3.1.1. nh ngha nh tnh thng tin v lng thng tin
3.1.1.1. Thng tin
chng trc, ta hc khi nim v thng tin. y ta s xy dng nh ngha nh
tnh ca thng tin theo quan im thng k. i ti nh ngha nh tnh ca thng tin, ta s xt
v d sau:
Ta nhn c mt bc in (th) t nh n. Khi cha m bc in ra c th ta ch c th d
on hoc th ny hoc th khc v bc in, m khng dm chc ni dung ca n l g. Ni khc
i, khi cha m bc in ra c th ta khng th xc nh c ni dung ca n, tc l ta cha bit
gia nh bo cho ta thng tin g. Nhng khi xem xong bc in th ni dung ca n i vi ta
hon ton r rng, xc nh. Lc , ni dung ca bc in khng cn bp bnh na. Nh vy, ta ni
rng: ta nhn c mt tin v gia nh. Ni dung ca bc in c th c 3 c im sau:
- Ni dung ta tha bit. (VD: Cc em con c ngh h 3 thng). Khi bc in
khng cho ta mt hiu bit g mi v tnh hnh gia nh. Hay ni theo quan im thng tin, th bc
in vi ni dung ta tha bit khng mang n cho ta mt thng tin g.
- Loi ni dung ta c th on th ny hoc th n (tc l loi ni dung c bp bnh no
y). VD: Em An i hc. V em An hc lc trung bnh nn thi vo i hc c th , c
th khng. in vi ni dung ta khng bit chc (ni dung cha mt bt nh no ) tht s
c mang n cho ta mt thng tin nht nh.
- Loi ni dung m ta hon ton khng ng ti, cha h ngh ti. VD: Em An trng gii
nht trong t x s. Bc in nh vy, ng v mt thng tin m ni, a n cho ta mt
thng tin rt ln.
Ch : y ta ni ti nhng ni dung cha h ngh ti phi hiu theo hon ton
khch quan ch khng phi do s khng y v t duy ca con ngi em li.
T nhng v d trn, ta rt ra nhng kt lun sau v khi nim thng tin:
- iu g xc nh (khng nh c, on chc c, khng bp bnh,) th khng c
thng tin v ngi ta ni rng lng thng tin cha trong iu y bng khng.
- iu g khng xc nh (bt nh) th iu c thng tin v lng thng tin cha trong n
khc khng. Nu ta cng khng th ng ti iu th thng tin m iu mang li cho ta rt ln.
Tm li, ta thy khi nim thng tin gn lin vi s bt nh ca i tng ta cn xt. C s
bt nh v mt i tng no th nhng thng bo v i tng s cho ta thng tin. Khi
khng c s bt nh th s khng c thng tin v i tng . Nh vy, khi nim thng tin ch
l mt cch din t khc i ca khi nim s bt nh.
47

Trc khi nhn tin (c thng bo) v mt i tng no y th vn cn s bt nh v
i tng , tc l bt nh v i tng khc khng (c th ln hoc nh). Sau khi nhn
tin ( c hiu r hoc hiu mt phn) v i tng th bt nh ca n gim n mc thp
nht, hoc hon ton mt. Nh vy, r rng Thng tin l bt nh b th tiu hay ni mt
cch khc Lm gim bt nh kt qu cho ta thng tin.
3.1.1.2. Lng thng tin
Trong l lun trn, ta tng ni n lng thng tin v lng thng tin ln, lng thng
tin nh m khng h nh ngha cc danh t . Di y ta s tr li vn .
trn ta cng ni: trc khi nhn tin th bt nh ln nht. Sau khi nhn tin (hiu r
hoc hiu mt phn v i tng th bt nh gim n mc thp nht, c khi trit hon ton.
Nh vy, c mt s chnh lch gia bt nh trc khi nhn tin v bt nh sau khi nhn tin.
S chnh lch l mc th tiu bt nh. ln, nh ca thng tin mang n ta ph thuc
trc tip vo mc chnh . Vy:
Lng thng tin l mc b th tiu ca bt nh Lng thng tin = chnh ca
bt nh trc v sau khi nhn tin = bt nh trc khi nhn tin - bt nh sau khi nhn
tin ( bt nh tin nghim - bt nh hu nghim).
3.1.2. Quan h gia bt nh v xc sut

3.1.2.1. Xt v d sau
Ta phi chn mt phn t trong mt tp no . Php chn nh th (hoc chn hiu theo
ngha rng: th, tm hiu, iu tra, trinh st, tnh bo,) bao gi cng c bt nh.
- Nu tp ch c mt phn t th ta chng phi chn g c v nh vy khng c bt nh
trong php chn .
- Nu tp c hai phn t th ta phi chn. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny php chn c
bt nh. Nu s phn t ca tp tng th bt nh s tng.
- Cc bc tip theo s cho bi bng sau:
Xc sut chn mt phn t trong tp

1
1/2
1/3
.
.
.
1/n
.
.
.
Gim
bt nh ca php chn
0
0
0
.
.
.
0
.
.
.
Tng
S phn t ca tp
1
2
3
.
.
.
n
.
.
.
1/ = 0
Ch : Bng ny a ra vi gi s vic chn cc phn t l ng xc sut.

48

3.1.2.2. Kt lun
- Bng ny cho thy: bt nh gn lin vi bn cht ngu nhin ca php chn, ca bin c.
- bt nh (k hiu I) l hm ca s phn t thuc tp
I(x K ) = f (n)
- bt nh c lin quan vi xc sut chn phn t ca tp
(a)
I(x K ) = E[p(x K )] (b)
tm mi quan h gia bt nh I v xc sut chn mt phn t
x K (p(x K )) trong
tp, ta xut pht t cc tiu sau:

Theo suy ngh thng thng, bt nh I phi tho mn:
+
I(x K ) 0
p (x K ) = 1 I(x K ) = E[p (x K )] = E[1] = 0
(3.1)
+ Tnh cng c:
Nu
x K v x i c lp, th:
E[p (x K x i )] = E[p (x K ) p (x i )] = E[p (x K )] + E[p (x i )]
Nu
x K v x i ph thuc th:
E[p (x K x i )] = E[p (x K ) p (x i x K )] = E[p (x K )] + E[p (x i x K )]
p (x K ) = p v p (x i x K )] = q , th khi vi mi p, q (0 < p 1, 0 < q 1) , ta
c:
E[p] + E[q] = E(pq)
(3.2)
T (3.2) ta c th tm c dng hm I(p). Ly vi phn 2 v ca (3.2) theo p, ta c:

E(p) = q E(pq)
Nhn c 2 v ca phng trnh ny vi p v k hiu p.q =
pE(p) =
(3.3) ng p,
hng s k no :
pE(p) =
E( )
, ta c:
(3.3)
0. Nhng iu ny ch c th c khi c hai v ca (3.3) bng mt

E( ) = k = const
T chng ta c phng trnh vi phn pI(p) = const = k, ly tch phn phng trnh ny,
ta tm c:
E(p) = k.lnp + C
(3.4)
K n iu kin ban u (3.1), chng ta c:

E(p) = k.lnp
Nh vy, ta c:
(3.5)
I(x K ) = k.ln [p(x K )]
(3.6)
49
H s t l k trong (3.6) c th chn tu , n ch xc nh h n v o ca
I(x K ) . V
ln [p(x K )] 0 nn I(x K ) 0 th k < 0.

Nu ly k = -1 th
1
I(x K ) = ln [p(x K )] = ln
p(x K )
(3.7)
Khi , n v o bt nh s l n v t nhin, k hiu l nat.

Nu ly
k=
1
ln p(x K )
th I(x K ) =
= log 2 p(x K )
ln 2
ln 2
(3.8)
Khi n v o bt nh s l n v nh phn, k hiu l bit (1 nat = 1,433 bit)

Mt bit chnh l bt nh cha trong mt phn t (bin c ca tp xc sut chn (xut
hin) bng 1/2. Ngi ta thng s dng n v [bit] do trong k thut tnh v k thut lin lc
thng dng cc m nh phn.
Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn c th s dng nhng n v o khc tu theo cch chn c s ca
logarit. V vy trong trng hp tng qut, ta c th vit:
I(x K ) = log p(x K )
(3.9)
3.1.3. Xc nh lng thng tin

mc 1, ta c kt lun sau:
Lng thng tin = bt nh tin nghim - bt nh hu nghim. V bt nh s tr
thnh thng tin khi n b th tiu nn ta c th coi bt nh cng chnh l thng tin. Do :
Lng thng tin = thng tin tin nghim thng tin hu nghim (*)
Thng tin tin nghim (hay cn gi l lng thng tin ring) c xc nh theo (3.9). Cn
thng tin hu nghim xc nh nh sau:
Gi
x K l tin gi i, y l tin thu c c cha nhng du hiu hiu bit v x K (c
cha thng tin v
x K ). Khi xc sut r v x K khi thu c y l p (x K y ) . Nh
vy bt nh ca tin
x K khi r y bng:
(3.9)
I( x K y ) = - log p (x K y )
(3.10)
(3.10) c gi l thng tin hu nghim v x K (thng tin ring v x K sau khi c y ).

Thay (3.9) v (3.10) vo (*), ta c:
50
L ng thng tin v x K =
I( x K ) I( x K y )
L ng thng tin v x K =
I( x K ) I( x K y )
K hiu
I(x K , y )
I(x K , y ) = log
= log
1
1
log
p(x K )
p(x K y )
p(x K y )
p(x K )
(3.11) gi l lng thng tin v
(3.11)
x K khi r tin y hay cn gi l lng thng tin cho v
x K do y mang li.
Nu vic truyn tin khng b nhiu th
y x K . Tc l nu pht x K th chc chn nhn
c chnh n. Khi :
p(x K y ) = p(x K x K ) = 1
T (3.11) ta c:
I(x K , y ) = I(x K , x K ) = I(x K ) = log
1
p(x K )
(**)
Nh vy khi khng c nhiu, lng thng tin nhn c ng bng bt nh ca s kin
x K , tc l ng bng thng tin tin nghim ca x K .

Vy lng thng tin tn hao trong knh s l:
I(x K ) I(x K , y ) = I(x K y )

n v o ca thng tin (lng thng tin) cng chnh l n v o bt nh.
Nu c s ca logarit l 10 th n v o thng tin c gi l Hartley, hay n v thp
phn.
Nu c s ca logarit l e = 2,718 th n v o thng tin c gi l nat, hay n v o
t nhin.
Nu c s ca logarit l 2 th n v o thng tin c gi l bit, hay n v nh phn.
1 Harley = 3,322 bit
1 nat
= 1,443 bit
51
3.2. ENTROPIE V CC TNH CHT CA ENTROPIE

3.2.1. Tnh cht thng k ca ngun ri rc v s ra i ca khi nim entropie
Trong mc trc, ta mi ch xt n lng thng tin v mt bin c (hay mt tin) trong mt
tp cc bin c (hay tin) xung khc, ng xc sut.
Thc t tn ti ph bin loi tp cc bin c (hay ngun tin, tp tin) xung khc, khng ng
xc sut. Tc l xc sut xut hin cc bin c khc nhau trong tp l khc nhau. Ta gi s khc
nhau gia cc xc sut xut hin bin c ca tp (hay tin ca ngun ri rc) l tnh cht thng k
ca n.
V d 1: S xut hin cc con ch trong b ch Vit c xc sut khc nhau: p(e) = 0,02843;
p(m) = 0,02395; p(k) = 0,02102, (Theo s liu trong n tt nghip Kho st cu trc thng
k ch Vit ca on Cng Vinh HBK HN).
V d 2: Xc sut xut hin ca 26 ch ci trong ting Anh: (S liu theo Beker v Pipe)
K t
Xc sut
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
0,082
0,015
0,028
0,043
0,127
0,022
0,020
0,061
0,070
0,002
0,008
0,040
0,024
K t
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Xc sut
0,067
0,075
0,019
0,001
0,060
0,063
0,091
0,028
0,010
0,023
0,001
0,020
0,001
Trong mt ngun tin nh th, ngoi thng tin ring ca mi tin (hay du) ca n, ngi ta
cn phi quan tm n thng tin trung bnh ca mi tin thuc ngun. Ngi ta cn gi thng tin
trung bnh do mi du ca ngun mang li l entropie. Di y ta s xt k nh ngha v
entropie.
3.2.2. nh ngha entropie ca ngun ri rc

3.2.2.1. t vn
php o c chnh xc, trong vt l, khi o lng mt i lng, ta khng quan tm
n tng tr o c ca i lng m thng xt tr trung bnh ca chng. Khi ta ly cc tr
o c cng vi nhau ri chia cho s lng ca chng:
n
i tb = i r n
r =1
52

y cng c iu tng t: ta khng quan tm n tng thng tin ring ca mi du m
li ch n gi tr trung bnh ca cc thng tin . Ch khc ch mi mt thng tin ring n
tng ng vi mt xc sut xut hin no , tc l ta c th xem cc thng tin ring l m i
lng ngu nhin I. Do gi tr trung bnh ca cc thng tin ny (lng thng tin trung bnh hay
entropie) chnh l k vng ca i lng ngu nhin I. Ta i ti nh ngha sau:
3.2.2.2. nh ngha
Entropie ca ngun tin ri rc l trung bnh thng k ca lng thng tin ring ca cc du
thuc ngun A, k hiu H1 (A) :
H1 (A) = M[I(a i )]
(3.12)
a i l cc du ca ngun A (Ta hiu du l cc con ch, hoc cc k hiu v.v

ca ngun). Cn ngun A l mt tp ri rc cc du a i vi cc xc sut xut hin ca chng. Ta
Trong
quy c vit A nh sau:
a 2 ... a s
a1
A = {a i } =
p(a1 ) p(a 2 ) ... p(a s )

Vi
0 p(a i ) 1 v
(3.13)
p(a i ) = 1
(3.14)
i =1
A c cho bi (3.13) v (3.14) cn gi l trng tin (hay trng bin c). T (3.12) v
(3.13), ta c:
s
H1 (A) = M[I(a i )] = p(a i ) I(a i )

i =1
s
H1 (A) = p(a i )log p(a i )
(3.15)
i =1
H1 (A) cn gi l entropie mt chiu ca ngun ri rc:

V d:
H1 (Vit) = 4,5167 bit
H1 (Nga) = 4,35 bit
H1 (Anh) = 4,19 bit

3.2.3. Cc tnh cht ca entropie mt chiu ca ngun ri rc
3.2.3.1. Tnh cht 1
Khi
p(a k ) = 1 v p(a r ) = 0 vi r k th:

H1 (A) = H1 (A min ) = 0
53
(3.16)

Chng minh:
Ta c:
0 p(a i ) 1 log p(a i ) 0 log p(a i ) 0
H1 (A) 0 H1 (A min ) = 0
By
gi
ta
ch
cn
phi
chng
H1 (A min ) = 0
khi
p(a k ) = 1 v
p(a r ) = 0 ( r k ).
Tht vy,
p(a r ) = 0 p(a r )log p(a r ) = 0 ( r k)
p(a k ) = 1 p(a k )log p(a k ) = 0 ( r k)

s
H1 (A) = p(a i )log p(a i )

i =1
= p(a k )log p(a k )
i =1,i k
p(a i )log p(a i ) = 0
ngha:
Thc ra khng cn phi chng minh nh vy, m lp lun nh sau cng cho ta cng thc
(3.16):
p(a r ) = 0 cc a r khng xut hin

p(a k ) = 1 cc a k chc chn xut hin
Khng c bt nh no v cc a i lng thng tin ring khng c lng
thng tin trung bnh cng khng c.
y
3.2.3.2. Tnh cht 2
x1
Mt ngun ri rc gm s du ng xc sut (v
tho mn (3.14)) th entropie ca n t cc i v cc
i bng log s.
H1 (A m ax ) = logs
(3.17)
1
-1
Chng minh:
Khi
lnx
p(a i ) = p(a j ), i, j (i, j = 1,s)
Khi
1
p(a i ) = , tc l ngun gm cc du
s
xung khc v ng kh nng.
54
Hnh 3.1.

s
1
1
H1 (A ') = log = log s
s
i =1 s
Xt hiu:
s
H1 (A) logs = p(a i )log

i =1
1
log s
p(a i )
s
1
= p(a i )log
p(a i )logs
p(a
)
i
i =1
i =1
s
1
= p(a i ) log
log s
p(a i )
i =1
s
s
1
= p(a i )log
= p(a i )log x
p(a
)s
i
i =1
i =1
Ta c: lnx
x 1 x (xem hnh 3.1)

s
p(a i )l ogx p(a i )(x 1)

i =1
M:
Vy:
1
s 1 s
p(a
)
1
i p(a )s = s p(a i ) = 0
i
i =1
i =1
i =1
H1 (A) logs 0 H1 (A) logs
Tm li, ta thy
0 H1(A) logs (entropie ca ngun ri rc)
Entropie l mt i lng gii ni.

K hiu
H(A) max = H 0 (A)
V d:
H 0 (Vit) = log2 36 = 5,1713bit

H 0 (Nga ) = log2 32 = 5bit
H 0 (Anh ) = log2 27 = 4,75489 bit
3.2.4. Entropie ca ngun ri rc, nh phn

Ngun ri rc nh phn l ngun ch c hai du:
a1 "0"
a 2 "1"
vi xc sut p(a1 ) = p
vi xc sut p(a 2 ) =1 p
55

Ta c ngay:
2
H1 (A) = p(a i )log p(a i ) = p log p (1 p) = f (p)
(3.18)
i =1
th f(p) c biu din trn hnh 3.2.

Ta thy
vo c tnh thng k ca cc tin.

Nu
max H1 (A)
H1(A)
H1 (A) = f (p) ch ph thuc
dng
1
l
bit
th
=1
H1(A)max
Nhn xt:
- H1 (A) t max ti
p=
1
. S d nh
2
vy v tp ch c hai phn t, nn bt nh ca
php chn s ln nht khi hai du c xc sut
xut hin nh nhau.
-p=0
0,5
Hnh 3.2.
H1 (A) min = 0 . Khi 1 p = 1 l xc sut xut hin du a 2 . Vy a 2 l mt
bin c chc chn. Php chn ny khng c bt nh lng thng tin trung bnh trit.
-p=1
H1 (A) min = 0 . Gii thch tng t.
3.2.5. Entropie ca trng s kin ng thi

nh ngha 1:
C hai trng s kin A v B:
a 2 ... a s
b 2 ... b t
a1
b1
A=
v B =
p(a1 ) p(a 2 ) ... p(a s )

p(b1 ) p(b 2 ) ... p(b t )
Cc a i v
b j l cc s kin.
Ta xt mt s kin tch: c k
= a i .b j
p(ck ) = p(a i .b j ) . Ta xt trng C l giao ca hai trng A v B, nu:

a1b 2 ... a1b t
... a 2 b j ... a s b t
a1b1
C = A.B =
p(a1b1 ) p(a1b 2 ) ... p(a1b t ) ... p(a 2 b j ) ... p(a s b t )
Trng C c gi l trng s kin ng thi (trng giao, tch) ca hai trng s kin c
bn A v B.
nh ngha 2:
56

Hai trng s kin A v B c gi l c lp vi nhau nu:
p(a i .b j ) = p(a i ).p(b j )

p(a i ) v p(b j ) tho mn (3.14) th ta cng c:
Ch : Tt nhin nu
0 p(a i b j ) 1 ;
p(a ib j ) = 1
(*)
i =1 j =1
nh l 1:
Entropie ca trng s kin ng thi C = A. B s bng tng entropie ca cc trng s
kin c bn A v B nu A v B c lp.
H(A.B) = H(A) + H(B)
(3.19)
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha:
H(A.B) =
p(a ib j )log p(a ib j )
i =1 j = 1
Theo gi thit A v B c lp vi nhau nn ta c:

s
H(A.B) = p(a i )p(b j )log p(a i )
p(a i )p(b j )log p(b j )
i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1
i =1
j =1
j =1
i =1
= p(a i )log p(a i ) p(b j ) p(b j )log p(b j ) p(a i )
M:
j =1
i =1
p(b j ) = 1 , p(a i ) = 1
H(A.B) = H(A) + H(B)
Nhn xt: Tng t, nu cc ngun
X k , (k = 1,n) c lp vi nhau th:
H(X1.X 2 ....X n ) =
H(X k )
k =1
3.3. ENTROPIE C IU KIN. LNG THNG TIN CHO TRUNG BNH

3.3.1. Entropie c iu kin v mt trng tin ny khi r mt tin nht nh ca
a1
b1
a2
b2
ak
bl
57
trng tin kia

3.3.1.1. M u
Trong phn trc, ta ni nu truyn tin c nhiu th tin pht i
khc nhau. V khi lng thng tin ring v
I(a k / b ) = log
a k v tin thu c b l
a k do b mang li l:
1
p(a k / b )
Vn : ta khng quan tm n lng thng tin ring v mt du
a k c th no ca ngun
tin pht { a i } do
b mang li m ch quan tm n lng thng tin ring trung bnh v mt du

no ca tp { a i } do b mang li. Ta thy rng I(a k / b ) l mt i lng ngu nhin. Do
tng t nh nh ngha ca entropie mt chiu, ta i ti nh ngha sau.

3.3.1.2.nh ngha
Entropie c iu kin v mt trng tin ny khi r mt tin ca trng tin kia c xc
nh bng k vng ca lng thng tin ring c iu kin v
a k do mt b mang li:
H(A / b ) = M[I(a i / b )] = p(a i / b ) I(a i / b )

i =1
= p(a i / b )log p(a i / b )
(3.20)
i =1
ngha:
H(A / b ) l lng thng tin tn hao trung bnh ca mi tin u pht khi u thu thu
c b j .
Tng t:
t
H(B / a i ) = p(b j / a i )log p(b j / a i )

j =1
ngha:
H(B / a i ) l lng thng tin ring trung bnh cha trong mi tin u thu khi u pht
pht i mt tin a i .
3.3.2. Entropie c iu kin v trng tin ny khi r trng tin kia

Ta thy rng do nhiu ngu nhin nn bn thu khng phi ch thu c mt tin duy nht m
l c tp tin B = { b j } no ,
( j = 1, t) . Vy H(A / b j ) cng l mt i lng ngu nhin, do

58

ta phi xt n lng thng tin ring trung bnh v mi tin u pht khi u thu thu c
mt du no .
Tng t nh trn, ta cng phi ly trung bnh thng k ca i lng ngu nhin ny.
nh ngha:
Entropie c iu kin ca trng s kin A khi r trng s kin B c xc nh bi k
vng ca i lng
H(A / b j ) .
t
H(A / B) = M H(A / b j ) = p(b j ) H(A / b j )

j =1
t
s
= p(b j ) p(a i / b j )log p(a i / b j )

i =1
j =1
s
= p(b j ) p(a i / b j )log p(a i / b j )

i =1 j =1
s
H(A / B) = p(a i b j )log p(a i / b j )
(3.21)
i =1 j =1
ngha:
H(A/B) l lng thng tin tn hao trung bnh ca mi tin u pht khi u thu thu
c mt du no .
Tng t:
s
H(B / A) = p(b ja i )log p(b j / a i )
(3.22)
i =1 j =1
ngha:
H(B/A) l lng thng tin ring trung bnh cha trong mi tin u thu khi u pht
pht i mt tin no .
Ch :
Ta xt mt b ch A. c trng cho lng thng tin ring trung bnh cha trong mi con
ch khi k n xc sut xut hin cc cp ch (VD: trong ting Vit: p(a/b) 0, p(b/a) = 0,
p(t/a) 0, p(a/t) 0), ngi ta dng H(A/A) v k hiu l H 2 (A).
V d: H 2 (Vit) = 3,2223 bit
H 2 (Nga) = 3,52 bit
H 2 (Anh) = 3,32 bit
59
Vic tnh H 3 , H 4 rt phc tp.

Khakevich tnh c n H 5 . Shannon tnh c n H 8 .
3.3.3. Hai trng thi cc oan ca knh truyn tin

3.3.3.1. Knh b t (b nhiu tuyt i)
Trong trng hp ny, cc tin thu c hon ton khc cc tin pht i. Ni khc i v b
nhiu tuyt i nn trong mi tin
b j B khng cha du hiu hiu bit no v cc tin pht i.
Nh vy, A v B l c lp nhau:
p(a i / b j ) = p(a i ) ; p(b j / a i ) = p(b j )
p(a i b j ) = p(a i ) p(b j )

Khi ta c:
s
H(A / b j ) = p(a i )log p(a i ) = H(A)

i =1
t
H(B / a i ) = p(b j )log p(b j ) = H(B)

j =1
t
j =1
i =1
(3.23)
H(A / B) = p(b j ) p(a i )log p(a i ) = H(A)

s
i =1
j =1
H(B / A) = p(a i ) p(b j )log p(b j ) = H(B)

3.3.3.2. Knh khng nhiu
Khi : t = s. Vi
i = 1,s a i = bi
p(a i ) = p(bi ) nn H(A) = H(B)

p(a k / bk ) = p(b k / a k ) = 1
p(a i / bk ) = p(bi / a k ) = 0 vi i k
H(A / b k ) = 0
H(A / B) = 0
H(B / a k ) = 0
H(B / A) = 0
V khi khng nhiu, coi A v B ph thuc mnh nht, c

bt nh v a i khi thu c
(3.24)
a i th chc chn c bi , nn
bi l khng c bt nh trung bnh cng khng c.
60
3.3.4. Cc tnh cht ca entropie c iu kin

3.3.4.1.Tnh cht 1
Nu A v B l hai trng bin c bt k (hai ngun tin bt k) th entropie ca trng bin
c ng thi A.B bng:
H(A.B) = H(A) + H(B/A) = H(B) + H(A/B)
(3.25)
Chng minh:
s
H(A.B) = p(a i b j )log p(a i b j ) =

i =1 j = 1
= p(b j ) p(a i / b j )log p(b j ) p(a i / b j ) =

i =1 j =1
H(A.B) = p(b j ) p(a i / b j )log p(b j ) p(b j ) p(a i / b j )log p(a i / b j ) =

i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1
i =1
j =1
= p(a i / b j ) p(b j )log p(b j ) p(a i b j )log p(a i / b j )

=
i =1 j =1
H(B)
H(A / B)
Trong :
p(a i / b j ) = 1.
i =1
3.3.4.2.Tnh cht 2
Entropie c iu kin nm trong khong:
0 H(A / B) H(A)
Chng minh:
+
H(A / B) 0 :
0 p(a i / b j ) 1 log p(a i / b j ) 0

log p(a i / b j ) 0 H(A / B) 0
N s nhn du bng khi A v B l ng nht (knh khng nhiu).
+ H(A/B)
H(A):
Xt hiu: H(A/B) H(A) = G
61
(3.26)

s
G = p(b j ) p(a i / b j )logp(a i / b j ) + p(a i )log p(a i ).1

i =1 j =1
i =1
1 = p(b j / a i )
Ch : ta thay
j =1
G = p(a i b j )logp(a i / b j ) + p(a i b j )log p(a i )

i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1
= p(a i b j )log
i =1 j =1
= p(a i b j )log
i =1 j =1
p(a i / b j )
p(a i )
p(a i )
p(a i / b j )
p dng
log x x 1 :
p(a i )
p(a
b
)
1
i j p(a / b )
i j
i =1 j =1
s
s t
p(a i )
1
G p(b j ) p(a i / b j )
p(a i / b j )
i =1 j = 1
s
i =1
j =1
G p(a i ) p(b j ) p(b j ) p(a i / b j )

G
1 .
i =1 j = 1
= 0
H(A/B) H(A).
H(A/B) = H(A) khi A v B l c lp (knh b t).
3.3.4.3. Tnh cht 3
Entropie ca trng s kin ng thi khng ln hn tng entropie ca cc trng s kin
c bn.
H(A.B)
H(A) + H(B)
Chng minh:
(3.27) rt ra trc tip t (3.25) v (3.26).
62
(3.27)
3.3.5. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh

phn trc, chng ta bit lng thng tin cho v mt tin
a i pht i do mt tin b j
thu c mang li l:
I(a i ,b j ) = log
p(a i / b j )
p(a i )
Thng thng, v bn pht pht i mt tp tin A = { a i } v bn thu nhn c mt tp tin B

= { b j }. Do ta khng quan tm n lng thng tin cho v mt tin c th
a i pht do mt
tin b j c th thu c, m ta ch quan tm n lng thng tin cho trung bnh v mi tin ca tp
pht A do mi tin ca tp thu B mang li. I(a i ,b j ) l mt i lng ngu nhin, do ta phi ly
trung bnh thng k ca n.
nh ngha:
Lng thng tin cho trung bnh (k hiu l I(A,B)):
I(A, B) = M I(a i , b j )
(3.28)
I(a i , b j ) l p(a i b j ) , do ta c:
Xc sut c thng tin
I(A,B) = p(a i b j )log

i =1 j =1
s
p(a i / b j )
p(a i )
I(A,B) = p(a i b j )log p(a i / b j ) p(a i b j )log p(a i )

i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1
H(A / B)
H(A)
Tm li:
I(A,B) = H(A) H(A/B)
(3.29a)
Tng t, ta c:
I(A,B) = H(B) H(B/A)
(3.29b)
Hay:
I(A,B) = H(A) + H(B) H(A.B)
I(A,B) cn gi l lng thng tin trung bnh c truyn theo knh ri rc.
3.3.6. Tnh cht ca I(A,B)

3.3.6.1. Tnh cht 1
I(A,B)
0:
Theo tnh cht 2 mc 3.3.4: H(A/B)
(3.30)
H(A) H(A) H(A/B) 0.
I(A,B) = 0 khi knh b t.

63

3.3.6.2.Tnh cht 2
I(A,B)
Tht vy: H(A/B)
H(A):
(3.31)
0 I(A,B) = H(A) H(A/B) H(A)
I(A,B) = H(A) khi knh khng c nhiu.

T (3.31) ta thy khi truyn tin trong knh c nhiu, thng tin s b tn hao mt phn.
Lng thng tin tn hao trung bnh chnh l H(A/B).
3.3.6.3.Tnh cht 3
I(A,A) = H(A)
3.3.6.4. Tnh cht 4
I(A,B) = I(B,A)
3.3.7. M hnh ca knh truyn tin c nhiu

Da vo (3.29a), ta c m hnh knh truyn khi c nhiu nh sau:
H(A)
I(A,B) = I(B,A)
H(A/B)
H(B)
H(B/A)
Tn hao
Lng tin tc b bng hi lin

Hnh 3.3.
H(A)
H(A/B)
H(B/A)
I(A,B)
H(AB)
Hnh 3.4. Lc Wenn m t mi quan h gia cc i lng.
64
3.4. TC PHT. KH NNG PHT. THA. KH NNG THNG QUA

CA KNH RI RC
3.4.1. Tc pht ca ngun ri rc
Trong thng tin ri rc, ngi ta thng pht i cc xung. Nu gi
Tn l rng trung
bnh ca mi xung th tc pht ca ngun tin ri rc c nh ngha nh sau:
n =
1
Tn
(3.32)
(3.32) biu th s xung trong mt n v thi gian.

Th nguyn: [ n ] = bt = s du (xung)/ sec
n = 25 bt.
V d: in bo tay:
n = (50 300) bt.
in bo t ng:
Thng tin truyn s liu: (500
n.104 ) bt.
3.4.2. Kh nng pht ca ngun ri rc

nh ngha:
H '(A) = n H(A) =
H(A)
Tn
(3.33)
Th nguyn: [H(A)] = bit/sec.
max H '(A) =
1
H(A)
Tn
(3.33) biu th lng thng tin trung bnh do ngun pht ra trong mt n v thi gian.
V d: Mt my in bo dng m B u 5 du, c s 2, tc pht l 75 bt th kh

nng ti a ca my l:
H '(A)max = n .H1 (A) max = 75.log 2 25 = 375bit / s

3.4.3. tha ca ngun ri rc
nh ngha:
tha ca ngun ri rc l t s:
D=
H(A) max H(A)

H(A)
=1
H(A)max
H(A) max
65
(3.34)
D = 1 , trong : =
H(A)
c gi l h s nn tin.
H(A) max
i vi ngun tin c s du: H(A) max = H 0 (A) = log s.

ngha:
tha c trng cho hiu sut, kh nng chng nhiu v mt ca tin. Nu D cng ln
th hiu sut cng thp, mt cng thp nhng kh nng chng nhiu cng cao.
V d:
- i vi ting Vit: H 1 (Vit) = 4.5167; H 0 (Vit) = 5,1713
1 = 87 % D1 = 13 %
2 =
H 2 (A) 3,2223
=
= 62% D 2 = 38%
l ogs
5,1713
- i vi ting Nga:
1 = 87% D1 = 13 %
3 = 60% D3 = 40 %
- i vi ting Anh:
1 = 84% D1 = 16 %
8 = 38% D8 = 62 %
3.4.4. Cc c trng ca knh ri rc v cc loi knh ri rc
Mt knh ri rc hon ton c c trng bi ba tham s sau:
- Trng du li vo v trng du li ra ca knh.
- Xc sut chuyn
p(b j / a i )
- Tc truyn tin ca knh
nh ngha 1:
Nu mt knh c
p(b j / a i ) t th c gi l knh ng nht; p(b j / a i ) vo du
pht trc n th c gi l knh khng nh. Ngc li,

khng ng nht;
p(b j / a i ) t th knh c gi l
p(b j / a i ) vo du pht trc n th knh c gi l knh c nh
( i, j ).
nh ngha 2:
Nu mt knh c xc sut chuyn:
p = const vi i j, i=1,s, j =1, t

p(b j / a i ) = s
i = j
p = const
66

th knh s c gi l knh i xng.
V d:
p(b1/a1) = p
a1
b1
p(b1/a2)
p(b2/a1)
a2
b2
p(b2/a2) = p
xc sut sai bng nhau, xc sut ng bng nhau.

i vi knh i xng nh phn (Hnh v):
ps + p = 1 .
3.4.5. Lng thng tin truyn qua knh trong mt n v thi gian
nh ngha:
I'(A,B) =
Trong :
K =
I(A, B)
= K I(A,B)
TK
[bit/s]
(3.35)
1
, TK : thi gian trung bnh truyn mt du qua knh. K biu th
TK
s du m knh truyn c (c truyn qua knh) trong mt n v thi gian. I(A,B) l

lng thng tin truyn qua knh trong mt n v thi gian.
Nu knh gin tin:
TK > Tn
Nu knh nn tin:
TK < Tn
Thng thng:
TK = Tn
3.4.6. Kh nng thng qua ca knh ri rc

nh gi nng lc ti tin ti a cu mt knh truyn, ngi ta a ra khi nim kh nng
thng qua.
3.4.6.1. nh ngha
Kh nng thng qua ca knh ri rc l gi tr cc i ca lng thng tin truyn qua knh
trong mt n v thi gian, ly theo mi kh nng c th c ca ngun tin A. (Cc i ny s t
c ng vi mt phn b ti u ca cc xc sut tin nghim p( a i ),
a i A ).
C' = max I'(A,B) = K max I(A,B)

A
67
[bit/s]
(3.36)
C' = K .C
vi C = max I(A,B)
A
C c gi l kh nng thng qua ca knh i vi mi du.

