Furnaces India SME PDF

PROCEEDINGS
of
Workshop on Dissemination of
Learnings of CoSMiLE
Edited by
Sanjay Mande
Jalajakshi C K
The Energy and Resources Institute
00-Prelims.p65
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
The Energy and Resources Institute 2008
ISBN 81-7993-147-1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means without prior permission of The Energy and Resources Institute.
Published by
T E R I Press
The Energy and Resources Institute
Darbari Seth Block
IHC Complex, Lodhi Road
New Delhi 110 003
India
Tel. 2468 2100, 4150 4900

Fax 2468 2144, 2468 2145
India +91 Delhi (0) 11
Email teripress@teri.res.in
Web www.teriin.org
Printed in India at Innovative Designers and Printers, New Delhi
00-Prelims.p65
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Contents
Foreword
Preface
vii
00-Prelims.p65
ix
Keynote presentation
Chapter 1
Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural
areas: potential and case studies
19
Chapter 2
Benefits of an optimally designed divided blast cupola
results from an actual case in Indian foundries
25
Chapter 3
Improving the performance of Kolar and Malur brick clusters
in Karnataka
37
Chapter 4
Air pollution issues in a small- and medium-scale industry
42
Chapter 5
Techno-social interventions in the puffed rice sector
49
Chapter 6
Elements of energy audit in small and micro enterprises
60
Chapter 7
Role of energy efficiency in small and micro enterprises
65
Chapter 8
Energy initiative in small enterprises manufacturers
perspective
70
Chapter 9
Scope on technology upgradation in scrap aluminium melting
units in Karnataka
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
iv
Contents
81
Chapter 10
Efficient biomass energy use in the tiny sector of Karnataka
97
Chapter 11
Initiatives of the Karnataka Council for Technological
Upgradation
103
Chapter 12
Role of small enterprises
Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE
00-Prelims.p65
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Foreword
Small and micro enterprises play a vital role in the Indian

economy, as they provide employment to millions of workers.
The 11 million small-scale industries in the country account
for nearly 40% of the gross value of output in the
manufacturing sector and contribute to over 34% of the total
exports from India. The sector faces several challenges related
to inadequacies in capital, technology, and markets. There are
a number of issues related to the development of small and
micro enterprisesnon-upgradation of technologies,
inefficient utilization of energy, environmental pollution
caused due to inefficient combustion and clustering of units,
and occupational health hazards due to poor working
conditions.
TERI and SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation) have partnered to develop innovative solutions
to energy, environment, and social issues of a few energyintensive small/micro scale industrial sectors. The sectors
identified for interventions were (i) grey iron foundries
(cupolas and pollution control systems); (ii) glass units (pot
furnaces and muffle furnaces/pakai bhatti); (iii) brick kilns
(VSBK [vertical shaft brick kilns] and bull's trench kilns);
(iv) puffed rice-making; and (v) biomass-gasifier-based
thermal applications (silk reeling, cardamom drying, food
processing units, and other sub-sectors).
To mainstream these solutions, a programme called
CoSMiLE (Competence network for Small and Micro
Learning Enterprise) was launched jointly by SDC and TERI.
CoSMiLE is a dynamic and informal grouping of actors
consisting of owners and workers of small and micro
enterprises, service providers like masons, contractors,
fabricators, and local experts, and stakeholder institutions like
industry associations, government departments, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), financing institutions, and
academic and research institutions. In each of the aboveidentified sectors, pilot efforts were carried out to showcase
00-Prelims.p65
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
vi
Foreword
benefits of energy-efficient and cleaner technologies and

create awareness among stakeholders. The interventions were
also amalgamated by integrating social concerns of the
workforce to make solutions more sensitive to human issues.
These pilot efforts have improved energy efficiency
significantly, and consequently reduced greenhouse gas
emissions to a great extent.
In order to share the experience and disseminate learnings
from this programme across various geographical regions, in
terms of working with the small and unorganized sector over
the past two decades, TERI, with support from the
Department of Industries and Commerce, Government of
Karnataka, SDC, and CoSMiLE, organized a workshop on
2122 November 2007 at Bangalore. This workshop aimed to
create awareness on potential for cleaner technologies in small
and unorganized industries. The target audience included
government officials (district industries centres, Karnataka
State Pollution Control Board, Karnataka Council for
Technological Upgradation, and so on) professionals,
manufacturers, NGOs, training institutes and trainers, and
implementing agencies in Karnataka to take things forward for
field implementation. The proceedings of the workshop are
being published to share knowledge with a larger audience
than was present at the event in Bangalore.
R K Pachauri
Director-General, T E R I
00-Prelims.p65
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
vii
Preface
The small-scale industry sector is a vital constituent of the

industrial sector, contributing to the national gross domestic
product, besides meeting the social objectives, including that of
providing employment opportunities to millions of people across
the country.
As of September 2007, the total number of units registered
in Karnataka state was 353 222, with an investment of
Rs 840 495 lakh and providing employment opportunity to
2 001 236 people. The source of energy in these industries is
coal, oil, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), electricity, and
traditional energy/firewood. Electricity is the main source of
power, followed by traditional energy/firewood, coal, oil, and
LPG; less than 1% are using non-conventional energy source.
There is vast scope for improving the energy efficiency and
adopting alternative sources of energy in this sector. TERIs
CoSMiLE (Competence network for Small and Micro Learning
Enterprise) initiative is a commendable step towards addressing
the energy issues in the small and unorganized sector.
The Ministry of Industries and Commerce has a dedicated
Department for Small Scale Industry at the central level and
Department of Industries and Commerce at the state levels. The
KCTU (Karnataka Council for Technological Upgradation) was
set up in 1996 to address the issue of upgradation of
technologies. This is a joint venture of the central and state
governments, as well as industry associations. This has been set
up to fulfil the long-felt needs of technological inputs in the
MSMEs (micro, small, and medium enterprises) of Karnataka. It
functions as a nodal agency for technology transfer and as a
facilitator.
The Department of Industries and Commerce is pleased to be
a partner with TERI in conducting the workshop for
dissemination of leanings of CoSMiLE to a larger audience. I am
sure the proceedings of the workshop will be useful to the various
stakeholders such as industry owners, government officials,
NGOs, and academic institutions.
Dr Raj Kumar Khatri

Commissioner for Industrial Development and
Director of
Industries
and Commerce,
Bangalore
Workshop on Dissemination
of Learnings
of CoSMiLE
ixiv
00-Prelims.p65
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
00-Prelims.p65
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
TERISDC Partnership (CoSMiLE Project)
Keynote
presentation
V V N Kishore, Senior Fellow, TERI
The goal of CoSMiLE is to improve the economic,

environmental, and social conditions of entrepreneurs and
workers of small and micro enterprises. CoSMiLE focuses on
increased adoption of resource-efficient technologies and
knowledge-sharing to enhance competitiveness of the targeted
small and micro enterprises. It aims at the holistic
development of the enterprises through techno-social
integration, in a manner that the developed technologies
benefit the workforce through improved working conditions
and providing better quality of life. CoSMiLE is a dynamic
and informal grouping of actorsowners and workers of small
and micro enterprises; service providers like masons,
contractors, fabricators, and local experts; and stakeholder
institutions like industry associations, government
departments, NGOs, financing institutions, and academic and
research institutions. The common factor binding the network
members is learning orientation. It is an open network and
will always look for forward-looking enterprises and experts
desirous of learning and sharing knowledge.
The key focus areas of the project are the following.
Energy
efficiency and
environmental
improvement
in small and
micro
enterprises
P Technology development and demonstration

P Technology dissemination
P Capacity building
Cleaner technology packages developed and demonstrated in
various sectors are listed in Table 1.
Technology
development
and
demonstration
00-Prelims.p65
Table 1 Cleaner technology packages developed and demonstrated in various sectors
Sector
Focus region/state
Foundry
Brick
Glass
Puffed rice
Thermal gasifiers
All India level

South India and eastern Uttar Pradesh
Firozabad (Uttar Pradesh)
Karnataka
Rajasthan
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Experiences reveal that energy and environment technologies

need to be embedded in the social and economic milieu for
widespread adoption. The technologies in vogue in the smallscale sector are usually inefficient, but often require only small
changes to transform them into proper designs for saving energy.
The pollution caused by small-scale industries has placed them in
the environmentalists and even the judiciarys line of fire.
However, market-ready off-the-shelf solutions have been hard to
come by.
The judicial intervention in Agra banned the use of coke and
coal and instructed the small-scale sector to use natural gas
instead. Among others, the sectors most affected was the glass
sector. The CoSMiLE interventions in these sectors helped
develop natural-gas-fired furnaces for the glass industry. On the
other hand, CoSMiLE also developed an energy-efficient DBC
(divided blast cupola) for grey iron melting in foundries. Along
with the cupola, CoSMiLE also developed a venturi scrubber
based on pollution control system. Energy-efficient design for
brick baking furnace or the kiln was also developed for the brick
industry, which was once considered notorious for causing
pollution in the rural areas.
CoSMiLEs interventions have touched the lives of micro
enterprises as well, partly in the glass-making sector but more so
in rural industries like silk reeling and cardamom drying.
CoSMiLE has developed a number of designs of energy-efficient
biomass gasifiers for various thermal applications. These biomass
gasifiers, used in tandem with producer gas engines and
generators, have also been used effectively for distributed power
generation.
The technologies developed under the umbrella of the
CoSMiLE initiative are listed in Table 2.
One of the important aspects of technology development
has been pooling of competencies. CoSMiLE, with its focus
on energy-efficient and cleaner technologies, has worked with
a number of domestic and international partners for specific
industry/sector-based applications.
Technology
dissemination
Technology dissemination among the small and micro

enterprises presents its own set of challenges. CoSMiLE
recognized that cleaner and energy-efficient technologies
necessarily had to be economically attractive to be adopted by
small and micro enterprises. Much before that, the
technological applications, however, should be able to deliver
the right quality of products to be considered successful. The
CoSMiLE network worked not only to develop the design
with its partners but also established the technological and
economic feasibility of these technologies.
00-Prelims.p65
10
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
xi
Table 2 Technologies developed under the umbrella of CoSMiLE

Sector/application Conventional technology
Foundry
Glass
Thermal gasifier
applications
Brick
Puffed rice
Conventional cupola,
wet cap, dry cyclone
Coal/natural-gas-fired
pot furnace
Coal-fired muffle furnace
Improved technology
Divided blast cupola

Venturi scrubber system
Natural-gas-fired pot
furnace with recuperator
Natural-gas-fired muffle
furnace
Direct burning of biomass Gasifier-based furnaces
and fossil fuels
for various end-use
applications
BTKs, downdraught kilns, Vertical shaft brick kiln
and clamps
Best operating practices
in BTKs and downdraught
kilns
Conventional ovens
Improved oven with heat
recovery unit and dust
arrestor
Key features
Coke savings of 25%65%; SPM
emissions brought below 70 mg/Nm3
Energy savings of 25%50% (and
significant pollution reduction)

Energy savings of 20%40%
Energy savings of 10%15%

SPM suspended particulate matter; Nm3 normal cubic metre; BTK bulls trench kiln
Regional level workshops/seminars and one-to-one

interaction with the target group were found to be effective
means of sensitizing the entrepreneurs about the technologies.
Workshops, interaction meets, and seminars have been
organized with the objective of information dissemination and
outreach. Promotional materials such as brochures and visuals
were developed to support the dissemination activities.
Most CoSMiLE technologies have a simple payback period of
less than two years. Product quality has been good and rate of
rejection has gone down in most cases. Though the upfront
investment has been on the higher side, the life of the equipment
and the payback period generally provides adequate economic
justification for taking up the implementation.
Table 3 captures the economic attractiveness, replication
status, and the cumulative reduction in environmental impact
of various CoSMiLE technologies.
Key features of developed technologies include the following.
P Energy savings: 25%50% lower than conventional
technologies
P Simple payback: approximately one year (for most of the
technologies)
P Drastically reduced pollutionfor example, SPM
(suspended particulate matter) below 70 mg/Nm3 for
pollution control systems for foundries
00-Prelims.p65
11
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
xii
Table 3 Economic attractiveness, replication status, and the cumulative reduction in
environmental impact of various CoSMiLE technologies
Application Technology
Foundry
Glass
Brick
Puffed rice
Silk
Large
cardamom
processing
Upfront
investment
(Rs)
Divided blast
750 000
cupola,
pollution control 1 500 000
system for cupola
Natural-gas-fired
250 000
pot furnace,
natural-gas-fired
20 000
muffle furnace
Vertical shaft
600 000
brick kiln
Stove with heat

recovery unit
Gasifier-based
silk reeling oven,
Gasifier-based silk
yarn dyeing unit
Gasifier-based
cardamom
dryer
2 000
Simple
payback
period
(years)
Status of
replication
units
CO2 emission
reduction
(tonnes) (up to
December 2004)
21 cupolas
installed
3 installed
10 900
25 installed
21 575
2 (months) 100 installed

