AC Circuits

AC Sources
Often, electrical signals look like sines or cosines V Vmax sin t
AC power, Radio/TV signals, Audio
V Vmax cos t
Sine and cosine look nearly identical
They are related by a phase shift
Cosine wave is advanced by /2 (90 degrees) compared to sine
We will always treat source as sine wave
cos t sin t 12
Frequency, period, angular frequency related
f 1 T

2 f

This symbol denotes an arbitrary AC source

RMS Voltage
There are two ways to describe the amplitude
Maximum voltage Vmax is an overstatement
V Vmax sin t
Average voltage is zero
Root-mean-square (RMS) voltage is probably the best way
Plot (V)2, find average value, take square root
We can do something similar with current
Vrms

V 2

2
Vmax
sin 2 t

House current (US)

is at f = 60 Hz and
Vrms = 120 V
Vmax = 170 V

Vrms
I rms

Vmax

2
I max

1
2

2
Vmax

Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Shift

We will describe any sort of wave in terms of three quantities:
The amplitude A is how big it gets
To determine it graphically, measure the peak of the wave
The frequency is how many times it repeats per second
To determine it graphically, measure the period T
f 1 T
Frequency f = 1/T and angular frequency = 2f
The phase shift is how much it is shifted earlier/later
compared to basic sine wave
Let t0 be when it crosses the origin while rising
The phase shift ist0 (radians)
t0 0.005 s
T 0.02 s
100 0.005
f 50 Hz

100 s 1

12

A sin t
A 1.60 V

2 f

t0

Our Goal
Feed AC source through an arbitrary circuit
Resistors, capacitors, inductors, or combinations of them
We will always assume the incoming wave has zero phase shift
V Vmax sin t
We want to find current as a function of time

Vmax

I I max sin t
For these components, can show angular frequency is the same
We still need to find amplitude Imax and phase shift for current
Also want instantaneous power and average power consumed
I V
Generally, maximum current will be proportional to maximum voltage
Call the ratio the impedance, Z
I V
Z
max

max

Degrees vs. Radians

All my calculations will be done in radians
Degrees are very commonly used as well
But the formulas look different
I I max sin t I max sin 2 ft
I I max sin 360 ft

t0
360 ft0

Probably best to set your calculator on radians and leave it there

Resistors
V Vmax sin t

I I max sin t

Can find the current from Ohms Law

V Vmax
I

sin t
R
R

I max Vmax R

R = 1.4 k
Vmax 170 V
f 60 Hz
I rms Vrms R

The current is in phase

with the voltage
Impedance vector:
A vector showing relationship between voltage and current
Length, R is the ratio
Direction is to the right,
1.4 k
representing the phase shift of zero

Voltage
Current

Power in Resistors
We want to know
Instantaneous power
Average Power
2
2
2

V
I
sin

RI
sin

t
P I V
max max
max
2
P RI max
sin 2 t
2
P 12 RI max
2
P RI rms

Vmax 170 V
f 60 Hz

R = 1.4 k

V Vmax sin t

Capacitors
I I max sin t

C= 2.0 F

Charge of capacitor is proportional to voltage Q C V

Current is derivative of charge
Vmax 170 V
dQ
d V
C Vmax cos t
I
C
f 60 Hz
dt
dt
C Vmax sin t 12
Current leads voltage by /2
We say there is a /2 phase shift:

1.3 k

Impedance vector:
Define the impedance* for a capacitor as:
1

Make a vector out of it X C

Vmax
C
2
I max
Length XC
XC
*We will ignore the
Pointing down for =
1

2
term reactance

Power in Capacitors
C= 2.0 F
We want to know
Instantaneous Power
Average Power
Vmax 170 V
P I V Vmax I max sin t cos t
Power flows into and out of capacitor
No net power is consumed by capacitor
P 0

Only resistors contribute to the

average power consumed

f 60 Hz

Capacitors and Resistors Combined

Capacitors and resistors both limit the current they both have
impedance
I max Vmax R
Resistors: same impedance at all frequencies
I max Vmax X C
Capacitors: more impedance at low frequencies
X C 1 C

Inductors
Voltage is proportional to change in current
dI
E L
Vmax sin t
dt
Integrate this equation LI Vmax cos t

Vmax
Vmax
sin t 12
I
cos t
L
L

L= 4.0 H

Vmax 170 V
f 60 Hz

Impedance vector:
Define the impedance for an inductor as:
Make a vector out of it
X L L
Length XL
Pointing up for = +

1.5 k

Current lags voltage by /2

We say there is a +/2 phase shift

I max Vmax X L

12

Impedance Table
Resistor

Capacitor

Impedance

1
XC
C

Phase

12

1
2

Vector
Direction

right

down

up

I max Vmax R
I max Vmax X C
I max Vmax X L

Inductor
X L L

Adding Impedances Graphically

Suppose we have 2+ items in series
Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors
We can get the total impedance and phase shift by
adding the impedances graphically
The impedance and phase shift of two
components in series can be found by adding
the vector sum of the two separate impedances
Each impedance is represented by a 1.4 k vector pointing to
the right
The length of the combination is 2.8 k
The total impedance is denoted Z
The total arrow is to the right, so phase shift is 0
1.4 k