C l mt tham s rt quan trng ca mt knh.
3.4.6.2. Tnh cht
- C
0, C = 0 khi v ch khi A v B c lp (knh b t).
- C
K logs , ng thc ch xy ra khi knh khng nhiu.
(3.37)
Chng minh:
I(A,B) H(A)
K I(A,B) K H(A)
(K > 0)
max(K I(A, B)) max(K H(A))

K maxI(A,B) K maxH(A)
C'
K logs
3.4.7. Tnh kh nng thng qua ca knh nh phn i xng khng nh, ng nht
3.4.7.1. t bi ton
Ta c mt knh nh phn nh hnh 3.4. Trong :
Xc sut sai:
p(b 2 / a1 ) = p(b1 / a 2 ) = ps
Xc sut ng:
p(b 2 / a 2 ) = p(b1 / a1 ) = p
p(a 1 ) = p; p(a 2 ) = 1 - p;
p(b1/a1) = p
a1
b1
p(b1/a2)
= ps
a2
b2
p(b2/a2) = p
Cc du a 1 v a 2 c cng thi hn T. Vn : tnh C?

3.4.7.2. Gii bi ton
Ta c:
C' =
1
1
max I(A,B) =
max [ H(B) H(B/ A) ]
TK A
TK A
Ta c ngay:
2
H(B / A) = p(a i ) p(b j / a i )log p(b j / a i )

i =1 j =1
68
H(B / A) = p(a1 ) [ p(b1 / a1 )log p(b1 / a1 ) + p(b 2 / a1 )log p(b 2 / a1 )
]
p(a 2 ) [ p(b1 / a 2 )log p(b1 / a 2 ) + p(b 2 / a 2 )log p(b 2 / a 2 ) ]
= p [ (1 ps )log(1 ps ) + ps log ps ]
(1 p) [ ps log ps + (1 ps )log(1 ps ) ]
H(B/ A) = [ ps log ps + (1 ps )log(1 ps ) ]

Ta thy H(B/A) ch ph thuc vo
ps , m khng ph thuc vo xc sut tin nghim ca
cc du thuc ngun tin A. Do :
C' =
=
1
max [ H(B) H(B / A) ]
TK A
1
1
max H(B)
H(B / A)
TK A
TK
y H(B/A) khng i i vi mi trng thi (c tnh thng k) ca ngun A.

M:
max H(B) = H(B)max = log 2 s = log 2 2 = 1

A
Vy:
C' =
1
[1 + ps log ps + (1 ps )log(1 ps )]
TK
C' = f ( ps ,TK )
C'max =
C/ Cmax
1
ps = 0 Knh khng nhiu.
TK
C'
= 1 + ps log ps + (1 ps )log(1 ps )
C'max
(3.38)
th (3.38) biu din trn hnh 3.5.
0,5
ps
Hnh 3.5.
3.4.8. nh l m ho th hai ca Shannon

nh l: Nu kh nng pht H(A) ca ngun tin ri rc A b hn kh nng thng qua ca
knh: (H(A) < C) th tn ti mt php m ho v gii m sao cho vic truyn tin c xc sut gp
li b tu (nu H(A) > C th khng tn ti php m ho v gii m nh vy) khi di t m
ln.
Nhn xt: y l mt nh l tn ti v n khng ch cho ta cch thit lp mt m c th
no. L thuyt m knh trong chng 4 chnh l hng dn cn thit cho nh l ny.
69
3.4.9. Kh nng thng qua ca knh nh phn i xng c xo

3.4.9.1.t bi ton
Cho knh truyn, cc du a1 v a 2 nh hnh v. Cc du a1 v
Hy tnh kh nng thng qua C ca knh ny vi iu kin:
Xc sut xo:
p(b3 / a i ) = q
a1
Xc sut thu ng:
a 2 c cng thi hn T.
1- ps - q
b1
ps
p(b1 / a1 ) = p(b 2 / a 2 ) = 1 ps q
q
b3
Xc sut thu sai:
p(b 2 / a1 ) = p(b1 / a 2 ) = ps
ps
a2
3.4.9.2. Gii bi ton
b2
1 ps - q
Tng t bi ton trn, ta c:
C' =
1
max [ H(B) H(B / A) ]
T A
Trong :
2
H(B / A) = p(a i )p(b j / a i )log p(b j / a i )

i =1 j =1
= p (1 ps q ) log (1 ps q ) + ps log ps + q log q

(1 p ) ps log ps + (1 ps q ) log (1 ps q ) + q log q
= (1 ps q ) log (1 ps q ) + ps log ps + q log q
Ta thy H(B/A) vo tnh cht thng k ca ngun A. Do :
max [ H(B) H(B / A) ] = max H(B) H(B / A)

A
( )
( )
H ( B ) = p b j logp b j
j =1
Trong :
p ( b3 ) = p ( a1 ) p ( b3 / a1 ) + p ( a 2 ) p ( b3 / a 2 )
= p q + (1 p ) q = q
khng ph thuc vo tnh cht thng k ca ngun A.
Nh vy, H(B) s t max ng vi phn b ca cc xc sut p( a i ) m bo c:
70
p ( b1 ) = p ( b 2 ) =
1 q
2
max H ( B ) = q log q (1 q ) log
(1 q )
2
C' = F (1 q ) 1 log (1 q ) + ps log ps + (1 ps q ) log (1 ps q )

Trong
F=
1
T
3.5. ENTROPIE CA NGUN LIN TC. LNG THNG TIN CHO TRUNG
BNH TRUYN QUA KNH LIN TC KHNG NH
3.5.1. Cc dng tn hiu lin tc
i vi cc tn hiu cao tn lin tc s(t) th gi tr ca n c th nhn mt cch lin tc cc
gi tr khc nhau trong mt khong xc nh s min
tc hay ri rc (hnh 3.6)
s max , cn i s thi gian t li c th lin
V vy, ta s phn cc tn hiu lin tc ra 2 loi.

- Tn hiu lin tc vi thi gian ri rc (hnh 3.6a).
- Tn hiu lin tc vi thi gian lin tc (hnh 3.6b).
s(t)
smax
s(t)
smax
t
smin
smin
a.
t
Hnh 3.6.
Cc tham s c trng ca tn hiu lin tc l:

- Cng sut ph trung bnh
- B rng ph
3.5.2. Cc c trng v tham s ca knh lin tc

Ta bit rng cc c trng ca knh ri rc l:
- Trng du li vo trc hay sau b m ho: A
71
b.

- Trng du li ra sau b gii iu ch hoc sau b gii m B.
- Xc sut chuyn
n
n
p a i / b j hoc p (i ) / (i )
i vi knh lin tc, cc c trng ca n l:

- Trng du li vo (sau b iu ch): {s(t)}
- Trng du li ra (trc b gii iu ch): {U(t)}
- Mt phn b xc sut xut hin
W U j ( t ) / si ( t )
U j ( t ) khi pht hin si ( t ) :
Cng nh i vi knh ri rc tham s quan trng nht ca knh lin tc l kh nng thng
qua ca n.
Nhiu
ai
M ho
iu ch
s(t)
ng tin
u(t)
Gii iu ch
Gii m
Knh lin tc
Knh ri rc (cha knh lin tc)
nh ngha:
Knh Gausse khng i l mt knh lin tc c tp tin li vo v tp tin li ra lin h vi
nhau theo cng thc:
u ( t ) = .s ( t ) + n ( t )
Trong
(3.39)
= const, ( t ) , n(t): nhiu cng l tp m trng phn b chun.
3.5.3. Knh lin tc cha trong knh ri rc

Tnh cht:
Kh nng thng qua ca knh lin tc khng nh hn kh nng thng qua ca knh ri rc
cha n:
C'lt C'r.r cha lt
(3.40)
Chng minh:
Nu php gii iu ch v iu ch l hai php thun nghch ln nhau nh ta mong mun th
khi qua b iu ch v gii iu ch lng thng tin l khng i (lng thng tin truyn qua
72
bi

knh trong mt n v thi gian). Nh vy, kh nng thng qua ca knh lin tc ng bng kh
nng thng qua ca knh ri rc. Tuy nhin php gii iu ch thng lm tn hao thng tin, do
kh nng thng qua ca knh ri rc khng th ln hn kh nng thng qua ca knh lin tc
nm trong n.
3.5.4. Entropie ca ngun tin lin tc (ca mt qu trnh ngu nhin lin tc)
Xt mt ngun tin S mi mt thi im c th pht ra nhng tin l mt i lng ngu
nhin s c th nhn cc gi tr lin tc trong khong s min
V trong khong
s max vi mt xc sut W1 ( s ) .
s min s max ta c v s
nhng gi tr ca s nn tp tin ca ngun S l

mt tp v hn v nh vy S l mt ngun tin
lin tc. tnh entropie ca ngun ny ta
lm nh sau:
smax
si
Ta thc hin mt php lng t ho

hnh thc bng cch chia khong
smin
s min s max ra n phn bng nhau. Mi phn

bng s v c gi l bc lng t (hnh
3.7).
Hnh 3.7.
Ta coi rng s s nhn gi tr si nu gi

tr ca n nm trong mt phn th i no . Nh vy s c th nhn cc gi tr sau: S = { si }, i =
1,n . Xc sut s nhn gi tr si s l:

p ( si ) W1 ( si ) . s
Entropie ca ngun tin ri rc ho S s bng:
n
H ( S' ) = W1 ( si ) . slog W1 ( si ) . s
i =1
Khi cho
s 0, ta s c entropie ca ngun tin lin tc.
H ( S) = lim H ( S') = lim W1 ( si ) log W1 ( si ) .s +
s 0
s 0 i =1
1 n
+ lim log W1 ( si ) .s
s 0
s i =1
H ( S) = W1 ( s ) log
ds + lim
W1 ( s ) ds
s 0 s
W
s
(
)
=1
73
H ( S) =
W1 ( s ) log W1 ( s ) ds + lim
s 0 s
(3.41)
1
= .
s 0 s
lim
T (3.41) ta thy entropie mt chiu ca ngun tin lin tc ln v hn do
S hng th hai khng ph thuc vo bn cht thng k ca ngun (tn hiu) m ch c s hng
th nht ph thuc vo bn cht thng k ca ngun, v vy ta c th ly n c trng cho nhng
qu trnh ngu nhin khc nhau. Ta t:

h ( S) =
W1 ( s ) log
W1 ( s )
ds
(3.42)
v gi h(S) l entropie vi phn (hay entropie tng i) ca ngun S.

Ch :
- Khc vi entropie ca ngun ri rc, h(S) c th nhn cc gi tr dng, m (hu hn).
- Khc vi entropie ca ngun ri rc, h(S) ph thuc vo thang t l ca s, tc l ph thuc
vo vic chn n v o. Nu tng s ln
( )
W1 s* = W1 ( s )
ds
ds*
ln: s* = .s , khi :
1
W1 ( s )
( ) = W1 (s* ) log W1 (s* ) ds* = h (S) + log

*
h S
h(S) cng c tnh cht cng tnh.
3.5.5. Mu vt l minh ho s ln v hn ca entropie ca ngun lin tc

Gi s ta truyn tin t A n B bng ng dy l
tng: khng tn hao, khng gy nhiu. u B ta t
mt my thu l mt volt k l tng (c tp m ni b
bng khng, nn c th o vi chnh xc tu ,
ZV = ). Tn hiu pht nm trong khong
( 0 1) Vol. Nh vy, u thu ta s nhn c u = s.

Nu trng
A = {a i } , i = 1,10 (c 10 tin) th
Hnh 3.8.
ta c th m ho mt cch n gin bng cch i chng nh sau:
a1 0,1V , a 2 0,2V , ... , a10 1V

Gi s cc tin l ng xc sut th H(A) = log 10.
Nu
A = {a i } , i = 1,100 th ta c th pht i bng cch i chng:

74
a1 0,01V , a 2 0,02V , ... , a100 1V

Nu cc tin l ng xc sut th H(A) = log100.
Tng t, nu
i = 1,106 th ch cn chn bc lng t s = 106 th ta c th m bo
truyn c mi tin. Nu cc tin l ng xc sut th
H(A) = log106 .
V knh v thit b thu khng c nhiu nn ta c th chn s b tu truyn mt s tin

ln tu . Khi entropie ca ngun tin c th ln tu . Nu s 0 H(A) .
Trong thc t, lun tn ti nhiu n(t) trn ng dy v volt k lun c tp m ni b. Do
khng th chn s nh tu c m phi l mt s hu hn. V vy entropie ca ngun trn
thc t l hu hn.
3.5.6. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn theo knh lin tc khng nh
Xt mt ngun lin tc S v gi thit cc tin s do ngun sinh ra l c lp thng k vi
nhau, ngha l xt ngun lin tc khng nh. Xt knh lin tc ch c can nhiu cng n(t) c cc
gi tr cng c lp thng k vi nhau. Khi li ra ca knh ta nhn c cc tin:
u = .s + n
Cc tin ny cng c lp thng k vi nhau. Khi knh xt cng l knh lin tc khng
nh. Ta s tnh lng thng tin trung bnh truyn theo knh ny: I(S, U).
s ,
bc lng t u thu l u . Khi ta c hai ngun ri rc sau: S' = {si } , i = 1,n v
Ta cng s lng t ho cc tin u thu v u pht. Bc lng t u pht l
{ }
U ' = u j , j = 1, m . Tng t nh mc 4, ta c:
Xc sut s nhn gi tr si s l:
Tng t, ta c:
( )
p ( si ) = W1 ( si ) .s .
( )
p u j = W1 u j .u .
Xc sut ng thi s nhn gi tr si v u nhn gi tr
u j gn ng bng:
p si , u j = W2 si , u j .s.u
Nu coi si l tin truyn i v u j l tin nhn c tng ng th khi knh s l ri rc
khng nh v lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn theo knh ri rc l:
I ( S', U ' ) =
W2 si ,u j .s.u.log
i =1 j =1
Ch rng theo cng thc nhn xc sut:
75
p si / u j
p ( si )
) = W2 (si ,u j ).s.u
) pu
W1 ( u j ) .u
( j)
p si / u j =
p si .u j
n m
I ( S', U ') = W2 si ,u j .s.u.log

i =1 j =1
Khi cho
( )
W1 ( u j ) .u.W1 ( s j ) .s
W2 si ,u j .s.u
s 0 v u 0 ta s chuyn t knh ri rc sang knh lin tc v lng
thng tin trung bnh truyn theo knh lin tc l:
I ( S, U ) = lim I ( S', U ') =

s 0
u 0
W2 ( s,u ) log
W2 ( s,u )
ds.du
W1 ( s ) .W1 ( u )
(3.43a)
hay
W2 ( s,u )
I ( S, U ) = M log
W1 ( s ) .W1 ( u )
(3.43b)
3.6. ENTROPIE VI PHN C IU KIN. TNH CHT CA CC TN HIU

GAUSSE
3.6.1. Entropie vi phn c iu kin
T (3.43b), ta c:
W ( s, u )
1
+ log 2
I ( S, U ) = M log
W1 ( s )
W1 ( u )
W2 ( s,u )
1
I ( S, U ) = M log
+
M
log
W1 ( s )
W1 ( u )
W1 ( s ) log
W1 ( s )
ds +
W2 ( s,u ) log
W2 ( s,u )
ds.du
W1 ( u )
(3.44a)
Ta c th vit di dng sau:

I(S,U) = h(S) - h(S/U)
(3.44b)
Trong h(S) chnh l entropie vi phn ca ngun.
h ( S) =
W1 ( s ) log
W1 ( s )
76
ds

h ( S/ U ) =
W2 ( s, u ) log
W2 ( s,u ) log
W1 ( u )
ds.du
W2 ( s,u )
1
ds.du
W1 ( s / u )
(3.45)
Ch :
Theo cng thc xc sut nhn:
W2 ( s,u ) = W1 ( u ) .W1 ( s / u )
h(S/U) tnh theo (3.45) c gi l entropie vi phn c iu kin ca ngun S khi bit
ngun U.
i vi ngun ri rc, ta c: I(A,B) = H(A) H(A/B)
H(A) l lng thng tin ring trung bnh cha trong mi du ca A.
H(A/B) l lng thng tin tn hao trung bnh ca mi tin do nhiu trong knh gy ra.
V mt hnh thc, ta thy h(S) ng vai tr ca H(A), cn h(S/U) ng vai tr ca H(A/B).
V mt ngha th khng phi nh vy, bi v h(S) v h(S/U) c th m v ph thuc vo
thang t l. Tuy vy, vic a ra h(S) v h(S/U) rt c li cho vic tnh ton.
T (3.44a) v (3.44b) ta c th suy ra cc tnh cht sau ca I(S,U):
- I(S,U)
0, I(S,U) = 0 khi knh b t: W(u/s) = W(u)
- I(S,U) = I(U,S) = h(U) h(U/S): tnh cht i xng.

- Nu knh l khng nhiu n(t) = 0 th I(S,U) =
Hai tnh cht u tng t nh trong trng hp knh ri rc khng nh. Tnh cht sau suy
ra t tnh cht ln v hn ca entropie ca ngun lin tc.
Ch :
I(S,U) khng ph thuc vo thang t l.
3.6.2. Entropie vi phn ca nhiu Gausse

Xt nhiu Gausse n(t) c M[n] = 0 v D[n] = Pn .
Hm mt phn b xc sut ca n l:
W(n) =
n 2
1
exp
2Pn
2Pn
Ta s tnh vi phn entropie vi phn ca nhiu ny.
77
n2
2P e 2Pn
Ta c: h ( N ) = W ( n ) log
n
h ( N) =
W ( n ).log
dn
2Pn .dn +
W ( n ).log e
n2
2Pn
.dn
log e
= log 2Pn W ( n ) .dn +
n 2 .W ( n ) .dn
2Pn
=1
= D[ n ] = Pn
h ( N ) = log 2Pn +
1
log e
2
h ( N ) = log 2Pn .e
(3.46)
3.6.3. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn theo knh Gausse
Ta c:
I ( S, U ) = h ( U ) h ( U / S)
W1 ( u ) log W1 ( u ) du h ( U /S)
Ta s tnh h(U/S) trong trng hp nhiu Gausse. Knh ta xt s l knh Gausse:
u ( t ) = .s ( t ) + n ( t )
h ( U / S) =
h ( U / S) =
W2 ( s,u ).logW1 ( u / s ).du.ds
W1 ( s ).W1 ( u / s ).logW1 ( u / s ).du.ds
=
h ( U / S) =
W1 ( s ).ds W1 ( u / s ).log W1 ( u / s ).du
W1 ( u / s ).log W1 ( u / s ).du
xc nh h(U/S) ta phi tnh c
W1 ( u / s ) .
78
(3.47)

V yu t ngu nhin ch do nhiu gy nn, o vi bt c mt gi tr nht nh no ca s
th xc sut u ri vo khong du cng chnh bng xc sut n ri vo khong dn.
p u du
} = p{ndn}
W1 ( u / s ) du = W1 ( n ) dn
W1 ( u / s ) = W1 ( n )
Vi
Vy
dn
= W1 ( n ) 1 du
du
dn
du
d
ds dn
=
(s + n ) = + = 1
dn dn
dn dn
W1 ( u / s ) = W1 ( n ) =
ds
= 0 khi s, n c lp
V
dn
n 2
1
exp
2Pn
2Pn
h ( U /S) = h ( n ) = log 2ePn
I(U,S) =
W1 ( u ).log
W1 ( u )
.du log 2ePn
(3.48)
Nu u cng c phn b chun th:
h ( U ) = log 2ePu
Do s(t) v n(t) l c lp nn:
Pu = Ps + Pn = u2 + n2
Vy:
h ( U ) = log 2e ( Ps + Pn
Cui cng, ta c: I(S,U) = h(U) h(S/U)
I(S, U) = log 1 +
Ps 1
P
= log 1 + s
Pn 2
Pn
(3.49)
Trong Ps l cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu hu ch (tn hiu pht).

Nhn xt:
T (3.49) ta thy I(S,U) khng ph thuc vo hnh dng v cu trc ca tn hiu, m ch ph
thuc vo t s Ps / Pn . Thc ra kt lun ny ch ng v hnh thc, thc ra sau ny ta s thy nu
cu trc v hnh dng ca tn hiu thay i th Ps / Pn cng s thay i, do I(S,U) cng s khc
nhau i vi cc tn hiu c cu trc v hnh dng khc nhau.
79
3.6.4. Tnh cht ca cc tn hiu c phn b chun

nh l:
Trong s nhng qu trnh (tn hiu) c cng cng sut trung bnh ( 2 ), tn hiu c phn b
Gausse s cho entropie vi phn ln nht. Tc l:
h ( X ) = W1 ( x ) .log W1 ( x ) .dx log 2e2
max h ( X ) = log 2e2 khi W1 ( x ) mt chun

Chng minh:
Gi x(t) l tn hiu khng Gausse.
x(t) l tn hiu Gause: W1 x =

~2
x
1
exp
2P~
2P~
x
x
iu cn chng minh nh l trn trng ng vi vic chng minh bt ng thc sau:
h ( X ) log 2ePx 0
(*)
Trc ht theo gi thit, ta c:
D ~ = Dx = D
x
~2
~ ~
x W1 x d x = x 2 W1 ( x ) dx

(a)
Ta c:
~
~
~ ~
h X = W1 x log W1 x d x =

~ ~ log e
x 2 W1 ( x ) dx
= log 2D W1 x d x +
2D

~ ~
do W1 x d x = W1 ( x ) dx = 1 v do (a)
80
~
x2
h X = log 2D
log e W1 ( x ) dx
2D
~
W
W
x
log
(
)
1 x dx
1

T (*) cn chng minh:
~
h (X) h X 0

Ta c:
~
h ( X ) h X = W1 ( x ) log W1 ( x ) dx +

~
W
1x
dx
= W1 ( x ) log
W1 ( x )
Vi a > 1 bao gi ta cng c:
~
W
x
log
W
(
)
1 x dx
1

(**)
log a x x 1 .
Nn:
W
x
1
h ( X ) h X W1 ( x )
1 dx
W1 ( x )

~
W1 x dx W1 ( x ) dx

Vy
~
~
~
h (X) h X 0 h (X) h X x x

~
max h ( X ) = h X = log 2eD

ngha nh l:
Trong s cc qu trnh ngu nhin c cng phng sai th qu trnh c phn b chun th
hin tnh ngu nhin nhiu hn c. Do ta thy rng trong s nhng tp c cng phng sai
th tp phn b chun c tc hi ln nht i vi vic truyn tin. (v entropie c trng cho bt
81

nh, m entropie ca tp chun max nn bt nh ca n ln nht). l l do v sao trong
cc bi ton ca v tuyn in thng k ngi ta thng xt tp chun.
Bng phng php tng t, ta c th chng minh c:
b
a. Trong s tt c cc phn b trong mt khong hu hn (a,b):
W1 ( x ) dx = 1 . i
a
lng ngu nhin phn b u c entropie ln nht. H(X) = log(b a) =
log 2 3 l
b. Trong s tt c cc i lng ngu nhin lin tc dng c cng k vng m:
W1 ( x ) dx = 1 v x W1 ( x ) dx = m . i lng ngu nhin phn b theo lut m c
entropie ln nht.
3.7. KH NNG THNG QUA CA KNH GAUSSE

3.7.1. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian ri rc
nh ngha:
Knh Gausse khng i vi thi gian ri rc l knh Gausse khng i c tn hiu li vo
s(t) l hm lin tc ca i s ri rc.
Ta c th coi tn hiu lin tc vi thi gian ri rc (hnh 5.1a) l mt dy xung c bin l
cc gi tr bt k trong khong s min s max v chu k lp li (ng thi cng l rng xung)
l khong thi gian ri rc t . em cc xung (tin) truyn vo knh th tc truyn tin ca
knh (cng l tc truyn tin ca ngun) vi thi gian ri rc s l:
K = 1
Tng t nh i vi knh ri rc, kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian ri
rc s l:
C' = K .max I(U,S)
(3.50)
I(U,S) l lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn trong knh lin tc. i vi knh Gausse
khng i, ta c:
I ( U,S) = h ( U ) h ( N ) = h ( U ) log 2ePn

max I ( U,S) = max h ( U ) log 2ePn
Theo nh l phn 3.6, ta thy h(U) t max khi u c phn b chun:
max h ( U ) = log 2ePu
82

mt thi im no , ta c:
Do s v n c lp nn: Pu
u = .s + n
= Ps + Pn
Vy:
C' = K log 2e Ps + Pn log 2ePn
C' = K log
PS/Pn
Ps + Pn
Pn
Ps
1
C' = K log 1 +
2
Pn
Trong Ps
Ta kho st
Khi
Khi
Khi
12
Hnh 3.9.
(3.51)
Pn l t s tn trn tp u ra ca knh lin tc (u vo b gii iu ch).
C' = f Ps Pn :
Ps
Pn
Ps
Pn
Ps
Pn
0 C' 0 . Tc l nu S/N rt b th knh coi nh b t.

nhng cn nh (< 3) th C tng theo rt nhanh.
nhng kh ln (> 12) th C tng theo rt chm.
Do ta thy khng nn chy theo vic tng cng sut ca my pht tng kh nng
thng qua ca knh m nn tng tc truyn tin ca knh (v C ~
K ).
3.7.2. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian lin tc trong mt gii tn hn
ch
Ta s tnh kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse trong trng hp tn hiu vo s(t) l hm
lin tc ca thi gian lin tc, c ph hu hn F.
u vo ca b gii iu ch ,ta c th t thm mt b lc tn thp c gii thng F. (Gii
tn cng tc ca knh lc ny cng chnh l gii thng tn ca b lc ny). Nh vy b lc s
khng nh hng n mo tn hiu nhng s hn ch c tp m trng. Theo nh l
B.A.Kachennhicop ta c th ri rc ho tn hiu theo trc t m vn khng lm mt thng tin nu
nh
t = 1
2F
. Nh vy ta thay vic truyn tn hiu lin tc vi thi gian lin tc bng vic
truyn tin liu lin tc vi thi gian ri rc. Khi tc truyn ca knh (s xung truyn trong
mt n v thi gian) s l:
K =
1
= 2F . Do theo (3.51), ta c:
t
83
C' = Flog 1 + s
Pn
(3.52)
Trong : F l b rng ph ca tn hiu
Pn l cng sut trung bnh ca nhiu trong gii F

Vi tp trng ta c: Pn
= N 0 .F
N 0 l mt ph cng sut thc t ca nhiu

Ps
C' = Flog 1 +
N 0 .F
(3.52)
Nhn xt:
Nu tng C bng cch tng F th ko theo
S
Pn . Nh vy gia C, F v
N
(S/N) c s tr gi, ta c li v mt ny th phi chu thit mt khc.

Ta vn c th thu chnh xc c tn hiu (m bo C = const) trong trng hp S/N b
(cng sut ca my pht nh, c ly lin lc xa, nhiu mnh) bng cch m rng ph ca tn hiu.
V d: trong thng tin v tr, S/N rt nh nn tn hiu lin lc phi l tn hiu gii rng (tn hiu
iu ch phc tp, tn hiu gi tp,...)
chnh l ngha ca (3.52), n cn c gi l cng thc Shannon.
3.7.3. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian lin tc trong gii tn v hn
Trong (3.52), nu ly c s ca log l e th C c o bng [nat/s]. Nu o bng [bit/s]
th:
Ps 1
C' = 1,443Fln 1 +
.
N
0 F
[bit/s]
(3.53)
By gi ta s xt s ph thuc ca C vo F.
- Khi
F 0 th r rng l C' 0
- Khi
F th C'
c bit, ta s xt gi tr ca C khi
t
Ps 1
Ps 1
. =x F=
.
N0 F
N0 x
Khi
x 0 th F .
F , tc l khi gii thng ca knh khng hn ch.
84
Ta k hiu:
'
C
Ps 1
C' = lim C' = lim

. .ln (1+ x ) .1,443
F
x 0 N0 x
Ps
=1,443.
. lim .ln (1+ x )
N0 x 0 x
Ta c:
lim (1 + x )
1/ x
x 0
'
C
=1, 443.
=1
Ps
N0
PS/N0
(3.54)
0
PS/N0
th C = f(F) c v hnh 3.10.

Ti gi tr
F=
Ps
N0
C=F=
Ps
N0
Hnh 3.10.
T th, ta thy: Kh nng thng qu ca knh Gausse vi thi gian lin tc l mt i

lng gii ni:
0 C' C' . iu ny c gii thch nh sau: Trong thc t, mi vt u c
tp m nhit. Tp m nhit c phn b chun v c mt cng sut

Trong : k l hng s Boltzman, k = 1,38.10
23
N 0 = k.T o .
J/.
T o l nhit tuyt i ca vt.

V vy kh nng thng qua ca mi knh thc t u b gii ni.
3.7.4. nh l m ho th hai ca Shannon i vi knh lin tc

i vi knh lin tc, nh l m ho th hai ca Shannon c pht biu nh sau:
nh l:
Cc ngun tin ri rc c th m ho v truyn theo knh lin tc vi xc sut sai b tu
khi gii m cc tn hiu nhn c nu kh nng pht ca ngun nh hn kh nng thng qua ca
knh. Nu kh nng pht ca ngun ln hn kh nng thng qua ca knh th khng th thc hin
c m ho v gii m vi xc sut sai b tu c.
3.7.5. V d: Kh nng thng qua ca mt s knh thc t

- Knh vin thng chuyn tip:
C' = n.106 n.107
Hartley/s
- in thoi, in bo nh, vin thng chuyn tip:
85
) Hartley/s
) Hartley/s
C' = n.103 n.104

- in bo:
C' = n.10 n.102
C1' = n.106 Hart./s
- Con ngi: + Th gic:

+ Thnh gic:
C'2 = n.103 Hart./s.
iu ny chng t "trm nghe khng bng mt thy"

+ Xc gic
C3' : C'2 < C3' < C1'
Con ngi ch c th nhn thc c cc thng tin a ra vi tc truyn

Mt quyn sch 100 trang ( 2000 du/trang): I =
Tr nh ngn hn ca con ngi:
(10
Trung bnh mt i ngi tip nhn
(10
15 Hart./s.
107 bit.
105 bit.
1010 bit.
BI TP
3.1. Thnh ph n c 1% dn s l sinh vin. Trong s sinh vin c 50% l nam thanh nin. S
nam thanh nin trong thnh ph l 32%. Gi s ta gp mt nam thanh nin. Hy tnh lng thng
tin cha trong tin khi bit rng l mt sinh vin.
3.2. C hai hp ng bt ch, mi hp ng 20 bt ch. Hp th nht c 10 bt trng, 5 bt en v
5 bt . Hp th hai c 8 bt trng, 8 bt en v 4 bt . Ta ly h ho mt bt ch t mi hp.
Hi rng php th no trong hai php th ni trn c bt nh ln.
3.3. Cc tn hiu
x1 , x 2 vi cc xc sut tin nghim p ( x1 ) = 3 / 4 , p ( x 2 ) = 1/ 4 c
truyn theo knh nh phn i xng c nhiu nh hnh v. Do c nhiu nn xc sut thu ng mi
tn hiu gim i ch bng 7/8. Hy tm:
a. Lng tin tc ring c iu kin
b. Lng tin tc cho
I ( x2 / y2 )
I ( x 2 ,y 2 )
c.
Cc lng tin tc
trung
H(X),
p ( x1 ) = 3 / 4 x1
p ( y1 / x1 ) = 7 / 8
p ( y1 / x 2 ) = 1/ 8
p ( x 2 ) = 1/ 4 x 2
86
bnh
y1
p ( y 2 / x1 ) = 1/ 8
p ( y2 / x2 ) = 7 / 8
y2
I ( X,y 2 ) ,
H(X/Y), I(X,Y)
3.4. Mt bng ch ci gm bn con ch

ch
x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 . Gi tr xc sut xut hin ring r cc
p ( x i ) v xc sut c iu kin p x j / x i cho trong cc bng di y.

xi
x1
x2
x3
x4
p ( xi )
0,5
0,25
0,125
0,125
xj
x1
x2
x3
x4
p ( x j / xi )
0,2
0,4
0,4
xi
x1
j =1
x2
0,2
0,2
0,3
0,3
x3
0,25
0,25
0,5
x4
0,2
0,4
0,4
Hy tm tha ca ngun tin trong hai trng hp:

a. Khi cc con ch c lp thng k vi nhau.
b. Khi cc con ch ph thuc thng k vi nhau.
3.5. Mt in i v tuyn in gm 16 khi c gi tr nh nhau v tin cy v c mc ni
tip v mt thit b kim tra thng bo s hng hc ca cc khi. Hy tnh s ln th t nht tin
hnh bng thit b kim tra thng bo c th pht hin bt c s hng hc no ca tt c
cc khi.
3.6. Mt in i ca ch c th lm vic trn sng
1 (s kin A1 ) hoc trn sng 2 (s
kin
A 2 ); n cng c th lm vic ch lin tc (s kin B1 ) cng nh ch xung (s

kin B 2 ). Xc sut cc s kin ng thi c gi tr nh nhau:
p ( A1B1 ) = 0,15 ; p ( A1B 2 ) = 0,7 ; p ( A 2 B1 ) = 0,1 ; p ( A 2 B 2 ) = 0,05 .
87

Hy tnh lng tin tc v ch cng tc ca in i y nu coi rng di bc sng
bit.
3.7. Xc nh kh nng thng qua ca knh nh phn i xng c xo (nh hnh v). Nu cc du
x i v y j c thi hn nh nhau v =
1
. F l tn s pht i cc du.
F
1 - ps - q
p(x1) = p
x1
y1
ps
q
y3
ps
p(x2) = 1 - p
x2
y2
1 ps - q
Ghi ch: Gii bng cch tm cc tr ca hm
H(B) = f (p)
3.8. u vo mt my thu nhn c tn hiu hn hp y(t) = x(t) + n(t). Trong tn hiu x(t)
v can nhiu n(t) u l cc qu trnh ngu nhin chun, c lp, c k vng bng khng v
phng sai ln lt bng
s2 v 2n . Hy tnh:
a. Lng tin tc I(x,y) v tn hiu x(t) cha trong tn hiu thu c y(t).
b. Lng tin tc cho trung bnh.
3.9. A chn mt trong cc s t 0
A ngh?
7. Hi B phi dng trung bnh bao nhiu cu hi tm ra s
3.10. Tnh rng gii thng ca mt knh v tuyn truyn hnh truyn hnh nh en trng vi
Ps
s2
=
= 15 .
5.10 yu t, 25 nh trong 1s v c 8 mc sng ng xc sut, vi t s
Pn N 0 .F
5
Nu coi rng nh v tuyn truyn hnh xem nh mt dng tp m trng.