2
By all partners: 14 704

about 50 units;
directly by
TERI: 5 units
2 (months) NA
100 000
38 installed
69 994
100 000
27 installed
15 000
162 in Sikkim
and several more
in Nagaland,
Bhutan, and Nepal
P Improved work environment

P Reduced health risks to workers and society at large
P Improved profitability and sustainability of the sectors
Capacity
building
A large number of local institutions, directly or indirectly,

contribute to the development of the small and micro
enterprises. The success of the programme, hence, vests on its
ability to establish alliances with a diverse range of local
institutions and industries so as to positively influence the
implementation of the programme.
Recognizing that the social conditions, in which the
technologies are employed, is an important factor to be
considered for both development and dissemination,
CoSMiLE has worked ceaselessly to address relevant social
00-Prelims.p65
12
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
xiii
issues. It has worked in areas as diverse as setting up SHGs

(self-help groups); bringing owners and workers on a common
platform; providing inputs on health and safety for workers;
and working with industry associations for strengthening
them.
A large number of participants at various levels (national,
regional, and cluster) are involved in numerous initiatives and
projects on small and micro enterprises. The effectiveness of
ongoing interventions can be greatly enhanced through
knowledge sharing. Hence, the programme is developing
physical or virtual platforms at different levels for exchanging
information and experience among various participants,
including manufacturers of thermal gasifiers.
Platforms will be created for multistakeholder dialogue on
various issues such as technology, policy, and social sensitivity.
Successful implementation of the various initiatives, to a large
extent, depends on the capacity and role of partner
organizations/individuals. Hence, capacity building of partners
and providing technical backup or support to them will be one
of the major activities under the programme. Most of the
capacity-building activities are built around sharing of
knowledge and experiences amongst CoSMiLE partners.
These learning activities are carried out with a collaborative
spirit.
The CoSMiLE programme has had numerous partners in
the area of human and institutional development. These are
listed in Table 4.
Table 4 Partners in the in the area of human and institutional development
Role
00-Prelims.p65
13
Foundry
Glass
Biomass
Brick
Social action IMSE (Institute

Vikas Sansthan Sadhana
for Motivating
OUTREACH
Self Employment)
Industry
Indian Foundry
FICCI
associations Association
(Federation of
Indian Chamber of
Commerce and
Industry)
PEPUS (Paryavaran Evam

Prodyogiki Utthan Samiti),
Lokmitra
INP (Int Nirmata
Parishad), AIBTMF
(All India Bricks and
Tiles Manufacturers
Federation)
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
xiv
CoSMiLE
Services
P Identifying cleaner technologies and providing technical

support for implementation of economically attractive,
energy-efficient, and environment-friendly technologies
P Mainstreaming technologies through capacity building and
establishment of delivery chains
P Facilitating formation and strengthening of collectives
within the informal sectors for enhanced livelihood
opportunities
P Facilitating innovative TSI (techno-social integration)
processes that would benefit/empower the workers and their
families
P Establishing knowledge-sharing networks among
communities of entrepreneurs, workers, service providers,
and support institutions
P Providing platform for policy dialogue through workshops,
training programmes, and seminars
P Facilitating inclusion of cleaner production initiatives in the
global climate protection framework
P Extending support to local initiatives (seminars, workshops,
and so on) and providing platforms that would strengthen
the CoSMiLE network
P Documentation and outreach activities for awareness
generation and cross-learning
00-Prelims.p65
14
ixiv
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Gasifier applications in small and micro

enterprises in rural areas: potential and case
studies
Chapter 1
Sanjay Mande, Fellow, T E R I
Biomass has been a source of energy for thousands of years.

Before the use of fossil fuels became widespread, biomass, in
the form of wood, was the predominant energy source for
heating, cooking and, sometimes with prior conversion to
charcoal, for industrial processes such as smelting. Recently,
the rapid increase in the use of fossil fuels contributed to the
decline in the share of biomass in total energy; however
biomass still remains an important energy source, accounting
for 14% of the worlds energy sources.
For many years, the use of biomass energy remained
confined to traditional sectors. Recently, however, several
factors have contributed to a renewal of interest in biomass
energy globally. The chief among them are the improvements
in biomass energy production and conversion technologies,
rising global environmental concerns like climate change and
acid rain, and deterioration in air quality due to the use of
fossil fuels. Concerns about sustainable development have also
led to a fresh look at biomass energy as a renewable,
sustainable, and environmentally benign energy source.
Biomass energy has drawn the attention of developing country
policy-makers due to its multiple advantages. These include
easy availability in rural areas, where commercial fuels and
centralized electric grid are not available; employment
generation in energy plantations and rural industries; saving
of foreign exchange spent on oil imports; and restoration of
deforested and degraded lands through energy plantations.
Economic reforms have opened the doors for competition
in energy. Long-term penetration of biomass energy will
depend on the cost of delivered energy, as well as reliability of
technologies. The future of biomass energy depends on
modern technologies such as biomass gasification, which can
provide convenient gaseous fuel by converting biomass into
producer gas through gasification in a gasifier reactor. This
can help in harnessing the potential of biomass in three
segments.
Abstract
01-Chapter.p65
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas
P Process heat applications in agro-based industries

generating waste biomass as by-product
P Cooking energy in domestic and commercial sectors
(through charcoal and briquettes)
P Electricity generation (decentralized as well as captive
power)
Biomass
gasification
Biomass gasification is a process of converting solid biomass fuel

into gaseous combustible gas (called producer gas) through a
sequence of complex thermo-chemical reactions. In the first
stage, partial combustion of biomass to produce gas and char
occurs along with generation of heat. This heat is utilized in
drying the biomass to remove its moisture, as well as for pyrolysis
reactions to bring out volatile matter and provide heat energy
necessary for further endothermic reduction reactions to
produce producer gas, which is a mixture of combustible gases
such as CO (carbon monoxide), H2 (hydrogen), and traces of
CH4 (methane) and other hydrocarbons. Normally, air is used as
the gasifying agent, but the use of oxygen or steam can produce
rich gas of higher calorific value. However, this is not usually
done due to the cost.
Gasification of biomass looks simple in principle and many
types of gasifiers have been developed. Production of gaseous
fuel from solid fuel offers easy handling, better control on
combustion, and possibility of using it in internal combustion
engine for shaft power or electricity production. This makes
gasification very appealing, especially for small, decentralized
options. However, biomass fuel used in gasifier varies widely
in its physical and chemical properties and makes the gasifier
reactions complicated to design. While the various reactors
used for biomass gasification can be classified in many
different ways, the density factor (ratio of dense biomass
phase to total reactor volume) is a simple and effective
method of classification. Thus, gasifiers can be classified as
the following.
P Dense phase reactors
P Lean phase reactors
In dense phase reactors such as fixed-bed reactors (updraft,
downdraft, cross-draft, and so on, as shown in Figure 1) the
biomass or feedstock occupies maximum reactor volume with
typical density factors of around 0.30.8. On the other hand,
in lean phase reactors such as fluidized bed reactors the
biomass occupies very little reactor volumeto the order of
0.050.2. Dense phase (downdraft and updraft) gasifiers are
the most common gasifier types due to the advantage of
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Figure 1 Types of dense phase gasifiers: (a) Updraft gasifier (b) Downdraft
gasifier (c) Cross-draft gasifier
simplicity in construction as well as operation. Compared to a

downdraft gasifier, an updraft gasifier operates with higher
thermal efficiency, producing high calorific value gas, but
contains higher amount of tar impurities as gas is taken out
from a lower temperature zone. Downdraft gasifier produces
relatively cleaner gas (low-tar impurities) as gas passes
through high temperature zone before coming out of the
gasifier. It also has lower start-up time (515 minutes) and
relatively better load-following capability (ability to quickly
extend the partial combustion zone to produce the requisite
higher gas quantity).
Among the lean phase reactors, the most commonly used
reactor types are the fluidized bed and entrained flow reactors.
Recently, other reactor designs like cyclonic reactors are being
developed and tested. A recent survey of gasifier manufacturers
found that 75% of gasifiers offered commercially were
downdraft, 20% were fluid bed (including circulating fluid bed),
2.5% were updraft, and 2.5% were of other types. In developing
countries like India, where the majority of applications are small
scale (up to megawatt capacity) and decentralized in nature,
atmospheric downdraft gasifiers are more attractive in spite of
their lower efficiency. There is a large market for these in both
developing and developed economies. While there may be still
some problem of effective removal of tar and particulates,
considerable progress has been made in managing these gasifiers
under field conditions. Atmospheric updraft air gasifiers have
some application areas in larger capacity (specially where large
quantities of gas can be immediately burnt in hot conditions to
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
get process heat) despite their higher tar content as they give
relatively more flexibility than downdraft gasifier with regard to
fuel size and moisture content. Therefore, these two types of
fixed bed gasifiers are more in use in developing countries like
India. No elaborate gas cleaning is normally required for thermal
applications while gas has to be cooled (to improve engine
volumetric or breathing efficiency) and cleaned thoroughly (to
minimize damage to the engine and maintenance requirement)
for engine or power applications.
Gasifier for
process heat
in SMiEs in
India
Thermal
energy needs
of SMiEs
SMiEs (small and micro enterprises) play a significant role in

the Indian economy. There are more than 3 million small-scale
industries in the organized sector and about 15 million
enterprises in the unorganized sector. These units account for
about 40% of the total industrial production and 35% of total
exports. It is estimated that small-scale industries and micro
enterprises together contribute 7% to the GDP (gross
domestic product) in the Indian economy.
A large number of enterprises in the small-scale sector are
highly energy consuming. Coal, coke, charcoal, biomass,
diesel, and furnace oil are the major fuels used in this sector.
Expenditure on fuels takes a major share of their total
expenditure. In recent years, the prices of fossil fuels have
been increasing steadily. For example, the price of diesel in
India has more than tripled in the last ten years.
Fuelwood, charcoal, and other biomass fuels are used in
small- and medium-scale industries such as textile processing,
brick-making, lime production and food-processing. Many of
these industries use outdated and energy-inefficient devices.
With increasing population, economic growth, and industrial
production, the demand for wood and biofuel is expected to
increase. One of the important aspects of sustainable
harnessing of biomass as energy source is its efficient
conversion and increased end-use utilization efficiency.
Biomass-gasifier-based thermal appliances can facilitate more
efficient use of traditional fuels in small- and medium-scale
industries.
The thermal energy needs of an enterprise vary over a wide
range of temperatures (from ambient up to metal melting
temperature of 15001600 C) depending upon the type of
industry, type of application, and type of process adopted for
given application. In general, the thermal energy needs of
SMiEs can be categorized as follows.
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Low
temperature
applications
Water boiling
The majority of small-scale unorganized enterprises need

process heat in the form of boiling water, which in turn can be
used for cooking food, boiling cocoons, or for dyeing fabric.
Even some large industrial applications such as MgCl2
(magnesium chloride) production are basically boiling bittern
to evaporate water to obtain fine MgCl2 flakes as finished
product. Here temperature requirements are lowerup to the
boiling point of liquid. However, the capacity varies from very
small pot with a capacity of few litres for cooking food, to
medium-sized applications like dyeing or large-scale cooking
(with vessels of 100200-litre capacities) to very large-sized
pots like MgCl2 production (having 810 feet diameter)
Dryers
This is another low temperature (temperature requirement

110130 C) application, which is used to remove moisture
(drying process) from a variety of farm products, food and
spices (like rubber, tea, coffee, cardamom, tobacco, food, and
chemical products).
Boilers
In SMiEs, low-pressure steam is used in several chemical process

industries, agro-processing industries, dairy industries, textile
industries, and even tiny scales in tyre retreading, and cooking.
Here too, since most of the steam boilers in SMiEs are non-IBR
(Indian Boiler Regulation) type, they operate with low-steam
pressures and, therefore, temperatures. However, fuelwood (in
many cases, furnace oil, diesel or LPG [liquefied petroleum gas]
is also used as fuel) input to boiler varies from few kg/h to
quintals/h depending on tiny to large-sized boilers.
High
temperature
applications
Kilns
Various types of kilns are used for baking of tiles, bricks, and
potteries or for heat treatment purpose (such as hardening
and annealing). Normal temperature requirements for such
applications are in the medium range (800950 C).
Furnaces
This application requires high temperature range (15001600 C)

for melting metals in foundries, glass-melting industries, and so
on. Relatively lower temperatures are required (~6501000 C) in
furnaces for alloys in non-ferrous or scrap melting-reusing (such
as copper, aluminium, lead industries).
In order to meet their energy demand, all industries burn fuel
in one form or the other. As per estimates, about 28% of the
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
enterprises use firewood, 8% of the enterprises use charcoal, and

a large number of enterprises use fossil fuel as the main source of
energy.
Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum-based fuels such as
kerosene and diesel are generally used in urban areas due to their
easy access and difficulty of using biomass due to their smoky
operation. Hence, a large proportion of urban SMiEs depend on
such fossil fuels for energy despite their rising prices.
Gasifier
thermal
systems for
biomass-using
industries
Most of the biomass-consuming industries are located in rural

or peri-urban areas. An estimated 20 million tonnes of
biomass is used in traditional and rural enterprises. Table 1
gives specific fuel consumption in a few selected SMiEs.
Gasifier
thermal
systems for
fossil-fuelusing
industries
With continued rising prices of fossil fuels, coupled with their

scarcity (quota) in the open market, many SMiEs are facing
serious problems in controlling fuel cost and as a result
keeping competitive pricing for existence in the market.
Gasification technology offers them the option to have all
benefits of gaseous fuels using comparatively cheaper solid
biomass fuel. Even some larger units are considering a
switchover to biomass fuel, as there is the possibility of getting
additional income/revenue through CER (certified emission
reduction)/VER (voluntary emission reduction) certificates, as
Table 1 Firewood consumption in industries/enterprises in India
Industry
Specific firewood
consumption (approximate)
Total firewood consumption

per annum (estimated)
Cremations
Tea drying
Large cardamom curing
Small cardamom curing
Silk reeling
Ceramic tiles
Brick making
Rubber sheet smoking
Tobacco leaf curing
Dyeing and fabric
printing of saris
and cloth
Road tarring
Vanaspati ghee
Fish smoking
Lime making
Distilleries
300500 kg per body

