Swan1

ZachSwan
ProfessorMumford
12April2016
ANTH206
EcologicalDisasterandEgyptianDisorder
ThegranderaoftheOldKingdom:alargelynewparadigmofhumanorganizationinthe
buddingyearsofhumanityitselfhadhumble,yetintriguing,beginnings.Thenomadicpeoplesof
NorthEasternAfricabeganbandingtogetherinthe5thmillenniaBC.1Thesepeopleweregreatly
advancedfortheirera,practicingdomesticationofwildanimalsandheraldingthestartofthe
domesticcrop.2Withthis,alargeshiftfomentedinthewayEgyptianslivedpeoplebeganto
findlocationsneartheNileRiverwheretheycouldgatherandhuntformostofthegoodsthey
neededtosurvive.ThesepeoplethrivedandlaidthefoundationforafutureEgypttobuildupon.
ThedesertsofEgyptarevast,lifelesstractsofdunesthatstretchfartothewestandcoverthe
easttowardstodaysRedSea.However,asoleveinoflife,theNile,runsfarfromSouthern
SudantotheDeltaonthesoutherncoastoftheMediterranean.TheNileisthelongestriverinthe
worldandisoneofEgyptandSudansonlywatersources.3 Thisriverpromptedandgalvanized
thecreationofacomplexsocietythatwouldleadtothefoundingofthegranddynasticsocieties
ofEgypt.4Kings,orpharaohs,wouldcometorulethenewlyunifiedlandandweretaskedwith

Mark,JoshuaJ."AncientEgypt."
AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,02Sept.2009.Web.11
Apr.2016.
2

Hayes,WilliamChristopher."PrehistoricEgypt."
TheScepterofEgypt
.NewYork:
MetropolitanMuseumofArt,1953.1416.Print.
3

Mark,JoshuaJ."Nile."
AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,02Sept.2009.Web.11Apr.2016.
4

ElKammash,MagdiM."NileRiver."
EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline
.Encyclopedia
Britannica,n.d.Web.30Mar.2016.
1

Swan2
providingthepeopleofEgyptwithaccesstobasicnecessitiesandcommunedwiththeGodsto
guaranteetheannualinundation,oftheNile.TheinundationoftheNile,beingthemainlifeline
ofEgyptiansociety,wasthemostimportantvariableintheirlives.Itsinundationdelivered
sustenancethroughfertileblacksiltandprovidedconstancyandsecuritytothepeoplewho
settledaroundtheNileValley.5TheNileisanimmenselyimportantecologicalfeatureinterms
oftheimpactitcouldhaveifanecologicaldisasterdisruptedthearea.IfthewatersoftheNile
failedtorise,ithadthecapabilitytospreaddeathandchaosacrossEgypt.Thetruenatureofthe
Nilesfragilitywasnotfullyrealizeduntiltheoccurrenceofthe4.2kiloyearevent,amassive
droughtwhoseeffectwasfeltbyseveralearlycivilizations,whichmayhavesolelytippedthe
scalesoforderandchaos,andcausedthefalloftheOldKingdom.Torealizethis,adeeper
understandingisrequiredoftheissuestheseecologicaleventscancausewhentheyare
compoundedwithothervariablessuchasaweakenedpoliticalsystemortheinabilitytoprovide
sustainablesourcesofsustenancefordensepopulations.
EventhoughtheOldKingdomhadfallenpreytothismassivedrought,theancient
Egyptianswerenotblindtotheforcesofnatureandthesignificantimpacteachaspectoftheir
surroundingshadonthem.AlotofthenaturalworldofancientEgyptwascharacterizedand
exploredbythepeoplethroughtheEgyptianmythos.Khepri,Seth,Ra,HorusandTefnutare
someofthevariousGodswhoseoriginswerederivedfromtheanimalsandlandscapeofEgypt
andtheNileValley.6Thesebeingspersonifiedthenaturalprocessesoftheirworld,forexample,
Khepri,theGodoftheDungandScarabbeetles,wasbelievedtobetaskedwithrollingtheSun