3.11. Tm mt ph tn hiu S(f) bo m tc truyn tin cc i khi cho trc cng sut
f2
ton phn ca tn hiu: Ps
= S ( f ) df v mt ph ca nhiu N(f).
f1
3.12. Hy so snh kh nng thng qua ca hai knh thng tin nu knh th nht chu mt tc ng
2 = 1V 2 , cn knh th hai chu

tc ng ca mt tp m trng, phn b u trong khong 1,5 vi gii tn 2F. Coi rng cng
ca mt tp m trng, chun trong gii tn F vi phng sai
sut ca tn hiu rt ln hn cng sut ca tp m.
88

3.13. Trong 27 ng xu ging nhau c 1 ng xu gi nh hn. Gi s ta dng mt cn a thng
bng (c hai a cn) xc nh ng xu gi. Hy tnh s ln cn trung bnh ti thiu xc nh
c ng xu gi. Nu thut ton cn.
3.14. Trong b t l kh 52 qun bi (khng k phng teo), A rt ra mt qun bi bt k. Tnh s
cu hi trung bnh ti thiu m B cn t ra cho A xc nh c qun bi m A rt. Nu
thut ton hi? Gi s A rt ra 5 r, hy nu cc cu hi cn thit.
89
Chng 4: C s l thuyt m ha
CHNG IV C S L THUYT M HA
4.1. CC NH NGHA V KHI NIM C BN
4.1.1. Cc nh ngha c bn
4.1.1.1. M ha
Tp cc tin ri rc rt a dng v phong ph. h thng truyn tin s c th truyn c
cc tin ny cn phi c mt qu trnh bin i thch hp i vi cc tin ri rc, chnh l qu
trnh m ha.
nh ngha 1: M ha l mt nh x 1- 1 t tp cc tin ri rc a i ln tp cc t m
in i
f : a i in i
c th d dng m ha v gii m, t cc t m
in i thng l cc phn t ca mt cu
trc i s no . Bi vy ta c th nh ngha c th hn cho php m ha.

nh ngha 2: M ha l mt nh x 1- 1 t tp cc tin ri rc
a i ln mt tp con c cu
trc ca mt cu trc i s no .
4.1.1.2. M
nh ngha 3: M (hay b m) l sn phm ca php m ha, hay ni cch khc m l mt
tp cc t m c lp nn theo mt lut nh.
4.1.1.3. Cc yu t ca t m
nh ngha 4: di t m
Nu
n i l s cc du m cn thit dng m ha cho tin a i .
n i = const vi mi i th mi t m u c cng di. B m tng ng c gi l
b m u.
Nu
n i n j th b m tng ng c gi l b m khng u
nh ngha 5: S cc du m khc nhau (v gi tr) c s dng trong b m c gi l

c s m. Ta k hiu gi tr ny l m.
Nu m = 2 th b m tng ng c gi l m nh phn.
Nu m = 3 th b m tng ng c gi l m tam phn
Nu m = p th b m tng ng c gi l m p phn.
Thng thng cc du m c chn l cc phn t trong mt trng F no .
90
V d 1: T m
i7 trong b m u nh phn c di 7 c th m t nh sau:
i7 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Mi mt du m trong t m ny ch c th nhn mt trong hai gi tr
{0,1} , mi du m l
mt phn t ca trng nh phn GF(2).
4.1.2. Cc khi nim c bn

4.1.2.1. tha ca mt b m u (D)
Cho ngun ri rc A gm s tin:
Xt php m ha f sau:
A = a i ; 1,s .
f : a i in ; in V .
C s m l m, khi s cc t m di n c th c l:
N = mn .
nh ngha 6: tha ca mt b m u c xc nh theo biu thc sau:
D=
H0 ( V ) H0 ( A )
H (A)
=1 0
[%]
H0 ( V )
H0 ( V )
Trong :
(4.1)
H 0 ( A ) = log s
H 0 ( V ) = log N = n log m
V d 2: Ta c m ha 4 tin A, B, C, D bng cc tin t m ca mt b lc gii m u nh

phn, c di n = 3, khi tha ca b m ny l:
D =1
log 4
= 33,33%
3log 2
B m ny c 4 t m c dng m ha cho 4 tin ri rc. Cc t m cn li (4 t m)

khng c dng m ha c gi l cc t m cm.
i vi cc b t m u, nh gi nh lng s khc nhau gia cc t m trong b m,
ta s dng khi nim khong cch m sau.
4.1.2.2. Khong cch m (d)
nh ngha 7: Khng cch gia hai t m bt k
tnh theo cng mt v tr gia hai t m ny, k hiu
V d 3:
i7 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
7j = 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
91
in v nj l s cc du m khc nhau
d in , nj
d i7 , 7j = 6
Khong cch m d c y cc tnh cht ca khong cch trong mt khng gian metric.
Tnh cht 1:
Tnh cht 2:
) (
1 d ( in , nj ) 0
d in , nj = d nj , in
Tnh cht 3: (Tnh cht tam gic):
) (
) (
d in , nj + d nj , nk d in , nk
nh gi nh lng kh nng khng ch sai (bao gm kh nng pht hin sai v kh

nng sa sai) ca mt b m ta s dng khi nim khong cch m ti tiu (haykhong cch
Hamming) sau:
nh ngha 8: Khong cch Hamming
d 0 ca mt b m c xc nh theo biu thc
sau:
d 0 = min
d in , nj
n
n
i , j
in v nj khng ng nht bng khng (Ta coi in l t m khng khi mi du
m trong t m u nhn gi tr khng).

4.1.2.3. Trng s ca mt t m
nh ngha 9: Trng s ca mt t m
( )
W in l s cc du m khc khng trong t
m.
V d:
i7 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
( )
W i7 = 4
Nu ta coi mi t m
in l mt vct n chiu trong mt khng gian tuyn tnh n chiu
Vn , khi php cng c thc hin gia hai t m tng th nh php cng gia hai vct
tng ng.
V d 4:
i7 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 ( 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)
7j = 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 (1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 )
7k = i7 + 7j = 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 (1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1 )
92
y php cng trn mi thnh phn (ta ) ca vct c thc hin trn trng nh
phn GF(2). Php cng theo modulo 2 ny c m t nh sau:
+
Sau y l cc tnh cht ca trng s:
( )
- d ( , ) = W (
-
0 W in 1
n
i
n
j
n
n
i +j
4.1.3. Kh nng khng ch sai ca mt b m u nh phn

4.1.3.1. Kh nng pht hin sai
nh l 1: Mt b m u nh phn c tha (D > 0) v c
d 0 2 s c kh nng pht
hin c t sai tha mn iu kin:
t d0 1
(4.2)
Chng minh:
Mi t m trong b m u cch nhau mt khong cch t nht l
nhiu t m nhn c c th b sai t v tr
d 0 . Khi truyn tin, do c
t d 0 1 . V vy t m nhn c khng th bin
thnh mt t m c dng khc. Nh vy ta lun c th pht hin c rng t m nhn sai.

4.1.3.2. Kh nng sa sai
nh l 2: Mt b m u nh phn c tha
( D 0 ) v c ( d 0 3) s c kh nng
sa c e sai tha mn iu kin:
d 1
e 0
2
y
(4.3)
[ x ] l k hiu phn nguyn ca s x .
Chng minh:
Khi truyn tin, do c nhiu, t m nhn c c th b sai e v tr
d0 1
e 2 . Nh
vy, Khong cch gia t m nhn c vi t m khc ti tiu l e + 1 . Nh vy, ta lun c th

xc nh ng c t m pht. iu c ngha l ta sa sai c e sai gp phi trn c
truyn.
93
4.1.4. M u nh phn khng c tha

M u nh phn khng c tha (D = 0) cn c gi l m n gin. Vi m n gin
s = N = 2 n . Nh vy mi mt t m c th c u c s dng m ha cho cc tin

ri rc. Vi t m n gin d 0 = 1. V vy ta khng th pht hin hay sa c bt c mt sai
ta c
no.
Gi s ta truyn t m n gin qua knh i xng nh phn khng nh c xc sut thu sai
mt du l
p0 . Khi xc sut thu ng mt du tng ng l (1 p0 ) . T m ch nhn ng
khi mi du m u nhn ng. Nh vy, xc sut thu ng t m
p = (1 p0 )
p l:
(4.4)
Xc sut thu sai ca t m l:
ps = 1 p = 1 (1 p0 )
Vi
p0
(4.5.a)
1 ta c cng thc gn ng sau:
(1 p0 )n 1 n p0
Ta c:
ps n p 0
(4.5.b)
Gi s xc sut thu sai cho php i vi mi tin ri
rc l
ps cp , khi iu kin s
dng m n gin trong knh i xng nh phn khng nh l:
ps ps cp
Hay
p0
ps cp
(4.6)
4.2. M THNG K TI U
Ta xt php m ha sau i vi cc tin ca ngun ri rc A:
f :
a i in i
Mi tin
a i c m ha bng mt t hp m (t m) in i ( in i l mt t hp m gm n i
du m).
Ta xt trng hp m nh phn tc l mi du m ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr "0" v "1".
94
4.2.1. di trung bnh ca t m v m ha ti u
ni
ai
Ta c A =
V = i i = 1,s
=
i
1,s
p(a )
p (ai )
i
nh ngha 1: di trung bnh ca mt t hp m c xc nh theo biu thc sau:

s
n = M [ni ] = ni p ( ai )
i =1
nh ngha 2: Mt php m ha c gi l tit kim (hay ti u) nu n lm cc tiu gi

tr
n.
4.2.2. Yu cu ca mt php m ha ti u
-
n min .
- C kh nng gii m tc th: khng mt dy bt no trong biu din ca mt tin (k t) no

li l phn u (prefix) ca mt dy bt di hn biu din cho mt tin (k t) khc.
V d 1: M Moorse khng m bo yu cu ny v:
M s cho E (.) l tin t ca m s cho A
(. )
M s cho D ( .. ) l tin t ca m s cho B ( ...)
4.2.3. nh l m ha th nht ca Shannon (i vi m nh phn)

4.2.3.1. nh l
Lun lun c th xy dng c mt php m ha cc tin ri rc c hiu qu m n c th
nh ty nhng khng nh hn entropic H(A) c xc nh bi c tnh thng k ca ngun A.
n H(A)
Chng minh:
Nu gi m l c s ca b m th lng thng tin ring cc i cha trong mi du m l
log m.
Gi
n i l di ca t m in i ng vi tin a i , khi lng thng tin ring cc i cha
trong t m ny l
n i logm .
Lng thng tin ring trung bnh ca mi t m l:

s
p ( a i ) ni log m = n logm
i =1
95
php m ha khng lm tn hao thng tin th lng thng tin ring trung bnh cc i
cha trong mi t m phi khng nh hn lng thng tin ring trung bnh cha trong mi tin
thuc ngun. Tc l:
n log m H ( A )
hay
H(A)
.
log m
Vi m nh phn (m = 2) ta c:
n H(A)
4.2.3.2. Nguyn tc lp m tit kim

Theo nh l ta c:
i =1
i =1
p ( a i ) ni p ( a i ) log p ( a i )
Bt ng thc trn s tha mn nu
i ta c:
p ( a i ) n i p ( a i ) log p ( a i )
hay
n i log p ( a i )
Nguyn tc: Cc t m c di cng nh s c dng m ha cho cc tin c xc sut

xut hin cng ln v ngc li.
4.2.4. Thut ton Huffman

4.2.4.1. Thut ton m ha
Vi php m ha ti u ta c:
VO: Ngun ri rc
RA: T m
n = H(A)
ai
A=
, i = 1,s
p
a
(
)
i
in i tng ng vi tin a i
Bc 1: Khi ng mt danh sch cc cy nh phn mt nt cha cc trng lng
p1, p 2 , , p n cho cc tin a1, 2 , , a n .

Bc 2: Thc hin cc bc sau
n 1 ln:
Tm hai cy T' v T" trong danh sch vi cc nt gc c trng lng ti thiu p' v p".
Thay th hai cy ny bng cy nh phn vi nt gc c trng lng p' + p" v c cc cy
con l T' v T".
nh du cc mi tn ch n cc cy con 0 v 1.
0
T'
p' + p"
96
1
T"
Bc 3: M s ca tin
a i l dy cc bt c nh du trn ng t gc ca cy nh phn
cui cng ti nt a i .
V d 1: Xt cc k t A, B, C, D, E c cc xc sut xut hin tng ng l 0,2; 0,1; 0,1;
0,15; 0,45
Bc 1:
Bc 2:
0,1
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,45
0,1
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,45
Ln 1:
0,2
Ln 2:
0,35
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,45
Ln 3:
0
0
0
0,2
0,55
0,35
1
1
1
0,1
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,45
97
Ln 4:
0
0
0
0
0,2
0,55
1
0,35
1
1
1
0,1
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,45
Bc 3:
K t
M tng ng
01
0000
0001
001
ni
nh gi hiu qu:
s
n = n i p ( a i ) = 2.0,2 + 4.0,1 + 4.0,1 + 3.0,15 + 1.0,45

i =1
= 2,1du
s
H ( A ) = p ( a i ) log
i =1
1
100
100
= 2.0,1log10 + 0,15log
+ 0,2log5 + 0,45log
p ( ai )
15
45
= 0,2.3,3226 + 0,15.2,7375 + 0,2.2,3224 + 0, 45.1,1522
= 0,6645 + 0,4106 + 0,4645 + 0,5185
= 2,058 bit
Ta thy
n H(A)
Nhn xt: Php m ha trn l gn ti u.

4.2.4.2. Thut ton gii m
VO: Xu bt
RA: Xu tin (k t)
Bc 1: Khi ng con tr P ch n gc ca cy Huffman.
Bc 2: While (cha t ti kt thc thng bo) do:
a. t x l bt tip theo trong xu bt.
98
b. If x = 0 then
t P: = con tr ch n cy con tri ca n
else
P: = con tr ch n cy con phi ca n
c. If (P ch n nt l) then
1. Hin th k t tng ng vi nt l.
2. t li P n li ch n gc ca cy Huffman
V d 2: Thng bo nhn c: 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Qu trnh gii m:
G0 1 000 1
G
1 0 1
1 00 1
G
RA: A C E D E A
4.3. CC CU TRC I S V M TUYN TNH

4.3.1. Mt s cu trc i s c bn
4.3.1.1. Nhm:
G,*
Nhm G l mt tp hp cc phn t vi mt php ton trong 2 ngi tha mn cc tnh cht

sau:
-
a , bG a b = cG
- Tn ti phn t n v e:
- Tn ti phn t ngc
Nu
a e = e a = a
a 1 : a a 1 = a 1 a = e
a b = b a th nhm c gi l nhm giao hon.
V d 1: Tp cc s nguyn Z vi php ton cng (+) to nn mt nhm giao hon vi phn

t n v l 0.
Nu s cc phn t trong nhm
Nu
G l hu hn th ta c nhm hu hn cp G .
H G v H, to nn mt nhm th H c gi l nhm con ca G. Cp ca H l
c ca cp ca G.
4.3.1.2. Nhm xyclic
Xt nhm hu hn
G , i . Nu G c th m t nh sau"
99
G = i , i
th G c gi l nhm xyclic sinh bi . c gi l phn t sinh (hay phn t nguyn

thy) ca nhm.
V d 2: Xt nhm nhn:
Ta c:
Z11
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
20 = 1
25 = 10
21 = 2
26 = 9
22 = 4
27 = 7
23 = 8
28 = 3
24 = 5
29 = 6
Ta c th vit
Z11
= 2i mod 11 .
Phn t c gi l c cp k nu n l s nguyn dng nh nht tha mn
k 1mod n .
v d trn ta c
4.3.1.3. Vnh:
ord ( 2 ) = ord ( 8 ) = ord ( 7 ) = ord ( 9 ) = 10
R, +, i
Vnh R l mt tp hp cc phn t vi hai php ton trong hai ngi (Php cng (+), php
nhn ( i )) tha mn cc tnh cht sau:
-
R,+ l mt nhm i vi php cng
R, i l mt na nhm i vi php nhn. iu ny c ngha l khng nht thit mi
phn t u c phn t ngc ca php nhn.

- Tnh cht phn phi:
( a + b ) c = a c + bc
Vnh R c gi l vnh giao hon nu ta c
a b = ba
4.3.1.4. Ideal:
Ideal I l mt tp con trong R c cc tnh cht sau:
-
a,bI : a + b I , I,+ l mt nhm i vi php *.
cR : c.a I
100
4.3.1.5. Trng
F, +, i
Trng F l mt tp hp cc phn t vi hai php ton trong hai ngi tha mn:
-
F, + l mt nhm cng
F* , i l mt nhm i vi php nhn.
Trong :
F* = F \ {0}
V d 3: Trng nh phn GF(2): Trng ny ch c hai phn t 0 v 1.

4.3.1.6. Khng gian tuyn tnh
Vn
Cc phn t trong khng gian tuyn tnh c gi l cc vct.
v Vn l cc vct n chiu. Mi vct n chiu c m t bng mt b n ta c sp
v ( v0 , v1, ..., vn 1 ) vi vi F
Trong khng gian
- Cng vct:
Vn ta xc nh cc php ton sau:
u = ( u0 , ..., un 1 ) , v = ( v0 , ..., vn 1 )
u + v = ( y0 , ..., yn 1 ) vi y j = u j + v j F
- Tch v hng ca hai vct:
( u,v )
n 1
( u,v ) = uivi F
i =0
Hai vct c gi l trc giao nu
( u,v ) = 0
- Nhn mt vct vi mt phn t v hng

Xt phn t v hng
.u = ( u1, ..., un 1 )
4.3.2. Cc dng tuyn tnh v m tuyn tnh
4.3.2.1. Dng tuyn tnh
nh ngha 1: Cc dng tuyn tnh ca k bin c lp x1,
x2 , ..., xk l cc biu thc c
dng:
k
f ( x1, ..., xk ) = ai xi
i =1
101
(4.7)
Trong : ai F
Nhn xt: C s tng ng 1 1 gia cc dng tuyn tnh, cc vct v cc a thc trong
vnh a thc.
4.3.2.2. M tuyn tnh
nh ngha 2: M tuyn tnh di n l m m t m ca n c cc du m l cc dng
tuyn tnh
nh ngha 3: M h thng tuyn tnh (n,k) l m tuyn tnh di n trong ta c th ch
ra c v tr ca k du thng tin trong t m.
nh ngha 4: M tuyn tnh ngu nhin l m tuyn tnh c cc du m c chn ngu
nhin t cc dng tuyn tnh c th c.
Nhn xt:
- Shannon chng minh rng tn ti cc m t c gii hn Shannon (tha mn nh l
m ha th hai) trong cc m tuyn tnh ngu nhin.
- Kh tm cc m tt trn cc m tuyn tnh ngu nhin. Hn na vic m ha v gii m
cho cc m ny cng rt phc tp. Bi vy cc m ny ch c ngha v mt l thuyt.
V d 4: S cc dng tuyn tnh khc nhau ca 4 bin c lp l:
N 0 = 24 1 = 15
S cc m h thng tuyn tnh
3
= 165
( 7,4 ) l N1 = C11
4.3.2.3. Ma trn sinh v ma trn kim tra ca m tuyn tnh

n gin cho vic m t m tuyn tnh ngi ta thng s dng ma trn sinh
trn ny cha k vct hng c lp tuyn tnh to nn khng gian m
G k.n . Ma
V( n,k )
2k cc vt khc nhau l tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh c th c ca k vct hng ny.

Trong i s tuyn tnh ta bit rng vi mi G s tn ti ma trn
H rn tha mn:
G.H T = 0
Trong :
(4.8)
r=nk
H T c gi l ma trn chuyn v ca H
H c gi l ma trn kim tra ca m tuyn tnh (n, k)

Ta thy rng H cha r vct hng trc giao vi cc vct hng ca G
Hin nhin l nu a l mt vct m
( a V ( ) ) th :
n,r
102
a.H T = 0
(4.9)
y H cng l mt ma trn sinh ca mt m tuyn tnh
V( n,r ) v G li chnh l ma trn
kim tra ca m ny. Ta thy rng khng gian tuyn tnh C sinh bi G l khng gian khng ca
khng gian tuyn tnh
C sinh bi H.
T (4.9) ta c th vit ra r phng trnh:

n
a jhij = 0
, i = 1,r
(4.10)
j=1
Cc phng trnh ny cn c gi l cc tng kim tra. M C sinh bi m G v

bi H c gi l cc m i ngu.
C sinh
C C th C c gi l m t i ngu. Cc m t i ngu c r = n k v bi
k 1
vy c tc R = = .
n 2
Nu
V d 5: Xt m h thng tuyn tnh (7, 4) c cc du m c chn t cc dng tuyn tnh

nh sau:
T m a gm cc du m a i c chn nh sau:
a 0 = x0
a1 = x1
a 2 = x2
a 3 = x3
a 4 = x0 + x1 + x2
a 5 = x1 + x2 + x3
a 6 = x0 + x1 + x3
Nh vy ma trn sinh G c dng:
1
0
G =
0
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
Ma trn kim tra ca m (7, 4) ny l:
103
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
H = 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
H chnh l ma trn sinh ca m (7, 3) l m i ngu vi m (7, 4) sinh bi G
4.3.3. Cc bi ton ti u ca m tuyn tnh nh phn

Khi xy dng mt m tuyn tnh
( n,k,d 0 )
ngi ta mong mun tm c cc m c
tha nh nhng li c kh nng khng ch sai ln. n gin ngi ta thng xy dng m da
trn cc bi ton ti u sau:
4.3.3.1. Bi ton 1
Vi k v
d 0 xc nh, ta phi tm c m c di vi t m l nh nht.
Tng ng vi bi ton ny ta c gii hn Griesmer sau:

k 1
d
n 0i
i=0 2
y
(4.11)
x ch s nguyn nh nht ln hn hoc bng x.
V d 6: Cho
k = 4, d 0 = 3
n 3 + 2 +1+1= 7
Vy m phi c di ti tiu l 7. Hay ni mt cch khc m (7, 4, 3) l mt m ti u t

c gii hn Griesmer.
4.3.3.2. Bi ton 2
Vi n v k xc nh, ta phi tm c m c khong cch tiu
d 0 l ln nht.
Tng ng vi bi ton ny ta c gii hn Plotkin sau:
d0
n.2k 1
(4.12)
2k 1
V d 7: Cho k = 3, n = 7
d0
Vy khong cch
7.22
23 1
=4
d 0 ln nht l 4. Ni mt cch khc m (7, 3, 4) l mt m ti u t
c gii hn Plotkin.
104
4.3.3.3. Bi ton 3
Vi n v s sai kh sa t xc nh, ta phi tm c m c s du thng tin k l ln nht
(hay s du tha r = n k l nh nht)
Tng ng vi bi ton ny ta c gii hn Hamming sau:
t
2n k Cin
(4.13)
i =0
V d 8: Cho n = 7 v t = 1
1
2r Ci7 = C70 + C17 = 8

i =0
r log 2 8 = 3
hay
k 73= 4
Nh vy m (7, 4, 3) l m ti u t c gii hn Hamming

M t c gii hn Hamming cn c gi l m hon thin.
4.4. VNH A THC V M XYCLIC

4.4.1. Vnh a thc
Ta xt tp hp cc a thc c bc khng ln hn
n 1 sau:
n 1
f ( x ) = fi xi
(4.14)
i =0
deg f ( x ) n 1
fi l cc h s c ly gi tr trong mt trng F no .
Trn tp cc a thc ny ta xc nh 2 php ton trong l php cng a thc v php nhn
a thc nh sau:
4.4.1.1. Php cng a thc
Xt hai a thc sau:
Ta c:
n 1
n 1
i =0
i =0
a ( X ) = ai xi , b ( X ) = bi xi
a (X) + b(X) = c(X)

n 1
c ( X ) = ci x i
i =0
105
ci = ai + bi
y php cng cc h s ai v bi c thc hin trn trng F
Nu ta coi mi a thc c bc nh hn hoc bng
tuyn tnh n chiu
n 1 l mt vct trong khng gian
Vn th php cng a thc hon ton tng t nh php cng vct.
V d 1: Xt n = 7, F = GF(2)
a (X)
= 1 + x + x4
a = (1 1 0 0 1 0 0 )
b(X)
= x + x2
b = (0 1 1 0 0 0 0)
a ( X ) + b ( X ) = 1 + x 2 + x 4 a + b = (1 0 1 0 1 0 0 )
4.4.1.2. Php nhn a thc
tch ca hai a thc c bc
php nhn 2 a thc theo moulo
n 1 vn l mt a thc c bc n 1 ta phi thc hin
X n + 1 (tc l coi X n = 1).
n 1
n 1
a ( X ) .b ( X ) = ai xi . bi xi mod X n + 1
i =0
i =0
V d 2:
a ( X ) = 1 + X + X4 , b ( X ) = X + X2
(
a ( X ) .b ( X ) = (1 + X
)(
a ( X ) .b ( X ) = 1 + X + X 4 X + X3 mod X 7 + 1
2
+ X5 + X3 + X 4 + X 7 mod X 7 + 1
a ( X ) .b ( X ) = 1 + X + X 2 + X3 + X 4 + X5
Ta thy rng tch ca hai a thc c thc hin trn c s tch ca hai n thc
x i .x j = x (
i + j) mod n
xi v x j .
(4.15)
Ch : Php nhn cc h s ai v bj l php nhn trn trng F

4.4.1.3. Php dch vng
Ta xt mt trng hp c bit ca php nhn l nhn mt a thc
xi .
n 1
a ( X ) = ai xi a = ( a0 , a1, a2 , , an 1 )
i =0
Xt tch sau:
106
a ( X ) v mt n thc
n 1 i
b ( X ) = x.a ( X ) = x. ai x b = ( an 1, a0 , a1, , an 2 )
i =0
Ta thy biu din vct b c dch vng v pha phi mt cp so vi biu din vct a.
Tng t ta c:
n 1
c ( X ) = x j.a ( X ) = x j. ai xi c = an j , an j+1, , an j1
i =0
Xt thng sau:
a ( X ) ai xi
=
d = ( a1, a2 , , an 1, a0 )
d ( x) =
x
x
Ta thy biu din ca vc t d dc dch vng v pha tri 1 cp so vi biu din ca vct
a.
Nhn xt:
a ( X ) xna ( X )
=
= x n-1a ( X )
x
x
V d 3:
a (X) =
(
) = x+x
(1 + x + x ) = 1 + x
b ( X ) = x .a ( X ) = x 1 + x + x 4
d(X) =
a (X)
=
x
1 + x + x 4 a = (1 1 0 0 1 0 0 )
2
+ x5 b = ( 0 1 1 0 0 1 0)
+ x 6 d = (1 0 0 1 0 0 1)
4.4.1.4. nh ngha vnh a thc

nh ngha 1: Tp cc a thc xc nh theo (3.11) vi hai php ton cng a thc v nhn
a thc theo modulo
nm trong
X n + 1 to nn vnh a thc. Trong trng hp cc h s ca cc a thc
GF ( 2 ) ta k hiu vnh ny l Z2 [ x ] X n + 1 .
4.4.2. Ideal ca vnh a thc

nh ngha 2: Ideal I ca vnh a thc gm tp cc a thc
g ( X ) tha mn:
-
g ( X ) X n + 1 ( g ( X ) l c ca X n + 1 )
107
a ( X ) l bi ca mt a thc
deg g ( X ) = r = min deg a ( X ) vi a ( X ) I, a ( X ) 0
Ta k hiu Ideal trong vnh a thc l
I = g(X)
Hin nhin l vi
g ( X ) = gi xi ta c
i =0
g 0 = g r = 1 , gi {0,1} vi i = 1,r 1
c th tm c tt c cc Ideal trong vnh ta phi thc hin phn tch nh thc
thnh tch ca cc a thc bt kh quy.
nh ngha 3: a thc
Xn + 1
a ( X ) c gi l bt kh quy nu n ch chia ht cho 1 v cho
chnh n.
Nh vy a thc bt kh quy l a thc khng th phn tch thnh tch cc a thc c bc
nh hn.
m
nh l 4: Vi n = 2 1 , a thc
thc bt kh quy c bc m v c ca m.
X n + 1 c phn tch thnh tch ca tt c cc a
V d 4:
- m = 2, n = 3: ch c duy nht mt a thc bt kh quy bc 2 l
bt kh quy bc 1 l
(1 + x ) . Nh vy:
X3 + 1 = (1 + x ) 1 + x + x 2
x 2 + x + 1 v mt a thc
- m = 3, n = 7: Trong s 8 a thc bc 3 ch c 2 a thc sau l cc a thc bt kh quy,

l
x 3 + x + 1 v x 3 + x 2 + 1 . Nh vy:
)(
X 7 + 1 = (1 + x ) 1 + x + x 3 1 + x 2 + x 3
- m = 4, n = 15: Trong s 16 a thc bc 4 ch c 3 a thc sau l cc a thc bt kh quy:
x 4 + x + 1 , x 4 + x 3 + 1 v x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 . Nh vy:
)(
)(
)(
X15 + 1 = (1 + x ) 1 + x + x 2 1 + x + x 4 1 + x 3 + x 4 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4
Gi s cc a thc bt kh quy trong phn tch ca
vnh c xc nh theo biu thc sau:
nh ngha 5: a thc
g *(X) = X
deg g ( X )
X n + 1 l I, khi s cc Ideal trong
I = 2I 1
g * ( X ) c gi l a thc i ngu ca a thc g ( X ) nu:
( )
.g X 1
108
V d 5: Cho
g ( X ) = 1 + X + X3 .
Khi a thc i ngu
g * ( X ) ca n l:
1
1
g * ( X ) = X3. 1 + + 3 = X3 + X 2 + 1
X X
Nu
g * ( X ) = g ( X ) th g ( X ) c gi l a thc t i ngu.
Nhn xt:
- Nu
a ( X ) l bt kh quy th n phi cha mt s l cc n thc.
- Nu
a ( X ) l bt kh quy th a * ( X ) cng l mt a thc bt kh quy.
4.4.3. nh ngha m xyclic

nh ngha 6: M xyclic (n, k) l Ideal
V Ideal
g(X)
I = g ( X ) ca vnh a thc Z2 [ x ] X n + 1 .
cha tt c cc bi ca
g ( X ) nn nu a ( X ) g ( X ) th
a ( X ) g ( X ) v hin nhin l x.a ( X ) g ( X ) x.a ( X ) g ( X ) .

Ta c th a ra mt nh ngha trc quan hn cho m xyclic.
nh ngha 7: M xyclic l mt b m tuyn tnh c tnh cht sau: Nu
m th dch vng ca
Ch :
a ( X ) l mt t
a ( X ) cng l mt t m thuc b m ny.
g ( X ) c gi l a thc sinh ca m xyclic
V d 7: Tp tt c cc m xyclic trn vnh
Z2 [ x ] X 7 + 1 . Vnh ny c tt c 7 ideal
tng ng vi 7 b m xyclic.
No
g(X)
M (n, k)
d0
(7, 7)
1+X
(7, 6)
1 + X + X3
(7, 4)
1 + X 2 + X3
(7, 4)
1 + X + X2 + X4
(7, 3)
1 + X 2 + X3 + X 4
(7, 3)
109
xi
(7, 1)
i =0
4.4.4. Ma trn sinh ca m xyclic

V m xyclic (n, k) l mt m tuyn tnh nn ta c th m t n thng qua ma trn sinh G
nn cha k vct hng c lp tuyn tnh. Ta c th thit lp G nh sau:
g(X)
x.g
X
(
)
G =
k 1
x .g ( X )
(4.1.6)
V d 8: M xyclic (7, 4) c a thc sinh
g ( X ) = 1 + X + X3 . Ma trn sinh ca m ny
c th m t nh sau:
1 + X + X3
1
X + X2 + X4 0
G =
=
2
3
5
X + X + X 0
3
4
6 0
X + X + X
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
4.4.5. Ma trn kim tra ca m xyclic

V
g ( X ) X n + 1 nn ta c th vit x n + 1 = g ( X ) .h ( X )
xn + 1
Hay h ( X ) =
g(X)
h ( X ) c gi l a thc kim tra.

V
g ( X ) .h ( X ) 0mod X n + 1 nn cc a thc h ( X ) v g ( X ) c gi l cc a
thc trc giao.

k
Ta c:
h ( X ) = hj x j vi h0 = hk = 1 , hj {0,1} vi j = 2,k 1
j= 0
Do s khc bit gia tch v hng ca 2 vct v tch ca hai a thc tng ng nn ta c
th xy dng ma trn kim tra ca m xyclic sinh bi
110
g ( X ) nh sau:
h* ( X )
*
x.h ( X )
H=
x r 1.h* ( X )
(4.17)
V d 9: Xy dng ma trn kim tra cho m xyclic (7, 4) c
h (X) =
Ta c:
X7 + 1
3
X + X +1
g ( X ) = 1 + X + X3
= (1 + x ) 1 + X 2 + X3 = X 4 + X 2 + X + 1
h* ( X ) = 1 + X 2 + X3 + X 4
Ma trn kim tra:
1 + X 2 + X3 + X 4
1 0 1 1 1 0 0
H = X + X3 + X 4 + X5 = 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
2

X + X 4 + X 5 + X 6 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Ta d dng kim tra:

Vi
G.H T = 0
a ( X ) l mt t m ta c: a ( X ) .H T = 0
4.5. M HA CHO CC M XYCLIC

4.5.1. M t t m ca m xyclic h thng
nh ngha: M xyclic (n, k) c gi l mt m xyclic h thng nu ta c th ch r v tr
ca cc du thng tin v cc du kim tra trong t m.
Thng thng cc du thng tin c sp xp k v tr bc cao (t bc r ti bc
v tr bc thp cn li l cc du kim tra (t bc 0 ti bc r 1 )
f0
f1
f r 1
fr
r du kim tra
f r +1
n 1 ) Cc
f n 1
k du thng tin
n 1
f ( X ) = fi xi = x n k .a ( X ) + r ( X )
i =0
Ta c:
f ( X ) g ( X ) f ( X ) = q ( X ) .g ( X )
111
(1.18)
f ( X ) x n k .a ( X ) r ( X )
=
+
g(X)
g(X)
g(X)
f (X)
r '( X ) r ( X )
= q(X) +
+
g(X)
g(X) g(X)
T (1.1) v (1.2) ta thy:
(1.19)
r '( X ) + r ( X ) = 0
4.5.2. Thut ton m ha h thng

T (1.19) ta c th m t thut ton xy dng t m xyclic theo cc bc sau:
VO: Tin ri rc a i A
RA: T m fi ( x ) tng ng vi a i .
Bc 1: M t tin
deg a i ( X ) k 1 .
a i trong tp tin cn m ha (gm 2k tin) bng mt a thc a i ( X ) vi
Bc 2: Nng bc a i ( X ) bng cch nhn n vi

Bc 3: Chia a i ( X ) .x
n k
x n k .
cho a thc sinh g(X) tm phn d ri ( X ) .
Bc 4: Xy dng t m xyclic: fi ( x ) = a i ( X ) .x
n k
+ ri ( X )
(1.20)
4.5.3. Thit b m ha
Phn trung tm ca thit b m ha l mt thit b chia cho g(X) tnh d. Thc cht y
l mt otomat nh dng ca g(X).
r 1
Gi s:
g ( X ) = gi xi
(1.21)
i =0
Khi thit b m ha cho m (n, k) vi a thc sinh dng (1.21) c m t nh sau (Hnh
4. 1):
0 H mch
gi =
1 Ngn mch
g1
1
1 n
V1
g2
2
g3
3
1 k
g r 1
+
a i ( X ) .x n k
VO
RA
k + 1 n V2
112
Hnh 4.1: Thit b m ha cho m xyclic (n, k) c a thc sinh g(X)
Hot ng ca thit b m ha:

- k nhp u: chia v tnh phn d: Mch v
V1 m, V2 ng, thit b hot ng nh mt
b chia tnh d. Kt thc nhp th k ton b phn d nm trong r nh t 1 n r. Trong qu

trnh ny, cc du thng tin
( a ( X ).x ) c a ra qua mch hoc H.

n k
V1 ng, thit b hot
- r nhp sau: a ra cc du kim tra (phn d) ti u ra. Mch V

ng nh mt thanh ghi dch ni tip. Mch V
V2 m, cc du kim tra c ln lt a ra t
bc cao ti bc thp. Kt thc nhp th n, ton b t m c a ra u ra.