12 kg per kg dry tea
710 kg per kg dry cardamom
1416 kg per kg dry cardamom
1725 kg per kg silk
0.5 kg/tile
0.31.5 kg per brick
1 kg (per kg fresh latex)
410 kg per kg cured tobacco
0.2 kg per m of cloth
45 MT
0.51 MT
0.050.07 MT
0.1 MT
0.15 MT
0.2 MT
9 MT
0.06 MT
0.4 MT
1.87 MT
23 tonne per km
0.67 kg per kg ghee
0.21.6 kg/kg
0.52.0 kg per kg limestone
0.2 kg/litre
0.37 MT
0.63 MT
0.02 MT
100 tonnes
0.6 MT
MT million tonnes
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
biomass is a carbon-neutral renewable form of energy fuels,

unlike polluting fossil fuels.
There is a variety of fuel-fired furnaces that are ideal
candidates for switching over to producer gas from biomass.
Some typical furnaces are described below.
Forging furnaces
There are about 300 forging units spread widely in India. The
forging furnace is used for preheating billets and ingots to
attain a forge temperature maintained at around 1200 C to
1250 C. Forging furnaces use an open fireplace system and
most of the heat is transmitted by radiation. The typical
loading in a forging furnace is 56 tonnes, with the furnace
operating for 1618 hours daily.
Re-rolling mill furnaces
There are over 2000 re-rolling units widely dispersed in the

country. The furnaces may be batch or continuous pusher type
or steel reheating furnace with operating temperatures of
about 9001200 C.
Fired heaters
Direct-fired process heaters provide heat energy directly to an

industrial process without the use of steam or a heat
exchanger to heat fluids or solids. Direct-fired process heaters
exist in a variety of forms to serve a variety of functions.
Examples of industries that use this technology are the food,
textile, paper, printing, chemical, rubber, plywood, and plastic
industries. The food industry uses direct-fired process heaters
to cook soups, fry, and sterilize; the textile industry uses direct
fired process heaters for washing, scouring, and sintering; and
the chemical industry uses direct-fired heaters to heat liquids.
Dryers
Dryers are used in manufacturing processes by various

industries to remove liquid(s) from wet solid. Industries that
use dryers include paper, cardboard, wood and lumber,
textile, ceramic, tobacco, plastic, paint, food, and
pharmaceutical industries. Out of various types, the easiest to
switch over is one with indirect heat transfer as here the
product is not in direct contact with gases.
Kilns
Primarily stone and clay industries use kilns to melt and

heat different substances. Examples are gypsum, vitreous
china-plumbing fixture, brick, and concrete industries. The
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
above-mentioned five industries use kilns specifically designed

for their needs.
Ovens
Ovens are used by the industry for low-temperature (20370 C)

cooking, baking, curing, or to vulcanize (a treatment that
stabilizes and adds elasticity) rubber or plastic. The food industry
uses ovens to bake bread, cookies, crackers, and pretzels, while
the rubber and plastic industries use the lower temperature heat
produced in ovens in the production of tyres, footwear, hosiery,
and rubber belts (for example, fan belts). In general, ovens are
direct fired, in which the heat is generated through combustion
of the fuel. Indirect-fired ovens are used for applications that
may get contaminated with particulate matter that is produced
during combustion.
Small boilers
Small-sized boilers, used in small industries such as food

processing and chemicals, can be retrofitted easily to burn
producer gas. Installation of the gasifier helps in replacing the
oil, coal or burning biomass for raising steam. As gasifiers are
not covered under the IBR, they may be preferred by small
firms, which are not so comfortable with the IBR.
Gasifier
selection,
sizing, and
cost
economics
In India, fixed-grate gasifiers (both downdraft and updraft) are

used for thermal applications. The choice of gasifier and fuel
combination so far is quite mixed and almost all combinations
are being tried, manufactured, and sold in the market by various
manufacturers. However, updraft gasifiers are recommended
where a little more fuel flexibility is required compared to
downdraft gasifier with regard to its size and moisture content.
Updraft gasifiers are normally used when gas is not required to
be carried over long distances and is to be burnt immediately on
production. Also, as mentioned earlier, downdraft gasifiers are
used where clean gas is required (like food processing industry)
and where slight exposure of gas can damage the product
adversely. Downdraft gasifiers are preferred for smaller capacities
up to 1 MWth (megawatt thermal) level and updraft gasifiers
are preferred for large capacities. In remote area applications and
those that require steady and consistent gas output rate for
longer durations (such as drying), natural draft gasifier could be
sized accordingly.
In industries using fossil fuels also, both updraft and
downdraft gasifiers can be used easily. For indirect heat transfers
(which may require frequent cleaning of heat exchangers)
downdraft gasifiers are preferred due to relatively cleaner gas
with less impurities (tar and particulates). Deposition of
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
impurities not only affects heat transfer effectiveness but also

makes maintenance more difficult. Lager gasifiers can be
updraft, especially where gas is to be burnt immediately at higher
temperatures (as burning of gas at temperatures above its
condensation adds to calorific value of gas).
Table 2 gives the fuel cost reduction details using gasifier
system for reducing the fuel consumption in biomass-using
industries, as well as for replacing other prevailing fossil fuels
(like furnace oil, diesel, and LPG) with biomass-using gasifier
systems based on the following assumptions.
P Gas calorific value of 1100 kcal/Nm3
P Specific gas production rate of 2.5 Nm3/kg biomass
P Approximately 60% reduction in heat input rate required
while using gasifier system for replacing traditional biomass
system
P No change in system efficiency while switching from
prevailing fossil fuel use with producer gas obtained
through gasification
In traditional biomass-using industry, the induction of
biomass gasifier can help in reducing fuel consumption by
50%60% in most cases or improve efficiency by more than
100% (double). In traditional fossil-fuel-using industry,
switching over to biomass-based gasifier has major economic
incentive with payback periods of as low as 23 months,
depending on investment and fossil fuel price. Table 3 gives
Table 2 Fuel cost reduction with fuel switching for various fossil fuels*
Fuel
Price
(Rs/kg)
Wood
kg fuel
Wood price
(Rs/kg)
Wood cost
(Rs/kg)
Fuel cost reduction

(%)
Wood
Kerosene
Diesel
LPG
1.5
20
38
25
0.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
7.0
8.0
8.0
33
65
79
68
* Neglecting the small electrical power (0.251hp) required for blower

Table 3 Monetary savings by replacing fossil fuels with biomass gasifier system*
Price (Rs/kg) Hourly reduction in fuel cost (Rs/hr)
Fuel
Wood
Kerosene
Diesel
LPG
1.5
20
38
25
10 kg/hr 20 kg/hr
40 kg/hr
100 kg/hr
10
37
75
43
40
149
300
170
100
371
750
425
20
74
150
85
* Neglecting small electrical power (0.251hp) required for blower
01-Chapter.p65
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
10
hourly monetary savings by gasifiers of various capacities used to

replace biomass as well as different fossil fuels.
Selected case
studies of
TERI gasifier
systems
Silk reeling
units in South
India
Since 1985, TERI has been working on the development of

various biomass gasifier designs (downdraft, updraft, and
natural draft) for both thermal applications, as well as for
decentralized power generation. So far, more than 450 TERI
gasifier systems have been successfully installed in the field
throughout India with cumulative installed capacity of over
14 MWth. This is part of TERIs efforts to initiate a movement
of promoting biomass gasification as a sustainable and ecofriendly option to meet local thermal energy demand in a
decentralized manner to achieve overall and sustainable
development of rural India. A few case studies are presented
below.
India is the second largest raw silk producer, after China,
with annual production of 13 000 tonnes. Most of the silk is
being produced by small units in a few clusters. There are
about 26 000 cottage basins and 35 000 charkha ovens
(registered units) in the country, employing over 2 million
workers. It is estimated that the annual fuel consumption in
this sector alone is about 145 000 tonnes of fuelwood and
170 000 tonnes of loose biomass. The major concerns of the
industry are marginal or low profits due to low productivity
and inefficient cooking system.
After going through important product development steps
such as preliminary energy audit, survey of the sector,
detailed energy audit, development of laboratory prototype,
field testing, evolution of commercial prototype, and
demonstration have been accomplished. In all four levels of
laboratory to field, iterations were carried out to evolve a
marketable product (Mark 1 to Mark 4) as shown in Figure 2.
It was found during field testing that the gasifier-based system
offered benefits beyond fuel saving (more than 50%), such as
improvement in productivity high silk yield and better silk
quality (due to controlled process parameters like water
temperature and level) substantial reduction of pollution,
time saving, labour saving and water conservation, ultimately
leading to better profit margins for the user. The SERI-2000
cocoon-cooking oven (Figure 2), with the gasifier as the
primary component of the system is now being disseminated
and marketed through a marketing network.
01-Chapter.p65
10
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
11
Figure 2 Product development approach to evolving the silk gasifier system
Gasifier-based
dyeing ovens
Dyeing is an important activity in the process of making the

fabric. The fabric is either bleached/dyed either in yarn stage or
in fabric stage. Both bleaching and dyeing are done in hot water
bath, and primary energy in the form of firewood, diesel, and
kerosene is currently being used to meet the process energy
needs. There are several thousand dyeing units operating in
clusters. The major concerns are high energy costs and
deforestation. In units located in densely populated cities, the
pollution caused by burning of firewood is also a major concern.
A gasifier-based dyeing unit has been developed through a
process of prototype development and field testing. Based on
the quantification of benefits (such as more than 50%
fuelwood saving, faster processing rate, and improved working
conditions) during field testing, an economic assessment of
each of the systems developed was made, which showed that
the system pays for itself in less than a year. Two licensed
manufacturers currently market the gasifier-based dyeing
system. A gasifier-based dyeing unit is shown in Figure 3.
01-Chapter.p65
11
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
12
Figure 3 Gasifier-based dyeing oven installed in Bangalore
Wood gas
system for
large
cardamom
curing
India is the largest producer of large cardamom in the world,

with 54% share, followed by Nepal (33%), and Bhutan (13%).
Large cardamom is a major cash crop of Sikkim, with annual
production of over 3500 MT (million tonnes) from a total
cultivated area of 23 500 ha (hectares). More than 85% of the
plantations are very small (with area <2 ha), located in remote
hilly areas. To enable long duration storage and in order to bring
out the aroma, cardamom capsules have to be dried to bring
down their moisture contentfrom 70%80% (w.b.) to below
10% (w.b.). Presently, large cardamom is dried using the
traditional bhatti system. A primitive inefficient smoking
technique (with operating efficiencies of the order of 5%15%) is
used for curing large cardamom by burning huge quantities of
wet wood logs. This results in poor quality of dried large
cardamom.
TERI has developed an advanced and appropriate gasifierbased large cardamom dryer system (Figure 4) to suit local
conditions. The system is made of locally available material and
can be easily transported in remote cardamom plantations and
can be operated without electricity. The system was successfully
field tested in Sikkim through an extensive demonstration
programme. So far, more than 180 systems have been installed in
all the four districts of Sikkim, in collaboration with the state
horticulture department, and in the state of Nagaland and
neighbouring countries of Bhutan and Nepal.
Advantages of TERIs improved gasifier dryer include following.
P More than 60% fuelwood saving is possible with improved
working conditions.
01-Chapter.p65
12
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
13
Figure 4 Wood gasifier system for large cardamom drying installed in Sikkim
P Controlled burning helps to retain more oil (2.5%3% as

against 1.5%1.7% in traditional).
P Clean burning of gaseous fuel results in better quality
volatile oil without burnt smell.
P The natural reddish colour of large cardamom is retained.
The technology upgradation for curing of large cardamom
in Sikkim will definitely improve energy efficiency, thereby
helping in the preservation of the states natural forests. The
improved quality large cardamom will also improve the
income of farmerstrial test marketing of improved quality
large cardamom obtained from the gasifier-based system has
generated an encouraging response in major trading centres of
Delhi, Amritsar, Kanpur, and Lucknow. Indications are that it
may fetch about 10%15% premium initially over
traditionally cured large cardamom. More oil content without
burnt smell could lead to a new industry for large cardamom
by way of extracting its oil.
Gasifier-based
furnace for
magnesium
chloride
production
An updraft gasifier system of 500 kWth (kilowatt thermal)