1.4 k

Z = 2.8 k

1.4 k

1.4 k
60 Hz
170 V

I max

Vmax

I rms

Vrms

Z 2.8 k
0

Adding Impedances Graphically (2)

Z X C2 R 2 1.42 1.32 k 1.9 k

The current is then the voltage over the impedance
Vmax
170 V
I max 88.0 mA
I max

Z
1930
The phase can be found from the diagram
0.759 rad
1330
tan
1400
I I max sin t

1.4 k

1.3 k

We can add different types of components as well

The resistor is 1.4 k to the right
1.4 k
The capacitor is 1.3 k down

The total is 1.9 k down-right

1.9
1
k
XC
1330
C

2.0 F

60 Hz
170 V

RLC AC Circuits

Z R X L XC
2

I max

Vmax

X L X C

tan 1

I I max sin t

R
f

XL

Vmax

XC

For this rather general circuit, find

Current
Impedance
Average power
Phase shift
1. Find the angular frequency 2 f
2. Find the impedance of the capacitor and inductor
3. Find the total impedance Z
1
XC
X L L
4. Find the phase shift
C
5. Find the current
6. Find the average power consumed

Power in RLC AC Circuits

6. Find the average power consumed
I I max sin t
I max

Vmax

Only resistors
contribute to the
average power
consumed

2
PR I 2 R RI max
sin 2 t

P RI

2
max

sin t
2

2
12 RI max

I rms

R
f

I max

Vmax

2
P RI rms

Most power is delivered to resistor when Imax is maximized

When Impedance is minimized
The resistor might well represent some useful device
Like a speaker for a stereo

R
2
P 2 Vrms
Z

Frequency and RLC Circuits

L
Impedance tends to be dominated by
whichever component has largest impedance
At low frequencies, thats the capacitor
At high frequencies, thats the inductor
At intermediate, thats the resistor
If the circuit includes a capacitor, it blocks low frequencies
If the circuit includes an inductor, it blocks high frequencies

High pass filter

Low pass filter

R
f
Vmax

A Sample Circuit
X C 1 C
X L L

2 f

What frequencies make it through the capacitor?

1
1

f 16 Hz
R XC R
C
RC
What frequencies make it through the inductor?
R XL

R
f 16 kHz

L
These inequalities compatible if:
2
1
R
L

R
C

RC L
R L

1000 F
0.1 mH
10
f
Vmax = 5 V

A Sample Circuit (2)

X C 1 C
X L L

1000 F
0.1 mH
10
f

2 f

At low frequencies, blocked by capacitor

At high frequencies, blocked by inductor
At intermediate, power goes to resistor
Frequencies from about 16 Hz16 kHz get through
Close to perfect for an audio system
What happens if L > R2C ?

Vmax = 5 V

Power

Phase
Shift

The Narrow Band Filter

X C 1 C
X L L

2 f

1.54 H 2.1 pF 2.0

f
Vmax = 1 mV

At resonant frequency, capacitor and

inductor cancel
Perfect for picking up WFDD

Types of RLC Circuits

High Pass Filter
Lets frequencies through if > 1/RC

Low Pass Filter

Lets frequencies through if < R/L

RLC circuit
If R2 > L/C, it is a combination of Low and
High pass filter
0
If R2 < L/C it only lets a narrow
range of frequencies through
The smaller R2C/L, the narrower it is

1
CL

Comments on Phase Shifts

V Vmax sin t
I I max sin t

The phase shift represents how the timing of the

current compares to the timing of the voltage
When it is positive, the current lags the voltage
It rises/falls/peaks later
When it is negative, the current leads the voltage
It rises/falls/peaks earlier

X L X C
tan

t0

Transformers

N1 turns

N2 turns

Let two inductors share the same volume

You can (should) give them an iron
core too
The EMFs can be calculated from the flux
E1
E2

The magnetic flux must be changing

Only works for AC

d B1
dt
d B2
dt

N1

d B
dt

dB
N2
dt

E1 E2

N1 N 2

What Transformers are Good For

120 V V2

500
5000

V2 = ?

N1 =500

V1 = 120 V

E1 E2

N1 N 2

N2 =5000

Their main purpose in life is to change the voltage

A 120 V AC source is fed into a transformer,
with N1 = 500 turns on the primary coil, and
N2 = 5000 turns on the secondary. What is
the voltage out of the transformer?

Voltage can increases, does that mean power increases?

When you increase voltage, you decrease current
In an ideal transformer, the product is conserved

5000 120 V
1200 V
V2
500

P I V

I1V1 I 2 V2

Realistic transformers
are 80-95% efficient

Transformers and Power Transmission

Generator
500 V

Transmission
Line 100 kV

House Current
120 V

Why transmit at 10 kV, instead of 500 V or 120 V?

Transmission wires are long they have a lot of resistance
By using a step up transformer, we increase the voltage I V1 I
2
1

V
and decrease the current
2
2
Power lost for a resistor is:
V1
2
2
You then step it down so you
P=
I 2rms R I1rms R

2
dont kill the customer

Power Supplies
120 V
AC

21 V
AC

20 V
ripply
DC

20 V
smooth
DC

To devices

What if we need a different voltage for a specific device?

Use a transformer
What if we want direct current?
A diode is a device that only lets current through one direction
What if we dont like the ripples
Capacitors store charge from cycle to cycle