V d 1: Thit b m ha cho m xyclic (7, 4) c
V1
g ( X ) = 1 + X + X3
1 4
a i ( X ) .x n k
1 7
57
Gi s a thc thng tin cn m:
1010
V2
000
a ( X ) = X3 + X
Qu trnh hot ng ca thit b c m t trn bng sau:

Xung
nhp
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Vo
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
Trng thi cc nh
1
2
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
Ra
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
Bng 1: Qu trnh hot ng ca b m ha.

Kim tra li:
a ( X ) .x n k = x 3 + x .x 3 = x 6 + x 4
113
x6 + x4
x3 + x + 1
x6 + x 4 + x3
x3 + 1
x3
x3 + x + 1
D r ( X ) = x + 1
T m c thit lp
f (X) = x + x + x +1
6
X6 . . . . . X0
1 010 011
4.5.4. To cc du kim tra ca m xyclic

Gi s
f ( X ) V - m xyclic (n, k) c a thc sinh g(X).
Khi
f ( X ) g ( X ) hay f ( X ) = g ( X ) .q ( X )
Trong :
(*)
deg f ( X ) n 1
deg g ( X ) = r = n k
deg q ( X ) n 1 r = k 1
n 1
Vi
f ( X ) = fi xi
i =0
Gi
h (X) =
xn + 1
ta c deg h ( X ) = k
g(X)
Nhn hai v ca (*) vi h(X) ta c:
f ( X ) .h ( X ) = g ( X ) .q ( X ) .h ( x )
g ( X ) .h ( x ) = x n + 1 nn f ( X ) .h ( X ) = g ( X ) .x n + q ( X )
deg g ( X ) k 1 nn trong (**) khng cha cc thnh phn bc cao ca x c m
(**)
k, k + 1, , n 1.
Do cc h s tng ng ca cc thnh phn ny trong (**) phi bng 0. Tc l trong
biu thc:
n 1 i k
f ( X ) .h ( X ) = fi x . hj x j
i=0
j= 0
114
ta phi c cc s hng c dng: fi
hj xi+ j = 0 vi i + j tha mn: k i + j n 1 hay
k j i n 1 j .
n r j i n 1 j.
Khi j chy t 0 n k th:

Nh vy ta c:
k
h j f n j i = 0
1 i n k
j= 0
Hin nhin l ta lun c:

T
h0 = hk = 1 .
k 1
( )
(*** )
*
** : f n k i = hj f n ji , 1 i n k
j= 0
(**
**)
(**
**) l phng trnh to cc du kim tra. Ta c th dng n to cc du kim tra trong
cc chng trnh m ha v gii m.
V d 2: Cho m xyclic (7, 4) c
Ta c:
Vy
T
h (X) =
x7 + 1
3
x + x +1
g ( X ) = 1 + X + X3
= x4 + x2 + x + 1.
h 0 = h1 = h 2 = h 4 = 1 , h 3 = 0 .
(**
**) ta thy cc du kim tra ca m ny c to t phng trnh sau:
f 3 i = f 7 i + f 6 i + f 5 i , 1 i 3 .
V d 3:
a ( X ) = x3 + 1
f 6 = f3 = 1 , f5 + f 4 = 0
Ta c:
Khi :
f 2 = f 6 + f5 + f 4 = 1
f1 = f5 + f 4 + f3 = 1
f 0 = f 4 + f3 + f 2 = 0
Thit b m ha xy dng theo phng trnh trn c dng:

RA
VO
1 4
f3
57
f4
f5
+
115
f6
1 7
Xung
nhp
VO
Trng thi cc nh
RA
f3
f4
f5
f6
4.5.5. Thut ton thit lp t m h thng theo phng php nhn

VO:
- M xyclic (n, k), g(X)

- Tin a i A
RA: T m h thng ca m (n, k) xyclic

Bc 1: M ha tin
a i bng a thc thng tin a ( X ) vi deg a ( X ) k 1 ,
k 1
a ( X ) = a jx j
j= 0
Bc 2:
- Nng bc:
a ( X ) .x n-k
a ( X ) .x
n-k
k 1
= a j+ r x
j+r
j= 0
n 1
= fi + r xi
i=r
h(x).
- Tnh
Bc 3: for i = 1 to
n k do
k 1
f n k i = hj f n ji
j= 0
Bc 4:
Thit lp t m h thng.
n 1
( f0 , f1, , f n 1 ) f ( X ) = fi xi
i=r
116
4.6. GII M NGNG

4.6.1. Hai th tc gii m
Mi phng php gii m u c th tin hnh theo mt trong hai th tc gii m sau:
- Phng php (th tc) 1: Dn ra bn tin t dy du nhn c.
Knh
Gii m
y
y=x+e
- Th tc 2: Dn ra vct sai t dy du nhn c.
Knh
Gii m
+
x
4.6.2. Gii m theo Syndrom

Gi s
v V - m xyclic (n, k) c a thc sinh g(X).
Ma trn sinh ca
V ( n,k ) c dng:
g(X)
x.g
X
(
)
G =
k 1
x .g ( X )
xnH
; Ta c deg g ( X ) = r , deg h ( X ) = k .
g(X)
Gi
h (X) =
Gi
h* ( X ) l a thc i ngu ca h ( X ) . Theo nh ngha:

h* ( X ) = x
deg h ( X )
Khi ma trn kim tra ca m
( )
.h x 1
V ( n,k ) c dng:
117
h* ( x )
*
x.h ( x )
H=
x r 1.h* ( x )
Ta c
G.H T = 0
Vi v bt k,
v V ta c v.H T = 0
Xt m hnh knh truyn tin sau:
Knh
u = ( u 0 , u1, , u n 1 )
u =v+e
Ta c
S ( u ) = u.H T = ( v + r ) H T = e.H T = S ( e )
S ( e ) l mt vct r chiu c trng cho vct sai e n chiu.

Ta gi
S ( u ) l Syndrom ca vct nhn c u.
Qu trnh gii m da trn vic phn tch trng thi ca
S ( u ) c gi l gii m theo
syndrom (hi chng).

Hin nhin l khi khng c sai
Khi c sai:
( e 0 ) ta c: S ( u ) = S ( e ) = 0
S( u ) = S( e ) 0
Cn c vo trng thi (gi tr) c th ca
S ( e ) m ta c th a ra mt phn on nht
nh v e.
Mi mt thnh phn ca
S ( u ) s cho ta mt mi quan h no gia cc du m v n
c gi l mt tng kim tra.
4.6.3. H tng kim tra trc giao v c kh nng trc giao

Tp r tng kim tra trong
S ( u ) to nn h tng kim tra. Mi tng kim tra trong h s
u i , thng tin c th nhiu, t hoc bng

khng. Ngoi ra mi tng kim tra ny cn cha thng tin v cc du m u j khc.
cha mt thng tin nht nh v du cn gii m
d gii cho
tin nht v
u i hin nhin rng ta cn xy dng mt h tng kim tra cha nhiu thng
u i . Trn c s ta a ra khi nim h tng kim tra trc giao sau:

118
nh ngha: H J tng kim tra c gi l trc giao vi

- Mi tng kim tra trong h u cha
- Du m
u i nu:
ui .
u j ( j i ) ch nm ti a trong mt tng kim tra
Nhn xt:
- H tng kim tra trc giao cha nhiu thng tin v
u i v cha t thng tin v cc du m
khc.
- Sai mt du m
- Sai
u j ch lm nh hng ti nhiu nht l mt tng kim tra trong h.
u i s lm thay i tt c cc gi tr ca cc tng kim tra trong h.
- Ta c th sa c sai cho du
u i da trn thng tin v gi tr ca cc tng kim tra bng
phng php b phiu (gii m ngng theo a s). Khi khong cch m Hamming t c
theo phng php ny s tha mn iu kin:
d0 = J + 1
iu kin trc giao trn l mt iu kin kh cht ch, bi vy J < r (s tng kim tra c
lp tuyn tnh) v khng phi vi bt c m no ta cng c th xy dng c h J tng kim tra
trc giao tha mn iu kin
J = d 0 1.
m rng hn ta s a ra khi nim h tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao.

nh ngha: H tng kim tra c gi l c kh nng trc giao nu n l h tng kim tra
trc giao vi mt t hp tuyn tnh no cc du m.
Xt t hp tuyn tnh cc du m sau:
= Ui1 + Ui 2 + + Uim . Khi h tng kim
tra c kh nng trc giao s gm cc tng kim tra tha mn iu kin:

- nm trong tt c cc tng kim tra trong h.
-
U j ( j i k vi Ui k ) ch nm trong nhiu nht l mt tng kim tra trong h.
Nhn xt:
- Da trn h tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao ta c th gii m c cho gi tr ca
bng phng php ngng.
- gii m cho mt du m
Uik c th ta phi s dng nhiu bc (nhiu cp
ngng)
4.6.4. Gii m ngng da trn h tng kim tra trc giao

V d 1: Xt m (7, 3) c
g () = 1 + x + x2 + x4
119
x7 + 1
h (X) =
= x3 + x + 1
g(X)
h* ( X ) = 1 + x 2 + x 3
1
0
H=
0
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
v.H T = [Si ]
Ta c h tng kim tra trc giao vi du m
v3
S0 = v0 + v 2 + v3
S1 = v1 + v 4 + v3
S2 = v5 + v6 + v3
H tng kim tra vi du m
v6 (suy ra bng cch dch vng h tng kim tra trn)
S0 = v6 + v3 + v5
S1 = v6 + v0 + v 4
S2 = v6 + v1 + v 2
S thit b gii m theo th tc 2:
v0
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
S thit b ngng M = 2
E = S0S1 + S1S2 + S2S3
120
S0
S1
S2
M=2
S0 S1
S2
Qu trnh gii m dc thc hin trong 2n = 14 nhp. 7 nhp u a t m nhn c

vo cc nh. Qu trnh gii m c thc hin trong 7 nhp sau.
Gii m t m nhn c c dng 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Hay
v ( X ) = x 6 + x5 + x 4 + x3 + x 2
Trng thi cc nh
Nhp
S0
S1
S2
R4
v0
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
T m gii m: 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Hay
v ( X ) = x 6 + x 4 + x3 + x 2
Sai v tr
x 5 c sa.
Kim tra li:
121
x6 + x 4 + x3 + x 2 x 4 + x 2 + x + 1
x6 + x 4 + x3 + x 2
x2
0
4.6.5. Gii m ngng da trn h tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao
V d: Xt m (7, 4) c g ( X ) = 1 + x + x 3
x7 + 1
= x4 + x2 + x + 1
h (X) =
g(X)
h* ( X ) = 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4
1 0 1 1 1 0 0
H = 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Ta c:
v.H T = [Si ]
H tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao vi cp du m
v 4 + v5 :
S1 = v5 + v 4 + v3 + v1
S2 = v5 + v 4 + v 2 + v6
Dch vng h tng kim tra ny i hai cp ta c c h tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao
vi cp du m:
v6 + v0 :
S1' = v0 + v6 + v5 + v3
S'2 = v0 + v6 + v 4 + v1
nhp gii m u tin sau cp ngng th nht ta c c gi tr ng ca

Ti nhp gii m th hai ta c c gi tr ng ca
( v 6 + v5 ) .
Cn c vo cc gi tr ny ta c th gii ra c gi tr ng ca
( v0 + v6 ) .
v6 sau cp ngng th
hai.
S chc nng thit b gii m theo th tc 2.
v0
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
S1'
122
S'2
Y1
Y1'
RA
Y2
CY: Thit b ngng c hai cp ngng ch l mt mch V c hai u vo.

Gi s t m nhn c c dng 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Hay
v ( X ) = x 6 + x5 + x 4 + x3
Qu trnh gii m c thc hin trong 2n + 1 = 15 nhp. n = 7 nhp u, t m nhn c

c a vo cc nh. 8 nhp sau l qu trnh gii m.
Trng thi cc nh
Nhp
S1'
S'2
Y1
Y1'
Y2
RA
v0
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
Sai v tr
x 5 c sa.
T m gii m: 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
Hay
v ( x ) = x6 + x 4 + x3
Kim tra li:
x6 + x 4 + x3 x3 + x + 1
x6 + x 4 + x3
x3
0
4.7. GII M THEO THUT TON MEGGIT
Gi s
f ( x ) l mt t m ca mt b m xyclic V ( n,k ) c a thc sinh g(x). Khi
f (x ) g(X) .
f (x)
Knh
e( x )
v( x ) = f ( x) + e( x )
123
Gi s
v ( x ) l t m a ti u vo b gii m, khi :
v(x ) f (x) e( x )
=
+
g(x) g(x) g(x)
(4.22)
Bng cch phn tch phn d ca php chia trn ta c th tm c a thc sai
e( x ) .
S phn tch d l mt s logic tng hp, y l mt thnh phn chc nng quan
trng trong s gii m theo thut ton Meggit sau:
vo
Thit b nh t m n du
Thit b chia cho g(x) v tnh d
S phn tch phn d
V d: Xt m xyclic (7, 4) c
g ( x ) = x 3 + x + 1 . Gi s du sai l du u tin c bc
e ( x ) = x 6 . Phn d tng ng ca (4.22):
cao nht ca t m, khi ta c
x6
x3 + x + 1
x 4 + x3
x3 + x + 1
x3 + x 2 + x
Phn d r ( x ) = x 2 + 1
Khi nhn thy phn d c dng
r ( x ) = x 2 + 1 th s phn tch phn d cho ra tn hiu
sa sai (Tn hiu 1) a ti b cng mod 2 sa sai cho du m tng ng.

Nh vy ch khi phn s c dng 1 0 1 th thit b logic t hp mi to ra tn hiu "1" sa
sai
S b gii m c dng:
VO
v0
1 7
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
RA
1 14
124
3
Sau 2n = 14 nhp, b gii m hon thnh qu trnh gii m (7 nhp u chia v tnh d ng
thi a t m vo b ghi dch m, 7 nhp sau gii m).
V d t m nhn c c dng:
v ( x ) = x3 + x 2 + x 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
Hot ng ca b gii m c m t theo bng sau:
Trng thi cc nh
Nhp
VO
RA
v0
v1
v2
v3
v4
v5
v6
10
11
12
13
14
T m sa:
Du sai l
v ( x ) = v ( X ) + e ( X ) = x6 + x3 + x 2 + x
x 6 c sa
125
4.8. GII M XYCLIC THEO THUT TON CHIA DCH VNG

4.8.1. Nhim v ca thut ton gii m
Ta bit rng vi m xyclic (n, k) khi chia t m nhn c f(x) cho a thc sinh g(x) s c
hai trng hp sau xy ra:
0 Nu t m nhn ng (khng c sai trn knh truyn:
e ( x ) = 0 ) th php chia ny khng
c d.
- Nu t m nhn sai
( e ( x ) 0 ) th php chia ny c d.
Cu trc ca phn d s phn nh cu trc ca vct sai
e ( x ) . V vy vic phn tch cu
trc ca phn d chnh l nhim v ca cc thut ton gii m.
a(x)
Ta c:
f ( x) = a ( x ) + e( x )
Knh
e( x )
a (x) g(X) .
f ( x ) a ( x ) e( x )
=
+
g(x) g(x) g(x)
(4.23)
Nh vy phn d ca php chia f(x) cho g(x) chnh l phn d ca php chia vct sai e(x)
cho g(x).
Ch : Phn d ca php chia e(x) cho g(x) l mt a thc c bc
d ny c
r 1 . Nh vy phn
2r trng thi khc nhau. Trong khi s cc kiu sai khc nhau li l 2n > 2r .
S cc kiu sai c trng s
t l:
C0n + C1n + Cn2 + + Cnt

Nh vy iu kin cn sa dc t sai l:
t
Cin 2n k
(4.23)
i =0
y chnh l gii hn Hamming
126
4.8.2. Gii m theo thut ton chia dch vng

4.8.2.1. Nhn xt
T (1.1) ta thy rng nu k du thng tin trong t m u nhn ng th v tr sai cc con
"1" trong phn d chnh l v tr tng ng ca cc du kim tra b sai. gii m ta ch cn cng
(theo mod 2) t m nhn c vi phn d sau php chia l thu c t m pht.
4.8.2.2. Thut ton chia dch vng (by li)
VO:- T m nhn c f(x)
- M
V ( n,k ) c g(x), c d 0 .
RA: - T m nh gi
Bc 1: For
f (X)
i := 0 to ( n 1) do.
(1) Chia
f (x)
f ( x ) .x i hoc i cho g(x) tm phn d ri ( x ) .
x
(2) Tnh
w ( ri ( x ) ) .
- Nu
d 1
w ( ri ( x ) ) t = 0 chuyn sang bc 2.
2
- Nu
w ( ri ( x ) ) > t i := i + 1 . Nu i + 1 = n chuyn sang bc 3.
Bc 2: T m nh gi:
f (X) =
f ( x ) .x i + ri ( x )
xi
i f (x)
Hoc
f
X
=
x
+
r
x
(
)
(
)
i
i
Bc 3: - Thng bo khng sa c sai (S sai vt qu kh nng sa sai ca b m)
4.8.3. V d
Gi s t m nhn c ca m xyclic (7, 3, 4) vi a thc sinh
g ( x ) = 1 + x + x2 + x4
v ( x ) = x + x 2 + x 3 + x 5 + x 6 0111011
Ta s dng thut ton chia dch vng tm li t m pht theo cc bc sau:
127
Bc 1:
(+) Chia v(x) cho g(x) tm phn d r0 ( x ) .
(1) i = 0
x6 + x5
x6
+ x3 + x 2 + x x 4 + x 2 + x + 1
+ x 4 + x3 + x 2
x5 + x 4
x5
x2 + x + 1
+x
+ x3 + x 2 + x
x 4 + x3 + x 2
x4
+ x2 + x + 1
r0 ( x ) = x 3 + x + 1
(+)
4 1
w ( r0 ( x ) ) = 3 >
=1
2
(2) i = 1
(+) Chia
x.v ( x ) cho g ( x ) tm phn d r1 ( x ) .
x6 + x 4 + x3 + x 2 + 1 x 4 + x 2 + x + 1
x6 + x 4 + x3 + x 2
x2
r1 ( x ) = 1
(+)
w ( r1 ( x ) ) = 1 = t
Bc 2: Tm t m nh gi.
f (X) =
x.v ( x ) + r1 ( x )
= x5 + x3 + x 2 + x
x
Vy sai v tr c sa
4.9. GII M LI.

4.9.1. Trng thi v gin li
T bng trng thi ca s m ha mc 4.5.3 ta c mt s nhn xt sau:
- Qu trnh m ha lun bt u t trng thi ton 0 v kt thc cng trng thi ton 0.
- Trong k nhp u (k = 4) cc bt ra ging nh cc bt vo.
- Sau nhp th k, cc bt kim tra nm trong thanh ghi c y dn ra u ra.
128
- S cc trng thi bng

khi n k tng.
2n k (trong v d ny 27 4 = 8 trng thi) tng theo hm m
S dng thanh ghi m t trong mc 4.5.3 ta c th tm c tt c cc trng thi k tip khi

thanh ghi nm mt trng thi xc nh.
Hnh sau ch ra tt c cc dch chuyn trng thi c th mt trng thi bt k ca b m
ha cho m (7, 4, 3).
Trng thi hin thi
Trng thi k tip
Trng thi 0
Trng thi 0
000
000
Trng thi 1
Trng thi 1
001
001
Trng thi 2
Trng thi 2
010
010
Trng thi 3
Trng thi 3
011
011
Trng thi 4
Trng thi 4
100
100
Trng thi 5
Trng thi 5
101
101
Trng thi 6
Trng thi 6
110
110
Trng thi 7
Trng thi 7
111
111
Bt d liu 0:
129
Bt d liu 1:
Hnh 4.2: Biu chuyn trng thi cho m (7, 4, 3) c 8 trng thi
Bng cch s dng biu trng thi trn ta c th m ha cc bt d liu 1011 m khng
dng thanh ghi dch trong mc 4.5.2. Bt d liu u tin l logic 1, bi vy trng thi s chuyn
t 000 n 110 (minh ha bng ng lin nt t trng thi 000). u ra b m ha lc ny cng
l 1 ging nh u vo. thi im k tip trng thi hin ti l 110 v bt d liu l logic 0, bi
vy trng thi s chuyn t 110 sang 011
Nh vy qua 4 nhp ta thy qu trnh chuyn trng thi l:
000 110 011 001 110

Sau nhp th 4, cc thay i trng thi s tun theo vic dch cc bt kim tra t thanh ghi (
y l 110).
Ta cng c th s dng mt cch m t khc cho qu trnh m ha bng gin li (hnh
4.4)
000
110
011
111
101
001
100
010
Bt d liu 0:
Bt d liu 1:
Hnh 4.3: Gin trng thi cho m (7, 4, 3) c 8 trng thi
Gin ny c to nn bng cch ni cc trng thi k tip ca gin chuyn trng thi
hnh 4.2 bt u t trng thi ton 0.
130
Gin ny minh ha ton b
2k = 16 ng dn c th c cho m (7, 4, 3). Li c
2n k = 8 hng (8 trng thi khc nhau), v c n + 1 = 8 ct. Cc nt trong cng hng biu th
cng mt trng thi trong khi cc nt trong cng mt ct biu th tt c cc trng thi c th
000 (trng thi a), 001 (trng thi b), 010 (trng thi c), , 111 (trng thi h). Vic chuyn trng
thi gia cc ct k cn c v hoc bng cc ng lin nt hoc bng cc ng t nt ty
theo liu bt ra ca b m ha l 1 hay 0.
Ch c duy nht mt trng thi ban u l trng thi ton 0 (trng thi a). S cc trng thi
li s tng theo mi khi bt d liu mi c a vo b m ha.
Khi a bt d liu u tin vo b m ha (T = 0), c th c hai nt khc nhau thi im
tip nhau. Bt d liu t 2 a vo (T = 1) to nn s cc nt c th thi im k tip l
cc nt c th c s tip tc tng theo T cho ti khi t ti s nt cc i
thi ln nht t c khi T = n k = 3 ).
22 . S
2n k = 8 (S cc trng
Sau khi T = k s cc trng thi c th s c chia i mi thi im k tip hng v

trng thi 0 l trng thi t c T = n.
T=0
T=1
T=2
T=3
T=4
T=5
T=6
T=7
Trng thi a
000
Trng thi b
001
Trng thi c
010
Trng thi d
011
Trng thi e
100
Trng thi f
101
Trng thi g
110
Trng thi h
111
Bt d liu 0:
Bt d liu 1:
131
Hnh 4.4: Gin li cho m (7, 4, 3) c 8 trng thi v 8 giai on k tip
4.9.2. Gii m li.

4.9.2.1. M u.
Gii m li cho m tuyn tnh do Wolf a ra vo 1978, tuy nhin k thut ny ch thch
hp cho mt s m nht nh do s cc trng thi tng theo hm m khi n k tng.
4.9.2.2. Thut ton Viterbi
Vo 1967, Viterbi l ngi u tin a ra thut ton Viterbi (VA). Thut ton ny tm tt
c cc ng c th trong li v cc khong Hamming (hoc cc khong cch Euclide) t dy
thu c u vo cc b gii m. ng dn s biu th khong cch nh nht t dy thu c
c chn l dy pht hp l nht v cc dy bt thng tin kt hp c ti to li. Phng php
ny chnh l phng php nh gi dy hp l ti a v ng dn hp l nht c chn t tp
tt c cc ng dn trong li.
Hnh 4.5 ghi "lch s " ca cc ng dn c chn bi b m Viterbi cho m (7, 4, 3).
Gi s rng khng c sai trong knh v bi vy dy vo ca b gii m chnh l dy m ha
cho dy 0000000. thi im u (T = 1) bt nhn c l 0, bt ny c so snh vi cc bt
pht c th c l 0 v 1 tng ng vi cc nhnh t nt a ti a v t nt a n g.
o ca hai nhnh ny l cc khong cch Hamming ca chng (chnh l s khc nhau
gia cc bt pht c th c (0 hoc 1) v bt nhn c 0). Cc khong cch Hamming tng ng
s l 0 v 1.
Ta xc nh o nhnh l khong cch Hamming ca mt nhnh ring t cc bt nhn
c v o ng dn thi im th T. o ny bng tng cc o nhnh tt c cc
nhnh t T = 0 n T = T. cc o ng dn ny c ghi trn nh ca mi nhnh hnh
4.5, tng ng thi im T = 1 l 0 v 1 i vi cc ng dn a a v a g . thi im
T = 2 bt nhn c l 0 v cc o nhnh l 0, 1, 0 v 1 tng ng vi cc nhnh a a ,
a g , g d v g f . o ca cc ng dn ny l 0, 1, 1, v 2 tng ng vi cc
ng
a a a , a a g a g d , a g f . thi im th 3, bt nhn c
l 0. C 8 nhnh c th v cc o ng dn (xem hnh 4.5) l 0, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1 v 2 tng ng

vi cc ng a a a a , a a a g , a g d b , a g d h ,
a g f c , a g f e , a a g d v a a g f .
132
T=0
Cc bt gii
m
Cc bt nhn
c
T=1
T=2
T=3
T=6
T=7
0
1
Trng thi b
001
1
0
3
Trng thi c
010
2
2
Trng thi d
011
Trng thi e
100
Trng thi g
110
T=5
Trng thi a
000
Trng thi f
101
T=4
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
Trng thi h
111
133
Bt d liu 0:
Bt d liu 1:
0
3
1 v 2 tng ng l cc ng a a a a a v
a g d b a , cc ng ny xut pht nt khi u a v tr v nt a T = 4 . Cc
o ng dn tng ng l 0 v 3, cc nhnh tip sau gn vi T > 4 i t nt a T = 4 s
cng thm cc o nhnh nh nhau vo cc o ng dn ca c hai ng 1 v 2 . iu
ny c ngha l o ng dn ca 2 l ln hn T = 4 v vn gi mc ln hn vi
T > 4 . B gii m Viterbi s chn ng dn c o nh nht (chnh l dy trng thi ton 0)
v loi b ng 2 . ng 1 c xem l ng sng st. Th tc ny cng c p dng
cc nt khc vi T n k = 3 . Cn lu rng cc ng a g f c ,
a a g f , khng th sng st v cc o ng dn ca chng l ln hn v bi
Ta k hiu
vy chng b loi b khi b nh ca b gii m.

n k
= 8 ng sng st t T = n k n
Nh vy ch c 2
T = 3 s cc ng sng st s gim i mt na sau mi thi im.
T = k . Sau thi im
i khi 2 ng nhp vo li cng mt o ng dn. T = 5 cc ng

a a a g d b , a g f e c b nhp li nt b. C hai ng ny
u c cng o ng dn l 2. Thng thng b gii m Viterbi s chn ngu nhin mt
ng sng st v loi b cc ng khc. Tuy nhin tnh trng ny rt him khi xy ra trong
mt thut ton Viterbi quyt nh mm (hay thut ton Viterbi u ra mm - SOVA) hay c s
dng trong thc t.
4.9.2.3. Gii m Viterbi quyt nh cng.
Khi gii m quyt nh cng, b iu ch s cho ra cc quyt nh cng (1 hoc 0) khi to
li dy pht. Trong trng hp ny cc khong cch Hamming gia cc bt nhn c v cc
bt pht c nh gi trong li s c dng lm o mc tin cy.
minh ha cho qu trnh gii m ny ta s dng m (7, 4, 3) vi dy bt pht i l
0000000. Sai s trn knh nm bt u tin v dy nhn c u ra b gii m iu ch l
1000000. B gii m s so snh bt ra ca b gii iu ch vi c hai bt c th c gii m
(c biu th bng cc ng lin nt v t nt trn hnh 4.6) l 1 v 0. Khi bt ra ca b gii
iu ch v bt c gii m nh nhau th khong cch Hamming ca chng bng 0. Ngc li
khi hai bt ny khc nhau th gi tr bng 1 ca khong cch Hamming s c cng thm vo
o ng dn.
V ta i ngang qua li nn cc o nhnh s c cng li T = 7.\, ng dn c trng
s Hamming nh nht s c xem l ng sng st. Bi vy dy c gii m l xu.
134
Hnh 4.6 minh ha vic la chn ng sng st (c nh gi bng ng t nt m)
ca b gii m Viterbi ra sao. ng ny c o ng dn nh nht v s gii m ra c
ng dy thu c. Cn ch rng o ng dn ca ng sng st tng ng vi s sai
trong dy nhn c khi b gii m c kh nng sa cc sai ny.
Tuy nhin khi s sao trong knh vt qu kh nng sa sai ca m th s sy ra gii m sai.
Gi s knh c hai sai v tr th 1 v v tr th 3. Gii m sai s xy ra 4 nhnh ban u (c
ghi bng ng m nt trn hnh 4.7) v dy c gii m l 1011000
T=0
T=1
T=2
T=3
T=4
T=5
T=6
T=7
Cc bt gii
m
Cc bt nhn
c
Trng thi a
1
000
Trng thi b
001
010
1
2
Trng thi c
Trng thi d
011
100
Trng thi e
0
Trng thi f
101
Trng thi g
110
Trng thi h
111
Bt d liu 0:
135
Bt d liu 1:
Hnh 4.6: Gii m Viterbi quyt nh cng cho m (7, 4, 3)
T=0
T=1
T=2
T=3
T=4
T=5
T=6
T=7
Cc bt gii
m
Cc bt nhn
c
Trng thi a
000
Trng thi b
0
001
Trng thi c
1
2
2
0
010
Trng thi d
011
Trng thi e
0
100
1
0
Trng thi f
101
Trng thi g
110
Trng thi h
111
Bt d liu 0:
Bt d liu 1:
136
Hnh 4.7: Gii m sai khi dng gii m Viterbi quyt nh cng
h
(7 4 3)
4.9.2.4. Gii m Viterbi quyt nh mm.

Theo quan im gii m Viterbi quyt nh mm, tn hiu nhn c u ra ca b gii
m iu ch s c ly mu. Sau cc gi tr mu s c a trc tip ti u vo ca b gii
m Viterbi. Gi s rng ta s dng iu ch dch pha nh phn (BPSK) u pht, khi mc
logic 0 s c gi l 1, 0 cn mc logic 1 s c gi l +1, 0. Nu ta pht dy ton 0 th dy
pht tng ng l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . my thu, cc u ra mm ca b gii m iu ch
l +0,8 , 1,2 , + 0,6 , 2,2 , 0,4 , 1,3 , 0,9 (tng ng vi dy 1010000 nu ta
s dng gii m quyt nh cng). Cc u ra mm ca b gii m iu ch c dng nh o
mc tin cy (xem hnh 4.8).
T=0
T=1
T=2
T=3
T=4
T=5
T=6
T=7
Cc bt gii
m
Cc bt nhn
c
+ 0,8
1,2
+0,6
2,2
0,4
1,3
0,9
Trng thi a
000
0,8
+1,4
0,2
+2,0
+2,4
+3,7
+0,4
+2,0
+0,3
+2,4
+1,6
+4,5
+4,6
Trng thi b
001
Trng thi c
+2,6
+0,8
010
+1,2
Trng thi d
+3,2
011
Trng thi e
100
+2,0
+2,0
1,0
Trng thi f
101
Trng thi g
0,4
+3,6
110
Trng thi h
111
Bt d137
liu 0:
Bt d liu 1:
Hnh 4.8: Gii m Viterbi quyt nh mm cho m (7, 4, 3)
Tn hiu ra mm u tin ca b gii iu ch l + 0,8 ng rng tn hiu pht rt c th l

+1 v o mc tin cy ca quyt nh ny l 0,8. Xem xt ng dn a g tng ng vi
logic 1, o nhnh ca ng dn ny l +0,8. Tuy nhin ng dn a a khng n khp vi
tn hiu nhn c v o nhnh ca ng dn ny l 0,8 (tch ly mt ndo ng dn
1,2 to
nn cc o ng dn l +0, 4 , 2,0 , + 0,2 v 0,4 tng ng vi cc ng
m hay l lng pht) do s sai lc ca n. thi im th hai tn hiu nhn c l
dn a a a , a a g , a g d v a g f . Ta k hiu 1 v 2 l cc
ng a a a a a v a g d b a . Cc o ng dn tng cng
c tch ly ca hai ng dn ny tng ng l +0,2 v +0,4 . B gii m Viterbi s chn
ng dn c o ng dn ln hn v mc tin cy c tch ly ca n ln hn. Bi vy
ng
1 s c chn (ch khng phi l ng 2 c chn trong v d gii m quyt
nh cng trn). iu ny chng t rng gii m quyt nh mm c hiu qu cao hn gii m

quyt nh cng.
4.10. M HAMMING V M C DI CC I
M Hamming v m c di cc i l hai lp m quan trng trong m xyclic.
nh ngha: M xyclic Hamming l m xyclic c a thc sinh l a thc nguyn thy bc
m, m ny c cc tham s nh sau:
(n,k,d 0 ) = 2m 1, 2m 1 m,3
M Hamming l m ti u tha mn gii hn Hamming (4.13). Ngoi m Hamming ch cn

m Golay (23, 12, 7) l m hon thin, m Golay c a thc sinh nh sau:
g ( X ) = X11 + X9 + X 7 + X5 + X + 1
Bng sau l danh sch cc a thc nguyn thy c bc m t 2 n 8.
Bc
a thc nguyn thy

(0 1 2)
(0 1 3)
(0 1 4)
(0 2 5), (0 2 3 4 5), (0 1 2 4 5)
(0 1 6), (0 2 3 5 6), ( 0 1 2 5 6)
138
Bc
a thc nguyn thy

(0 3 7), (0 1 2 3 7), (0 2 3 4 7), (0 1 2 4 5 6 7), (0 1 2 3 4 5 7),
(0 2 4 6 7), (0 1 7), (0 1 3 6 7), (0 2 5 6 7),
(0 2 3 4 8), (0 3 5 6 8), (0 1 2 5 6 7 8), (0 1 3 5 8), (0 2 5 6 8),
(0 1 5 6 8), (0 1 2 3 4 6 8), (0 1 6 7 8)
Ch : bng trn ta thy k hiu vit cc a thc theo s m ca cc bc khc khng.