Mark,JoshuaJ."Nile."
AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,02Sept.2009.Web.11Apr.2016.
W
atterson,Barbara.
TheGodsofAncientEgypt
.NewYork,NY:FactsonFile,1984.Part2.
Print.
5
6

Swan3
acrosstheskywhileTefnut,theGoddessofwaterandfertility,wascharacterizedasalioness
andwasasymbolofstrengthinmotherhood.7ManyoftheEgyptianpeoplesexplanationsfor
naturalevents,fromthemoisturethatseepedfromthegroundtothestarsthatmovedacrossthe
sky,dwelledinmythos,asdidorderandchaos.Maat,theGoddessoflaw,orderandjustice,
distinguishedthebalanceoforderandchaos.8 Maatembodiedthelawful,ormoral,behaviorof
humansandthenormalfunctionofnaturalevents.TheentiretyoftheEgyptianmythos
characterizedtheproperfunctionofnature,thefactorsthatbredchaos,andtheelementsthat
impactedthenaturalbalanceoftheirlivesandenvironment.9
TheEgyptianmythos,perhapsmoreimportantly,impactedthepoliticalfoundationsof
Egyptandtheverystructureoftheirculture.10 ThewordMaatnotonlyreferstotheGoddess
herself,butthepreservationandseekingofnaturalorderoverchaos.Thepeoplewhowere
taskedwithpreservingtheorderwerethepharaohs.11Thesepeople,whoselivesweresodeeply
entwinedinthemythos,somuchsothattheywerebelievedtobethechildrenofvariousdeities,
werestillabletoseeasplitbetweentheworldofmythandtheinfluencetheywereabletohave
onthephysicalworldthemselves.Aroundtheyear2650BC,theconstructionofSaddelKafara
began,southeastofHelwan,andwasthelargestdamofitsageintheworld.Thedamstood14m
tall,110mlongandrangedfrom56mto98mwide. 12Itwasquitealargeprojectofmasonryand

Mark,JoshuaJ."AncientEgyptianMythology."
AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,17Jan.
2013.Web.11Apr.2016.
8

Watterson,Barbara.Part2.
9
Mark,JoshuaJ."AncientEgyptianMythology."
10
Hill,Jenny."ReligioninAncientEgypt:TheGodsandGoddesses."TheGodsofAncient
Egypt.N.p.,2010.Web.29Apr.2016.
11

Mark,JoshuaJ."Pharaoh."
AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,02Sept.2009.Web.12Apr.
2016.
12
Garbrecht,G.SaddelKafara.
EncyclopediaoftheArchaeologyofAncientEgypt
.Ed.Bard,
KathrynA.,andStevenBlakeShubert.London:Routledge,1999.105759.Print.
7

Swan4
wasadeceivinglycomplexfeatofengineeringtoundertake,evenformodernconstruction
methods.Thedamwasdestroyedshortlyafteritsconstructionhadstarted.Ironically,itwas
destroyedwhentherivertheyweredammingfloodedandtheunfinisheddamcollapsed.13The
damsfailurewassurelyastrongremindertotheEgyptianpeoplethatchaoswasanever
encroachingpartoftheworld.However,theyknewthatkeepingtheworldinorderwasthekey
forlifeandtheirkingdomtothriveandprosper,evenifthelackoforderoriginatedfromthe
samenaturalprocessoranimalstheyworshipped.14
TheEgyptianpeopleunderstoodtherawpowerofnatureandhadasystemofbeliefsthat
distinguishedtheproperfunctionofnaturefromtheimproperitgavethemthefoundationto
alterthenaturallandscapeinattemptstosustainorderoverthechaoticnatureoftheworld.
However,ecologicaldisastersgenerallyconsistofextremelydestructiveforces,suchas
earthquakesandmonsoons,thatarehardtopreparefor,onesucheventbeingthe4.2kiloyear
event.The4.2kiloyearevent(i.e.,labeledBeforePresent),startingfrom1950AD,inatimescale
toassistradiocarbondating,happenedaround4200BP,orca2250BC,andmostlikelylasted
thewholeofthe23ndcenturyBC.15ThiseventcausedmanyproblemsformiddleHolocene
societies,asanysevereecologicaldisastermight,andwecanseetheimpactthiseventleftinthe
landitself.16ResearchdoneonstalagmitesinNorthernAlgerian,ItalianandIsraelicaves