capacity was developed for a large wood-fired furnace used to
produce magnesium chloride flakes. PMW (Pioneer Magnesia
Works), located at Kharagoda in the Rann of Kachchh in
Gujarat, produces about 25 tonnes of magnesium chloride per
day. For the process heat requirement, PMW consumes about
12 tonnes of firewood per day (about 6 tonnes per furnace per
day). A gasifier-based furnace was designed and installed by
TERI (Figure 5) to reduce firewood consumption in the
industry and to provide a clean environment. The entire cost
01-Chapter.p65
13
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
14
Figure 5 An updraft gasifier-based furnace for magnesium chloride
was borne by PMW without any subsidy. With fuel saving of

more than 55%, the payback period of the system works out to
less than one year. The gasifier-based furnace upgraded the
100-year-old technology and reduced firewood consumption
by about 55%60%.
An updraft
gasifier system
for green brick
drying
Green bricks are required to be air-dried (sometimes sundried in later stages) to reduce moisture content from about
25% (immediately after moulding) to about 4%5% (just
before loading them in brick kiln). After moulding, bricks are
stacked closely for 12 weeks and are then air-dried in a
honeycomb structure arrangement for 34 weeks. Totally, it
takes about 45 days (34 days less if sun-dried in later stage)
to dry the bricks completely before loading them in the brick
kiln. This calls for large inventory of green bricks and large
shed areas for drying. In regions like Kerala, where it remains
cloudy for several months, green brick drying becomes very
difficult. This is a major bottleneck in continuing brick
production when brick prices are high.
In the traditional artificial drying method being followed
presently, green bricks are stacked in a cylindrical bin
structure (89 feet in diameter and 67 feet in height) and
wood logs are burnt inside. About 1500 bricks are stacked in
one bin. About 700800 kg wood logs are consumed in about
23 days time. It is a very inefficient method of drying, as
most of the heat is lost through the large fuel port opening
(2 ft 3 ft) and due to low residence time of gas as it passes
through openings of the honeycomb structure. It also results
in non-uniform drying; bricks in the lower portion get overdried, while those in upper portion remain under-dried.
01-Chapter.p65
14
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
15
(b)
(a)
Figure 6 (a) An updraft gasifier operating on natural draft mode for green
brick drying installed in Kerala (b) Flame arrestor/heat distributor
Since most of the brick kilns are located along the river and in
unelectrified locations, an updraft gasifier system was developed,
which operates on natural draft mode (Figure 6).
A multiple producer gas burner operating under natural
draft mode was developed to achieve uniform drying of bricks.
The major benefits of gasifier systems include (a) substantial
reduction in fuelwood consumption (from 700800 kg to
250300 kg for drying about 2000 bricks in one batch);
(b) reduction in drying time (from 3648 hours to 1824
hours); (c) low green brick inventory requirement needing less
shed area for drying; and (d) improved working conditions (no
smoke).
Gasifier
system for
crumb block
rubber drying
units in Kerala
India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber in the

world, after Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia. In recent
years, the Indian rubber industry has been facing stiff
competition due to cheap import of raw natural rubber from
these countries. The major fuel used for providing thermal
energy for drying crumb rubber in tunnel dryers is electricity
and/or diesel. In order to give a boost to the rubber industry
in Kerala, electricity is supplied to these tunnel dryers at a
highly subsidized rate. However, as the subsidy is being
reduced now, the fuel cost is increasing. Therefore, there is an
urgent need to find an alternative option to provide thermal
energy required at affordable rate and in a sustainable
manner. In order to try out such an option, TERI installed a
downdraft gasifier system of 100 kg/h capacity near Cochin
(Figure 7).
01-Chapter.p65
15
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
16
(a)
(b)
Figure 7 Gasifier system for crumb rubber drying units in Kerala (a) Gasifier
unit (b) Crumb rubber trolleys
The field performance monitoring of the unit revealed that

the system was able provide sufficient heat to dry natural
rubber in the dryer, which was earlier consuming about
30 litres of diesel per hour, giving payback period of less than
a year.
Gasifier system for large-scale cooking
For the thermal application of updraft gasifier system for

large-scale cooking, a system was designed for cooking meals
for about 300 students and installed at Kankia residential
tribal school run by Gram Vikas for tribal students in Ganjam
district, Orissa (Figure 8). The system was operated both with
blower under forced draft mode and without blower under
natural draft mode. The fuel consumption data and time
required for cooking using gasifier system (both with and
(a)
(b)
Figure 8 Gasifier system for large-scale cooking installed in a residential school

(a) Food being prepared (b) Updraft gasifier operating on natural draft mode
01-Chapter.p65
16
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
17
Table 4 Summary of performance of gasifier-based cooking system at Kankia

Fuel consumption (kg)
Cooking time (hours)
Traditional
Gasifier system
Traditional Gasifier system
Parameter
stove
With blower Without blower
stove
With blower
Without blower
Breakfast
Upma: 6 kg
4555
1519
1823
2.02.5
1.01.25
1.752.25
1519
2327
2023
2528
2.02.5
2.53.0
1.01.25
1.51.75
1.502.00
2.503.00
90109
98123
7.08.5
4.04.75
6.757.75
Lunch/dinner
Rice: 40 kg 4560
Dalma: 6 kg 6575
dal+10 kg
vegetables
Total (daily) 265325
without blower) are summarized in Table 4, along with a

comparison with traditional stove.
It is clear from Table 4 that the daily fuel consumption can
be brought down to about 100 kg from the present level of
300 kg, resulting in fuel savings of more than 60%. With the
use of forced draft (with small 0.1 hp blower) mode of
operation, there is also substantial (more than 60%) saving in
cooking time. The system can be operated without blower also
with similar fuel-saving potential within the present cooking
time requirement. This makes the system quite suitable for
rural applications, where it can be used even if electricity is
not available.
Even though biomass gasifier technology has a number of
benefits, it is not well accepted by users as they have doubts
about its reliable and continuous performance. Potential
target communities for gasifier application are rural agrobased industries that are located in interior parts. Therefore,
there is resistance in investing large sums on this relatively
new and unknown technology. The main lesson learnt while
developing the gasifier system is that an acceptable product in
a traditional rural small-scale industry sector like silk can
only evolve through inputs from various stakeholders like
users, silk experts, engineering consultants, and
manufacturers with sustained support from funding agencies.
The biomass gasifier technology goes beyond fuel saving to
achieve productivity improvement, improvement in product
quality, substantial reduction of pollution, saving of time and
money, and water conservation, ultimately leading to better
profit margins for the end-user.
Conclusion
01-Chapter.p65
17
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
18
Appropriate coupling of energy production programmes

with biomass production programmes is probably one of the
few potential schemes with tremendous environmental and
social benefits. Such close coupling could provide the
requisite economic reason for afforestation activities to be
commercial and successful. Positive environmental impacts of
large-scale afforestation are too well known to require mention
here. Large-scale employment generation for relatively weaker
sections of the society can also be ensured through such
programmes.
Thus, it can be concluded that in order to achieve overall
sustainable development of rural areas, there is a need to
position available local resource of biomass to fuel the engine
of growth. The essential wheels that can take the engine of
growth towards future sustainable development are
(a) improving the supply base of biomass fuel through
implementation of effective afforestation programmes,
improvement in the productivity of biomass production, and
its better management; (b) conserving the available biomass
by reducing wastage and increasing efficiency of its utilization;
(c) adopting new appropriate technologies to convert biomass
into a more user-friendly fuel, to expand the horizon of its
application, and to use it more efficiently.
01-Chapter.p65
18
118
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Benefits of an optimally designed divided

blast cupola results from an actual case in
Indian foundries
Chapter 2
Abhishek Nath and Prosanto Pal, T E R I
Poorly designed cupolas lead to high consumption of coke,

thus increasing input costs of melting. Most Indian
foundries use conventional cupolascupolas having a single
row of tuyeres. Further, several design versions of cupolas
that split or divide the blast air to the furnace are also in
use. Dividing the blast air has benefits in terms of energy
savings. However, to realize the full benefits of energy
efficiency, optimal design of the divided blast system is
crucial.
In order to popularize the correct design of the DBC
(divided blast cupola) among Indian foundries, TERI set up
a demonstration DBC at a foundry unit in Howrah in 1998.
The demonstration foundry was nominated by the IFA
(Indian Foundry Association). The DBC design was
provided by British foundry experts from the BCIRA
(British Cast Iron Research Association). The DBC is
equipped with skip-bucket charger and a high-efficiency
pollution control system. The coke consumption in the DBC
was reduced by 35% in comparison to the sub-optimal
designed DBC being operated by the foundry unit earlier.
Subsequently, TERI has been providing the design of DBC
and commissioning assistance to several foundry units in
different foundry clusters in India.
This paper presents the impacts of the DBC designed by
TERI operating in a foundry unit in Rajkot. The foundry
not only achieved better energy efficiency but was also able
to use the better temperature and the consistent chemistry
of the molten metal obtained in the furnace to improve the
casting quality and reduce rejections.
Abstract
TERI has been working with small-scale foundry units since

1994, with the support of SDC (Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation), with the objective of
enhancing their energy efficiency and environmental
performance. This was done by working at the unit level and
providing technological inputs to lower GHG (greenhouse
gas) emissions and local pollutants like particulates.
Background
02-Chapter.p65
19
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
20
A macro analysis of 41 small-scale industries carried out by

TERI during 199294 had revealed that the casting and
forging units accounted for approximately 44% of the energy
usage. Since the major energy usage in any grey iron foundry
is the in the melting furnace, mainly the cupola, this became
the prime target of intervention.
TERI has been working with industry institutions, mainly the
IFA (Indian Foundry Association) and the IIF (Institute of
Indian Foundrymen), since the beginning of the project. In 1998,
a demonstration plant was designed and commissioned at a
foundry unit nominated by the IFA at Howrah to showcase an
optimally designed DBC. The conditions at Howrah also
demanded that the project should set up a PCS (pollution control
system) for the benefit of the industry. TERI worked in
partnership with the ABB (Asea Brown Boveri) to design a
venturi-scrubber-based pollution control system, which would
meet with certainty, even the most stringent pollution control
norms of 150 mg/Nm3 (normal cubic metre) for SPM (suspended
particulate matter) prevailing for cupolas melting more than
3 tonnes of metal per hour. The demonstration plant resulted in
charge coke savings of 35% in comparison to the sub-optimally
designed DBC being operated in the foundry. The PCS delivered
SPM levels much below the emission norm of 150 mg/Nm3.
Features of
the DBC
technology
DBC is a proven technology for improving the energy

performance at a modest investment. As is evident from its
name, a DBC supplies blast air to the cupola furnace at two
levels through a double row of tuyeres. The advantages of a
DBC include as follows.
P Higher metal tapping temperature
P Lower charge coke consumption
P Better carbon pick-up
TERI customizes the design of the DBC to suit the specific
requirements of the individual foundry unit. Some salient
features of TERIs design are the following.
P Optimum selection of blower specifications (quantity and
pressure)
P Optimum ratio of the air delivered to the top and bottom
tuyeres
P Minimum pressure drop and turbulence of the combustion
air
P Separate wind belts for top and bottom tuyeres
P Correct tuyere area, tuyere number and distance between
the two rows of tuyeres
P Optimum well capacity
02-Chapter.p65
20
1924
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
21
P Higher stack height

P Mechanical charging system
P Better material specifications
TERI has provided designs for setting up a number of DBCs
all over India. Apart from the demonstration project in
Howrah, there are replication projects at Hoogly (West
Bengal), Nagpur (Maharashtra), Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu),
Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh), Mangalore (Karnataka), and
Rajkot (Gujarat).
The following sections describe in detail the achievement of
the project at Shining Engineers and Founders plant in
Rajkot.
Replication
plants
Shining Engineers and Founders is a grey iron-casting unit at

Rajkot in Gujarat. The unit makes electric motor bodies.
Before going in for the TERI-designed DBC, the unit had a
Rajkot design cupola for melting iron. This cupola had two
rows (sometimes even three) for discharging air into the
furnace. The cupola had a common wind chamber.
The charge coke usage in the cupola was 9.1%, which
correspond to a metal-to-coke ratio of 11:1. The temperature
was obtained in the range 13771477 C. The silicon loss was
about 30%. The melting rate for the 27-inch ID (inner
diameter) cupola was 3.26 TPH (tonnes per hour).
The charge coke usage in the cupola was 7.8%, which
corresponds to a metal-to-coke ratio of 13:1. The higher
metal-to-coke ratio is represented graphically in Figure 1.
Replication
project
Shining
Engineers and
Founders,
Rajkot
Figure 1 Metal melting capacity of 1 kg of coke (metal-to-coke ratio)
02-Chapter.p65
21
1924
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
22
The temperature obtained was in the range of