V d:
( 0 2567 ) g ( X ) = X7 + X6 + X5 + X 2 + 1
Cc a thc i ngu ca cc a thc trong bng cng l cc a thc nguyn thy, cc a

thc ny khng c lit k y.
V d: a thc i ngu ca
g ( X ) = X 4 + X + 1 l a thc
g* ( X ) = X 4 + X 3 + 1 .
M i ngu ca m Hamming l m c di cc i. m ny c tham s nh sau:
(n,k,d 0 ) = 2m 1, m,2m 1
a thc sinh ca m ny c dng sau:

m
X 2 1 + 1
g(X) =
h (X)
Trong h(X) l a thc nguyn thy bc m.
Cc m c di cc i l cc m ti u tha mn gii hn Griesmer (4. 11).
V d: - M xyclic (7, 4) c a thc sinh
- M xyclic (7, 3) c a thc sinh
g ( X ) = X3 + X + 1 l m Hamming.
g ( X ) = X 4 + X 2 + X + 1 l m c di cc i.
4.11. CC M KHI DA TRN S HC CA TRNG HU HN

4.11.1. Trng hu hn c nguyn t GF(p)
Ta lm quen vi trng nh phn GF(2), trong trng ny cc php ton s hc c
thc hin theo modulo 2. Tng t i vi trng GF(p) vi p l s nguyn t, cc php ton s
hc thch hp (cng v nhn) gia hai phn t bt k ca trng phi c thc hin theo modulo
p. Phn t ngc ca mt phn t bt k i vi php cng dc tnh bng kt qu ca php tr
gia p v phn t . V d trong GF(7), phn t ngc ca php cng ca 5 l 2. Phn t ngc
ca php nhn (phn t nghch o) kh tm hn, tuy nhin quan im sau y s gip ta tm c
n ng thi cho ta mt phng php xy dng trng. Trong trng GF(p) ngi ta chng
139
minh c rng tn ti t nht mt phn t m cc ly tha ca n l cc phn t khc 0 ca
trng. Phn t ny c gi l phn t nguyn thy. V d trong trng GF(7) s 3 l phn t
nguyn thy v:
{30 = 1, 31 = 3, 32 = 2, 33 = 6, 34 = 4, 35 = 5}
y l mt nhm nhn xyclic cp 6 (c th thy rng nhm nhn ny c hai phn t nguyn
thy l 3 v 5).
Vi
36 ta thy rng 36 = 35.3 = 5.3mod 7 = 1 .
Ta c th thc hin php nhn bng cch cng cc s m ca 3.

V d:
( )( )
6.2 = 33 . 32 = 35 = 3 .
Bi vy ta c th tm c phn t nghch o ca mt phn t

Nh vy nghch o ca 6 l 6 v nghch o ca 5 l 3.
3n bt k l 3 n = 36 n .
4.11.2. Cc trng m rng ca trng nh phn. Trng hu hn GF(2m)

Ta c th xy dng c trng hu hn c s cc phn t l ly tha nguyn ca mt s
nguyn t p. Trong trng hp ny ngi ta cng chng minh c rng lun tn ti mt phn t
nguyn thy trong trng v cc php ton s hc s c thc hin theo modulo ca mt a thc
no trn GF(p). Trong gio trnh ny ta ch quan tm ti trng hp p = 2, khi a thc c
dng s l mt trong cc a thc nh phn nguyn thy (chnh l cc a thc sinh ca m
Hamming).
Gi s ta cn to mt trng hu hn GF(q) v k hiu l phn t nguyn thy ca n.
Cc ly tha ca (t
0 n q 2 ) gm q 1 phn t khc khng ca trng. Phn t
q 1 s bng phn t 0 , cn cc phn t c s m cao hn cng lp li cc phn t c s m

thp hn. Phng php nhn rt ra trc tip t php cng theo modulo ( q 1) i vi cc s m
ca . i vi trng
( )
GF 2
( 2 1) = 1 hay ( 2 1) + 1 = 0 .
ta c:
m
iu ny s tha mn nu c bt k mt nhn thc no ca a thc ny bng khng. Nhn

thc m ta chn phi l bt kh quy v khng l nhn thc ca
n + 1 i vi bt k gi tr n
no nh hn 2 1 , nu khng nh vy cc ly tha ca s lp li trc khi chng to ra tt

c cc phn t khc khng ca trng (iu ny c ngha l khng phi l phn t nguyn thy
ca trng). Nhn thc tha mn cc tnh cht trn chnh l a thc nguyn thy c bc m.
V d: Xt trng
( )
GF 23 . Cc nhn thc ca 7 + 1 l
)(
7 + 1 = ( + 1) 3 + + 1 3 + 2 + 1
140
C hai a thc bc 3 trn u l cc a thc nguyn thy v ta c th chn ty . Gi s ta
to cc ly tha ca
trng l:
theo iu kin 3 + + 1 = 0 . Khi cc phn t khc khng ca

1
2
3 = + 1
4 = 2 +
5 = 3 + 2 = 2 + + 1
6 = 3 + 2 + = 2 + 1
Mi ly tha ca c th c biu th bng mt a thc nh phn c bc nh hn hoc
bng 2. Php nhn cc phn t ca trng c thc hin thng qua php cng cc s m ca
theo modulo 7. Php cng c thc hin bng php cng modulo 2 cc s hng trong a thc.
V d:
3 + 4 = + 1 + 2 + = 2 + 1 = 6
Cn ch rng mi phn t l phn t i (phn t ngc ca php cng) ca chnh n.

(iu ny rt ra t tnh cht ca php cng modulo 2) Cn mt vn ta cha tha mn l c
th biu th bng s nh th no. Tuy nhin iu ny khng quan trng v ta c th gn theo cch
2
m ta mun. V d ta gn gi tr 2 cho v 3 cho , khi ta quyt nh rng trong s hc

ca ta 2.2 = 3. iu ny khc vi suy ngh thng thng ca chng ta v bi vy ta phi coi vic
gn cc gi tr s l hon ton ty mc d c mt s cch gn thun tin cho s dng.
4.11.3. Biu din a thc cho trng hu hn GF(2m)

Ngoi cch biu din s ngi ta c th s dng biu din a thc cho cc phn t ca
trng hu hn
( )
( )
GF q m . Vi trng GF 2m cc h s nh phn ca cc a thc c dng
to nn biu din cho cc phn t.

V d: Xt
( )
GF 23 , biu din cho 8 phn t ca trng ny c th vit nh sau:
141
= 000
1 = 001
= 010
2 = 100
3 = + 1
= 011
4 = 2 +
= 110
5 = 2 + + 1 = 111
6 = 2 + 1
= 101
y dy 3 bt c dng m t cho biu din a thc ca cc phn t. Php cng c

thc hin bng cch cng modulo 2 theo tng bt ca dy
4.11.4. Cc tnh cht ca a thc v cc phn t ca trng hu hn

4.11.4.1. Cc nghim ca a thc
Ta bit rng cc a thc vi cc h s thc khng phi lc no cng c cc nhn t thc,
tuy nhin lun lun c th phn tch chng di dng cc nhn thc phc. Tng t, mt a thc
bt kh quy trn trng hu hn lun c th phn tch c trong mt trng m rng no .
V d: a thc nh phn
X3 + X + 1 c th phn tch c trn GF(8) nh sau:
)(
X3 + X + 1 = ( X + ) X + 2 X + 4
Cc gi tr
, 2 , 4 c gi l cc nghim ca X3 + X + 1 v chng biu th cc
gi tr ca X lm cho a thc bng khng.

Nu f(X) l mt a thc bt kh quy q phn th f(X) s c cc nghim trong mt trng m
rng
vi
( )
GF q m no , tc l f(X) c th biu din bng tch ca mt s hng c dng ( x + i )
( )
i l phn t ca GF q m . Hn na nu l mt nghim no th c th
2
thy rng cc nghim khc c dng q , q , q ,

Tng t nh trng hp phn tch cc a thc vi cc h s thc ta c th s dng thut
ng cc phn t lin hp cho cc nghim ca mt a thc bt kh quy. Vi a thc nh phn bt
kh quy c nghim
th cc nghim lin hp l 2 , 4 , 8 ,
S tn ti cc nghim lin hp ca mt a thc tng ng vi cc tnh cht sau:
( )
f X q = f ( X )
142
Nu
l mt nghim ca f ( X ) th q cng l mt nghim ca f ( X ) . a thc
f ( X ) c gi l a thc ti tiu ca . Nu l phn t nguyn thy th f ( X ) l mt a

thc nguyn thy. Nh vy c th sinh ra mt trng hu hn t mt phn t nguyn thy l mt
nghim ca a thc nguyn thy.
V d: Xt trng hu hn GF(8) to bi a thc nguyn thy
X3 + X + 1. Th
X = ,X = 2 hoc X = 4 vo a thc ny ta thy n bng 0. Bi vy X3 + X + 1 l a

thc ti tiu ca cc phn t
, 2 , 4 . Tng t th 3 , 6 v 12 = 5
vo
X3 + X + 1 ta thy rng chng l cc nghim ca a thc ny. a thc ti tiu ca 0 l

( X + 1) .
Nu m l s nguyn nh nht
m = 1 th phn t c gi l c cp m (k hiu
ord ( ) = m ) v phi l nghim ca X m + 1 . Nu cng l nghim ca mt a thc bt

kh quy
f ( X ) no th f ( X ) phi l mt nhn thc ca X m + 1 .
( 3 )
V d: Gi tr nh nht ca m
= 1 l 7. Bi vy a thc
f ( X ) = X3 + X 2 + 1 l mt nhn thc ca X 7 + 1.
4.11.4.2. Cc phn t ca trng hu hn xem nh cc nghim ca mt a thc
( )
m
Cc nghim ca nh thc X 2 1 + 1 chnh l cc phn t khc khng ca GF 2m .
V d: Ta c phn tch ca X 7 + 1 nh sau:
)(
X 7 + 1 = (1 + X ) 1 + X + X3 1 + X 2 + X 3
)
+ 1) v bi vy
Ta cng bit rng l nghim ca X 3 + X + 1 v bi vy 2 v 4 cng l
cc nghim ca n. 3 l nghim ca X 3 + X 2
v 5 cng l
cc nghim ca n. Nghim ca ( X + 1) l 1.
4.11.4.3. Cc nghim ca mt a thc bt kh quy
a thc bt kh quy
v
f ( X ) bc m s c m nghim l , 2 , 4 ,, 2
= 1.
143
2 =
V cc nghim ca
X2
thc bt kh quy bc m lun c cc nghim trong
X2
( )
+ 1 l tt c cc phn t khc khng ca GF 2m nn mt a
( )
GF 2m . Ngc li, cc nhn thc ca
+ 1 cha tt c cc a thc bt kh quy bc m. Nh vy X3 + X 2 + 1 v X3 + X + 1
l ton b cc a thc bt kh quy bc 3 c th c.

Ch rng
X m + 1 l c ca X n + 1 nu v ch nu m l c ca n. iu ny cng c
2m 1 l s nguyn t.
ngha l tt c cc a thc bt kh quy bc m l nguyn thy nu
V d: 7 l s nguyn t nn tt c cc a thc bt kh quy bc 3 u l cc a thc nguyn

thu.
15 khng l cc s nguyn t nn khng phi tt c cc a thc bt kh quy bc 4 u l cc
1 + X + X 4 , 1 + X3 + X 4 v
a thc nguyn thy. C ba a thc bt kh quy bc 4 l
1 + X + X 2 + X3 + X 4 . Ch c hai a thc 1 + X + X 4 v 1 + X3 + X 4 l cc a thc

nguyn thy
4.11.4.4. Phn tch mt a thc nh phn f(X)
phn tch mt a thc nh phn ta phi xy dng c trng hu hn m trn n c th
tm c cc nhn thc ca a thc ny. Mun vy, trc tin ta phi tm cc nhn thc bt kh
quy nh phn ca a thc
nht (BCNN)
f ( X ) ny (nu c) v cc bc ca chng. Sau ta tm bi chung nh
( )
c' ca cc bc ny. Cc nhn thc ca f ( X ) s c tm trong GF 2c ' . Cn
rng:
( )
2ab 1 = 2a
Bi vy
)( )
1 = 2a 1 2a
b 1
( )
+ 2a
b2
( )
+ 2a
b 3
+ + 1
2c ' 1 l bi ca 2c 1 nu c' l bi ca c. Bng cch chn c' l bi ca bc c
ca mt nhn thc bt kh quy nh phn no , khi cc nghim ca n s nm trong

v cng nm trong
Nu
( )
( )
GF 2c
GF 2c '
c' l bi ca cc bc ca mi a thc bt kh quy nh phn th tt c cc nghim ca
chng c th biu din c trong

V d: a thc
( )
GF 2c ' .
f ( X ) = X5 + X 4 + 1 c phn tch thnh tch ca hai a thc bt kh
quy sau:
)(
X5 + X 4 + 1 = X3 + X + 1 X 2 + X + 1
144
deg X3 + X + 1 = 3 , deg X 2 + X + 1 = 2
Ta c
BCNN ( 3,2 ) = 6
Nh vy
( )
f ( X ) c th phn tch c thnh tch ca cc a thc bc nht trong GF 26 .
4.11.5. Xc nh cc m bng cc nghim

Ta c th xc nh mt b m bng cch cho rng cc t m l cc a thc nh phn c cc
nghim xc nh trong
( )
GF 2m . Chng hn nu nghim l trong GF(8) th a thc ti tiu
ca n l X + X + 1 v tt c cc t m phi chia ht c cho a thc ny. Trong trng hp

ny, a thc ti tiu ng vai tr nh a thc sinh ca m.
Mt cch tng qut ta c th coi a thc sinh l BCNN ca cc a thc ti tiu ca cc
nghim c xc nh. Bc ca a thc (chnh l s du kim tra ca m) l s cc nghim phn
bit sao cho tng s cc nghim l s du kim tra .
Nu a thc m
Cho
v ( X ) c mt nghim th v ( ) = 0 .
v n l h s ca X n , khi :
v n 1n 1 +
+ v 22 + v1 + v00 = 0
dng vct ta c th vit nh sau:
n 1
2
v = 0
1
0

Tng t, nu
v ( X ) c j nghim t 1 n j th :
n 1
1
v 12
1
1
0
n 1
n2 1 j
2
22 j = 0
12
1j
02
0j
145
Ta bit rng:
v.H T = 0
Nh vy ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn trn chnh l ma trn kim tra ca m. Cc

nghim u l cc a thc ca (ta cng xem nh l cc vct v chng cng phi c chuyn
v), bi vy ta c th vit:
n 1T
1 T
n 1
H= 2
n 1T
j
T
10
0T
2
T
0j
11
n2 1
T
1j
Ta thy rng ch cn mt trong cc nghim
, 2 , 4 , 8 , nm trong ma trn kim tra l
4.11.6. M Hamming
M Hamming c a thc sinh l a thc nguyn thy. Bi vy mt phn t nguyn thy bt
k u c xem l nghim ca m. nu ta ly phn t lm nghim th:
T
T
T
H = n 1 1 0
Ta bit rng cc ly tha ca l tt c cc phn t khc khng ca trng, iu ny c

ngha l ma trn kim tra H cha mi t hp 0 v 1 c th c.
V d: Xt m Hamming trn GF(8) c
3 + + 1 = 0 , ma trn kim tra H ca m ny c
dng:
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
H = 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Ma trn nycha tt c cc vct ct 3 bt c th c. y chnh l ma trn kim tra ca m
xyclic (7, 4)
4.11.7. M BCH
Vo nm 1959, Bose,Ray Chaudhuri v Hocquenghem l nhng ngi u tin a ra lp
m quan trng ny.
nh ngha: M BCH sa t sai l m xyclic c 2t nghim lin tip trong
di l
qm 1.
146
( )
GF q m v c
GF ( q ) c di n v c kh nng sa
Sau y l cc bc xc nh mt m BCH trn

t sai:
1. Xc nh s nguyn nh nht m sao cho
( )
GF q m c phn t nguyn thy .
2. Chn mt s nguyn t khng m b. Thng thng b = 1

3. Lit k ra 2t ly tha lin tip ca
b , b +1, , b + 2t 1
Xc nh cc a thc ti tiu trn
GF ( q ) ca cc phn t ny (cn ch rng cc phn t
lin hp c cng mt a thc ti tiu)

4. a thc sinh g(X) l BCNN ca a thc ti tiu ny. m to c chnh l m xyclic (n,
k) vi
k = n deg g ( X ) .
nh ngha: Nu
b = 1 th m BCH c gi l m BCH ngha hp. Nu n = q m 1 th
m BCH c gi l m BCH nguyn thy.

V d: M BCH nh phn sa sai n c di
( )
2m 1 l m c hai nghim lin tip trong
( )
GF 2m . Nu ta chn cc nghim ny l v 2 th nghim th hai 2 l hin nhin c.

Bi vy y chnh l m Hamming.
M BCH nh phn sa hai sai phi c cc nghim lin tip l
3
nhin l ch c v l cc nghim c lp ( v
vy ma trn kim tra ca m ny c dng sau:
n 1T
H=
3( n 1)T
, 2 , 3 v 4 . Hin
4 l cc phn t lin hp ca ). Bi
T
3.2 3.1
T
0
T
3.0
Cc m BCH cho php s dng phng php gii m i s. Xt trng hp

hai sai cc v tr i v j. Ta c syndrom sau:
s = e.H T
Syndrom c hai thnh phn s1 v s3 :
s1 = j + i
s3 = 3j + 3i
Th
j = s1 + i t phng trnh th nht vo phng trnh th hai ta c:

s12i + s1 2i + s13 + s3 = 0
147
n = 15 v c
i chnh l nghim ca phng trnh ny. V cc gi tr i v j l ty nn c hai v tr sai

c th tm c t phng trnh trn
V d: M BCH sa 2 sai c di 15 c cc nghim
v 3 trn GF(16) s dng a
X 4 + X + 1 . Cc phn t i ca trng c biu din bng cc a thc c
thc nguyn thy

dng sau:
0 = 0 0 0 1
8 = 0 1 0 1
1 = 0 0 1 0
9 = 1 0 1 0
2 = 0 1 0 0
10 = 0 1 1 1
3 = 1 0 0 0
11 = 1 1 1 0
4 = 0 0 1 1
12 = 1 1 1 1
5 = 0 1 1 0
13 = 1 1 0 1
6 = 1 1 0 0
14 = 1 0 0 1
7 = 1 0 1 1
Khi ma trn kim tra c dng sau:
14T 13T
H= T
12 9T
1
0
1
H=
1
1
1
T
T
T
2 1 0
6T
3T
0T

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Gi s t m nhn c l :
v ( X ) = x6 + x4 + 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Syndrom tng ng l 1 1 1
11
Hay s1 =
, s3 = 5
0 0 11 0
( 11 = 1 1 1 0, 5 = 0 1 1 0)
148
Ta c phng trnh sau:
7 + i + 11+ 2i + 3 + 5 = 0
Vi i = 7 ta c:
1 0 1 0 0

14
10
3
5 0 1 0 1 0
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 0
Vi i = 8 ta c:
0 1 1 0 0

0
12
3
5 0 1 0 1 0
+ + + =
+
+
+
=
=0
0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 0
Nh vy sai nm v tr 7 v 8. t m pht f(X) l:
f ( X ) = X8 + X 7 + X 6 + X 4 + 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Ta c th kim tra li kt qu gii m trn theo mt cch khc. Bit rng cc nghim
3 c cc a thc ti tiu tng ng l X 4 + X + 1 v X 4 + X3 + X 2 + X + 1 . a thc sinh

ca m xyclic ny l tch ca hai a thc ti tiu trn
g ( X ) = X8 + X 7 + X 6 + X 4 + 1 . Bi
vy y l m xylic (15, 7) v t m nhn c trn phi chia ht cho
g(X) .
4.11.8. Cc m Reed Solomon (RS)

nh ngha: M RS l m BCH q phn c di
Trong
qm 1.
( )
GF q m a thc ti thiu ca mt phn t n gin ch l ( x ) . Bi vy a
thc sinh ca m RS c dng:
)(
) (
g ( x ) = x b x b +1 x b + 2t 1
trong
l phn t nguyn thy ca trng. Bc ca g ( x ) bng 2t, nh vy vi m RS
n k = 2t , khong cch ca m RS: d 0 = n k + 1

V d: Cho
tha lin tip ca
n = 7 . Gi s l nghim ca a thc nguyn thy x 3 + x + 1 . Bi ly
l 1, 2 , 3 , 4 . Nh vy a tc sinh ca m RS sa 2 sai l:
)(
)(
g ( x ) = ( x ) x 2 x 3 x 4 = x 4 + 3x 3 + x 2 + x + 3
149
Cn ch rng cc h s ca
g ( x ) nm trong GF ( 8 )
M RS tng ng l m (7, 3) c
83 t m.
Ngoi cc m tm thng l m kim tra chn

mt m tha mn gii hn Singleton sau:
( n,n 1)
v m lp
( n,1) , m Rs cng l
d0 n k + 1
4.12. CC M CHP
4.12.1. M u v mt s khi nim c bn.
M chp l m tuyn tnh c ma trn sinh c cu trc sao cho php m ha c th xem nh
mt php lc (hoc ly tng chp). M chp c s dng rng ri trong thc t. Bi m ha
c xem nh mt tp hp cc b lc s tuyn tnh vi dy m l cc u ra ca b lc c php
xen k. Cc m chp l cc m u tin c xy dng cc thut ton gii m quyt nh phn
mm hiu qu
V d: M khi t cc khi k du to ra cc khi n du. Vi cc m chp (thng c xem
l cc m dng), b m ha hot ng trn dng lin tc cc du vo khng c phn thnh cc
khi tin ri rc. Tuy nhin tc m
k
c hiu l vic a vo k du mi bc thi gian s
n
to ra n du mi. S hc c th c thc hin trn mt trng ty nhng thng thng vn l

trn
GF ( 2 ) .
Ta biu th cc dy v cc hm truyn t nh cc chui ly tha ca bin x (i khi cn

dng k hiu D thay cho x). Dy
{,
m 2 , m 1, m0 , m1, m 2 , } (vi cc phn t mi
thuc trng F) c xem nh mt chui Laurent:
m(x) =
e =
me x e
Tp tt c cc chui Laurent trn F l mt trng, ta k hiu trng ny l

vy
m ( x ) F [ x ] .
i vi dng nhiu u vo ta dng k hiu
1
m( ) ( x ) biu th dng u vo u tin,
2
m( ) ( x ) biu th dng u vo th hai... Tp cc dng vo xem nh mt vect:
2
1
2
m ( x ) = m( ) ( x ) m( ) ( x ) F [ x ]
B m ha cho m chp thng c coi l mt tp cc b lc s.

V d: Hnh 4.2 ch ra mt v d v mt b m ha
150
F [ x ] . Nh
mk
C(k )
1
Ck
D
+
Hnh 4.2: B m ha cho m chp tc R = 1

2
(cc D biu th cc nh mt bt cc trig D)

Dng vo m k i qua hai b lc dng chung cc phn t nh to ra hai dng ra:
1
C(k ) = m k + m k 2 v C(k2 ) = m k + m k 1 + m k 2
Hai dng ra ny c a ra xen k to ra dng c m

li c hai bt m c a ra, kt qu l ta c mt m c tc
R=
Ck . Nh vy c mi bt vo
1
.
2
Thng thng ta coi trng thi ban u ca cc phn t nh l 0, Nh vy, vi dng vo
m = {1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1} cc u ra s l:
1
2
C( ) = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1} v C( ) = {1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1}
Dng ra:
C = {11, 10, 10, 11, 11, 01, 00, 01, 11}
y du phy phn cch cc cp bt ra ng vi mi bt vo.

Ta c th biu th hm truyn t u vo
1
m ( x ) t u ra C( ) ( x ) nh sau:
1
g ( ) ( x ) = 1 + x 2 . Tng t ta c g 2 ( x ) = 1 + x + x 2
Dng vo
m = {1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1} c th biu th nh sau:
m ( x ) = 1 + x + x 4 + x 6 GF ( 2 ) [ x ]
Cc u ra s l:
)( )
2
C( ) ( x ) = m ( x ) g 2 ( x ) = (1 + x + x 4 + x 6 )(1 + x + x 2 )
1
C( ) ( x ) = m ( x ) g1 ( x ) = 1 + x + x 4 + x 6 1 + x 2 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 8
= 1 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 + x 7 + x8
151
k
c mt hm truyn ma trn k n ( x ) (cn c gi l
n
1
ma trn truyn). Vi m tc R =
v d trn ta c:
2
Vi mi m chp tc
R=
G a ( x ) = 1 + x 2 1 + x + x 2
Ma trn truyn ny khng ch c dng cc a thc, ta c th thy thng qua v d sau:

V d: Xt ma trn truyn ca m chp sau:
1 + x + x2
G b ( x ) = 1
1 + x 2
V c "1" ct u tin nn dng vo s xut hin trc tip u ra an xen, bi vy y l

mt m chp h thng
B m ha cho m ny c m t hnh 3:
+
mk
2
C(k )
Ck
C(k )
1
Hnh 4.3: B m ha h thng vi R = 1

2
Vi dng vo:
1
2
m ( x ) = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 8 cc u ra C(k ) v C(k ) c dng:
C(k ) = m ( x ) = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 8
1
)(
1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x8 1 + x + x 2
2)
(
Ck =
1 + x2
= 1 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 + x 7 + x 8 + x10 +
Mt b m ha ch c cc hng a thc trong ma trn truyn c gi l b m ha c p
ng xung hu hn. Mt b m ha c cc hm hu t trong ma trn truyn gi l b m ha c
p ng xung v hn.
Vi m c tc k/n vi k > 1 dy thng bo u vo (ta coi nh c tch ra t mt dy
thng bo thnh k dng), ta c:
1
2
k
m ( x ) = m( ) ( x ) , m( ) ( x ) , , m( ) ( x )
152
v:
g(1,1) ( x ) g(1,2 ) ( x )
g( 2,1) ( x ) g ( 2,2 ) ( x )
G(x) =
( k,1)
( x ) g( k,2) ( x )
g
1,n
g( ) ( x )
2,n )
(
g
( x )
k,n
g ( ) ( x )
Dy ra c biu th nh sau:
1
2
n
C ( x ) = C( ) ( x ) , C( ) ( x ) , , C( ) ( x ) = m ( x ) G ( x )
Ma trn truyn
G ( x ) c gi l h thng nu c th xc nh c mt ma trn n v
trong cc phn t ca
G ( x ) (chng hn nu bng cc php hon v hng v/hoc ct ca G ( x )
c th thu c mt ma trn n v).

V d: Cho m h thng tc
1
G(x) =
R = 2 3 c ma trn truyn sau:
1+ x
1 + x3
2
So th hin ca m ny cho trn Hnh 4:

1
C( ) ( x )
1
m( ) ( x )
2
m( ) ( x )
+
+
2
C( ) ( x )
3
C( ) x
( )
Hnh 4.4: B m ha h thng R = 2

3
Mt s m ha khc c hiu qu hn c m t Hnh 5:
1
m( ) x
( )
2
m( ) ( x )
1
C( ) ( x )
2
C( ) ( x )
D 153
Hnh4.5: S b m ha h thng
3
C( ) ( x )
2 c phn cng n gin hn
Gi s:
m ( x ) = 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 5 + x 7 + , x 2 + x 5 + x 6 + x 7 +
Khi u ra
C ( x ) c dng:
C ( x ) = 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 5 + x 7 + , x 2 + x 5 + x 6 + x 7 + , x + x 3 + x 5 +
Khi a ra xen k dng ra s l:
{100,
001, 110, 001, 100, 111, 010, 110}
T cc v d trn ta c nh ngha sai cho m chp

nh ngha: M chp tc
R = k n trn trng cc chui Laurent hu t F [ x ] trn
trng F l nh ca mt nh x tuyn tnh n nh ca cc chui Laurent k chiu

k
m ( x ) F [ x ] vo cc chui Laurent C ( x ) F [ x ] .
4.12.2. Cc m Turbo.
Vo nm 1993, Berrou, Glavieux v Thitimajashima a ra mt s m ha mi cho
cc m chp c gi l m Turbo (Hnh 6). Trong s ny dng thng tin vo c m ha hai
ln vi mt b xo trn t gia hai b m ha nhm to ra hai dng d liu c m ha c th
xem l c lp thng k vi nhau.
Cc bt vo
m(x)
Xo trn
B m ha 1
Trch
chn
B m ha 2
Cc bt ra
C( x )
Hnh4.6: B m ha Turbo
Trong s ny cc b m ha thng c s dng l cc b m ha cho m chp c tc
R =1 2.
Cc m ny c s dng rt hiu qu trn cc knh phainh. Ngi ta chng t rng

hiu nng ca m Turbo s tng khi tng kch thc ca b xo trn. Tuy nhin trong nhiu ng
dng quan trng (chng hn khi truyn ting ni), kch thc b xo trn qu ln khng s dng
c do kt qu gii m b gi chm
V d: Xt s d m ha Turbo c hm truyn sau: (Hnh 4.7)
154
G(x) =
1
1 + x2
vi b xo trn c m t bi php hon v
= {8,3,7,6,9,0, 2,5,1,4}
m(x)
(1)
(x)
Hon v
( 2)
C (x)
Trch
chn
m(x)
( 2)
(x)
( 3)
C (x)
Hnh4.7:
Gi s dy vo l:
m ( x ) = [1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,1] = C
(1)
(x)
Khi dy ra ca b m ha th nht l:
( 2)
( x ) = [1,1,1,1,0,1,1,1,0,0]
Dy bt c hon v a vo b m ha th hai l:
m ( x ) = [1,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,1,1]
Dy ra ca b m ha th hai l:
( 3)
( x ) = [1,0,1,1,0,0,0,0,1,1]
B trch chn s chn a ra cc bt c gch di ln lt cc u

( 3)
(x)
Dy bt c m ha u ra c gi tr
R=
1
l:
2
v ( x ) = [1,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,1]
Khi khng dng b trch chn dy bt ra s c tc
155
R=
1
v c dng
3
( 2)
(x)
v ( x ) = [1,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,1,0,1]
v ( x ) c iu ch v pht qua knh, u ra knh tn hiu nhn c gii iu
(1)
(1)
( 2)
ch to ra vct r ( x ) bao gm cc vect r ( x ) (tng ng vi C ( x ) ), r ( x )
Dy ra
( 2)
( 3)
( 3)
(tng ng vi C ( x ) ) v r ( x ) (tng ng vi C ( x ) ),.
Hot ng chung ca thut ton gii m Turbo c th m t nh sau (xem hnh 4.8).
D liu
( r( ) ( x ) ,r( ) ( x ))
1
c a ti b gii m 1. Trc tin b gii m ny s dng
s dng thng tin tin nghim trn cc bt pht v to ra cc bt c xc sut xut hin ph
thuc vo d liu quan st c. u ra nh gi ny ca b gii m 1 c xo trn theo lut
hon v v c a ti b gii m 2 v c lm thng tin tin nghim. Cng a ti b gii
m 2 l d liu nhn c
( r( ) ( x ) , r( ) ( x ) )
1
, cn ch rng
1
r ( ) ( x ) phi c a ti b
xo trn . u ra nh gi ca b gii m 2 c gii xo trn bng lut hon v ngc

v c a tr li lm thng tin tin nghim cho b gii m 1. Qu trnh chuyn thng tin tin
nghim s c tip tc cho n khi b gii m quyt nh rng qu trnh hi t (hoc cho ti
khi t c mt s ln lp nht nh)
Phn quan trng nht ca thut ton gii m ny l mt thut ton gii m quyt nh mm,
thut ton ny s cung cp cc nh gi ca cc xc sut hiu nghim cho mi bt vo
Gii xo trn
1
r( ) ( x )
2
r( ) ( x )
B gii
m 1
nh gi
nh gi
1
r( ) ( x )
Xo trn
B gii
m 2
Xo trn
3
r( ) ( x )
Gii xo
trn
RA
Hnh 4.8: S khi chc nng ca b gii m Turbo
BI TP
4.1. Hy thit lp cc t m h thng cho m xyclic
thng tin sau:
a1 ( x ) = 1 + x
a2 ( x ) = 1 + x2
156
( 7,3) =
1 + x + x 2 + x 4 vi cc a thc
4.2. Gi s t m nhn c ca m xyclic (7, 3) c
g ( x ) = 1 + x + x 2 + x 4 c dng
v ( x ) = x 6 + x 5 + x 4 + x 2 + x 00 1 1 1 0 1 16
x
. . . . . x
Hy s dng thut ton chia dch vng tm dc t m pht bit rng m (7, 3) ny c
d0 = 4 .
4.3. Hy lp bn t m ca m h thng nh phn (8,4) bit rng cc du tin tc ca mi t m l:
a. 1 1 0 0
b. 0 1 0 1
c. 1 0 1 0
0
v ma trn kim tra ca b m l: H =
1
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
1 1 0
4.4. Hy lp m Huffman cho ngun tin sn ra cc ch c lp

tng ng
x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 vi cc xc sut
p ( x1 ) = 0,1 ; p ( x 2 ) = 0,6 ; p ( x3 ) = 0,25 ; p ( x 4 ) = 0,05 . Tnh di trung
bnh ca t m. Tnh entropie ca ngun.

4.5. Mt m n gin n du dng trong knh nh phn khng i xng vi xc sut thu sai du
0 l
p 0 = p ( 0 1 ) khc xc sut thu sai du 1 l p1 = p (1 0 ) . Cc li xy ra c
lp vi nhau. Hy tm xc sut gii ng m. Xc sut ny c nh nhau i vi mi t m khng?