Garbrecht,G.SaddelKafara.
EncyclopediaoftheArchaeologyofAncientEgypt
.Ed.Bard,
KathrynA.,andStevenBlakeShubert.London:Routledge,1999.105759.Print.
14
H
ill,Jenny."ReligioninAncientEgypt:TheGodsandGoddesses."TheGodsofAncient
Egypt.N.p.,2010.Web.29Apr.2016.
15
W
elc,Fabian,andLeszekMarks."ClimateChangeattheEndoftheOldKingdominEgypt
13

around4200BP:NewGeoarchaeologicalEvidence."
ScienceDirect
.N.p.,4Mar.2014.Web.12
Apr.2016.
16

Krom,MichaelD.,J.DanielStanley,RobertA.Cliff,andJamieC.Woodward."NileRiver
SedimentFluctuationsoverthepast7000Yr..."

Swan5
providedevidenceoftheclimatechangethathadtakenplaceandthedisruptionitcausedtothe
peopleswholivedinthesampleareaslocatedaroundtheMediterraneansea,someofwhichwere
thoughttobeabandonedbythosewhoinhabitedthearea.17Theevidenceofclimatechange
aroundtheMediterraneanledresearcherstobelievethatthe4.2kiloyeareventwasdrastic
enoughthatitwasabletodisruptpeopleslivesthroughoutaverylargearea,whichincludedthe
regionfromSouthwestAsiatoEgypt.18
Ecologicaldisasterslikethishavehappenedbefore,yettheyhappenedbeforemost
humanswereabletoorganizeintodensecomplexsocieties.The4.2kiloyearevent,alongwith
thepriorsignificantoccurrencesca.5600BP(3650BC)andca.5200BP(3250BC)mayhave
notbeenverydetrimentaltotheculturesthatlivednomadicorhuntergatherertypelifestyles.19It
wasnotuntilshortlybeforethe4.2kiloyeareventthatpeoplehadstartedtorestrictthemselvesto
livinginoneplaceandusingagricultureasamainsourceofsustenance. 20Thosewhowereable
tomoveoutoftheareaofinfluenceofthedrought,oranyecologicaldisaster,wouldhavebeen
morelikelytocontinuewithoutmuchdisruption.21 Forexample,apersonwholivedanomadic
lifestylewouldhavesimplycontinuedtoanareathatwasunaffected,oraffectedlessseverely,
fromthedroughtwheretheycouldfindnewsourcesofsustenance.However,apersonwholived
permanentlyinasedentaryagriculturalsocietywouldnothavemanyotheroptionsbesides

Ruan,J.,Kherbouche,F.,Genty,D.,Blamart,D.,Cheng,H.,Dewilde,F.,Hachi,S.,Edwards,
R.L.,Rgnier,E.,andMichelot,J.L.:Evidenceofaprolongeddroughtca.4200yrBP
18

Arz,HelgeW.,FrankLamy,andJurgenPatzold."APronouncedDryEventRecordedaround
4.2kainBrineSedimentsfromtheNorthernRedSea."
19

Krom,MichaelD.,J.DanielStanley,RobertA.Cliff,andJamieC.Woodward."NileRiver
SedimentFluctuationsoverthepast7000Yr..."
20

Hayes,WilliamChristopher."PrehistoricEgypt."
TheScepterofEgypt
.NewYork:
MetropolitanMuseumofArt,1953.1416.Print.
21

Ofek,Haim."Paleoeconomics."
SecondNature:EconomicOriginsofHumanEvolution
.
Cambridge,U.K.:CambridgeUP,2001.19597.Print.
17