14351462 oC. The consistency of the temperature has a role
in bringing down the rate of rejection due to high/low pouring
temperature. The consistent range of temperature obtained is
shown in Figure 2.
The silicon loss also reduced from close to 30% to about
7% resulting in significant saving of ferro-silicon.
The melting rate for the 24-inch ID cupola was 3.25 TPH.
This implies an increase in the melting rate (if taken per unit
area) by about 25% (Figure 3).
Benefits of the
DBC
technology
Improved performance of the melting operations in the

foundry translates into monetary savings. Savings from the
technology adoption were worked out on the basis of the
performance of the original cupola of the conventional
(Rajkot) design and that of the TERI-designed cupola. They
Figure 2 Tapping temperature range
Figure 3 Melting rate per unit area of the furnace
02-Chapter.p65
22
1924
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
23
Table 1 Actual cost savings per tonne of melt output
Consumption
before, %
of metallics
charged
(A) Savings in materials + energy
Coke usage
9.1%
Ferro-silicon
0.21%
Ferro-manganese
0.13%
Total (material
+ energy)
Less: Additional
power consumption
in blower
Net savings (material
+ energy)
Consumption
after, % of
metallics
charged
Savings
after
implementation of DBC
Approx. unit
cost at
Rajkot
(Rs/tonne)
7.4%
Nil
Nil
30%
100%
100%
11 000
42 000
60 000
Monetary
savings
(Rs/tonne
of molten
metal )
187
92
78
357
(26)
331
(B) Reduced rejects

Savings per 1%
reduction in rejects
Reject levels:
before 7%,
after 5%
Total savings (2% reduction in rejects)
225
450
(C) Total cost savings (A+B)
781
DBC divided blast cupola
are presented in Table 1. In addition to the coke savings, other

savings such as reduction in ferro-alloy usage and lower
rejection rates have also been worked out.
The savings thus are approximately of the order of Rs 800
per tonne. In a typical foundry unit, say, one that produces
250 tonnes of metal in a month, the monthly savings would
amount to Rs 200 000. The capital cost of a DBC, inclusive of
civil work, platforms, bucket charging system, and so on, is
about Rs 800 000. The capital investment on a new DBC
usually pays back within a year, depending on the amount of
metal melted in the foundry unit.
Encouraged by the success of the DBC, Shining has converted
their other cupolas to divided blast operation as well. Other units
in the cluster now are also implementing the technology. Two
new DBCs were commissioned at Rajkot in January 2006. There
is growing interest not only among the larger players in the
Conclusion
02-Chapter.p65
23
1924
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
24
sector but also among smaller players, who melt comparatively

smaller quantities.
The results obtained at Shining and elsewhere in India
show that there is a huge potential for energy saving and GHG
reduction in conventional cupolas being operated by other
foundry units operating in the small-scale sector in India.
TERI is willing to extend technical support to other foundry
units that may be interested in upgrading their cupola plant
and make them more energy efficient.
Acknowledgements
The technical assistance provided by TERI to the foundry unit

was supported by SDC, New Delhi, as part of the foundry
sector activities in a larger initiative called the CoSMiLE
(Competence Network for Small and Micro Learning
Enterprises).
The activities aim to provide small-scale foundry the
opportunity to benefit from affordable, environment-friendly
technologies that save energy and reduce pollution. Apart
from disseminating cleaner technologies such as the DBC and
PCS among foundry units, the project is also promoting
techno-social integration and knowledge management among
the small-scale foundry units in India.
02-Chapter.p65
24
1924
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Improving the performance of Kolar and

Malur brick clusters in Karnataka
Chapter 3
N Vasudevan, Yabbati Nagaraju, Sachin Kumar, Rakesh Johri, TER I
Kolar is located about 70 km from Bangalore city. It is one of

the important brick clusters surrounding Bangalore, others
being Malur and Anekal. With a
lot of construction activities in and
around Bangalore, there is great
demand for bricks, which is being
met by these clusters. Apart from
these, a few alternative building
materials such as concrete blocks
are also now being used in the
construction.
There are more than 400 brick
kilns operating in the Kolar cluster.
Brick-making involves moulding,
drying, storing, and firing
(Figure 1). Manual moulding is
practised widely in the cluster, and
the moulding community is
generally based in Dharmapuri and
Salem in Tamil Nadu. The region
generally experiences a lot of
intermittent rain, thus it is almost
mandatory for all the units to adopt
Figure 1 Brick-making process
sheds for drying and storing. The
dry bricks are manually stacked in
kilns for firing. Downdraught kilns are used for firing of bricks.
These kilns are of intermittent type. Generally, each unit has a
minimum of two downdraught kiln with a common chimney so
that each kiln can be operated alternately.
Abstract
TERI started interactions with brick industries in the Kolar

region along with Damle Clay Structurals Limited in 2004,
under a project being supported by SDC (Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation). Interaction in the field led to
identification of the following issues relevant to the Kolar
brick industries.
Issues
related to the
brick sector
03-Chapter.p65
25
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
26
Improving the performance of Kolar and Malur brick clusters in Karnataka
Improving operations of downdraught kilns

Enhancing drying of green bricks
Better technological options for brick making
Addressing these issues was believed to be crucial for
moving towards improved performance of the cluster. With
this in view, TERI attempted to introduce changes in the
cluster through demonstration
Options to
improve
performance
of
downdraught
brick kilns
In downdraught kilns
(Figure 24), dry bricks are
stacked, fired, cooled, and
taken out. These kilns are
generally constructed using
red bricks, with the inner
layer being refractory bricks.
The thickness of the wall is
about 5 feet. The total time
required for one cycle of
loading green bricks to
Figure 2 A downdraught kiln
cooling of fired bricks is
about seven days. The
production capacity of
downdraught kilns is
20 00040 000 bricks per
batch operation. There are
about 12 fireboxes in a
downdraught kiln, with six
fireboxes located on each
side. Figure 5 shows the
sketch of a downdraught
kiln.
Figure 3 Existing firing practices in
downdraught kiln
Dry bricks are stacked in
the downdraught kilns.
Generally, no gap is provided between
the bricks and the wall of the kiln. The
openings are sealed off and firing is
initiated. Eucalyptus branches and
firewood are used as fuels for firing of
bricks. Fuel is fed from all fireboxes
from both sides; firing is continued till
a temperature of about 500 oC is
attained. The operator uses his
experience to judge the temperature by
Figure 4 Stack emissions
observing the colour of bricks.
from a downdraught kiln
Temperature monitoring is not in
03-Chapter.p65
26
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
27
Figure 5 Sketch of a downdraught kiln
practice in the cluster. Upon reaching this temperature, fireboxes

located on one side of the kiln are completely shut off; fuel
feeding is continued with fireboxes on the other side. Continuous
feeding of fuel without monitoring temperatures results in
deficiency in availability of combustion air, causing formation of
unburnt bricks and smoke. The key operating parameters in a
downdraught kiln are shown in Table 1.
Assumptions
P Gross calorific value of wood = 2000 kcal (kilocalorie)/kg

P Gross calorific value of eucalyptus branches = 4466 kcal/kg
(18.7 MJ [megajoules]/kg);
P Cost of eucalyptus branch/firewood = Rs 1200 per tonne
Table 1 Key operating parameters of existing downdraught kiln
Parameter
Details
Production
Weight of brick (average)
Cycle period
32 500 bricks per cycle

3.6 kg
Total: 79 days
Heating: 11 days
Stacking, cooling, and unloading: 6 7 days
Fuel consumption per production cycle 17.8 tonnes per cycle
Specific energy consumption*
2.8 MJ/kg fired brick
Saleable bricks
90%93%
Total fuel cost
Rs 21 360 per cycle
MJ megajoule
*Specific energy consumption is the energy required to fire 1 kg of bricks
Source Based on actual monitoring carried out by TERI at Bagavathi Brick Industry,
Malur
03-Chapter.p65
27
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
28
Detailed
energy audit
Improving the
operating practices
in a downdraught
Result of improved practices
kiln was
P Fuel savings of up to 20%
demonstrated in
P Reduction in firing cycle:
one of the units in
23 hours
the Kolar cluster,
P Reduction in the number of
which involved the
over-burnt and under-burnt
following.
bricks
P Quantification
of various inputs
such as weight
of bricks and fuel consumption before firing and after firing
P Adoption of uniform fuel-feeding pattern depending on
temperature requirements to enable uniform distribution of
heat and highest possible heat transfer
P Continuous monitoring of temperatures of firing zone (in
few selected locations) and flue gas temperature using
thermocouples
Adoption of BOP (best operating practices) helped in
saving fuel (energy) consumption, up to the extent of 20%,
improving product quality and reducing heat losses. The
following observations were made while demonstrating the
best operating practices in downdraught kilns (Table 2).
Options for
best operating
practices in
downdraught
kiln
Based on the demonstration carried out in one of the brick

kiln units in Malur, the following operating practices have
been evolved, in order to improve the operating performance
of downdraught kilns and achieve fuel savings.
Leave gap between bricks and kiln wall
A gap of about 100 mm must be provided between bricks kept

for firing and the wall of the downdraught kiln. This would
enable the fire to travel without obstruction and improve
uniform distribution of heat between various sections of the
Table 2 Improved operating parameters with best operating practices
Parameters
Results
Fuel consumption per production cycle

Temperature of fired bricks
Specific energy consumption
Saleable bricks
Fuel savings
15.8 tonnes
800850 oC
7.4 MJ/kg fired bricks
95%98%
20%
MJ megajoule
03-Chapter.p65
28
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
29
kiln. Uniform distribution of heat would reduce over-firing or

under-firing of bricks or formation of black cores.
Operate fireboxes and damper-based on requirements
Upon initiating firing in a

downdraught kiln, it is
necessary to increase the
temperature to release
water from brick body
and soak at temperatures
based on composition of
soil used to complete
chemical reactions. To
enable this, it is
recommended to install
thermocouples to monitor
the temperature of the
kiln inside (Figure 6).
Operation up to 500 oC
Initial heating up to
500 oC is done gradually.
This means measured
quantity of fuel must be
fed at constant rate for
removal of mechanically
Figure 6 Existing firing practices in
held water and then
downdraught kiln
chemically held water.
Dampers must be open to
aid this process. Fuel feeding is done through half of the
fireboxes, and the remaining half must be kept closed until a
temperature of 500 oC is reached. For example if the kiln has 12
fireboxes, six fireboxes must be used. It is also recommended that
alternate fireboxes must be used during this phase.
Operation from 500 oC onwards
With the removal of chemically held water, the firing rate is
increased. Fuel feeding must be continued from all fireboxes
on both sides of the kiln. Damper openings must be reduced
to retain heat inside and temperature inside the kiln for
maximizing heat transfer to the bricks. During this stage,
flue gas heat losses are also reduced due to reduced air flow.
The firing temperature of bricks in the Kolar region is about
800850 oC. Firing must be continued from all sides to enable
soaking of bricks for about 3 hours in the same temperature
range. Firing is stopped at this point and all fireboxes are
03-Chapter.p65
29
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
30
Figure 7 Typical temperature profile in downdraught kiln
closed. Figure 7 shows a typical temperature profile in a

downdraught kiln in the Kolar cluster.
Enhancing drying of green bricks

Freshly moulded bricks contain lot of water, which needs to be
removed to reach leather-hard conditions. This is required to
ensure that no deformation of shape takes place while handling
as well as no breakage during heating. Typical conditions of
bricks in the Kolar cluster show about 17% reduction in weight
due to moisture removed from green bricks (Table 3).
Existing drying
cycle in Kolar/
Malur cluster
The total duration for complete drying of bricks is 825 days

depending on climatic conditions, starting from green brick
moulding to feeding inside the kiln for firing (Table 4). The
time required for drying increases during monsoon season.
Table 3 Weight of bricks in different stages
Stage of bricks
Weight
Freshly moulded bricks (green bricks)

Dry bricks
Fired bricks
% weight reduction after drying
% weight reduction after firing
4.54 kg
3.76 kg
3.58 kg
17.3%
4.6%
Table 4 Days required for drying of bricks in different seasons

Season
Days required for drying of bricks
Summer
Rainy
Winter
610
2025
1518
03-Chapter.p65
30
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
31
Needs and options for brick-drying process

The long time required for drying indicates requirements of
large sheds and green brick inventory at kiln site. Use of
separate dryers to remove moisture from green bricks would
greatly help in reducing the duration for brick drying. Since
these dryers are separate systems and use additional fuels to
dry green bricks, they are known as artificial dryers. These
artificial dryers would help in the following ways.
P Reducing duration required for green brick drying
P Enhancing productivity of the unit
P Reducing green brick inventory
However, adoption of artificial drying would require

additional investments. The use of additional fuel would also
increase the overall operating costs of the unit. Depending on
the scale of operation, individual units may choose any one of
the methods for their benefits. Figure 8 illustrates the use of
dryer in a brick kiln.
Artificial drying
Artificial drying enhances the availability of moisture-free dry

bricks for firing in the kiln. A number of dryers are available
commercially, and the level of sophistication dictates the
investment requirements. Most of the dryers also require
power (electricity connection/diesel generating sets) for
operating blowers/fans and/or moving platform. Nonavailability of quality power (proper voltage level) may also be
a constraint for the brick kiln units, which are generally
located in rural areas. Figure 8 shows that the dryer will be
used for removal of moisture from bricks before being loaded
inside the kiln. The following types of artificial dryers are
available in the market.
Figure 8 Use of dryer in a brick kiln
03-Chapter.p65
31
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
32
P
P
P
P
P
Hot floor dryer