4.6. Cho b m h thng nh phn (8,4), cc du
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 l cc du mang tin, cc du
5 , 6 , 7 , 8 l cc du kim tra, c xc nh nh sau:

5
= 1 + 2 + 3
=
2 + 3 + 4
= 1 + 2
+ 4
(a )
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
Chng minh rng khong cch cc tiu ca m trong b m ny bng
d min = 3 .
4.7. Xt m (7,4) c d = 3. M ny sa c mt sai. Tnh xc sut thu ng mt t m khi xc

sut thu sai mt du m bng
p0
4.8. M h thng (3,1) c hai t m 000 v 111. Tnh xc sut sai tng ng khi dng m ny
trong knh i xng c li xy ra vi xc sut thu sai mt du l p c lp vi nhau.
157
4.9. S cc t hp m ca mt b m l
N 0 = m n . Trong s cc t m em dng l
N < N 0 (s cc t m cn li gi l cc t m cm). Khi mt t m dng bin thnh mt t m

cm no th ta bo vic truyn tin gp li v nh vy li t ng c pht hin. Hy tnh s
lng cc t m sai c th c m chng c pht hin t ng v s ti a cc t m c th sa
ca b m ny. p dng bng s vi m = 2, n = 4, N = 8.
4.10. Cho :
)(
)(
)(
X15 + 1 = ( X + 1) X 2 + X + 1 X 4 + X 3 + 1 X 4 + X + 1 X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1
a. Hy tm tt c cc m xyclic c th c trn vnh
Z 2 [ x ] X15 + 1
b. Hy tm a thc sinh ca m BCH sa 3 sai.
4.11. Hy thc hin bi tp 4.4 theo thut ton Shannon Fano sau:
Bc 1: Chia tp tin thnh hai nhm c tng xc sut xp x nhau
Bc 2: Ghi "0" vo cc tin ca mt nhm
Ghi "1" vo cc tin ca nhm cn li
Bc 3:Vi mi nhm li thc hin cc bc trn. Thut ton dng khi mi phn t ch cn
cha mt tin
4.12. Vi m BCH sa 2 sai c m t trong v d mc 4.10.7 hy gii m cho dy sau: 1 0 0 0
10110010001
4.13. Hy gii cc bi tp 3.8 v 3.14 bng cch m ha nh phn.
)(
4.14. Cho X 9 + 1 = ( X + 1) 1 + X + X 2 1 + X 3 + X 6 . Hy thit lp tt c cc m xyclic c

th c trn vnh
Z2 [x] X9 + 1 .
4.15. Hy thc hin m ha Huffman cho ngun ri rc sau:
a1 a 2
A=1 1
4 4
a3
1
8
a4
1
8
a5
1
8
a6
1
32
a7
1
32
a8
1
32
a9
1
64
a10
1
64
nh gi hiu qu ca php m ha
Hy gii m cho dy cc bt nhn c sau: 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 .
4.16. Hy thit lp t m h thng ca b m xyclic (7,4) c a thc sinh
tng ng vi a thc thng tin
g ( X ) = x3 + x 2 + 1
a ( x ) = x3 + x theo thut ton nhn v theo thut ton
chia.
158
4.17. Cho m xyclic (15, 11) c a thc sinh
g ( X ) = x 4 + x + 1 . Hy m t s chc nng
ca thit b m ha h thng theo phng php chia a thc cho b m ny. Tm t m ra ca

thit b trong trng hp a thc thng tin u vo c dng:
159
a ( x ) = x10 + x 9 + x 7
Chng 5: L thuyt thu ti u
CHNG V L THUYT THU TI U

5.1. T BI TON V CC VN C BN
5.1.1. Thu tn hiu khi c nhiu l mt bi ton thng k
Ta xt trng hp n gin nht khi dng ca tn hiu trong knh khng b mo v ch b
nhiu cng tnh. Khi u vo ca my thu s c tng ca tn hiu v nhiu:
u ( t ) = Si ( t ) + n ( t )
Trong
- h s truyn ca knh (thng thng
Gi thit
= const.
(5.1)
1)
- thi gian gi chm tn hiu ca knh

n(t) - nhiu cng, l mt hm ngu nhin
Trng du li vo
cc tin
{i }
i = 1, m , khi cc Si ( t ) l cc tn hiu pht tng ng vi
i .
Do
n ( t ) l mt QTNN nn u ( t ) cng l mt QTNN. Vy khi nhn c u ( t ) ta c th
ra m gi thit sau:
1. S1 ( t )( 1 ) c gi i v trong qu trnh truyn S1 ( t ) c cng thm mt nhiu:
n ( t ) = u ( t ) S1 ( t )
2.
nhiu:
S2 ( t )( 2 ) c truyn i v trong qu trnh truyn S2 ( t ) c cng thm mt
n ( t ) = u ( t ) S2 ( t )
..
m.
nhiu:
Sm ( t )( m ) c truyn i v trong qu trnh truyn Sm ( t ) c cng thm mt
n ( t ) = u ( t ) Sm ( t )
Nhim v ca b thu l phi chn mt trong m gi thuyt ny trong khi n ch bit mt s

tnh cht ca ngun tn hiu v dng ca tn hiu nhn c
u c mt xc sut sai tng ng v
u ( t ) . R rng l mi mt gi thuyt
n ( t ) l mt hm ngu nhin. Nh vy my thu phi chn
mt li gii no trong iu kin bt nh. Vic xt cc quy lut chn li gii trong iu kin bt
nh chnh l ni dung ca bi ton thng k. V vy thu tn hiu khi c nhiu l mt bi ton
thng k.
160
5.1.2. My thu ti u
Nhim v ca my thu l phi chn li gii do my thu cn c gi l s gii. Yu
cu ln nht ca s gii l phi cho ra li gii ng (pht
i ta phi tm c i ). Trong thc
t c rt nhiu s gii. Trong tt c cc s gii c th c th ti mt s bo m xc sut

nhn ln phi ng l ln nht (xc sut gii sai l b nht). S d ny c gi l s gii ti
u. My thu xy dng theo s gii c gi l my thu ti u (hay l tng)
5.1.3. Th chng nhiu

C th dng xc sut thu ng nh gi chnh xc ca mt h thng truyn tin mt
cch nh lng. nh gi nh hng ca nhiu ln chnh xc ca vic thu, ngi ta a ra
khi nim tnh chng nhiu ca my thu. Nu cng mt mc nhiu, my thu no c xc sut
thu ng l ln th c coi l c tnh chng nhiu ln. Hin nhin rng tnh chng nhiu ca
my thu ti u l ln nht v c gi l th chng nhiu.
5.1.4. Hai loi sai lm khi chn gi thuyt
H l l gi thuyt v tin l gi i. Ni dung ca sai lm ny l bc

b H l m thc t l n ng. Tc l qu tht l gi i m ta khng.gi. Sai lm 1 l b st tin
a. Sai lm loi 1: Gi
(hay mc tiu).
b. Sai lm loi 2: Tha nhn
H l trong khi thc t n sai. Tc l thc ra khng c l m ta
li bo l c. Sai lm loi ny gi l nhm tin hoc bo ng nhm.

Bnh thng, khng c iu kin g c bit, s tn ti ca hai loi sai lm trn l khng
"ngang quyn" (khng gy tc hi nh nhau)
5.1.5. Tiu chun Kachennhicov.

Thng thng khi nim ti u l phi hiu theo mt ngha no , tc l ti u theo mt
tiu chun no . Thng thng trong thng tin "thu ti u" c hiu theo ngha nh sau (Do
Kachennhicov ra v gi l tiu chun Kachennhicov).

Trong cng mt iu kin cho trong s hai hay nhiu s gi, s no m bo xc
sut gii ng ln nht th c gi l ti u. (tiu chun ny cn c gi l tiu chun ngi
quan st l tng).
Nhc: Khng ng n cc loi sai lm, tc l coi chng tn ti "ngang quyn" nhau.
u: n gin, d tnh ton, d thc hin.
Ngoi tiu chun Kachennhicov cn c mt s nhng tiu chun khc nh: NeymanPearson, Bayes, Vald . Nhng tiu chun ny khc phc c nhc im trn nhng kh phc
tp nn khng dng trong thng tin.
5.1.6. Vic x l ti u cc tn hiu

Nhim v ca my thu l cho ta cc li gii
i . Qu trinh thc hin nhim v ny c gi
l qu trnh x l tn hiu. Trong qu trnh x l tn hiu thng phi thc hin cc php ton
161

tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn nh cc mch tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn (v d: bin tn, tch sng, lc,
hn ch, nhn, chia, tch phn, bnh phng, khuch i .). Qu trnh x l tn hiu trong my
thu ti u c gi l x l ti u tn hiu. X l nhn li gii c xc sut sai b nht.. Trc
kia vic tng hp cc my thu (xy dng s gii) ch cn c vo cc tiu chun cht lng
mang tnh cht chc nng m khng mang tnh cht thng k. nh hng ca nhiu ln cht
lng ca my thu ch c tnh theo t s tnh /tp. Tc l vic tng hp my thu ti u trc
y ch ch yu da vo trc gic, kinh nghim, th nghim. Ngy nay l thuyt truyn tin cho
php bng ton hc tng hp c my thu ti u ("Ti u" lc ny mi mang tnh cht nh
lng) tc l da vo cc tiu chun ti u bng cng c thng k ton hc ngi ta a xc nh
c quy tc gii ti u.
5.1.7. Xc sut gii sai v quy tc gii ti u

Cho
i l tn hiu gi i, xc sut gi tn hiu ny i l p ( i ) , p ( i ) c gi l
xc sut tin nghim p ( i ) = 1 . Gi thit rng Si ( t ) c thi hn T, Si ( t ) c gi l
cc tn hiu nguyn t ng vi cc du m. my thu ta nhn c u ( t ) . T u ( t ) qua s

gii ta s c li gii
j no . Nu nhn c l th ta coi rng l c gi i. Nh vy l
c gi i vi mt xc sut
p ( l / u ) c gi l xc sut hu nghim. Do xc sut gii
sai s l:
p ( sai / u, l ) = 1 p ( l / u )
(5.1)
T (5.1) ta s tm ra quy tc gii ti u (theo tiu chun Kachennhicov)

tm ra quy tc gii ti u ta xt hai s gii:
- T
u ( t ) cho ta 1
- T
u ( l ) cho ta 2
Nu
p ( sai / u, 1 ) < p ( sai / u, 2 ) (5.2) th ta s coi s th nht ti u hn s th
hai.
T (5.1) v (5.2)
p ( sai / u, 1 ) > p ( sai / u, 2 ) (5.3)
Tc l xc sut chn li gii sai

ng
p ( l / u ) cng ln.
p ( sai / u, l ) cng nh nu xc sut hu nghim tng
Ta xt m s , khi ta c th coi
( m 1) h thc sau:
i = 1,m
p ( l / u ) > p ( i / u ) Vi
i l
162
(5.4)
Nu ta c
( m 1)
h thc ny th ta coi s gii chn
l s l ti u (theo ngha
Kachennhicov) v n m bo xc sut phi sai l b nht (5.4) chnh l quy tc gii ti u. S

gii tha mn (5.4) chnh l s gii ti u.
5.1.8. Hm hp l
Thay vo (5.4) ta c:
Hay
p j /u =
Dng cng thc Bayes:
( ) (
p j w u /j
w (u)
(5.5)
i = 1,m
p ( l ) w ( u / l ) > p ( i ) w ( u / i ) Vi
(5.6)
i
l
w ( u / l ) p ( i )
>
w ( u / i ) p ( l )
l/i
w ( u / l )
v c gi l hm hp l (t s hp l). N c trng cho mc
w ( u / i )
hp l ca gi thuyt cho rng

Ta c:
l/i ( u )
l c gi i (so vi gi thuyt cho rng i c gi i).
i = 1, m
p ( i )
Vi
p ( l )
i l
(5.7)
(5.7) chnh l quy tc gii ti u vit di dng hm hp l.
5.1.9. Quy tc hp l ti a
Nu mi tn hiu gi i u ng xc sut:
(5.7) tr thnh
l/i ( u ) > 1 Vi i l
p ( l ) = p ( i ) =
1
vi i, l = 1,m th
m
(5.8)
(5.8) c gi l quy tc hp l ti a, n hay c dng trong thc t v hu ht cc h

truyn tin u c th coi (vi sai s chp nhn c) ngun du c cc du ng xc sut.
c th thy r nh hng ca tnh thng k ca nhiu (5.8) ta thng vit n di
dng:
l/i ( u ) =
w ( u / l ) w ( u / l ) : w ( u / 0 )
=
w ( u / i ) w ( u / i ) : w ( u / 0 )
l/i ( u ) =
l/0 ( u )
l/0 ( u ) > i/0 ( u ) i l
i/0 ( u )
163
(5.9)
l/0 ( u ) v i/0 ( u ) d tm hn l/i ( u ) . y phi hiu rng w ( u / 0 ) chnh l mt

xc sut ca nhiu.
5.2. X L TI U CC TN HIU C THAM S BIT. KHI NIM V THU

KT HP V THU KHNG KT HP.
5.2.1. t bi ton
Mt knh truyn tn hiu lin tc chu tc ng ca nhiu cng Gausse (chun) c mt
xc sut bng:
n2
2
1
W (n) =
e 2
2
c phng sai
(5.10)
2 v k vng trit. Tn hiu pht c mi yu t trit trc (tin nh)
Hy tm cng thc ca quy tc gii ti u theo quy tc hp l ti a v lp s chc nng

ca s gii ti u trong trng hp ny.
5.2.2. Gii bi ton

5.2.2.1. Tm hm hp l
Ta c
l/0 ( u )
u ( t ) = S j ( t ) + n ( t )
, = const l cc tham s ca knh bit
S j ( t ) cng bit
tm
l/0 ( u ) ta gi thit u ( t ) c ph hu hn Fc . Nh vy ta c th ri rc ha u ( t )
thnh n s c:
u1, u 2 , . u n , n = 2FcT , trong T l thi hn ca u ( t ) . Nh vy ta phi tm
j/0 ( u1, u 2 , . u n )
j/0 ( u1, u 2 , . u n ) =
Wn ( u1, u 2 , . u n i )
Wn ( u1, u 2 , . u n 0 )
Wn ( u1, u 2 , . u n 0 ) chnh l mt phn b n chiu ca nhiu Gausse, nu coi cc

s c ca nhiu c lp, thng h vi nhau th:
164
2Fc T
u 2k
2Fc T
2
1
0 ) = W1 ( u k ) =
e 2
k =1
k =1 2
Wn ( u1, u 2 , . u n
2Fc T u 2
exp k2
=
2Fc T
k =1 2
2
K hiu
c j ( t ) = S j ( t ) .
Khi pht
j ta s nhn c cc u k = c jk + n k .
tnh ton d dng ta coi vic pht

gi tr nhiu
j tng ng vi vic nhn c nhiu c cc
n 'k = u k c jk . Tc l coi :
Wn u1, u 2 , . u n j = Wn u1' , u '2 , . u 'n 0
Tng t nh trn ta c:
Wn u1' , u '2 , . u 'n
2Fc T u c
k
jk
0 =
exp
2Fc T
2 2
k =1
2
2Fc T 2 2Fc T u c
u
k
jk
j/0 ( u1, u 2 , . u n ) = exp k2

22
k =1
k =1 2
Phng sai
2 ca tp c th biu th qua mt ph cng sut ca n v gii thng ca
knh Fc
2 = G 0Fc
Trong Fc
1
2 t
2F T
1 2Fc T 2
1 c
j/0 ( u1, u 2 , . u n ) = exp
u k t G u k c jk
G
0 k =1
0 k =1
Khi Fc
ta c:
165
j/0 ( u ) = lim j/0 ( u1, u 2 , . u n )

n
T
1 T
2
= exp
u ( t ) dt u ( t ) c j ( t ) dt
G

0
0 0
T
E j T

2
2
= exp
u
t
c
t
dt
C j ( t ) dt +
(
)
(
)
j
G
G

0
0 0
Ej
2T
j/0 ( u ) = e xp
Z j ( u )
e xp
G0
G0
(5.11)
Trong
E j = c 2j ( t ) dt l nng lng ca c j ( t )
0
c j ( t ) l tn hiu nguyn t mang tin li ra ca knh

T
1
Z j ( u ) = u ( t ) c j ( t ) dt
T0
(5.12)
Z j ( u ) c gi l tch v hng ca u ( t ) v c j ( t )
5.2.2.2. Quy tc ti u vit theo cc tham s ca th hin tn hiu.
Dng quy tc hp l ti a
i = 1, m
l/0 ( u )
. Ly log e hai v:
> 1 Vi
i/0 ( u )
i l
ln l/0 ( u ) ln i/0 ( u ) > 0

ln l/0 ( u ) > ln i/0 ( u )
(*)
Thay (5.11) vo (*) ta c:
i = 1, m
El 2T
E
2T
Zl ( u ) > i +
Zi ( u ) Vi
+
G0 G0
G0 G0
i l
Nhn hai v vi
G0
ta c:
2T
Zl ( u )
i = 1,m
El
E
> Zi ( u ) i Vi
2T
2T
i l
166
Ch rng
E j T = Pj l cng sut ca tn hiu c j ( t ) u vo s gii.

Zl ( u )
pl
p
> Zi ( u ) i Vi i l
2
2
(5.13)
Da vo quy tc gii ti u (5.13) ta s xy dng c s gia cng ti u tn hiu.

5.2.2.3. Xy dng s x l ti u tn hiu
T
1
T 0
u(t)
c1 ( t )
Z1 ( u )
1
T 0
cm ( t )
Thit
b
so
snh
p1 2
Z1 ( u )
Zm ( u )
pl
2
pm 2
Zm ( u )
Zl ( u )
Xung cc hp d
ng b t 0 = T
Hnh 5.1: S gia cng ti u tn hiu.
Li gii
l ly ra c chnh l li gii c xc sut sai b nht
T (5.12) ta v c s khi ca vic hnh thnh tch v hng
Zi ( u ) . S ny
gm 3 khi:
- To tn hiu ci ( t ) ng vai tr nh ngoi sai
- Mch nhn ng vai tr nh bin tn
- Mch tch phn (ng vai tr nh b lc)
Ngi ta cn gi s trn l b lc phi hp ch ng (c ngun) hay cn gi l tng
quan k. Sau ny chng ta s thy c rng to tch v hng
Zi ( u ) ta c th ch dng mt
mch tuyn tnh, l b lc phi hp th ng (khng ngun)

Ch : so snh ng lc, ngi ta phi dng xung cc hp ng b m thit b so snh
vo ng thi im c t 0
=T
167
5.2.3. Khi nim v thu kt hp v thu khng kt hp

5.2.3.1. H c khong ngh ch ng.
trn ta gii bi tan thu ti u cc tn hiu c cc tham s bit (tc l xc nh c
mt cch chnh xc bin , tn s, pha ban u v , = const ). Thc t gi thit
, = const khng ph hp v , l cc tham s ca knh ph thuc rt nhiu vo cc yu t

ngu nhin.
Khi
thay i th Zi ( u ) s thay i t l vi cn pi s thay i t l vi 2 . V vy
m bo c quy tc gii (5.13) ta cn c mch t ng hiu chnh b li s thay i ca

(v d dng mch TK (APY)).
Khi
thay i s lm cho gc thi gian thay i gy ra s khng ng b gia ci ( t ) v
u ( t ) . thc hin c s ng b gia ci ( t ) v u ( t ) ta phi dng h thng TT (ATIY).

c th trnh c s phc tp ca thit b khi phi dng thm TK khi
ngi ta chn cc tn hiu c cng sut trung bnh nh nhau, tc l
thay i
pi = p j vi i, j = 1,m .
Lc quy tc gii s l:
Zl ( u ) > Zi ( u )
i l
(5.14)
S gii lc ny s rt n gin v ngay c khi
thay i ta cng khng phi dng thm
mch TK (Hnh 5.2)

Z1 ( u )
u(t)
Thit
b
so
snh
Z2 ( u )
Zm ( u )
Hnh 5.2:
H thng c
t0 = T
pi = p j i, j = 1, m c gi l h thng c khong ngh ch ng.
5.2.3.2. nh ngha thu kt hp v thu khng kt hp

Tn hiu tng qut c dng:
Ci ( t ) = C0i ( t ) cos ( t + ( t ) + 0 )
168
Khi gia cng ti u tn hiu ta cn bit ng bao
i ( t ) = +
d ( t )
.
dt
C0i ( t ) v tn s tc thi
Nu vic thu
Ci ( t ) cn bit 0 ( iu chnh h thng thu) th c gi l thu kt hp.
Nu vic thu
Ci ( t ) khng cn bit 0 ( iu chnh h thng thu) th c gi l thu
khng kt hp.
Thc t khi
thay i s lm cho 0 thay i. ch bin thin t nhng cng lm cho
0 thay i rt mnh. Khi ta phi chuyn sang thu khng kt hp.

5.3. PHT TN HIU TRONG NHIU NH B LC PHI HP TUYN TNH
TH NG.
5.3.1. nh ngha b lc phi hp tuyn tnh th ng
nh ngha: i vi mt tn hiu xc nh, mt mch tuyn tnh th ng m bo t s
S
ra = cc i mt thi im quan st no y s c gi l mch lc phi hp tuyn
N ra
tnh th ng ca tn hiu .
Sau ny gn ta ch gi l b lc phi hp.
Trong
ra l t s gia cng sut nh ca tn hiu v cng sut trung bnh ca nhiu
u ra b lc y.
5.3.2. Bi ton v b lc phi hp

5.3.2.1. Ni dung bi ton.
Cho u vo mt mch tuyn tnh th ng mt dao ng c dng:
y ( t ) = Ci ( t ) + n ( t )
Ci ( t ) l th hin ca tn hiu pht i (cn c gi l tn hiu ti)
n ( t ) l nhiu cng, trng, chun
Hy tng hp mch n c hm truyn sao cho mt thi im quan st
y ( t ) no ,
ra ca n phi cc i.
5.3.2.2. Gii bi ton.
Thc cht bi ton ny l bi ton tng hp mch (ngc vi bi ton phn tch mch) m
ta hc gio trnh "L thuyt mch ". Nhim v ca ta l
phi tm biu thc gii tch ca
169
hm truyn phc
K i ( ) ca mch tuyn tnh th ng sao cho mt thi im quan st (dao

ra t max.
ng nhn c) no
Gi Siv ( ) l mt ph (bin) phc ca th hin tn hiu u vo mch tuyn tnh.

Gi
Sira ( ) l mt ph phc ca th hin tn hiu u ra ca n.
Khi theo cng thc bin i ngc Fourier th hin tn hiu u ra ca mch tuyn tnh
th ng ny l:
1
Cira ( t ) =
Sira ( ) e jt d = Sira ( 2f ) e j2ft df
Siv ( 2f ) Ki ( 2f ) e
j2 ft
df
Trong :
Sira ( 2f ) = Siv ( 2f ) K i ( 2f )
Cng sut nh ca tn hiu u ra ca mch:

2
pcira = Cira ( t 0 ) =
Siv ( 2f ) Ki ( 2f ) e
j2 ft 0
df
Cira ( t 0 ) l gi tr nh ca tn hiu
Theo gi thit v can nhiu l tp trng nn mt ph cng sut ca n s l
( N 0 bng
N 0 = const
1
mt ph cng sut thc t, v ph thc t ch c t 0 ). Do cng sut
2
trung bnh ca tp u ra ca mch ny s l:
p n ra
= 2n
N0 Ki ( 2f )
y ta p dng nh l Parseval:
1
x ( t ) dt = 2 S ( ) d
Ta xt t s:
ra =
pcira
p n ra
170
df = N 0
K i ( 2f ) df
Siv ( 2f ) Ki ( 2f ) exp ( j2ft 0 ) df
ra =
(5.15)
N0
K i ( 2f ) df
Vn y l phi xc nh
K i ( 2f ) trong (5.15) nh th no ra t max.
gii quyt vn ny ta c th dng nhiu phng php, y ta s dng bt ng thc

Byhakobckuu Schwartz:
2
F ( x ) ( x ) dx
ng thc (5.16) ch c khi:

Trong :
F( x )
dx
2
( x ) dx
(5.16)
( x ) = k F* ( x )
(5.17)
( x ) , F ( x ) l cc hm phc bin thc

F* ( x ) l hm lin hp phc ca F ( x )
k l h s t l
Trong (5.15) nu cho

nh
( x ) trong (5.1).
Siv ( 2f ) e j2ft 0 ng vai tr F ( x ) , cn K i ( 2f ) ng vai tr
Khi p dng (5.16) cho (5.15) ta c:
ra
Siv ( 2f ) exp ( j2ft 0 ) df
N0
K i ( 2f ) df
K i ( 2f ) df
1
j2 ft 0 2
ra
f
S
2
e
df
(
)
iv
N 0
2
1
ra
Siv ( 2f ) df nh l Parseval
N 0
(5.18) chng t
ra max =
Ei
N0
Ei
N0
(5.19)
171
(5.18)
trong
Ei =
Siv ( 2f ) df l nng lng ca tn hiu ti (5.19) chng t t s
S
ch ph thuc vo nng lng ca tn hiu m hon ton khng ph thuc vo dng ca
N ra
S
n. Ta bit rng xc sut pht hin ng ch ph thuc vo . V vy theo quan im ca
N ra
bi ton pht hin dng ca tn hiu l khng quan trng. (Ch khi cn o lng cc tham s ca
tn hiu nh tz, F ( dch tn) th chnh xc ca php o v kh nng phn bit ca h
thng o s ph thuc mnh vo dng tn hiu).
Theo (5.17)
ra ch t max khi:
k i (2f ) = kS*iv (2f ) exp{ j2ft 0 }
(5.20)
(5.20) chnh l p s c bi ton ta nu ra trn. Nh vy bi ton gii xong.

thy r c ngha vt l k thut ta s xt k (5.20) hn na.
5.3.3. c tnh bin tn v c tnh pha tn ca b lc phi hp

5.3.3.1. c tnh bin tn.
T (5.20) ta c
k i (2f ) = k S*iv (2f )
(5.21)
(5.21) l biu thc gii tch ca c tnh bin tn ca b lc phi hp, ta thy n c dng
ging ht modul mt ph ca tn hiu. iu c ngha l khi cho tn hiu ti th c tnh
ca mch tuyn tnh cn tng hp s do mt ph phc ca tn hiu quyt nh.
Ngoi ra t hnh 5.3 ta cn thy: b lc phi hp s lm suy gim cc thnh phn ph tn
hiu v tp m ng vi nhng phn c cng nh ca ph tn hiu. nhng khong tn s m
cng cc thnh phn ph ca tn hiu cng nh th s suy gim cng ln.
Fn
Sv
2N0
2
3
k2
Hnh 5.3
172

5.3.3.2. c tnh pha tn.
Ta vit li (5.20) nh sau:
k i () = k S*iv () e jxi ()e jt 0 = k S*iv () e j()
(5.22)
trong xi () l ph pha ca tn hiu ti.

Cn () = [xi ()+ t 0 ] (5.23) l dch pha gy bi b lc. chnh l c tnh pha tn
ca b lc phi hp. Ta thy [xi ()+ t 0 ] l dch pha ton phn ca tn hiu ti thi im quan
st t 0 . Nh vy ti thi im t = t 0 dch pha ton phn ca b lc va vn kh c dch pha
ton phn ca tn hiu truyn ti qua b lc, iu lm cho mi thnh phn dao ng iu ha
ca tn hiu ti ng pha vi nhau. V vy cc thnh phn dao ng iu ha c cng li vi
nhau v tn hiu ra s t c cc i t = t 0 .
Ngoi ra t (5.20) ta thy b lc phi hp c tnh cht bt bin i vi bin v thi gian
x i (t ) v bin v pha ban u

(1, t1, 1 ) th mt ph ca tn hiu ny ch khc nhau vi mt ph ca x i (t ) mt tha
s 1 exp{ j(t1 + 1 )}. Tnh cht ny ca b lc phi hp rt quan trng v c bit l i
v pha u ca tn hiu. Bi v cc tn hiu khc vi
vi thc t. Thc vy, thng thng bin , s gi chm v pha ban u ca tn hiu thu ta
khng bit. Nh vy ng l phi xy dng mt s ln cc b lc m mi b lc ch lm ti u
cho mt tn hiu c gi tr bin , s gi chm v pha ban u c th th ta ch cn mt b lc
phi hp tuyn tnh th ng, b lc ny s l ti u cho mi tn hiu cng dng. Trong raar
thng thng cc tham s nh bin v pha ban u nhn cc gi tr ngu nhin v khng may
thng tin c ch (c ngha l cc tham s k sinh). T kt lun trn ta thy rng s tn ti ca cc
tham s ngu nhin ny khng lm bin i cu trc ca b lc ti u.
5.3.4. Phn ng xung g i (t ) ca mch lc phi hp

Ta bit rng phn ng xung v hm truyn lin h vi nhau theo cp bin i Fourier:
1
g i (t ) =
K i ()e jt d
2
Thay (5.20) vo:
k *
g i (t ) =
Siv ()e jt 0 e jt d
2
k *
g i (t ) =
Siv ()e j(t 0 t )d
2
Ta c:
S*iv () = Si ( )
173
k
g i (t ) =
Siv ( )e j( )(t 0 t )d
C iv (t )
k
' = g i (t ) =
Siv (')e j'(t 0 t ) ( d')
C iv ( t )
g i (t ) = kCiv (t 0 t )
V k l hng s ty nn ta c th ly:
g i (t ) = kCiv (t 0 t ) (5.23)
th
C iv (t 0 t )
g i (t ) v trn hnh 5.4.
T hnh 5.4 ta thy rng tha mn iu kin th

hin c b lc:
g i (t ) = 0 khi t < 0 nn t 0 T
t0 < T
C iv (t 0 t )
5.3.5. Hng ng ra ca mch lc phi hp

Theo tch phn Duhamen:
t
U ra (t ) = U v (x )g(t x )dx
t0 < T
Hnh 5.4
Thay (5.23) vo ta c:
U ra (t ) = k U v (x )Civ (t 0 t + x )dx
0
t = t 0 U ra (t 0 ) = k U v (x )C iv (x )dx = k U v (t )C iv (t )dt
Nu ly
t = t 0 v k =
1
th ta c:
T
1T
U ra (T ) = U v (t )C iv (t )dt
T 0
U ra (T ) = Zi (u )
(5.24)
Nh vy ta c th dng mch lc phi hp to ra tch v hng. S gii ti u nh

s n gin hn rt nhiu.
174
5.4. L LUN CHUNG V THU KT HP CC TN HIU NH PHN

5.4.1. Lp s gii ti u mt tuyn
5.4.1.1. Lp quy tc gii.
Xt mt ngun tin nh phn:
1 "1" v 2 "0" .
Khi tn hiu s c hai th hin S1 (t ) v
S 2 (t )
Ta gii hn ch xt nhiu cng v l tp m trng, chun dng.

Tn hiu u vo my thu:
u (t ) = Ci (t ) + n (t ), i = 1,2
ng vi quy tc gii theo Kachennhicov
ta s nhn c li gii ng 1 , nu:
P1 1 T
P
1T
> u (t )C 2 (t )dt 2
u (t )C1 (t )dt
T0
2 T0
2
(*)
lp dc s mt tuyn ta a (*) v dng sau:
1T
1
u (t )[C1 (t ) C 2 (t )]dt > (P1 P2 )
T0
2
(5.25)
1
(P1 P2 ) c gi l ngng lm vic
2
5.4.1.2. S gii ti u mt tuyn. (hnh 5.5)
C1 (t )
U v ng
1T
T0
C 2 (t )
So snh
vi ngng
U ra ng
t = t0
Hnh 5.5
Nu
U v ng >
1
( P1 P2 ) th U ra ng 0 , khi ta xem rng c li gii 1 v 1 .
2
Nu
U v ng <
1
( P1 P2 ) th U ra ng = 0 , khi ta xem rng c li gii 2 v 2 .
2
Ch :
- Nu P1 P2 m (hm truyn t ca ng truyn) thay i th ta phi c thit b t
ng iu chnh ngng. Nu khng th xc sut gii sai s tng ln.
175

- Nu P1 = P2 th ta khng cn phi c thit b so snh t ng iu chnh ngng. Khi
ta s dng b phn bit cc. Ta quy c rng:
+
U ra ng > 0 th c li gii 1 1
U ra ng < 0 th c li gii 2 2
Nu gi
C ( t ) = C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) l tn hiu s th khi dng b lc phi hp vi tn hiu
C ( t ) thit b s n gin i rt nhiu (hnh 5.6.)

u(t)
B lc phi hp
vi
Thit b
ngng
C ( t )
t = t0
Hnh 5.6.
5.4.2. Xc sut sai khi thu kt hp tn hiu nh phn

5.4.2.1. t bi ton
Cho knh nh phn, i xng, khng nh c nhiu cng, trng, chun theo m hnh sau:
p ( 1 ) =
p ( 1 / 1 )
2 1
p ( 1 / 2 )
p ( 2 ) =
1
2
2
p ( b 2 / 1 )
p ( 2 / 2 )
Hy tm cng thc biu din xc sut sai ton phn (xc sut sai khng iu kin) ca knh
ny khi s gii tn hiu l ti u theo Kopennhicop.
5.4.2.2. Gii bi ton
Theo cng thc xc sut y :
p s = p ( 1 ) .p ( 2 / 1 ) + p ( 2 ) .p (1 / 2 )
tm xc sut sai ca h
ps , ta phi tm xc sut sai ca mi du p ( 2 / 1 ) v
p ( 1 / 2 ) .
Tm
p ( 2 / 1 ) :
176
- Theo quy tc gii (5.25),
p ( 2 / 1 ) chnh l xc sut khng tho mn (5.25), tc l:
1 T
1
p ( 2 / 1 ) = p U ( t ) C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) dt < ( P1 P2 )
2
T 0
Trong :
U ( t ) = C1 ( t ) + n ( t )
(5.26)
(*)
1
Pi = C 2i ( t ) dt
T0
(**)
Thay (*) v (**) vo (5.26), sau mt vi bin i n gin, ta c:

T
T
1 T 2
1
1
p ( 2 / 1 ) = p C1 ( t ) dt C1 ( t ) .C 2 ( t ) dt + n ( t ) C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) dt
T0
T0
T 0
T
T
1
1
2
2
C
t
dt
C
t
dt
<
(
)
(
)
1
2
2T 0
2T 0
T
1 T
1
2
C
t
dt
p ( 2 / 1 ) = p n ( t ) .C ( t ) dt <
( )
2T 0
T 0
Trong :
(5.27)
C ( t ) = C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) .
1
P = C 2 ( t ) dt l cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu hiu s.
T0
T
1
= n ( t ) .C ( t ) dt l mt i lng ngu nhin, v n(t) l mt qu trnh ngu nhin
T0
v tch phn l mt php bin i tuyn tnh.
p ( 2 / 1 ) = p < P
2
(5.28)
Theo nh ngha xc sut:
p < P =
2
1
P
2
W ( ) d
177
(5.29)
tm
W ( ) , ta thy rng php bin i tuyn tnh ca mt qu trnh chun cng l mt
qu trnh chun. V n(t) chun nn
W () =
cng chun. Do W ( ) = W ( n ) .
a 2

exp
2 2
2 2
(5.30)
1 T
1 T
Trong : a = M n ( t ) C ( t ) dt = M {n ( t )} C ( t ) dt
T 0
T 0
V M{n(t)} = 0 nn a
Xc nh phng sai:
= 0.
2 :
2
T
T
1
2 = D [ ] = D n ( t ) C ( t ) dt = 2 M n ( t ) C ( t ) dt
0
T 0
T

T
T
1
= 2 M n ( t ) C ( t ) dt. n ( t1 ) C ( t1 ) dt1
T
0
0
T T
= 2 M C ( t ) C ( t1 ) n ( t1 ) n ( t ) dt dt1
T
0 0
1
T2
TT
C ( t ) C ( t1 ) M {n ( t ) n ( t1 )} dt dt1
(a)
00
Theo gi thit n(t) l tp m trng, chun, dng, dng bin i Wiener Khinchin, ta tnh
c hm t tng quan ca n:
M {n ( t ) n ( t1 )} = R ( t t1 ) = N 0 ( t t1 )
Vi
R ( t t1 ) =
N 0 .e
(b)
j( t t1 )
Th (b) vo (a), ta c:
N0
T2
TT
C ( t ) C ( t1 ) ( t t1 ) dt dt1
00
178
(c)
p dng tnh cht sau ca hm
f ( x ) ( x x 0 ) dx = f ( x 0 )
khi a < x 0 < b
a
b
ta c:
C ( t1 ) ( t t1 ) dt1 = C ( t )
(d)
Thay (d) vo (c), ta c:
N0
T
N0
C ( t ) dt C ( t1 ) ( t t1 ) dt1 = T 2 C ( t ) dt
2 =
N 0 P
T
(5.31)
Thay (5.31) vo (5.30):
1
2
exp
N 0 P
2 N 0 P
2
T
T
W () =
Khi xc sut sai khi truyn dn
i bin: t
(5.32)
1 s bng:
p ( 2 / 1 ) = p < P =
2
1
N P
2 0
T
1
P
2
1
P
2
W ( ) d =
2
exp
N P
2 0
d =
N 0 P
T
1
p ( 2 / 1 ) =
2
P T
4N 0
179
P T
exp d =
2G 0
2
(*)
Trong
G 0 = 2N 0 l ph cng
sut thc t.
gi l hm xc sut sai (cn k
a=0
2 = 1
hiu l erf).
Trong gio trnh L thuyt xc sut, ta
c:
( x ) = 1 ( x ) . Nn ta c:
P T
p ( 2 / 1 ) = 1
2G
0
P T

2G 0
Hnh 5.7.
(5.33)
Tng t:
P T
p ( 1 / 2 ) = 1
2G
0
P T
ps = 1
2G
0
(5.33)
(5.34)
th biu din (5.34) v trn hnh 5.8.