Swan6
leavingtheirpropertyandinvestmentsbehind.Theimpactofaneventlikethismayhavebeen
morepronouncedinareasthathadahigherdensityofpersonsperarea.Duringthe4.2kiloyear
event,thedroughtcausedtheNiletohavelowerfloodwaterlevelsformultiplesuccessive
inundations.TheNile,beingoneofthesoleveinsoflifeinthedesert,wasnotableprovide
enoughofthenutrientrichblacksiltorwatertotheEgyptianfarmland.Thelowblacksiltlevels
andreducedwaterfloweventuallycausedthefarmlandofEgypttobecomenonarable,ormay
havesimplycausedthefieldstoyieldtoolittlefoodtofeedanempire.22
IntheUnitedStatesduringthe1930s,aviscousdrought,knownastheDustBowl,dried
upthemidwesternportionofthenation.Thissimilaroccurrencecanbeusedtocontrastthe
severityofthe4.2kiloyeareventwiththeDustBowl.LikeEgypt,theUnitedStateswasnotable
tocombatanecologicaldisasterofthismagnitude.Aftertenyears,thedroughtcausedmorethan
2.5millionpeopletomoveawayfromtheaffectedareasinasimilarscenariotothe4.2kiloyear
eventinancientEgypt(andelsewhere).DuringtheearlyOldKingdom,theNilesupportedavast
amountofpeople(1+million)whowerelivingunderEgyptianrulebeforethekingdombeganto
decline,andthedroughtlastednotonlydecadesbutspannedanentirecentury.Althoughthe
scaleofthepopulationaffectedbybothdisastersarefairlysimilar,thelengthofthedroughtand
easeofescapefromtheeffectsofthedroughtsdiffersignificantly.Themidwesternpeopleof
UnitedStatesinthe1930shadmucheasieraccesstotransportation,otherlocationsandcitiesto
movetoincontrast,thepeopleofancientEgyptdidnotbenefitfromthesemodernamenities,

22

Stanley,J.Daniel,MichaelD.Krom,RobertA.Cliff,andJamieC.Woodward."Short

Contribution:NileFlowFailureattheEndoftheOldKingdom,Egypt:StrontiumIsotopicand
PetrologicEvidence."
WileyOnlineLibrary
.WileyPeriodicals,21Feb.2003.Web.30Mar.
2016.

Swan7
andtheycouldnotescapewithoutleavingeverythingtheyhadinvestedtheirtimeandenergyin.
23

UnliketheUnitedStates,ancientEgyptiangovernmentwasmodeledbythesamemoldas

theirmythos.ThePharaohwasthebeingheldresponsibleforleadingthecountryand
communingwiththeGodsheandhisvariousadvisorswereexpectedtoprovideMaattothe
peopleoftheEgyptiankingdom.24 BecausetheEgyptiankingdomwassolarge,thecentral
governmenthadinstalled42districtnomarchs,orgovernors,toruletheNomes,ordistricts,of
Egyptdirectly.25 Duringthe4.2kiloyeareventandthelateOldKingdom(i.e.,undertheruleof
PepiII)theNileexperiencedsignificantlylowerfloodlevels.ThenomarchsofPepiIIsEgypt
hadstartedtogrowuneasyduringthesuccessiveyearsoflowfloods,whichhadfinallyshown
themwhatthedamageofecologicaldisaster,theinstilledchaosofadefeatedMaat,coulddo.26
ThenomarchsstartedtosplitfromthePharaohasthecentralgovernmentbegantolosepower,
andtheyfurthercementedtheirindependentruletowardstheendoftheOldKingdom.The
nomarchshadfosteredtheriseofafeudalstate,similartotheWarringStatesperiodinJapanca.
1400AD,wheretheheirsofnomarchsruledtheirseparateprovinces:somebeganhoardingthe
dwindlingfoodstores,othersraisedarmies,andsmallscalecivilwarsbetweentheprovinces
werenotuncommon.27ThiseraofcivilunrestinEgyptwasusheredinbyahostoffactors,