Tunnel dryer
Waste heat dryer
Chamber dryer
Heap dryer
The efficiency level of the hot floor dryer is very poor

compared to other
systems, and hence not
preferable. Investment
requirements for the
tunnel dryer are quite
high for the level of
brick production
followed in Karnataka.
The waste heat
recovery system also
may not be suitable as
Figure 9 Artificial stack dryer being tried by
it would require
an entrepreneur at Malur
continuous source of
flue gases for supply of
waste heat, which is not generally available in a brick kiln
unit.
Heap/stack drying is similar to clamp firing. Bricks are
stacked and heated with fuel fired from the sides. Figure 9
shows some trials conducted by one of the brick kiln units in
Malur. However, heap drying has some disadvantages.
P Low thermal efficiencymore fuel required for drying
P Non-uniform heating of bricks
Chamber dryers are intermittent drying systems following
the batch process. This is suitable for a medium-sized brick kiln
unit. Approximate investments for a chamber dryer for a
capacity of 1200 bricks per batch are Rs 350 000. The total
cycle time for the drying process in a chamber dryer is
50 hours.
Improved natural drying practices
Brick kiln units in Kolar and Malur extensively use sheds for
both drying as well as storing of bricks. Figure 10 shows a
typical shed used in a brick kiln unit. A close look at the
sheds used in the cluster indicates scope for improvements in
the drying process. TERI demonstrated the benefits of
adoption of improved drying sheds in one of the brick kiln
units at Malur.
03-Chapter.p65
32
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
33
Figure 10 Drying sheds used in Kolar/Malur brick kiln units
Direction of sheds
Drying sheds are located in the northsouth, as well as in the
eastwest direction, depending on the convenience of the unit.
These sheds must be relocated mainly in the eastwest
direction, to match with the direction of wind flow, which
would improve the drying process.
Distance between adjacent sheds
Most of the drying sheds inside a brick kiln unit are built
close to each other with very little gap in between them.
Closely located sheds reduce the rate of heat transfer. In each
brick kiln unit, a space of about 5 feet must be left between
the adjacent sheds, which would help in improving convection
and hence removal of moisture.
Enhancing solar heating with translucent/glass tiles
The sheds of brick kiln units in Kolar/Malur are constructed
with clay tiles. These tiles do not allow sunlight to pass
through. It is recommended that at least 3%5% of existing
tiles in the sheds must be replaced with translucent tiles,
which would allow sunlight to pass through and help in
speeding the drying process. These glass tiles must also be
staggered (say, in a zigzag pattern) to ensure availability of
heat across different sections of the shed.
Provision of hoods in roof
None of the sheds in Kolar is provided with exhaust system at

the roof, which would induce draught and circulation of fresh
air inside the shed. The existing roof structure must be fitted
with hoods for removing moist air and allow flow of fresh air
inside.
03-Chapter.p65
33
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
34
Incorporation of changes in the sheds is expected to

enhance the drying rate by about 30%35%. Figure 11 shows
a sketch of an improved drying shed. These modifications
would require a marginal investment of about Rs 25 000 per
shed of storing capacity of 30 000 bricks.
Use of
additives to
improve
strength of
green bricks
Trials were conducted by TERI for use of additives, mainly

sodium silicate in green brick-making in one of the brick kiln
units in Malur. It was observed that particularly the number
of handlings of green bricks was more in case of VSBK
(vertical shaft brick kiln) as compared to traditional
downdraught kilns. Therefore, the green bricks must have
enough strength which otherwise leads to more rejections
(10%15%) due to chipping of edges and warping of bricks.
In one of the brick kiln units, 2% sodium silicate (commercial
grade) was added to the water and mixed with the body
homogeneously. Trials conducted at the brick kiln unit at
Malur led to the following observations.
P Perfect brick shape with no distortion
P Uniform surface finishing, including edges (chipping
reduced from 10% to 1%)
P Marginal improvement in the drying (to the extent of 3%)
The use of additives was found to be very useful for the
brick industry, and this must be adopted to improve the
quality and strength of green bricks.
Figure 11 Improved drying sheds
03-Chapter.p65
34
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
35
New
technologies
VSBK
TERI introduced the VSBK which is more energy efficient

and environment friendly in Kolar/Malur in 2005 (Figures
12 and 13). The specific energy consumption of the VSBK was
the lowest among all types of brick kilns.
The VSBKs in Kolar were operated for a brief period and
the rejection rate was observed to be higher. The
modifications described below were incorporated in the VSBK
to reduce rejections. Figure 14 presents the comparison of
specific energy consumption of different brick-firing
technologies.
Changes in
initial firing
Earlier, the initial heating of this kiln was being done by

loading with green bricks, which resulted in over-firing of
initial batches. In the modified operation, the initial firing is
done using firewood without bricks loaded in the kiln. Upon
reaching the required temperature, brick loading must be
done, which would help in reducing rejections. Experiment on
Figure 12 VSBK in Kolar
Figure 13 VSBK in Malur
Figure 14 Comparison of specific energy consumption of different brick-firing

technologies
03-Chapter.p65
35
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
36
reduction in initial charging of coal (from 20 kg to 16 kg) has

also yielded better results and helped in reducing of overburning of bricks.
Maintaining sufficient spacing between kiln wall and brick column
The gap between the kiln wall and the brick column inside the
shaft was slightly increased and uniformly maintained. This
prevents falling of bricks, which otherwise would lead to kiln
stoppage and restarting. This problem has now been totally
eliminated.
Future
directions for
the Malur/
Kolar brick
industry
Production of resourceefficient products such as

perforated bricks, hollow
blocks, and fly ash bricks,
and adoption by the market
will help in enhancing
energy efficiency,
environmental
improvements, soil
degradation and
profitability of the brick
Figure 15 Brick extrusion machines
enterprises. This would
require
incorporation of
appropriate
equipment and
systems like
extrusion machines
and a better
understanding of
the soil available
locally (Figure 15).
For large-scale
brick production,
adoption of tunnel
kiln technology will
be an appropriate
option, which would
also help in
Figure 16 Tunnel kiln for brick firing
enhancing the
productivity and
yield (Figure 16).
03-Chapter.p65
36
2536
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Air pollution issues in a small- and

medium-scale industry
Chapter 4
Dhenuka Srinivasan, TERI-SRC
Small- and medium-scale industries contribute sizably to the

Indian economy and also in terms of generating employment
opportunities. Small-scale industries have been defined as
units that have an investment in plant and machinery up to
Rs 10 million. Within this category there are huge differences,
and many of the small-scale industries operate on very little
initial investment. They are part of the unorganized, informal
clusters that have resource and financial constraints. Some of
the very small units are informal in nature and these do not
come under any stringent legislation/legal ambit in terms of
their operations.
The puffed rice cluster is one such small and informal
industry. Puffed rice is a popular snack in India and its
production is concentrated in small units located across
Karnataka. The puffed rice units have very little capital
investments as start-up and use low-cost and locally available
biomass sources for energy. These fuels are used in open ovens
to produce large amounts of heat required for puffing. These
units produce high levels of indoor pollution and also have
hazardous work environments exposing workers to high levels
of indoor pollutants, hazards, and unsafe environment.
In an attempt to quantify the level of pollution in these
units, an environmental monitoring exercise to study the
presence of particulate matter was undertaken in a small
sample size of select units of puffed rice as well as select
neighbouring households in Davangere, Karnataka. The
results of the study showed very high levels of particulates in
the units, as well as in the neighbouring households, thus
posing health hazards for both the workers and the
community around the units.
Abstract
Puffed rice is a popular snack in India and the manufacture of

this food item is predominantly a home-based informal sector.
It is carried out in clusters of units that are spread across the
state of Karnataka, India. It is an informal sector and hence
the initial investment for setting up these units is as low as
Introduction
04-Chapter.p65
37
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
38
Rs 15 000, and these units tend to be crude in nature,

employing simple open ovens. The roasting process demands
high amounts of heat, which is obtained using biomass-based
fuel sources, especially rice barn, sawdust, wood, and even
used automobile tyres.
The puffed rice units in Davangere district in Karnataka
lack basic infrastructure. Due to the poor economic status of
this region, basic environmental health conditions in this
region are appalling. Moreover, there are problems like child
labour, bonded labour, low wages, cramped and unhygienic
work conditions, little or no ventilation in the units, high
levels of heat and agronomic stress to the unit workers, and
high levels of indoor pollution in the units and in ambient air.
Also, the units are under the monopoly of a few rich owners.
Though the level of pollution in these units is visibly high,
thus far there have been no studies to quantify the level and
nature of pollutants. In a pilot phase of the research, as part of
the IDRC (International Development Research Centre) ecohealth theme, a short-term study was funded to TERI to study
the entire cluster in terms of the holistic multidisciplinary
approach of eco-health.
As a part of this study, environmental monitoring of
particulates (PM10) was carried out in a random selection of
10 units from a puffed rice cluster and in 41 households in
and around the selected cluster.
Environmental
monitoring
Environmental monitoring was carried out in a total

of 10 units in the puffed rice cluster and randomly selected
41 households from the neighbouring community. Area-wide
environmental monitoring of RPM (respirable particulate
matter) was carried out in the selected micro-environments
in the units, namely, indoor and ambient. Environmental
monitoring was carried out in three micro environments
in a total of 41 households, namely, in the kitchen, living, and
ambient micro environments. In households where the kitchen
and living rooms were the same, only the kitchen micro
environment was monitored. Ambient levels were
also monitored for a group of households in the same area
(street or lane). For example, one ambient monitoring
measurement was undertaken for a group of 1020
households situated in close proximity. The findings of
environmental monitoring are presented in Table 1.
04-Chapter.p65
38
3741
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
39
Table 1 Environment monitoring: findings

HH or unit
Micro environment Location of the sampler
Duration of sampling
HH
Kitchen
About 1 m distance
from the stove
HH
HH
Living room
Ambient
Cooking area (continuous

24-hour period programmed for a total of
600 minutes, including
all cooking sessions in a
day # )
24 hours
24 hours
Unit
Indoor
Unit
Ambient
Centre of room
Outside the house
(normally, one ambient
measurement for 45 HHs
in the same locality)
About 1 m distance
24 hours
from the stove
Outside the unit
24 hours
HH household
#
Concentration
of PM10 in
the units
The number of cooking sessions varies from household to householdin some,

there are only two cooking sessions (morning and evening).
Summary of the individual concentration levels of particulates

in the 10 units are presented in Table 2. Indoor particulate
levels inside the units were found to be high. The average
indoor concentration in the units was 1006 g (microgram)/m3
(n=10). Indoor air quality standard in the country does not
exist. Ambient levels outside the unit were also high and the
average levels were found to be 510 g/m3 (n=7). This exceeds
the ambient air quality standard for industrial areas, which is
150 g/m3.
Table 2 Unit micro environment average PM10 concentration
PM 10 concentration
Average
Number of samples
Maximum
Minimum
NAAQS industrial area for RSPM
Indoor micro
environment (g/m3)
Ambient micro
environment (g/m3)
1006
n=10
2868
123
510
n=7
1000
137
24 hrs: 150g/m3
PM particulate matter; g/m3 microgram per cubic metre; NAAQS National

Ambient Air Quality Standards; RSPM respirable suspended particulate matter
04-Chapter.p65
39
3741
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
40
Concentration
of PM10 in
the
households
The average concentration of particulates in the households

was found to be 274 g/m3 (n=39) in the kitchen micro
environment (Table 3). In the living room, the levels of
concentration were 275 g/m3 (n=5) and the ambient levels
were found to be 130 g/m3 (n=7).
Table 3 Average PM10 concentrations in the household micro environment*
PM 10 concentration
community
Average
Number of samples
Maximum
Minimum
Initial number of samples
Number of sample values
deleted
NAAQS for residential areas
Kitchen micro
environment
(g/m3)
Living room
Ambient micro
micro environment environment
(g/m3)
(g/m3)
274
(n=39)
1039
43
40
1
275
(n=5)
436
67
6
1
130*
(n=7)
276
19
9
2
24-hour average:
100 g/m3
PM particulate matter; g/m3 microgram per cubic metre; NAAQS National