Thng thng T l xc nh v khi thit k h
thng truyn tin ngi ta thng cho trc tc
truyn tin. gim nh
ps ngi ta gim nh
G 0 bng cch dng cc b khuch i tp m

nh (khuch i tham s, khuch i lng t,...)
5.4.2.3. Tnh xc sut sai trong mt s trng
hp c th
a. Cc tn hiu i cc:
c1 ( t ) = c2 ( t )
180
1
0,5
0,2
0,1
0,05
0,02
102
103
104
105
106
PS
Hnh 5.8
P0 T
2N0
C 1 (t )
C 1 (t )
C 2 (t )
C 2 (t )
C = C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) C ( t ) = 2C1 ( t ) P = 4P1 = 4P2 = 4Pc

Pc =
P1 + P2
l cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu ti C i ( t ) .
2
4Pc T
ps = 1
2G
0
p s = 1
2h
(5.35)
Trong Pc T l nng lng ca tn hiu.
h=
Pc T
G0
(chnh l t s tn/tp)
b. Cc tn hiu trc giao (theo ngha hp)

nh ngha: Hai tn hiu c gi l trc giao theo ngha hp, nu:
T
C 1 (t )
C1 ( t ) C 2 ( t ) dt = 0
C 1 (t )
C 2 (t )
C 2 (t )
Khi :
181
P =
C 2
( t ) dt =
C12
( t ) dt + C 22 ( t ) dt
P = P1 + P2 = 2Pc
2Pc T
ps = 1
2G
0
ps = 1 ( h )
(5.36)
c. Mt trong hai tn hiu trit ( C 2
(t ) = 0)
H ny chnh l h truyn tin nh phn c khong ngh th ng.
C ( t ) = C1 ( t ) P = P1 = 2Pc
ps = 1 ( h )
d. Cc tn hiu nh nhau ( C1
(5.37)
( t ) = C2 ( t ) )
C ( t ) = 0 P = 0, ( 0 ) =
1
1
p s = = p s max
2
2
Nh vy, vic lp li cc tin b sai hon ton: knh lin lc b t. M hnh knh trong
trng hp ny nh sau:
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
Ch :
y ta coi
Pc =
P1 + P2
.
2
5.5. X L TI U CC TN HIU C THAM S NGU NHIN THU KHNG

KT HP
5.5.1. Cc tham s ca tn hiu l cc tham s ngu nhin
Do chu tc ng ca nhiu yu t ngu nhin nh nhit , m, p sut, in p ngun...
nn:
182

- Trng thi ca cc khu ca mch truyn tin lun thay i.
- Cc tham s vt l ca knh lun thay i
( , ,... )
- V vy cc tham s ca tn hiu phi l cc tham s thay i ngu nhin.
5.5.2. X l ti u cc tn hiu c tham s ngu nhin bin thin chm
l bin thin chm nu trong khong quan st T, cc bin

thin ca n cha kp bc l r rng, tc l: d / dt 0 .
Ta gi mt tham s ngu nhin
Ta s xt mt s trng hp c th sau:
a. Nu cc tham s ngu nhin bin thin chm c cc gi tr bit trc th ta s cn c vo
tn hiu nguyn t va nhn c thng bo nhng hiu bit v gi tr ca cc tham s ca tn
hiu nguyn t s thu tip sau. Thc cht bi ton ny xt trn (thu kt hp).
b. Nu gi tr ca cc tham s ngu nhin bin thin chm khng bit trc (thu khng kt
hp) th s gii ti u phi c nhng thay i c bn. Sau y ta s xt trng hp ny.
5.5.3. Xc sut hu nghim ca tn hiu c cc tham s thay i ngu nhin

n gin, ta ch gi s mt trong nhng tham s
i ca tn hiu C K ( 1, 2 ,..., t ) l
ngu nhin. u thu tt c cc s cn li u bit chnh xc. Gi s tham s ngu nhin ny

l
1 . Khi tn hiu th K c tham s 1 khng bit s k hiu l C K, 1 ( t ) . Trong trng
hp tng qut, lut phn b ca 1 c th ph thuc vo ch s k. V vy tnh cht thng k ca

tham s ny c xc nh bi phn b ng thi sau:
W ( C K , 1 ) = p ( C K ) W ( 1 / C K )
Trong :
(5.38)
W ( 1 / C K ) l mt xc sut ca tham s 1 khi bit gi tr C K . Nu
gi tr ca 1 k (iu ny thng xy ra trong thc t) th:
W ( C K , 1 ) = p ( C K ) W ( 1 )
(5.39)
Cng nh trong trng hp tn hiu bit hon ton chnh xc, ta c th tm xc sut hu
nghim ca
C K, 1 ( t ) theo cng thc:
W ( C K , 1 / u ) = bW ( C K , 1 ) W ( u / C K , 1 )
Trong b = const
(5.40) (Cng thc Bayes)
(k ) .
W ( u / C K , 1 ) l mt xc sut ca dao ng nhn c nu truyn tn hiu

C K, 1 ( t ) :
183
u(t) =
C K, 1 ( t ) + n(t)
Ta thy hm
W ( C K , 1 / u ) khng ch cha thng tin v tn hiu pht C K m cn cha
c thng tin v 1 , l nhng thng tin tha. Ta c th b nhng thng tin tha ny bng cch
ly trung bnh
W ( C K , 1 / u ) theo mi gi tr c th c ca 1 . Khi ta c:
p ( C K / u ) = W ( C K , 1 / u ) d1 = b.p ( C K ) W ( 1 / C K ) W u / C K, 1 d1
(5.41)
Sau trn c s phn tch xc sut hu nghim
p ( C K / u ) , ta s tm c li gii v tn
hiu pht:
p ( CK / u ) > p ( Ci / u )
i k
(5.42)
1, 2 ,... th ta cn phi tm
Nu tn hiu c mt s tham s ngu nhin
W u / C K, 1 , 2 ,...
v sau ly trung bnh theo mi gi tr c th c ca cc tham s
1, 2 ,... . Ch rng tnh cht thng k ca cc tham s 1, 2 ,... c xc nh bng hm:

W ( C K , 1, 2 ,... ) = p ( C K ) .W ( 1, 2 ,.../ C K )
Ta c:
p ( C K / u ) = b'.p ( C K ) ... W ( 1, 2 ,.../ C K ) .W u / C K, 1 , 2 ,... d1d 2 ...

(5.43)
p ( C K ) l xc sut tin nghim ca tn hiu pht C K .

5.5.4. X l ti u cc tn hiu c pha ngu nhin
cc nh cu trc ca my thu ti u, ta s phn tch (5.41) c k n quy tc gii (5.42).
Gi s rng cc tn hiu pht c thi hn T v pha u
thay i ngu nhin:
C K, ( t ) = A K ( t ) cos K ( t )
= A K ( t ) cos K ( t ) cos + A K ( t ) sin K ( t ) sin
= C K ( t ) cos + C K ( t ) sin
Trong
(5.44)
C K ( t ) = A K ( t ) cos K ( t ) , C K ( t ) l bin i Hilbert ca C K ( t ) .
184
1 CK ( )
CK ( t ) =
d .
t
A K ( t ) v K ( t ) l bao v pha tc thi ca tn hiu C K ( t ) . Gi s l tham s ngu

nhin k v c phn b u:
W ( ) = 2
( 0,2 )
( 0,2 )
Gi thit trn c ngha l pha
trong khong (0,T) c gi khng i v thay i ngu
nhin mt cch lp khi chuyn t khong quan st ny sang khong quan st khc.
Trc tin ta s xc nh
W u / C K, = W n' ( t ) = u ( t ) C K, ( t ) .
phn 5.2 ta c:
Wn n1' ,..., n 'n

Trong :
tm
/0 =
1
2
2Fc T
1 n
exp 2 U j C K,j
2 j =1
n = 2Fc T .
W u / C K, ta cho Fc
W u / C K, = lim Wn n1' ,..., n 'n / 0 =

Fc
1
lim exp 2
U j C Kj
Fc
2
2F
c j =1
1 2
Trong t =
;
= G 0 . Khi Fc th t 0 .
2Fc Fc
W u / C K,
1 T
2
exp
U
t
C
t
dt
=
(
)
(
)
K,
n
G
0
2
0
W u / C K, = b1.e
EK
G0
2 T
.exp
U
t
C
t
cos
C
t
sin
( ) K ( )
(5.45)
K( )

0 0
185
E K = C 2K, ( t ) dt
0
Nhn t
b1 cha tt c nhng i lng k .
Bin i tch phn m ca nhn t hm m, ta c:

T
q ( k, ) = cos U ( t ) C K ( t ) dt + sin U ( t ) C K ( t ) dt =
= U K cos + VK sin
K hiu
M K = U 2K + VK2 ,
Ta c th vit:
K = arctg ( VK / U K )
q ( k, ) = M K cos ( K )
(5.46)
(5.47)
Theo (5.41) ta tm c:
p ( C K ) EK
p ( C K / u ) = b1.
.e
2
= b 2 .p ( C K ) e E K
Trong I 0
2
G0
2
M cos( K )
G0 K
d =
0
G0
2M K
I0
G0
(5.48)
( x ) l hm Bessel bin dng cp 0, l mt hm n iu tng ca x.
thun tin, chng ta s khng so snh cc
p ( C K / u ) m s so snh logarit t nhin
ca chng. Ly ln (5.48) v p dng quy tc gii, chng ta s nhn c quy tc gii sau:
Tn hiu
C K ( t ) c pht i, nu:
ln p ( C K )
2M K
EK
+ ln I 0
G0
G0
2M i
Ei
+ ln I 0
> ln p ( C i )
i k
G
G
0
0
(5.49)
Nh vy quy tc gii khng ch ph thuc vo mc nhiu m cn ph thuc vo cc tnh

cht ca cc tn hiu. Thng thng, trong cc h thng thc t c khong ngh ch ng tt c
cc tn hiu pht c nng lng nh nhau. Gi s cc tn hiu l ng xc sut, khi quy tc gii
ca my thu ti u c th vit di dng sau:
MK > Mi
i k
186
(5.49)
R rng l tin cy ca vic truyn cng cao nu trong iu kin khng c nhiu
M i v
M K cng khc nhau. Theo (5.46), gi tr M i s t cc tiu bng 0 nu:

T
C K ( t ) C i ( t ) dt = 0; C K ( t ) C i ( t ) dt = 0
0
(5.50)
Cc tn hiu tho mn (5.50) s c gi l cc tn hiu trc giao theo ngha cht. Cc tn

hiu , cc tn hiu khng giao nhau v thi gian,... l cc tn hiu trc giao theo ngha cht.
Nh vy, khi pha bt nh, cc tn hiu trc giao theo ngha cht s l cc tn hiu ti u.
n gin, ta s v s gii theo (5.49).
T
U1 =
u (t )c (t )dt
1
xung ng b
t0 = T
cos t
c1 ( t )
Tch
sng
My pht
cc dao
ng ph
Quay pha 900
ng
M1
bao
sin t
u(t)
M2
V1 =
Thit
b
so
snh
u (t ) c (t )dt
1
Mm
Hnh 5.9
5.5.5. So snh thu kt hp vi thu khng kt hp

c th, ta xt vn ny trong cc h thng tin dng tn hiu hai phn, trc giao (cht),
c ngh ch ng. Vi gi tr cho ca
h = E c / G 0 , xc sut sai khi thu khng kt hp s
c tnh theo cng thc sau:

187
h 2
1
ps = exp
2
2
(5.51)
Ta thy:
p s k kh
h 2
1
= exp > p s kh = 1 ( h )
2
2
V d1:
Khi h = 3:
p s kh 1,15.10 3 ; p s k kh 5,55.10 3 . Do khi chuyn t thu kt hp
sang thu khng kt hp,
p s tng # 5 ln (h=3).
Thng thng khi thit k h thng truyn tin ngi ta n nh trc

bo
p s ri tm h m
p s .
V d 2:
Nu
p s = 10 4 : h kh = 3,73 ; h k kh = 4,12 . V h 2 ~ Pc nn khi chuyn t thu kt hp

2
4,12
sang thu khng kt hp cng sut ca tn hiu phi tng mt lng l
1,21 ln.
3,73
Vy gi nguyn xc sut sai
p s = 10 4 khi thu khng kt hp, phi tng 21% cng sut
so vi thu kt hp. Ngi ta vn dng cch thu khng kt hp v thu kt hp i thit b phc tp
v thc hin k thut cng phc tp. Do v mt kinh t, xt n cng thu khng kt hp vn
tit kim hn.
5.5.6. Ch thch
Ta khng xt x l ti u cc tn hiu c bin v tn s bin i ngu nhin v nu dng
tn hiu gii hp th bao v tn s ca n c th xem nh bit trc chnh xc.
i vi cc tn hiu gii rng th vn phi xt y hn, khi ta phi xt vic x l
ti u cc tn hiu c bin v tn s thay i ngu nhin.
5.6. M KHI KHNG GIAN , THI GIAN (STBC).

5.6.1. K thut thu phn tp.
Tn hiu nhn c my thu:
y1 = h1x + n1
y2 = h 2x + n 2
h1 = h1 e j1
h 2 = h 2 e j 2
188

Gi s ta c thng tin y v knh (qua b nh gi knh). Khi ta c th loi b tc
ng ca knh to ra tn hiu kt hp u vo b tch hp l cc i nh sau:
x = h1y1 + h 2 y 2
x = h1h1y1 + h1n1 + h 2h 2 y 2 + h 2 n 2
= h1 + h 2
)x + h n + h n
1 1
2 2
h1
h2
n1
n2
y2 = h 2x + n 2
y1 = h1x + n1
B nh
gi knh
h1
B nh
gi knh
x
B tch hp l cc i
Hnh 5.10: K thut thu phn tp dng hai my thu
Da trn khong cch Euclide gia x v tt c cc tn hiu pht c th c, b tch hp l

cc i s cho ra quyt nh hp l nht v tn hiu pht. Quy tc quyt nh n gin y l
chn tn hiu
x1 v ch nu :
d ( x, x i ) d x, x j i j
(5.52)
y d(A, B) l khong cch Euclide gia cc tn hiu A v B

T (5.52) ta thy rng tn hiu pht chnh l tn hiu c khong cch Euclide cc tiu i
vi tn hiu kt hp x
189
5.6.2. M khi khng gian thi gian da trn hai my pht G 2

y chnh l s STBC n gin nht do Alamouti xut (5.52) s dng hai my pht.
Ma trn pht c xc nh nh sau:
x
G2 = 1
x 2
x2
x1
(5.53)
Vic m ha kt hp v qu trnh pht c nu trong bng sau:

Anten
Khe thi gian T
Tx1
Tx 2
x1
x2
x 2
x1
mi khe thi gian c hai tn hiu thu ng thi pht t hai anten.
( T = 1) , tn hiu x1 c pht t anten Tx1 , ng thi
V d: khe thi gian th nht
Tx 2 cng pht tn hiu x 2 , cc tn hiu x 2 v x1 c ng thi pht t cc anten

Tx1 v Tx 2 ( y x1 v x 2 l cc tn hiu lin hp ca cc tn hiu x1 v x 2 )
anten
5.6.2.1. STBC
G2 dng mt my thu
Gi s ta c:
h1 = h1 ( T = 1) = h1 ( T = 2 )
h 2 = h 2 ( T = 1) = h 2 ( T = 2 )
Cc mu tp m c lp cng vo my thu mi khe thi gian v bi vy tn hiu nhn
c c th biu din nh sau:
y1 = h 1x1 + h 2 x 2 + n1
(5.54)
y 2 = h1x 2 + h 2 x1 + n 2
(5.55)
y1 s nhn c trc tin, sau l y 2
x1
x2
x 2
x1
h1
h2
190
y1 cha cc tn hiu c pht x1 v x 2 , cn tn hiu y 2 cha cc thnh phn

lin hp ca chng. xc nh cc du pht ta phi tch cc tn hiu x1 v x 2 t cc tn
hiu nhn c y1 v y 2 . Bi vy c hai tn hiu y1 v y 2 phi c a qua b kt hp. B
kt hp thc hin x l tch cc tn hiu x1 v x 2 .
Tn hiu
c bit, tch x1 ta kt hp y1 v y 2 nh sau:
x1 = h1y1 + h 2 y2
= h1h1x1 + h1h 2 x 2 + h1n1 h 2 h1x 2 + h 2 h 2 x1 + h 2 n 2 (5.56)
= h1 + h 2
Tng t, i vi tn hiu
)x + h n + h n
1
1 1
2 2
x 2 ta thc hin nh sau:
x 2 = h 2 y1 + h1y2
= h 2h1x1 + h 2h 2 x 2 + h 2 n1 + h1h1x 2 h1h 2 x1 h1n 2 (5.57)
= h1 + h 2
)x + h n h n
1
2 1
1 2
T (5.56) v (5.57) ta c th thy rng ta tch c cc tn hiu
x1 v x 2 bng cc
php cng v nhn n gin. T tnh trc giao c trong (5.53) ta thy tn hiu khng mong mun
x 2 c loi b khi (5.56) v ngc li tn hiu khng mong mun x1 c loi b khi
(5.57).
191
5.6.2.2. STBC
G2 dng hai my thu
my thu th nht
Rx1 ta c:
y11 = h 11x1 + h12 x 2 + n11
(5.58)
y12 = h11x 2 + h12 x1 + n12
(5.59)
my thu th hai
Rx 2 ta c:
y 21 = h 21x1 + h 22 x 2 + n 21
(5.60)
y 22 = h 21x 2 + h 22 x1 + n 22
(5.61)
x1
x2
x 2
Tx1
x1
Tx 2
h12
h11
h 22
h 21
Rx1
Rx 2
n11
n12
B nh
gi knh
h11
n 21
y11
y 21
y12
y 22
n 22
h 21
B kt hp
h 22
h12
B nh
gi knh
x1
x2
B tch hp l cc i
Hnh 5.12: STBC
G2
dng hai my thu
Tng qut ta c th dng q my thu, khi tn hiu nhn c my thu th i c dng:
yi1 = h i1x1 + h i2 x 2 + n i1
yi2 = h i1x 2 + h i2 x1 + n i2
192
i = 1,q
Cc tn hiu nhn c s kt hp tch cc tn hiu pht
x1 v x 2 t cc tn hiu thu
c y11, y12 , y 21, y 22 nh sau:
x1 = h11y11 + h12 y12 + h 21y 21 + h 22 y22
(5.62)
x 2 = h12 y11 h11y12 + h 23 y 21 h 21y22
(5.63)
Tip tc bin i ta c:
x1 = h11 + h12 + h 21 + h 22
)x +
1
(5.64)
+ h11n11 + h 12 n12 + h 21n 21 + h 22 n 22
x 2 = h11 + h12 + h 21 + h 22
)x
(5.65)
+ h12 n11 h 11n12 + h 22 n 21 h 21n 22

M rng cho q my thu ta c:
q
x1 = h i1 + h i2
i =1
q
x 2 = h i1 + h i2
i =1
Nhn xt: Trong (5.66) tn hiu
phainh l
)x + h n
)x
i1 i1 + h i2 n i2
+ h i2n i1 h i1n i2
(5.66)
(5.67)
x1 c nhn vi mt thnh phn c lin quan n bin
h i1 + h i2 . thu nhn tn hiu x1 vi tin cy cao cc bin ca p ng
xung ca knh
h ij phi ln. Trong (5.66) ta c th thy rng c hai thnh phn bin phaing
tc l c hai ng c lp pht cho du

cn li vn c th cung cp c
x1 . Bi vy nu mt ng b suy gim th ng
x1 vi tin cy cao.
BI TP
5.1. Ti li ra ca b khuch i trung gian ca mt my thu cc tn hiu mang iu bin c th
hin:
x ( t ) = .S1 ( t + 1 ) + (1 ) .S 2 ( t + 2 ) + ( t )
Trong
( t ) l tp m chun, dng: ( t ) = X ( t ) cos 0 t + Y ( t ) sin 0 t , c k
vng bng khng v hm tng quan bng:

Cn
B ( ) = 2 . ( ) cos 0 .
S i ( t, i ) l tn hiu manp iu bin:

193
S1 ( t, 1 ) = U m cos ( 0 t + 1 )
0tT
S 2 ( t, 2 ) = 0
Pha u
1 l mt i lng ngu nhin, phn b u trong khong [ , ] . Tham s
cng l i lng ngu nhin trong khong [0,T], n nhn cc gi tr
= 1 = 1 hoc
= 0 = 0 vi cc xc sut tin nghim bng:

1
. Bit rng = 1 = 1 khi gi tr ng bao
2
u ra b tch sng tuyn tnh vt qu ngng H 0 . Trong trng hp ngc li th
= 0 = 0 . Tnh:
p ( 1 ) = p ( S1 ) = p ( 0 ) = p ( S 2 ) =
a. Ngng ti u
H 0 m bo cc tiu ho xc sut sai tng cng.
b. Xc sut sai tng cng ng vi ngng
H 0 .
5.2. Ti u vo b lc tuyn tnh tc ng tn hiu:
x(t) = s(t) + n(t)

Trong n(t) l tp m trng, chun, dng. Cn s(t) l xung th tn c lp vi n(t) v c
dng:
A.eA ( t T )
s(t ) =
0
tT
t >T
Tm hm truyn ca b lc sao cho t s tn trn tp u ra ca b lc t cc i. Tnh
a=
sra max ( t )
ra
5.3. Xc nh hm truyn ca b lc FH vi tn hiu dng:
2t 2
S ( t ) = A exp
x
Trong x l thi hn ca xung mc A/e.
5.4. Tm s khi ca b lc FH vi xung th tn ch nht dng sau:
A
s(t ) =
0
0 t x
t > x , t < 0
Tnh t s tn/ tp u ra b lc ny.

194

5.5. Chng minh rng my thu ti u m bo khong cch t vect tn hiu nhn c ti vect
tn hiu pht t cc tiu chnh l my thu ti u m bo xc sut sai b nht.
5.6. u vo mt mch tch phn RC, tc ng mt tn hiu dng:
x(t) = s(t) + n(t)
Trong n(t) l tp m trng, chun, dng c mt ph:
S n ( f ) = G0 / 2
Cn s(t) l xung th tn ch nht dng:
0 t x
U
s(t ) = m
0
K hiu
a=
sra max ( t )
ra
t < 0, t > x
l t s gia gi tr cc i ca tn hiu trn gi tr trung bnh
bnh phng ca tp m u ra.

a. Tm s ph thuc gia a vi rng xung x v gii thng tp m ca mch
fn .
b. Tm s ph thuc gia x v gii nng lng tp m ti u ca mch tr s a t max.
195
Ph lc
PH LC
BT NG THC BUNHIACOVSKI-SCHWAZT
F ( x ) v ( x ) l cc hm phc tha mn iu kin:
nh l: Nu
F ( x ) dx <
( x ) dx < ( x bin thc)
th ta c:
2
F ( x ) ( x ) dx
F( x )
dx . ( x ) dx
Chng minh:
t
* ( x )
( x ) =
(a)
2
( x ) dx
(Du * l k hiu lin hp phc)
*
( x ) F ( x ) dx
(b)
Ta c: F ( x ) ( x ) F
Theo (a) ta c:
( x ) * * ( x ) = F ( x ) ( x )
( x ) dx = 1
Theo (b) ta c:
*
*
( x ) F ( x ) dx =
Khi ta c th vit li (c) nh sau:
2
2
*
*
F ( x ) dx + 0
196
(c)
Ph lc
2
2
F ( x ) dx
Hay
(d)
Thay (a) v (b) vo (d) ta c:

2
( x ) F ( x ) dx
2
F ( x ) dx
2
( x ) dx
BIN I HILBERT
nh l:
Cho tn hiu s ( t ) v S ( j) l bin i Fourier ca n. Khi tn hiu s ( t ) c ph:
S ( j) = S ( j)
j sign
e 2
(tt c cc thnh phn ph s ( t ) u dch pha i mt lng bng
s ( t ) thng qua bin i tch phn sau:
) c th biu din theo

2
1 s ( )
s (t) =
d
t
Chng minh: Ta c:
S ( j ) = S ( j )
j sign
e 2
= S ( j) cos sign jsin sign
1 khi > 0
=0
Trong : sign = 0
1
<0
1 khi > 0

cos sign = 0
=0
2

< 0
1
197
Ph lc
sin sign = sign

2
Theo bin i ngc Fourier ta c:
1
1
s (t) =
S
( j) e jt d = jsignS ( j) e jt d
2
2
(a)
j t
S
j
cos
( rng
(
)
sign e d = 0 )
2
2
Mt khc ta c:
e j
cos
sin
d = d d
e j
sin
sin x

d = 2 j
d = 2 j sign
dx
sin x
dx = nn ta c:
V
x
2
e j
d = j
(b)
Thay (b) vo (a) ta c:
e j
1
jt 1
s (t) =
S( j) e d d
2

1 1
j t
= S ( j) e ( )d d

1 s ( t )
1 s ( )
d =
d
=

t
NH L KACHENNHICOV
nh l: Nu ph ca hm
s ( t ) khng cha cc thnh phn tn s ln hn Fm th hm
ny hon ton c xc nh bi cc gi tr mu ca n ly cc thi im cch nhau mt khong
1
2Fm
198
Ph lc
Chng minh:
Ta s chng t rng c th khi phc li c
s ( t ) t:
s ( t ) = s ( t ) . ( t ) (hnh C.1.c)
( t ) =
t =
1
1
F0 2Fm
(a)
( t nt ) (hnh C.1.b)
(b)
n =
; 0 = 2F0 ; m = 2Fm
( t ) l mt hm tun hon c chu k t , v vy ta c th biu din n bng chui

Fourier sau:
( t ) =
n =
s n e jn0 t
t 2
1
trong s n =
( t ) e jn0 t dt
t t 2
Trong khong
t t
, hm ( t ) chnh l hm ( t )
2 2
t 2
1
Do : s n =
( t ) e jn0 t dt
t t 2
1
Theo tnh cht lc ca ta c s n =
t
Ta thy rng dy xung
1 jn0 t
( t ) =
e
t n =
( t ) gm cc thnh phn dao ng iu ha cc tn s
= 0, 0 , 20 ,
Do ta c th biu din c ph ca
( t ) di dng sau:
2
( ) = t ( n0 ) (Hnh C.1.e)
n =
(c)
Theo tnh cht ca bin i Fourier ph ca s ( t ) c tnh theo tch chp sau:
199
Ph lc
i
1
S ( ) =
S( u ) ( u ) du
2
Trong :
S ( ) l ph ca s ( t )
i
1
2
S ( ) =
S( u ). t ( n0 ) u du
2
n =
i
i
1
=
S
( u ). ( n0 ) u du
t n =
ta c:
Theo tnh cht lc ca

i
S ( ) =
1 i
S( n0 ) (Hnh C.1.f)
t n =
Hnh C.1. Cc th ph v th thi gian:
(d)
S()
s(t)
t
(a)
(d)
m 0 m
( t )
S ( )
(b)
(e)
0 =
2
t
S ( )
( t )
(c)
(f)
0 =
Hnh C.1
2
t
T (d) v hnh C.1 ta thy rng ph ca s ( t ) lp li mt cch tun hon dng ph ca
s ( t ) . Dng mt b lc c c tnh tn s dng ch nht l tng (ng t nt trn hnh C.1.f

ta c th khi phc li c
s(t) )
200
Ph lc
s ( t )
s(t)
B lc l tng
LUT PHN B CHUN

t2
1
2 dt
e
Lut phn b xc sut: ( x ) =
t 2
1
exp
Mt phn b xc sut: w ( x ) = ' ( x ) =
2
2
x
( x )
w (x)
( x )
w(x)
0,0
0,500
0,399
1,8
0,964
0,078
0,1
0,539
0,397
1,9
0,971
0,065
0,2
0,579
0,301
2,0
0,977
0,054
0,3
0,618
0,381
2,1
0,982
0,044
0,4
0,655
0,368
2,2
0,986
0,035
0,5
0,691
0,352
2,3
0,989
0,028
0,6
0,725
0,333
2,4
0,992
0,022
0,7
0,758
0,312
2,5
0,993
0,017
0,8
0,788
0,289
2,6
0,995
0,013
0,9
0,815
0,266
2,7
0,996
0,010
1,0
0,841
0,241
2,8
0,997
0,008
1,1
0,864
0,217
2,9
0,998
0,005
1,2
0,884
0,194
3,0
0,998
0,004
1,3
0,903
0,171
3,1
0,999
0,003
1,4
0,919
0,149
3,2
0,999
0,002
1,5
0,933
0,129
3,3
0,999
0,001
1,6
0,945
0,110
3,4
0,999
0,001
1,7
0,955
0,094
3,5
0,999
0,001
201
Ph lc
LOGARIT C S HAI CA CC S NGUYN T 1 N 100
xi
log 2 x i
xi
log 2 x i
xi
log 2 x i
xi
log 2 x i
0,000
4,700
5,672
6,248
1,000
4,755
5,700
6,267
1,585
4,807
5,728
6,285
2,000
4,858
5,755
6,304
2,322
4,907
5,781
6,322
2,585
4,954
5,807
6,340
2,807
5,000
5,833
6,357
3,000
5,044
5,858
6,375
3,169
5,087
5,883
6,392
3,322
5,129
5,907
6,409
3,459
5,170
5,931
6,426
3,585
5,209
5,954
6,443
3,700
5,248
5,977
6,456
3,807
5,285
6,000
6,479
3,907
5,322
6,022
6,492
4,000
5,357
6,044
6,508
4,087
5,392
6,066
6,523
4,170
5,426
6,087
6,539
4,248
5,459
6,108
6,555
4,322
5,492
6,129
6,570
4,392
5,523
6,149
6,585
4,459
5,555
6,170
6,599
4,523
5,585
6,190
6,615
4,585
5,615
6,209
6,629
4,644
5,644
6,229
6,644
202
Ph lc
HM ( p ) = -plog 2 P , HM ( p ) = - (1 - p ) log 2 (1 - p ) , HM log 2p V
ENTROPIE CA NGUN NH PHN H ( A ) = ( p ) + ( p )

p
log 2 p
(p)
H(A)
( p)
log 2 (1 p )
(1 p )
6,643
0,066
0,081
0,014
0,014
0,99
5,644
0,113
0,141
0,028
0,029
0,98
5,059
0,152
0,194
0,042
0,044
0,97
4,644
0,186
0,242
0,056
0,059
0,96
4,322
0,216
0,286
0,070
0,074
0,95
4,059
0,243
0,327
0,084
0,089
0,94
3,936
0,268
0,366
0,097
0,105
0,93
3,644
0,291
0,402
0,111
0,120
0,92
3,474
0,313
0,436
0,124
0,136
0,91
3,322
0,332
0,469
0,137
0,152
0,90
3,184
0,350
0,499
0,150
0,168
0,89
3,059
0,367
0,529
0,162
0,184
0,88
2,943
0,383
0,557
0,175
0,201
0,87
2,836
0,397
0,584
0,187
0,217
0,86
2,737
0,411
0,610
0,199
0,234
0,85
2,644
0,423
0,634
0,211
0,252
0,84
2,556
0,434
0,658
0,223
0,269
0,83
2,474
0,445
0,680
0,235
0,286
0,82
2,396
0,455
0,701
0,246
0,304
0,81
2,322
0,464
0,722
0,257
0,322
0,80
2,252
0,473
0,741
0,269
0,340
0,79
2,184
0,481
0,760
0,279
0,358
0,78
2,120
0,488
0,778
0,290
0,377
0,77
2,059
0,494
0,795
0,301
0,396
0,76
2,000
0,500
0,811
0,311
0,415
0,75
log 2 p
(p)
H(A)
( p)
log 2 (1 p )
(1 p )
203
Ph lc
1,943
0,505
0,827
0,321
0,434
0,74
1,889
0,510
0,841
0,331
0,454
0,73
1,836
0,514
0,855
0,341
0,474
0,72
1,786
0,518
0,869
0,351
0,494
0,71
1,737
0,521
0,881
0,360
0,514
0,70
1,690
0,524
0,893
0,369
0,535
0,69
1,644
0,526
0,904
0,378
0,556
0,68
1,599
0,528
0,915
0,387
0,578
0,67
1,556
0,529
0,925
0,396
0,599
0,66
1,514
0,530
0,934
0,404
0,621
0,65
1,474
0,531
0,943
0,412
0,644
0,64
1,434
0,531
0,951
0,420
0,667
0,63
1,396
0,530
0,958
0,428
0,690
0,62
1,358
0,529
0,965
0,435
0,713
0,61
1,322
0,529
0,971
0,442
0,737
0,60
1,286
0,527
0,976
0,449
0,761
0,59
1,252
0,526
0,981
0,455
0,786
0,58
1,217
0,523
0,986
0,462
0,811
0,57
1,184
0,521
0,989
0,468
0,836
0,56
1,152
0,518
0,993
0,474
0,862
0,55
1,120
0,515
0,995
0,480
0,889
0,54
1,1089
0,512
0,997
0,485
0,916
0,53
1,059
0,508
0,999
0,491
0,943
0,52
1,029
0,504
0,999
0,495
0,971
0,51
1,000
0,500
1,000
0,500
1,000
0,50
ENTROPIE H(X) CA CC LUT PHN B RI RC.
204
Ph lc
Lut phn
b
1. Phn b
u
Biu thc gii tch v th
Entropie H(X)
H ( X ) = log m
1
1 xi m
p ( xi = k ) = m
0 m < x i < 1
p ( xi = k )
1
m
0
2. Phn b
bi
xi
p (1 p )k 1 x > 0
i
p ( xi = K ) =
xi 0
0
H(X) =
plog mp + (1 p ) log (1 p )
p
p ( xi = k )
xi
0 1 2 3
3. Phn b
nh thc
Bernoulli
Ck p k (1 p )m k 0 x m
i
p ( xi = K ) = m
>
0
0
x
i >m
p ( xi = k )
H ( X ) = m [ p log p
(1 p ) log (1 p )
m 1
Ckm p k (1 p )
k =1
0 1 2 3
205
xi
mk
logCkm
Ph lc
4. Phn b
siu bi
CkmCrNkm
0 xi m
p ( x i = K ) = CrN
0 > xi > m
0
H ( X ) = log CrN
5. Phn b
Poisson
1 2
k =1
6. Phn b
Polya
CkmCrNkm log CrNkm
CrN k =1
e
+
k e
log ( K!)
K!
k =1
xi
..
P 0 = p ( 0 ) = (1 + )
H ( x ') = log +
xi
206

.log (1 + ) P0 .
.
1 +
k =1
1(1 + ) 1 + ( K 1)
log
1 +
.
p ( xi = k )
1 2 3 4
m 1
H ( X ) = log
k
P0
.
1 +
xi > 0
P ( x i = K ) = (1 + ) ... 1 + ( k 1)
xi 0
0
xi
p ( xi = k )
1 2
m 1
k
e xi > 0
p ( x i = k ) = K!
0
xi 0
CrN
. CkmCrNkm log Ckm
p ( xi = k )
.
K!
1(1 + ) 1 + ( K 1)
K!
Ph lc
ENTRIPIE VI PHN H(X) CA CC LUT PHN B LIN TC.