Worster,Donald.
DustBowl:TheSouthernPlainsinthe1930s
.NewYork:OxfordUP,1979.
49.Print.
24

Ruddell,Nancy."Government."
EgyptianCivilizationGovernment
.CanadianMuseumof
History,n.d.Web.30Mar.2016.
25

Breasted,JamesHenry.
AHistoryoftheAncientEgyptians
.NewYork:C.Scribner'sSons,
1908.11719.Print.
26

Krom,MichaelD.,J.DanielStanley,RobertA.Cliff,andJamieC.Woodward."NileRiver
SedimentFluctuationsoverthepast7000Yr..."
Geology
30.1(2002):7174.
ResearchGate
.
Web.30Mar.2016.
27

Mlek,Jaromr.EgyptianArt
.London:Phaidon,1999.155.Print.
23

Swan8
however,thecausesofthiseraofdisruptionpointheavilytowardthe4.2kiloyeareventandthe
variousdifficultiesthatbranchedfromit,beingthemainsourceoftheOldKingdomsdecline.28
PepiIIscentralgovernmenthadfailedtoprovidethepeopleofEgyptwiththeever
soughtafterMaat.TheorganizationofEgyptfelltodrought,infighting,famineanddisease,
withthelattertwobeinghelpedalongbytheinterprovincialwarfare.Anhktifi,aprovincial
nomarchofUpperEgyptatthetime,hasaseriesofhieroglyphsinhistombthatdatefromthis
eraofEgyptiandisorder,whichread:
"AllofUpperEgyptwasdyingofhungertosuchadegreethateveryonehad
cometoeatingtheirchildren."29
FekriHassan,aprofessoratUniversityofCentralLondon,studiedAnhktifishieroglyphs
andusedthestalagmiteandstalactitedatafromtheresearchfromthecavesystemsalongthe
Mediterraneantofurtherstudythiseraofinstability.Hassancontinuedinlinewiththecave
researchheanalyzeddrilledcoresamplesfromanancientNiletributarylakebedthathadbegun
todryuparoundthistimeinAncientEgypt,todaysBirketQarun.Thelakebedcoresamples
showedevidencethatconfirmedthedatafromthesamplingoftheMediterraneancavesand
affirmedthetimelineofthiscenturyofchaos.30
ThefalloftheOldKingdomisnotonlyamajorcaseofpoliticalupheaval,butacaseof
naturalupheavalthataffectedanentirecivilizationswayoflife.Whenthe4.2kiloyearevent

Stanley,J.Daniel,MichaelD.Krom,RobertA.Cliff,andJamieC.Woodward."Short
Contribution:NileFlowFailureattheEndoftheOldKingdom,Egypt:StrontiumIsotopicand
PetrologicEvidence."
WileyOnlineLibrary
.WileyPeriodicals,21Feb.2003.Web.30Mar.
2016.
29

Grimal,Nicolas.
AHistoryofAncientEgypt
,BlackwellBooks:1992,pp.142&40
0
30

Hassan,FekriA."NilefloodsandpoliticaldisorderinearlyEgypt."ThirdmillenniumBC
climatechangeandoldworldcollapse.SpringerBerlinHeidelberg,1997.123.
28