Ambient Air Quality Standards
*Monitoring during rainy season, hence lower observed values
Comparison of
observed
values with
available
Indian
standards
When we compare the obtained average ambient

concentration levels in the units, which is 130 g/m3, with the
NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) for
residential areas, namely 100 g/m3, the observed levels in the
study were slightly above this standard. However, the sample
size in the pilot study was small and the average levels were
only for a total of 7 values. It should also be noted that it
rained on a few days during the monitoring period, and the
observed levels were low on certain monitoring days. Thus the
levels could have been higher.
Statistical
tests for
correlations
The correlation between variables was checked using

statistical methods. There was no significant difference
between unit indoor and ambient levels. Pearson correlation
was 0.133.
Non-parametric test, namely, Wilcoxon Signed rank test,
was used to check whether indoor and ambient concentration
were similar across the units. The observations from this test
were found not to be similar (Z=0.943, p>0.05). Carl
Pearsons coefficient of correlation was computed to see the
correlation between the kitchen, living, and ambient
concentrations in the households. From the result, it was
04-Chapter.p65
40
3741
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
41
observed that the correlation between kitchen and living

was 0.329; kitchen and ambient was 0.981, and there were
no data points for ambient and living. However, the observed
concentration levels were higher compared to the NAAQS for
residential areas, which is 100g/m3.
Observations
from the pilot
study
The environmental monitoring efforts were concentrated on

quantitative measurement of air pollutants from the puffed
rice cluster. Monitoring was carried out between the rainy
months of September and October in the year 2005. The pilot
study results showed very high levels of particulate
concentration indoors, as well in the ambient air of the puffed
rice units. The levels exceeded the existing ambient air quality
standards. With respect to the households, concentration of
particulates indoor in the kitchen and living micro
environments of the households were also found to be high,
which was essentially due to the use of traditional chulhas and
biomass as fuels for domestic cooking. Comparing the
ambient PM10 near the households, and comparing it with
the Indian NAAQS for residential areas, which is 100 g/m3,
the observed average levels of 130 g/m3 was slightly higher.
However, the sample size in the pilot study was small. When
the correlation between variables was checked, there was no
significant difference between unit indoor and ambient levels.
This study, however, substantiated our initial observation of
the cluster and its environmental conditions in terms of
pollution levels. It was one of the first studies to give
quantitative results of particulates in an SME (small and
medium enterprise) puffed rice cluster.
Like most other small and medium or informal clusters, the
puffed rice cluster requires efficient use of technology and
possible alternative sources of energy. This will reduce air
pollution levels in the units, as well as in the households,
leading to better health and quality of life in the region.
04-Chapter.p65
41
3741
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
42
Techno-social interventions in the puffed

rice sector
Chapter 5
C K Jalajakshi and S N Srinivas, T E R I
Abstract
Introduction
Puffed rice is a popular food item. It is produced in clusters of

small units. It is estimated that there are about 5500 such
units in Karnataka. Some of the major clusters are Davangere,
Hubli, Dharwad, and Belgaum. The fuels used in the furnaces
for boiling, roasting, and puffing include loose biomass
(paddy husk, groundnut shell, sawdust), wood, and used
automobile tyres. The energy efficiency conditions are
extremely negative. The air is black with smoke during
working hours.
TER I, along with partner institutions, initiated activities in
the Hubli and Dharwad clusters for undertaking meaningful
interventions with an objective to address various burning
issues in the puffed rice sector. The specific objectives were
(i) rationalizing energy use through efficient biomass energy
application; (ii) improvements in fuels and furnaces from the
environmental point of view; (iii) improving the economic
conditions of the working population; and (iv) initiation of
social change processes based on capacity building, local
market development, and solidarity moves.
This chapter discusses the various socio-technological
interventions in the puffed rice sector carried out during the
project.
Puffed rice is a popular food item. It is produced in clusters of
small units. It is estimated that there are about 5500 such units
in Karnataka. Some of the major clusters are in Davangere,
Hubli, Dharwad, and Belgaum. The units suffer from poor
hygiene and safety measures, as well as lack of environmental
awareness among the workers and owners. Pollution caused by
the flue gas emission and solid waste (ash) from the ovens is high
in these areas. During most of the day, when work is going on in
the units, the air is filled with black smoke. The fuels used in the
furnaces for boiling, roasting, and puffing include loose biomass
(paddy husk, groundnut shell, sawdust) and used automobile
tyres. The energy efficiency of these fuels is extremely low and
tyre burning releases a lot of carcinogenic substances.
05-Chapter.p65
42
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
43
A large workforce is engaged at the site, including a number

of women and children. Davangere is the biggest cluster in
Karnataka, with about 800 puffed rice manufacturing units,
including 650 units in a single cluster. There are around
80,100 units in Hubli and Dharwad area, respectively, and
around 2025 units in Bangalore/Bangalore rural area. At
present in Bangalore, around 1015 are in operation and the
remaining units have been closed due to pollution.
TERI had initiated work in Karnataka in 2003 under the
TERISDC (Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation) partnership on policy research on promotion
and adoption of cleaner production technologies and has been
working in the clusters of Hubli-Dharwad for techno-social
interventions in the puffed rice sector.
The main objective of the project was to initiate interventions
to address the various social and technological issues in the
puffed rice sector. The following were the specific objectives.
P Understand the livelihood compulsions, worksite issues,
and problems.
P Improve the economic conditions of the working
population.
P Initiate social change processes based on capacity building.
P Rationalize energy use through efficient biomass energy
application.
P Improve furnaces and fuel use to reduce pollution.
Objectives
The project can be divided into three steps.

P Understanding the cluster
P Competence pooling
P Techno-social interventions
Understanding
the cluster
The puffed rice clusters suffer from poverty, poor quality

housing, lack of water and sanitation facilities, and pollution.
The puffed rice owners operate with low profit margins and
the market is controlled by paddy traders. The following
paragraphs describe the situation in these clusters. Figure 1 is
a diagrammatic representation of the conditions.
Poor housing
The housing structure is poor. Bamboo poles split and tied

together form the walls, sometimes wrapped with gunny bags
or plastered with mud. Tin sheets are used to make the roof.
The flooring is not done and is often uneven. Water seeps in
during monsoon. In most clusters, the land does not belong to
05-Chapter.p65
43
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
44
Figure 1 Poverty and its consequences in the puffed rice cluster
the owners of the puffed rice units. Typically, most of these

unit owners/workers are migrants from smaller towns, who
have encroached upon municipal lands over the years. Some
have acquired patta (a document entitling land right) but
others have been less fortunate. In many cases, owners do not
live in the vicinity but make an agreement with workers for
supplying the puffed rice. Hence, most of them hesitate to
make any investment on improvements.
Water and sanitation problems
As the puffed rice units have no legal documents and these

people can hardly influence the authorities for basic facilities,
lack of water and sanitation facilities is a major problem in
these clusters. In one of the clusters, where there are nearly
40 units, there is neither piped water facility nor even a single
borewell. Women are generally assigned the task of collecting
water. They have to go to other neighbourhoods to procure
water. Due to lack of sanitation, the locality is a breeding
ground for pigs, dogs, mosquitoes, and other insects.
Pollution
The air is full of SPM (suspended particulate matter) and inside

the units, it is hot because there is no insulation to the oven or to
the chimneys. Workers get covered with soot. The neighbours are
always complaining, while the authorities object to the pollution.
The units start operating in the early hours of the morning to
avoid the heat and objections from people.
05-Chapter.p65
44
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
45
Lack of schools and health facilities

Most of the workers children do not go to school primarily
because the workers cannot afford to pay the fees. Also,
teenage children are of some help at home and sometimes at
the workplace. Also, there are no schools within the clusters.
Health facilities are minimal as the workers do not come
under the organized sector, in which case they could have
accessed such facilities as the ESI (Employees State
Insurance).
Wages
There are different modalities of payment within the cluster

and in different clusters. One method is payment of daily
wages, in which the unit owner keeps a strict control on the
production, which is the practice in the units in Hubli. The
wages vary for different activities. Puffing of rice fetches the
maximum (Rs 70 per day); the person roasting paddy gets
Rs 50 per day; while the person who salts the rice before it is
puffed gets Rs 30 per day.
Salting of rice is carried out by women. In addition to
salting the rice, the women are expected to fetch about
20 pots of water for paddy soaking. In a day, about two
bags of paddy are processed (each bag of paddy contains
8384 kg). In case of units in Dharwad, where traders act as
middlemen for supply of paddy and market the puffed rice,
the modality of payment differs. A lumpsum of Rs 100 is paid
to process one bag of paddy, which covers all the above
activities, plus feeding fuel. In Dharwad, sawdust is used as
fuel, for which one woman continuously sits in front of the
oven to feed the fuel, whereas in Hubli tyres are used as fuel.
In this case, the person puffing rice or roasting paddy attends
to the process.
Lack of alternative skills
The people in this sector have been engaged in preparing puffed

rice for generations. They have rarely given a thought to learning
any other vocation. This work being strenuous and hazardous,
most workers look old for their age and are unable to work after
the age of about 40. They are neglected in their old age and
many take to begging for survival.
Clusters of puffed rice units were identified in Hubli/Dharwad,
where it was planned to develop a pilot intervention. With the
objective of building partnerships to address the technological
and social issues in the puffed rice sector, TERI collaborated with
two local engineering institutions (BVB College of Engineering
Competence
pooling
05-Chapter.p65
45
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
46
and Technology, Hubli, and SDM College of Engineering and

Technology, Dharwad) and NGOs (Sadhana and Paripoorna
Grammena Abhivrudhi Mahila Seva Sansthe, Dharwad) to work
on technical and social issues in the sector. The objective was to
network with engineering colleges and NGOs and also draw
strength from experts as and when required. The partner teams
were given training on social sensitization.
The NGOs worked on understanding the worksite issues,
social issues, and backward and forward fuel linkages. TERI also
networked with local entrepreneurs to train them on
technologies.
The engineering colleges addressed the technological issues
with a focus on working towards the development of better
techniques and technologies such as improved ovens, with the
objectives of saving fuel, reducing pollution inside the units and
in the cluster, and to act as the technical backup unit with a
focus on Hubli and Dharwad clusters. Some activities
undertaken were (i) conducting energy audit in puffed rice units,
(ii) development of improved puffed rice ovens, (iii) integration
of gasifier in puffed rice cluster in Hubli, and (iv) sampling of air
in the puffed rice unit (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Networking with different institutions
05-Chapter.p65
46
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
47
Techno-social
interventions
Networking with local agencies was one of the main

approaches adopted under the programme. The partnership
with technical institutions for development of technologies for
the puffed rice sector has led to the development of a range of
technologies such as heat recovery units, dust arrestors,
improved furnaces, and gasifier integration for puffed rice
units (Figure 3).
The cost of these technologies varies between Rs 2000 and
Rs 25 000. Local entrepreneurs have been trained in
installation and fabrication of these devices. Devices installed
in the puffed rice clusters are dust arrestors (44), improved
ovens (121), gasifiers (21), and heat recovery units (10). TERI
and BVB College of Engineering and Technology have come
up with a burner design that has solved many of the backpressure issues that the TERI gasifier team was encountering.
Social mobilization efforts involved awareness generation,
exposure visits, and training and capacity building of local
entrepreneurs. Free health camps where organized in the
Hubli and Dharwad clusters and medicines were distributed
free of cost. SHGs (self-help groups) have been formed in the
puffed rice clusters. Of the eight SHG groups formed, four
have become creditworthy and linked to the banks. The SHG
Gasifier-integrated puffed rice oven
Improved oven with HRU
HRU with traditional oven
Dust arrestors
Heat heat recovery unit