Lut phn
b
1. Phn b
u
Biu thc gii tch v th
Entropie H(X)
x x x [xm , xM ]
W (X) = M
m
0
x [xm , xM ]
H ( X ) = log m
W (X)
1
xM xm
xm
2. Phn b
tam gic
(Simson)
xM
4( x xm )
x + xM
x xm , m
2
2
( xM xm )
4( xM x )
x + xM
W (X) =
x m
, xM
2
2
( xM xm )
0
x [ x m , x M ]
h ( x ) = log
( xM xm )
W (X)
2
xM xm
xm
3. Phn b
sec h 2 x
W(x) =
xM
a
=
sec h 2 x
2
2ch x 2
e2
h ( x ) = log
2a
W (X)
a
2
x
0
207
Ph lc
4. Phn b
arcsin x
1
1
.
x ( a,a )
W ( x ) = a2 x2
a > x > a
0
2
2
1
1 1 log a x
h ( x ) = log + +
dx
0
a2 x2
W (X)
1
a
5. Phn b
Cauchy
h ( x ) = log 4a
a
1
W(x) = .
x x 2 + a2
W (X)
1
a
x
0
6. Phn b
Maxweel
W ( x ) = 2 2
x 2 .e x
3/ 2
( )
/ 22
22
h ( x ') = log
+ Clog e
e
2
x<0
C 0,5772
(C S Euler)
W (X)
4
2e
x
0
x>0
208
Ph lc
7. Phn b
m mt
pha
e x x > 0
W(x) =
x<0
0
h ( x ) = log
W (X)
8. Phn b
Laplace
(phn b
m hai
pha)
W(x) =
x x
e
2
h ( x ) = log
2e
W (X)
x
0
9. Phn b
siu m
N
x
a e n x > 0
W ( x ) = n =1 n n
x<0
0
W (X)
n =1
h ( x ) = a n n e n x .
N
.log a n n e n x dx
n =1
a nn
1
10. Phn
b m
ly tha
xm x
e x>0
W ( x ) = m!
0
x<0
W (X)
h ( x ) = log m!+ log e e

m 1
m log e C
k =2 k
C 0,5772
me m
m!
(C S Euler)
x
209
Ph lc
11. Phn
b Erlang
a x a 1 x
e
x>0
W ( x ) = ( a 1)!
x<0
0
a = 1, 2, 3, .
W (X)
( a 1)
a 1
1
( )
h ( x ) = log ( a 1)! log +
'
+ a ( a 1) ln ( a ) log e
'
ln ( a ) = ( a )
( a ) - Hm psi ca Euler
x
0
12. Phn
b
Pearsom
a 1
x 1 2
.ex x > 0
W ( x ) = ()
x<0
0
n
= ( n = 1,2,3,)
2
W (X)
( 1)
h ( x ) = log ( ) log +
'
+ ( 1) ln ( ) log e
'
ln ( ) = ( )
1
()
x
0
13. Phn
b Gamma
a 1
x e x / x > 0
+1
W ( x ) = ( + 1)
0
x<0
> 1 , > 0
W (X)
1
( + 1) e
x
0
210
h ( x ) = log ( + 1) log e.
'
. ln ( + 1) + ( + 1) .log e + log
'
ln ( + 1) = ( + 1)
Ph lc
14. Phn
b Weibull
x 1e x x > 0
W(x) =
x<0
0
W(x)
15. Phn
b chun
>0,>0
( )1/ .( 1)
1
h ( x ) = log e 1 +
( C + ln )
log
C 0,5772
1
1
.exp
x
1 1

xx
1
W(x) =
.exp
2
2 2
W(x)
h ( x ) = log 2e
1
2
x
0
16. Phn
b chun
mt pha
2
x 2
exp
2 x > 0
W ( x ) = 2
2
x<0
0
e
h ( x ) = log
W(x)
n 1
W(x)
17. Phn
b
Rayleigh
x
x 2
exp
2 x > 0
W ( x ) = 2
2
x<0
0
W(x)
1 1/ 2
e
x
211
C
h ( x ) = + 1 log e
2
C 0,5772
Ph lc
18. Phn
b modul
ca i
lng
ngu nhin
phn b
chun
( x x )2
x+x)
(
1 2
e 2 + e 2 x > 0
W ( x ) = 2
x<0
0
W(x)
1
2
( )
2 x /
19. Phn
b chun
cc
e
2
( x x )2
(x+x)
1 2
e 2 + e 2 x [ x m , x M ]
W ( X ) = 2
0
x [x m , xM ]
A=
e
h ( x ) = log
( x M x )
( x m x ) 2
1
t2 / 2
e
dt e t / 2dt
2
0
0
W(x)
2
h ( x ) = log
+
A
1
x X 1
.
.e
+ 1 A M
2
2
x X 1
.
e
A m
(x
m X
(x
M X
20. Phn
b loga
chun
xm
log e
xM
( ln x a )2
1
22
x>0
W(x) =
x 2
x<0
0
W(x)
x
212
2 2
A
2
h ( x ) = log ea 2e
Ph lc
21. Phn
b modul
ca vct
nhiu
chiu
n 1
x 2
2x exp 2
2 x > 0
W(x) =
2 n/2 n
x<0
0
( )
h ( x ) = log
n
n
e 2

2
2
n 1
n
log
2
2
n = 1, 2, 3,
W(x)
22. Phn
b
nakagami
n 1
2mm x 2m 1
mx 2
exp
2 x > 0
W ( x ) = ( m ) 2m

x<0
0
W(x)
Phn b
Beta
2 m 2m 1
( m ) 2e
2m 1
2
2 m
2m 1
log ( m )
2
x
2m1
12
2
x x m )( x M )
4(
( xM xm )
W (X) =
x [xm , xM ]
0
x [xm , xM ]
W(x)
h ( x ) = log
( m ) em
xm
x
213
h ( x ) 1,44ln
( xM xm )
1,26
Ph lc
xM
( m) .
CC A THC TI TIU CA CC PHN T TRONG TRNG GF 2
Sau y l danh sch cc a thc ti tiu nh phn cho tt c cc phn t trong cc trng
m rng ca trng nh phn t
( )
( )
GF 22 ti GF 210 .
Cc dng k hiu c hiu nh sau: Dng 3(0, 2, 3) trong mc GF(8) tng ng vi a

thc
m ( X ) = 1 + X 2 + X3 c cc nghim l cc phn t lin hp 3 , 6 , 5 .

GF(4)
1
(0, 1, 2)
(0, 1, 3)
(0, 2, 3)
(0, 1, 4)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
(0, 1, 2)
(0, 3, 4)
(0, 2, 5)
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5)
(0, 1, 2, 4, 5)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 5)
11
(0, 1, 3, 4, 5)
15
(0, 3, 5)
GF(8)
GF(16)
GF(32)
GF(64)
1
(0, 1, 6)
(0, 1, 2, 4, 6)
(1, 2, 5, 6)
(0, 3, 6)
(0, 2, 3)
11
(0, 2, 3, 5, 6)
13
(0, 1, 3, 4, 6)
21
(0, 1, 2)
23
(0, 1, 4, 5, 6)
27
(0, 1, 3)
31
(0, 5, 6)
(0, 3, 7)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 7)
(0, 2, 3, 4, 7)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7)
11
(0, 2, 4, 6, 7)
13
(0, 1, 7)
15
(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7)
15
(0, 2, 4, 5, 6)
GF(128)
214
(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)
Ph lc
19
(0, 1, 2, 6, 7)
21
23
(0, 6, 7)
29
(0, 1, 3, 5, 7)
31
(0, 4, 5, 6, 7)
43
(0, 1, 2, 5, 7)
47
(0, 3, 4, 5, 7)
55
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
27
63
(0, 2, 5, 6, 7)
(0, 1, 4, 6, 7)
(0, 4, 7)
GF(256)
1
(0, 2, 3, 4, 8)
(0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
(0, 3, 5, 6, 8)
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8)
11
(0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8)
13
(0, 1, 3, 5, 8)
17
(0, 1, 4)
21
(0, 1, 3, 7, 8)
23
(0, 1, 5, 6, 8)
25
(0, 1, 3, 4, 8)
27
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8)
29
(0, 2, 3, 7, 8)
31
(0, 2, 3, 5, 8)
37
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8)
43
(0, 1, 6, 7, 8)
45
(0, 3, 4, 5, 8)
47
(0, 3, 5, 7, 8)
51
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
53
(0, 1, 2, 7, 8)
55
(0, 4, 5, 7, 8)
59
(0, 2, 3, 6, 8)
61
(0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8)
63
(0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8)
87
(0, 1, 5, 7, 8)
95
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8)
119 (0, 3, 4)
15
19
39
85
(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8)
(0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8)
(0, 2, 5, 6, 8)
(0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
(0, 1, 2)
91
(0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)
111 (0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8)
127 (0, 4, 5, 6, 8)
GF(512)
1
(0, 4, 9)
(0, 4, 3, 6, 9)
(0, 4, 5, 8, 9)
(0, 3, 4, 7, 9)
(0, 1, 4, 8, 9)
11
(0, 2, 3, 5, 9)
13
(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9)
15
(0, 5, 6, 8, 9)
17
(0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9)
19
(0, 2, 7, 8, 9)
21
(0, 1, 2, 4, 9)
25
(0, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
27
(0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9)
29
(0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9)
31
(0, 1, 3, 4, 9)
23
215
(0, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
Ph lc
35
(0, 8, 9)
37
(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9)
39
(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9)
41
(0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9)
43
(0, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9)
45
(0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9)
47
(0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9)
51
(0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9)
53
(0, 2, 4, 7, 9)
57
(0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9)
59
(0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9)
61
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9)
63
(0, 2, 5, 6, 9)
73
(0, 1, 3)
75
(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ,9)
77
(0, 3, 6, 8, 9)
79
(0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9)
83
(0, 2, 4, 8, 9)
85
(0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9)
87
(0, 2, 5, 7, 9)
91
(0, 1, 3, 6, 8)
93
(0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9)
55
95
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9)
(0, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9)
103 (0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9)
107 (0, 1, 5, 7, 9)
109 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9)
111 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9)
117 (0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9)
119 (0, 1, 9)
123 (0, 1, 2, 7, 9)
125 (0, 4, 6, 7, 9)
127 (0, 3, 5, 6, 9)
171 (0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9)
175 (0, 5, 7, 8, 9)
183 (0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9)
187 (0, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9)
191 (0, 1, 4, 5, 9)
219 (0,2, 3)
223 (0, 1, 5, 8, 9)
239 (0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9)
255 (0, 5, 9)
GF(1024)
1
(0, 3, 10)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 10)
(0, 2, 3, 8, 10)
(0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10)
11
(0, 2, 4, 5, 10)
13
(0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10)
15
(0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10)
17
(0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10)
19
(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10)
21
(0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
23
(0, 1, 3, 4, 10)
25
(0, 1, 5, 8, 10)
27
(0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10)
29
(0, 4, 5, 8, 10)
31
(0, 1, 5, 9, 10)
33
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5)
35
(0, 1, 4, 9, 10)
37
(0, 1, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10)
39
(0, 1, 2, 6, 10)
216
Ph lc
41
(0, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10)
45
(0, 4, 5, 9, 10)
49
(0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10)
51
(0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 10)
53
(0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10)
55
(0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10)
57
(0, 4, 6, 9, 10)
59
(0, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10)
61
(0, 1, 4, 5, 6 ,7, 8, 9, 10)
63
(0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10)
69
(0, 6, 7, 8, 10)
71
(0, 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10)
73
(0, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10)
77
(0, 1, 3, 8, 10)
83
(0, 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10)
87
(0, 3, 6, 7, 10)
91
(0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10)
101 (0, 2, 3, 5, 10)
43
47
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10)
75
79
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10)
(0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10)
85
89
(0, 3, 4, 8, 10)
(0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10)
(0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10)
93
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
103 (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10)
105 (0, 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10)
107 (0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10)
109 (0, 1, 2, 5, 10)
111 (0, 1, 4, 6, 10)
115 (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10)
117 (0, 3, 4, 7, 10)
119 (0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10)
121 (0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 10)
123 (0, 4, 8, 9, 10)
125 (0, 6, 7, 9, 10)
127 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10)
147 (0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10)
149 (0, 2, 4, 9, 10)
151 (0, 5, 8, 9, 10)
155 (0, 3, 5, 7, 10)
157 (0, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10)
159 (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10)
165 (0, 3, 5)
167 (0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10)
171 (0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10)
173 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10)
175 (0, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10)
179 (0, 3, 7, 9, 10)
181 (0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
183 (0, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10)
187 (0, 2, 7, 9, 10)
189 (0, 1, 5, 6, 10)
191 (0, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10)
205 (0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 10)
207 (0, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10)
213 (0, 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10)
215 (0 , 5, 7, 8, 10)
219 (0, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10)
221 (0, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10)
223 (0, 2, 5, 9, 10)
231 (0, 1, 3, 4, 5)
235 (0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10)
237 (0, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)

217
Ph lc
239 (0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
245 (0, 2, 6, 7, 10)
247 (0, 1, 6, 9, 10)
251 (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10)
253 (0, 5, 6, 8, 10)
255 (0, 7, 8, 9, 10)
341 (0, 1, 2)
343 (0, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10)
347 (0, 1, 6, 8, 10)
351 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10)
363 (0, 2, 5)
367 (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10)
375 (0, 2, 3, 4, 10)
379 (0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10)
383 (0, 2, 7, 8, 10)
439 (0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 10)
447 (0, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10)
479 (0, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10)
495 (0, 1, 2, 3, 5)
511 (0, 7, 10)
218
Ti liu tham kho
TI LIU THAM KHO

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Nguyn Bnh, Trn Thng Qu. C s l thuyt truyn tin.

Hc vin K thut Qun s 1985.
Nguyn Bnh, Trn Thng Qu. 100 bi tp l thuyt truyn tin.
Hc vin K thut Qun s 1988.
Nguyn Bnh, Trng Nh Tuyn, Phm o. Bi ging L thuyt thng tin
Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng 2000
Nguyn Bnh. Gio trnh mt m hc
Nh xut bn Bu in 2004
McEliece R.J. The theory of Information and coding.
Cambridge University Press 1985
Wilson S.G. Digital modulation and Coding. Prentice Hall. 1996
Sweeney P. Error control coding. An Introduction. Prentice Hall. 1997.
Lin S. , Costello D.J. Error control coding: Fuldamentals and Applications. Prentice Hall.
2004.
Moon T.K. Error correction coding. Mathematical Methods and Algorithms. Jhon Wiley
and Son 2005.
219
Mc lc
MC LC
LI NI U ............................................................................................................................................ 1
CHNG I: NHNG VN CHUNG V NHNG KHI NIM C BN................................. 3
1.1. V TR, VAI TR V S LC LCH S PHT TRIN CA L THUYT THNG TIN
............................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.1. V tr, vai tr ca L thuyt thng tin ..................................................................................... 3
1.1.2. S lc lch s pht trin ........................................................................................................ 4
1.2. NHNG KHI NIM C BN - S H TRUYN TIN V NHIM V CA N................... 5
1.2.1. Cc nh ngha c bn............................................................................................................. 5
1.2.2. S khi ca h thng truyn tin s (Hnh 1.2) .................................................................. 5
1.2.3. Nhng ch tiu cht lng c bn ca mt h truyn tin ...................................................... 10
CHNG II: TN HIU V NHIU.................................................................................................... 11
2.1. TN HIU XC NH V CC C TRNG VT L CA CHNG ................................. 11
2.2. TN HIU V NHIU L CC QU TRNH NGU NHIN.................................................. 11
2.2.1. Bn cht ngu nhin ca tn hiu v nhiu............................................................................ 11
2.2.2. nh ngha v phn loi nhiu .............................................................................................. 12
2.3. CC C TRNG THNG K CA TN HIU NGU NHIN V NHIU ........................ 13
2.3.1. Cc c trng thng k ......................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2. Khong tng quan............................................................................................................... 15
2.4. CC C TRNG VT L CA TN HIU NGU NHIN V NHIU. BIN I
WIENER KHINCHIN .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.4.1. Nhng khi nim xy dng l thuyt ph ca qu trnh ngu nhin - mt ph cng sut16
2.4.2. Cp bin i Wiener Khinchin .......................................................................................... 18
2.4.3. B rng ph cng sut........................................................................................................... 19
2.4.4. M rng cp bin i Wiener Khinchin cho trng hp
R( ) khng kh tch tuyt i
.................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5. TRUYN CC TN HIU NGU NHIN QUA CC MCH V TUYN IN TUYN
TNH ................................................................................................................................................................ 21
2.5.1. Bi ton ti thiu ................................................................................................................... 21
2.5.2. Bi ton ti a ....................................................................................................................... 26
2.6. BIU DIN PHC CHO TH HIN CA TN HIU NGU NHIN TN HIU GII HP
.......................................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.6.1. Cp bin i Hilbert v tn hiu gii tch .............................................................................. 31
2.6.2. Tn hiu gii rng v gii hp ............................................................................................... 35
220
Mc lc
2.7. BIU DIN HNH HC CHO TH HIN CA TN HIU NGU NHIN .............................37
2.7.1. Khai trin trc giao v biu din vecteur ca tn hiu...........................................................37
2.7.2. Mt xc sut ca vecteur ngu nhin - Khong cch gia hai vecteur tn hiu................39
2.7.3. Khi nim v my thu ti u .................................................................................................43
BI TP ...............................................................................................................................................45
CHNG 3 - C S L THUYT THNG TIN THNG K .......................................................47
3.1. THNG TIN - LNG THNG TIN XC SUT V THNG TIN N V O THNG
TIN ...................................................................................................................................................................47
3.1.1. nh ngha nh tnh thng tin v lng thng tin................................................................47
3.1.2. Quan h gia bt nh v xc sut....................................................................................48
3.1.3. Xc nh lng thng tin.......................................................................................................50
3.2. ENTROPIE V CC TNH CHT CA ENTROPIE ................................................................52
3.2.1. Tnh cht thng k ca ngun ri rc v s ra i ca khi nim entropie...........................52
3.2.2. nh ngha entropie ca ngun ri rc..................................................................................52
3.2.3. Cc tnh cht ca entropie mt chiu ca ngun ri rc .......................................................53
3.2.4. Entropie ca ngun ri rc, nh phn ....................................................................................55
3.2.5. Entropie ca trng s kin ng thi..................................................................................56
3.3. ENTROPIE C IU KIN. LNG THNG TIN CHO TRUNG BNH.............................57
3.3.1. Entropie c iu kin v mt trng tin ny khi r mt tin nht nh ca trng tin kia 57
3.3.2. Entropie c iu kin v trng tin ny khi r trng tin kia ..........................................58
3.3.3. Hai trng thi cc oan ca knh truyn tin..........................................................................60
3.3.4. Cc tnh cht ca entropie c iu kin.................................................................................61
3.3.5. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh...........................................................................................63
3.3.6. Tnh cht ca I(A,B) .............................................................................................................63
3.3.7. M hnh ca knh truyn tin c nhiu...................................................................................64
3.4. TC PHT. KH NNG PHT. THA. KH NNG THNG QUA CA KNH
RI RC..........................................................................................................................................................65
3.4.1. Tc pht ca ngun ri rc...............................................................................................65
3.4.2. Kh nng pht ca ngun ri rc ..........................................................................................65
3.4.3. tha ca ngun ri rc.....................................................................................................65
3.4.4. Cc c trng ca knh ri rc v cc loi knh ri rc........................................................66
3.4.5. Lng thng tin truyn qua knh trong mt n v thi gian ...............................................67
3.4.6. Kh nng thng qua ca knh ri rc....................................................................................67
3.4.7. Tnh kh nng thng qua ca knh nh phn i xng khng nh, ng nht .....................68
3.4.8. nh l m ho th hai ca Shannon ....................................................................................69
221
Mc lc
3.4.9. Kh nng thng qua ca knh nh phn i xng c xo ..................................................... 70
3.5. ENTROPIE CA NGUN LIN TC. LNG THNG TIN CHO TRUNG BNH TRUYN
QUA KNH LIN TC KHNG NH......................................................................................................... 71
3.5.1. Cc dng tn hiu lin tc...................................................................................................... 71
3.5.2. Cc c trng v tham s ca knh lin tc.......................................................................... 71
3.5.3. Knh lin tc cha trong knh ri rc................................................................................... 72
3.5.4. Entropie ca ngun tin lin tc (ca mt qu trnh ngu nhin lin tc) .............................. 73
3.5.5. Mu vt l minh ho s ln v hn ca entropie ca ngun lin tc.................................... 74
3.5.6. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn theo knh lin tc khng nh................................ 75
3.6. ENTROPIE VI PHN C IU KIN. TNH CHT CA CC TN HIU GAUSSE........... 76
3.6.1. Entropie vi phn c iu kin ............................................................................................... 76
3.6.2. Entropie vi phn ca nhiu Gausse ....................................................................................... 77
3.6.3. Lng thng tin cho trung bnh truyn theo knh Gausse .................................................. 78
3.6.4. Tnh cht ca cc tn hiu c phn b chun ........................................................................ 80
3.7. KH NNG THNG QUA CA KNH GAUSSE.................................................................... 82
3.7.1. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian ri rc.................................................. 82
3.7.2. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian lin tc trong mt gii tn hn ch...... 83
3.7.3. Kh nng thng qua ca knh Gausse vi thi gian lin tc trong gii tn v hn .............. 84
3.7.4. nh l m ho th hai ca Shannon i vi knh lin tc .................................................. 85
3.7.5. V d: Kh nng thng qua ca mt s knh thc t ........................................................... 85
BI TP ............................................................................................................................................... 86
CHNG IV C S L THUYT M HA.................................................................................. 90
4.1. CC NH NGHA V KHI NIM C BN.......................................................................... 90
4.1.1. Cc nh ngha c bn........................................................................................................... 90
4.1.2. Cc khi nim c bn............................................................................................................ 91
4.1.3. Kh nng khng ch sai ca mt b m u nh phn .......................................................... 93
4.1.4. M u nh phn khng c tha....................................................................................... 94
4.2. M THNG K TI U ............................................................................................................. 94
4.2.1. di trung bnh ca t m v m ha ti u..................................................................... 95
4.2.2. Yu cu ca mt php m ha ti u.................................................................................... 95
4.2.3. nh l m ha th nht ca Shannon (i vi m nh phn)............................................... 95
4.2.4. Thut ton Huffman .............................................................................................................. 96
4.3. CC CU TRC I S V M TUYN TNH..................................................................... 99
4.3.1. Mt s cu trc i s c bn................................................................................................ 99
4.3.2. Cc dng tuyn tnh v m tuyn tnh................................................................................. 101
222
Mc lc
4.3.3. Cc bi ton ti u ca m tuyn tnh nh phn ..................................................................104
4.4. VNH A THC V M XYCLIC .........................................................................................105
4.4.1. Vnh a thc .......................................................................................................................105
4.4.2. Ideal ca vnh a thc.........................................................................................................107
4.4.3. nh ngha m xyclic ..........................................................................................................109
4.4.4. Ma trn sinh ca m xyclic..................................................................................................110
4.4.5. Ma trn kim tra ca m xyclic ...........................................................................................110
4.5. M HA CHO CC M XYCLIC............................................................................................111
4.5.1. M t t m ca m xyclic h thng ...................................................................................111
4.5.2. Thut ton m ha h thng ................................................................................................112
4.5.3. Thit b m ha....................................................................................................................112
4.5.4. To cc du kim tra ca m xyclic ....................................................................................114
4.5.5. Thut ton thit lp t m h thng theo phng php nhn ..............................................116
4.6. GII M NGNG ...................................................................................................................117
4.6.1. Hai th tc gii m ..............................................................................................................117
4.6.2. Gii m theo Syndrom.........................................................................................................117
4.6.3. H tng kim tra trc giao v c kh nng trc giao ..........................................................118
4.6.4. Gii m ngng da trn h tng kim tra trc giao ..........................................................119
4.6.5. Gii m ngng da trn h tng kim tra c kh nng trc giao ......................................122
4.7. GII M THEO THUT TON MEGGIT ...............................................................................123
4.8. GII M XYCLIC THEO THUT TON CHIA DCH VNG..............................................126
4.8.1. Nhim v ca thut ton gii m.........................................................................................126
4.8.2. Gii m theo thut ton chia dch vng...............................................................................127
4.8.3. V d....................................................................................................................................127
4.9. GII M LI. ..........................................................................................................................128
4.9.1. Trng thi v gin li ...................................................................................................128
4.9.2. Gii m li.........................................................................................................................132
4.10. M HAMMING V M C DI CC I ...................................................................138
4.11. CC M KHI DA TRN S HC CA TRNG HU HN......................................139
4.11.1. Trng hu hn c nguyn t GF(p) ...............................................................................139
4.11.2. Cc trng m rng ca trng nh phn. Trng hu hn GF(2m).................................140
4.11.3. Biu din a thc cho trng hu hn GF(2m) .................................................................141
4.11.4. Cc tnh cht ca a thc v cc phn t ca trng hu hn ..........................................142
4.11.5. Xc nh cc m bng cc nghim ....................................................................................145
4.11.6. M Hamming.....................................................................................................................146
223
Mc lc
4.11.7. M BCH ............................................................................................................................ 146
4.11.8. Cc m Reed Solomon (RS) ........................................................................................... 149
4.12. CC M CHP ........................................................................................................................ 150
4.12.1. M u v mt s khi nim c bn. ................................................................................ 150
4.12.2. Cc m Turbo.................................................................................................................... 154
BI TP ............................................................................................................................................. 156
CHNG V L THUYT THU TI U ....................................................................................... 160
5.1. T BI TON V CC VN C BN ......................................................................... 160
5.1.1. Thu tn hiu khi c nhiu l mt bi ton thng k............................................................. 160
5.1.2. My thu ti u..................................................................................................................... 161
5.1.3. Th chng nhiu.................................................................................................................. 161
5.1.4. Hai loi sai lm khi chn gi thuyt.................................................................................... 161
5.1.5. Tiu chun Kachennhicov................................................................................................... 161
5.1.6. Vic x l ti u cc tn hiu .............................................................................................. 161
5.1.7. Xc sut gii sai v quy tc gii ti u................................................................................ 162
5.1.8. Hm hp l.......................................................................................................................... 163
5.1.9. Quy tc hp l ti a........................................................................................................... 163
5.2. X L TI U CC TN HIU C THAM S BIT. KHI NIM V THU KT HP
V THU KHNG KT HP........................................................................................................................ 164
5.2.1. t bi ton ......................................................................................................................... 164
5.2.2. Gii bi ton........................................................................................................................ 164
5.2.3. Khi nim v thu kt hp v thu khng kt hp ................................................................. 168
5.3. PHT TN HIU TRONG NHIU NH B LC PHI HP TUYN TNH TH NG.. 169
5.3.1. nh ngha b lc phi hp tuyn tnh th ng ................................................................ 169
5.3.2. Bi ton v b lc phi hp ................................................................................................ 169
5.3.3. c tnh bin tn v c tnh pha tn ca b lc phi hp ................................................. 172
5.3.4. Phn ng xung ca mch lc phi hp .............................................................................. 173
5.3.5. Hng ng ra ca mch lc phi hp................................................................................. 174
5.4. L LUN CHUNG V THU KT HP CC TN HIU NH PHN .................................... 175
5.4.1. Lp s gii ti u mt tuyn .......................................................................................... 175
5.4.2. Xc sut sai khi thu kt hp tn hiu nh phn .................................................................... 176
5.5. X L TI U CC TN HIU C THAM S NGU NHIN THU KHNG KT HP
........................................................................................................................................................................ 182
5.5.1. Cc tham s ca tn hiu l cc tham s ngu nhin ........................................................... 182
5.5.2. X l ti u cc tn hiu c tham s ngu nhin bin thin chm ...................................... 183
224
Mc lc
5.5.3. Xc sut hu nghim ca tn hiu c cc tham s thay i ngu nhin...............................183
5.5.4. X l ti u cc tn hiu c pha ngu nhin........................................................................184
5.5.5. So snh thu kt hp vi thu khng kt hp.........................................................................187
5.5.6. Ch thch .............................................................................................................................188
5.6. M KHI KHNG GIAN , THI GIAN (STBC).....................................................................188
5.6.1. K thut thu phn tp. .........................................................................................................188
5.6.2. M khi khng gian thi gian da trn hai my pht.......................................................190
BI TP .............................................................................................................................................193
PH LC ................................................................................................................................................196
BT NG THC BUNHIACOVSKI-SCHWAZT ........................................................................196
BIN I HILBERT .........................................................................................................................197
NH L KACHENNHICOV ..........................................................................................................198
LUT PHN B CHUN ................................................................................................................201
LOGARIT C S HAI CA CC S NGUYN T 1 N 100 ..................................................202
HM V ENTROPIE CA NGUN NH PHN............................................................................203
ENTROPIE H(X) CA CC LUT PHN B RI RC. .............................................................204
ENTRIPIE VI PHN H(X) CA CC LUT PHN B LIN TC............................................207
CC A THC TI TIU CA CC PHN T TRONG TRNG . .......................................214
TI LIU THAM KHO .....................................................................................................................219
MC LC...............................................................................................................................................220
225
BI GING
L THUYT THNG TIN

M s : 492LTT340
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1

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Tai Lieu Cua Ban .

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

L THUYT THNG TIN

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Gio trnh c vit da trn c s cng mn hc L thuyt thng tin do B Gio dc

NGI BIN SON

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

CHNG I: NHNG VN CHUNG V NHNG KHI

Cc lnh vc hot ng khoa hc ca

Hnh 1.1. Quan h gia hot ng khoa hc v qung tnh ca vt cht

- Nng lng hc: L mt ngnh khoa hc chuyn nghin cu cc vn lin quan ti cc

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

1.1.2. S lc lch s pht trin

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

1.2. NHNG KHI NIM C BN - S H TRUYN TIN V NHIM V CA N

1.2.2. S khi ca h thng truyn tin s (Hnh 1.2)

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Ti cc b nhn tin khc

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

1.2.2.1. Ngun tin

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

- PSK: Manip pha

Dy trc tip (DS)

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 1: Nhng vn chung v nhng khi nim c bn

1.2.3. Nhng ch tiu cht lng c bn ca mt h truyn tin

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu

CHNG II: TN HIU V NHIU

c trng vt l quan trng ca tn hiu l hm mt ph bin phc

S() . Vi tn hiu s(t)

kh tch tuyt i, ta c cp bin i Fourier sau:

Sau y l mt s c trng vt l quen thuc ca tn hiu:

2.2. TN HIU V NHIU L CC QU TRNH NGU NHIN

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu

2.2.2. nh ngha v phn loi nhiu

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu

u(t) = (t).s(t) + n(t)

y, ta coi h s truyn ca knh bng n v v b qua thi gian gi chm tn hiu

u(t) = (t).s(t ) + n(t)

2.3. CC C TRNG THNG K CA TN HIU NGU NHIN V NHIU

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu

QTNN chun dng

R x (t1, t 2 ) = M X(t1 ) m x (t1 ) . X(t 2 ) m x (t 2 )

[ x(t1) m x (t1)].[ x(t 2 ) m x (t 2 )].W2 (x1, x 2 , t1, t 2 )dx1dx 2

W2 ( x1, x 2 , t1, t 2 ) l hm mt phn b xc sut hai chiu ca hai gi tr ca qu trnh

R x (t1, t 2 ) = M [ X(t) m x (t) ]

Tai Lieu Cua Ban . Com

Chng 2: Tn hiu v nhiu

2.3.2. Khong tng quan

0,05. (hnh v 2.2). Nh vy,

xem nh ht tng quan.