Swan9
struckEgypt,theyhadbeenasedentarysociety,focusedonagriculture,andhadbecomewell
settledintheirways.31 Theirpoliticalsystemhadbeenestablishedforcenturies,andgenerations
ofEgyptianshadworkedtogetthekingdomtowhereitstood.The4.2kiloyeareventmayhave
beenthelaststrawthatcausedthescalestotipinchaosfavor.Thedroughthadanimmensely
dramaticaffectonthenaturalandpoliticallandscapeofEgyptandsentittumblingintoturmoil.
Egypt,oneofthehandfulofcomplexancientsocieties,wasabletosurvivethiseventand
thesubsequentdisintegrationofitscentralgovernment.Evenwiththeeffectsofthe4.2kiloyear
eventstilllingering,theFirstIntermediatePeriod,whichstartedca.2100BC,begantoformin
theshadowoftheOldKingdom.Itculminatedinaneraofintellectualprosperityandcultural
growth.Astheseparateprovincesheldtheirindependence,theywereabletogrowmuchmore
powerfulthanwhentheywerealignedwiththecentralgovernmentandwerepayingtributeto
thePharaoh.However,EgyptwasstillexperiencinglowNilefloodlevels,andthefaminewhich
ithadbroughtcontinuedtostoketheprovincialunrest.Twofamilies,theThebanIntefsandthe
northernrulersofHerakleopolisbecamethetwomajorpowersofLowerEgyptandUpper
Egypt,respectively.ThetwofamiliesfoughtforcontrolandtheThebanswerelefttoreorganize
thedysfunctionalstate.Egyptwasorganizedagainandanewerawasbirthedfromthedisorder
ofthe2ndmillenniaBC.32
Egypteventuallysucceededtoreorganizetheirsocietyinabetterstatethanithadended
intheyhadsimplyconfirmedtheirmythosofOsiris,namelyamythofrevivalandrenewal.The
worldreturnedtoorder,andchaoshadeventuallybeenpushedback.Maatwasrestoredandthe

Wengrow,David,TheArchaeologyofEarlyEgypt:SocialtransformationsinNorthEast
Africa,10,000to2650B.C.,CambridgeUniversityPress,2006
31

"TheFirstIntermediatePeriod."
TheOxfordHistoryofAncientEgypt
.Ed.IanShaw.Oxford:
OxfordUP,2000.10812.Print.
32

Swan10
precedingcenturyofturmoilbecamehistory,everinscribedintothewallsoftheirtemplesand
othervariousworksofmasonry.However,itwasduringthe4.2kiloyeareventthattheEgyptians
discoveredtheirkingdomwasnotinvincibletothemightofnatureandthewrathofchaos.The
4.2kiloyeareventimpactedEgyptiansocietyveryheavily.Themostnotableeffectthedrought
fomentedwasthefamine,whichaffectedvastamountsofEgyptiansmultiplegenerationshad
livedanddiedbeforetheeffectswerenolongerfelt.Athreatofthistypeandmagnitudeis
merelyescalatedbytheamountofpeoplerelyingonasolesourceofsustenance,inthiscasethe
Nile,whichisaproblemofsustainability,andaweakenedstate.Theseproblemsof
sustainabilitywerethesameproblemstheUnitedStatesfacedwiththeDustBowl.However,the
Nilerivernaturallyreturnedtoitsnormalpatternsofinundation,andEgyptiansocietyonce
againrosefromtheblacksiltoftheNile.Yet,thereisalessontobelearnedfromecological
disasterssuchasthe4.2kiloyeareventnomatterthecomplexityorsecurityofasystem,
governmentorwayoflife,adisasterassimpleasachangeinclimateorastrivialasamissing
specieshasthechancetoenditall.

Swan11
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EncyclopediaoftheArchaeologyofAncientEgypt
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AHistoryofAncientEgypt
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climatechangeandoldworldcollapse.SpringerBerlinHeidelberg,1997.123.
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TheScepterofEgypt
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MuseumofArt,1953.1416.Print.
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SedimentFluctuationsoverthepast7000Yr..."
Geology
30.1(2002):7174.
ResearchGate
.Web.30Mar.2016.
Mlek,Jaromr.EgyptianArt
.London:Phaidon,1999.155.Print.

Swan12
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AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
.N.p.,02Sept.2009.Web.11
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AncientHistoryEncyclopedia
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.
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WileyOnlineLibrary
.WileyPeriodicals,21Feb.2003.Web.30
Mar.2016.

Swan13
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TheGodsofAncientEgypt
.NewYork,NY:FactsonFile,1984.Part2.
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