Figure 3 Technologies developed for puffed rice cluster
05-Chapter.p65
47
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
48
members have utilized the loans for various incomegeneration activities such as poultry rearing, purchase of
paddy and clearing of existing debt of moneylenders and
hence freeing themselves of the vicious cycle of debt due to
high interest rates. The SHGs of puffed rice owners are very
confident about taking up cooperative paddy selling and
investing in high-end technologies such as the gasifier.
Conclusion
The constant efforts in the puffed rice units have brought

visibility to the clusters and drawn the attention of policymakers towards the problems in this unorganized sector.
The collaboration with local technical institutions has
spearheaded collaborative design inputs for efficient
technologies in the puffed rice sector. One of the technical
institutes (SDM) also functions as a resource centre in
northern Karnataka.
Interaction with TERI and NGOs has instilled confidence
in the people, who are now able to voice their concerns to the
district authorities. The various technologies developed by
TERI such as the heat recovery unit, dust arrestor, and
gasifier application in the puffed rice sector have been well
accepted by the people. The gasifier as a pollution-free option
has also drawn the attention of the KSPCB (Karnataka State
Pollution Control Board), KCTU (Karnataka Council for
Technological Upgradation), district authorities (district
commissioner office), and DIC (District Industries Centre).
P The social mobilization process has not only brought about
improvements in the income levels of a few puffed rice
families but also motivated them to adopt improved
technologies, which has created a better working
environment in these clusters.
P The collaboration with technical institutions has sensitized
the academic community towards the problems and
potential solutions, which can be developed to address the
present inefficient technologies in the unorganized sectors.
P The integration of techno-social interventions and
sensitization of the team on social mobilization aspects has
created a platform for mainstreaming of technologies.
05-Chapter.p65
48
4248
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
49
Elements of energy audit in small and

micro enterprises
Chapter 6
I Thanumoorthi, T E R ISRC
There are nearly 12 million SMiEs (small and micro

enterprises in India), which account for 40% of the gross
value of the output from the manufacturing sector and 34% of
the countrys total exports. However, by virtue of their small
individual sizes and restricted human capacity, the access of
SMiEs to new technology has been generally limited. If the
sector has to grow and compete with organizations of larger
size, upgradation of technologies is essential. SMiEs, being
labour-intensive in structure and process, are suited to
conditions in a developing country economy such as ours. As
it stands, the SMiE sector contributes significantly to our
GDP (gross domestic product). However, despite a large and
diverse geographical spread, this sector remains fragmented
and unorganized. Insufficient access to knowledge and
technological advancements prevents the development of the
SMiE sector and its mobilization as a whole. The sector faces
several challenges related to inadequacies in capital,
technology, and markets. There are a number of issues related
to the development of small and micro enterprises
inefficient utilization of energy, shortage in the supply of
cleaner fuels, environmental pollution caused due to
inefficient combustion, and clustering of units and
occupational health hazards due to poor working conditions.
Energy constitutes an important resource and its cost is
always rising due to increase in prices of oil, gas, coal, and so
on. Thus, the need for energy efficiency improvement, energy
conservation, and systematic energy management becomes
apparent. Energy efficiency can be achieved through the
following methods.
P Minimizing energy wastage
P Optimizing energy efficiency with suitable technology
P Using the most appropriate energy resources (for example,
electricity, fossil fuels, and renewables), with due regard to
environmental benefits
P Buying energy at the most economical price
Abstract
06-Chapter.p65
49
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
50
P Modifying operations, wherever feasible, to make the best

use of energy price structures
P Involvement, training, and raising awareness of staff
P Continuous monitoring to ensure that energy use remains
within predetermined limits
What is an
energy audit?
Energy audit is the key to a systematic approach for decisionmaking in the area of energy management. It attempts to
balance the total energy input with its use, and serves to
identify all the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy
usage according to its discrete functions. Industrial energy
audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing a
comprehensive energy management programme.
As per the Energy Conservation Act 2001, energy audit is
defined as the verification, monitoring, and analysis of use of
energy, including submission of technical report containing
recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost
benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy
consumption.
In any industry, the three main operating expenses are often
found to be energy (both electrical and thermal), labour, and
materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or
potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy
would invariably emerge on top, and thus, energy management
function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction. Energy
audit will help in better understanding of the ways energy and
fuel are used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas
where waste can occur and where scope for improvement exists.
Energy audit would give a positive orientation to energy
cost reduction, preventive maintenance, and quality control
programmes, which are vital for production and utility
activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep alive
variations that occur in the energy costs, ensure availability
and reliability of supply of energy, decide on appropriate
energy mix, and identify energy conservation technologies,
retrofit for energy conservation equipment and the like. In
general, energy audit is the translation of conservation ideas
into realities, by lending technically feasible solutions with
economic and other organizational considerations within a
specified time frame.
The primary objective of energy audit is to determine ways
to reduce energy consumption per unit of product output or
to lower operating costs. Energy audit provides a benchmark
(reference point) for managing energy in an organization. It
also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of
energy throughout the organization.
06-Chapter.p65
50
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
51
Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained,

data. It is a relatively quick exercise to achieve the following.
P Establish energy consumption in the organization.
P Estimate the scope for saving.
P Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention).
P Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/
savings.
P Set a reference point.
P Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement.
Preliminary
energy audit
The following steps are taken while conducting a preliminary

energy audit.
P Plan how to obtain useful data and how to win the
involvement/commitment of others.
P Collect data.
Collect the existing data, for example, energy bills
(volume/cost).
Collect the production output/records of plant layouts
using checklists.
P Analyse data.
Find unit cost of energy (Rs/kWh [kilowatt-hours] for all
types).
Find fixed and variable energy element.
Derive energy index: energy cost/unit output energy
cost/floor area.
P Formulate plan on the following.
Immediate energy-saving actions: Where? How? How
much?
Areas to investigate further.
Resources required for more detailed study.
P Decide on the actions and monitoring to be done.
P Formulate the next steps (for example, detailed audits),
where needed.
Preliminary audit data analysis provides the following results.
P Unit cost of energy (energy cost per unit of production,
floor area or hours worked).
P How energy consumption varies with production output,
hours worked, weather, and so on.
06-Chapter.p65
51
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
52
P A reference level (energy index) for comparing/monitoring

of energy performance.
A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project
implementation plan for a facility, since it evaluates all major
energy-using systems. This type of audit offers the most
accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers the
interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use
of all major equipment, and includes detailed energy-costsaving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the
energy balance. This is based on an inventory of energy-using
systems, assumptions of current operating conditions, and
calculations of energy use. This estimated use is then
compared to utility bill charges. Detailed energy auditing is
carried out in three phases.
1 Pre-audit phase
2 Audit phase
3 Post-audit phase
Detailed
energy audit
A comprehensive ten-step methodology for conducting energy

audit at field level is presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Ten-step methodology
Step
Plan of action
Purpose/results
Step 1
Phase 1 pre-audit phase

P Plan and organize
P Walk-through audit
P Informal interview with energy
manager, production/plant manager
P
P
P
P
P
Step 2
Conduct of brief meeting/awareness

programme with all divisional heads
and persons concerned (23 hours)
Phase 2 audit phase

Primary data gathering, process flow
diagram, and energy utility diagram
Step 3
P
P
P
P
Resource planning, establishing/organizing an energy audit team

Organize instruments and time-frame
Macro data collection (suitable to type of
industry)
Familiarization with process/plant activities
First-hand observation and assessment of
current-level operation and practices
Cooperation building
Issue questionnaire for each department
Orientation, awareness creation
Historic data analysis, baseline data
collection
Preparation of process flow charts
All service utilities system diagram
(such as single line power distribution
diagram, water, compressed air and steam
distribution)
06-Chapter.p65
52
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
53
Step
Plan of action
Purpose/results
P
P
Design and operate data and schedule of

operation
Annual energy bill and energy consumption pattern (refer manual, log sheet,
name plate, interview)
Step 4
Conduct survey and monitoring
Step 5
Conduct of detailed trials/experiments for selected energy guzzlers
Trials/experiments
Load variations trends in pumps, fan
compressors, and so on
24-hour power monitoring (maximum
demand, power factor, unit consumption, and so on)
Boiler/efficiency trials for (48 hours)
Furnace efficiency trials
Equipment performance experiment
Step 6
Analysis of energy use
Energy and material balance and energy

loss/waste analysis
Step 7
Identification and development of

energy conservation opportunities
Conceive, develop, and refine ideas.

Review previous ideas suggested by unit
personnel.
Review previous ideas suggested by
energy audit, if any.
Use brainstorming and value analysis
techniques.
Contact vendors for new/efficient
technology.
P
P
P
P
Step 8
Cost-benefit analysis
P
P
Step 9
Step10
Reporting and presentation to the top

management
Phase 3 Post-audit phase

Implementation and follow-up
Measurements
Motor survey, insulation, and lighting
survey with portable instruments for
collection of more and accurate data.
Confirm and compare operating data
with design data
Assess technical feasibility, economic

viability and prioritization of energy
conservation options for implementation.
Select the most promising projects
Prioritize by short-, medium-, and longterm measures.
Documentation, and report presentation
to the higher management
Assist and implement energy conservation

recommendation measures and monitor the
performance.
P Action plan, schedule for implementation
P Follow-up and periodic review
06-Chapter.p65
53
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
54
Information to
be collected
Energy audit
instruments
Key
instruments
for energy
audit
The information to be collected during the detailed audit

includes the following.
P Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by
major items of process equipment, by end-use
P Material balance data (raw materials, intermediate and final
products, recycled materials, use of scrap or waste products,
production of by-products for reuse in other industries)
P Energy cost and tariff data
P Process and material flow diagrams
P Generation and distribution of site services (such as
compressed air, steam)
P Sources of energy supplies (such as electricity from the grid
or self-generation)
P Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and
the use of co-generation systems (combined heat and power
generation)
P Energy management procedures and energy awareness
training programmes within the establishment.
The requirement for an energy audit is to identify, as well as
to quantify where energy use necessitates measurements.
These measurements require the use of instruments. The basic
instruments used in energy audit work are listed below. These
instruments are portable, durable, easy-to-operate, and
relatively inexpensive. Basic electrical parameters in AC
(alternating current) and DC (direct current) systems are
voltage (V), current (I), power factor (pf), active power (kW),
maximum demand (kVA [kilovolt-ampere]), reactive power
(kvar), energy consumption (kWh), frequency (Hz [hertz]),
and harmonics. Parameters of importance other than electrical
include temperature and heat flow, radiation, air and gas flow,
liquid flow, speed, air velocity, noise and vibration, dust
concentration, TDS (total dissolved solids), pH, moisture
content, relative humidity, flue gas analysis CO2, O2, CO,
SOx, NOx combustion efficiency, and so on.
The operating instructions for all instruments must be
understood and staff should familiarize themselves with the
instruments and their operation prior to actual audit use.
Electrical measuring instruments
Electrical measuring instruments (Figure 1a,b) are used for

estimating major electrical parameters such as voltage,
current, power factor, maximum demand, reactive power,
06-Chapter.p65
54
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
55
Figure 1 (a) Electrical load manager
Figure 1 (b) Electrical logger
energy consumption, and frequency. In addition, some of

these instruments also measure harmonics.
These instruments are applied online, that is, on running
motors without any need to stop the motor. Instant
measurements can be taken with hand-held meters, while
more advanced ones facilitate cumulative readings with
printouts at specified intervals.
Combustion analyser
This instrument has inbuilt chemical cells which measure the

amount of gases such as CO2, CO, NO2, and SO2 (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Combustion analyser
06-Chapter.p65
55
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
56

Fuel efficiency monitor
This measures oxygen and

temperature of the flue
gas. Calorific values of
common fuels are fed into
the microprocessor, which
calculates the combustion
efficiency (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Fuel efficiency monitor
Fyrite
A hand bellow pump draws

the flue gas sample into the
solution inside the fyrite. A
chemical reaction changes
the liquid volume, revealing
the amount of gas. The
percentage of oxygen or
CO2 can be read from the
scale (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Fyrite
Contact thermometer
These are thermocouples that measure

flue gas, hot air, hot water
temperatures, and so on, by insertion of
probe into the stream (Figure 5).
For surface temperature a leaf type
probe is used with the same
instrument.
Figure 5 Contact thermometer
Infra-red pyrometer
The infra-red pyrometer is a noncontact type instrument, which when

directed at a heat source directly gives
the temperature reading. It is useful
for measuring surface temperature in
jobs involving heat applications, such
Figure 6 Infra-red pyrometer
as in furnaces (Figure 6).
Pitot tube and manometer
Air velocity in ducts can

be measured using a pitot tube
and inclined manometer for further
calculation of flows (Figure 7).
Figure 7 Pitot tube and manometer
06-Chapter.p65
56
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
57
Ultrasonic flow meter

This a non-contact flowmeasuring device using the
Doppler effect principle.
There is a transmitter and
receiver, which are positioned
on opposite sides of the pipe.
The meter directly gives the
flow. Water and other fluid
flows can be easily measured
with this meter (Figure 8).
Figure 8 Ultrasonic flow meter
Speed measuring instruments
In any audit exercise, speed measurements are critical as they

may change with frequency, belt slip, and loading. A simple
tachometer is a contact type instrument that can be used
where direct access is possible (Figure 9a). More sophisticated
and safer ones are non-contact instruments such as
stroboscopes (Figure 9b).
Leak detectors
Ultrasonic instruments are used to detect leaks of compressed

air and other gases. Such leaks are normally not detected
manually (Figure 10).
Figure 9a Tachometer
Figure 9b Stroboscope
Figure 10 Leak detectors
06-Chapter.p65
57
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
58

Lux meter
Illumination levels are measured

with a lux meter. It consists of a
photo cell, which senses the light
output, and it converts to
electrical impulses, which are
calibrated in lux (Figure 11).
Figure 11 Lux meter
Economic
analysis of
investments
Payback
period
criterion
Conclusion
When any conservation opportunities are to be implemented,

most measures do not require investments. However, it is
possible that an investment, marginal or substantial, is
sometimes incurred for specific energy-saving opportunities.
And, transferring the implementation from paper to actual
practice involves making a decision: to invest or not to invest.
Usually, decisions are made regarding alternative solutions for
utilization of capital. At the outset, the decisions must not
conflict with the objectives of the enterprise. These objectives
can be constrained by social considerations or governmental
regulations. They can be influenced partially by the
management priorities or time required for implementation.
However, the prime objective does not deviate from profit
maximization. In order to aid the decision-makers, certain
economic methodologies, are followed. These are briefly
discussed, although progressing beyond basic concepts. The
different methods of economic analysis such as present value
criterion, average rate of return criterion, and return on
investment can be used to analyse the economics of
investments.
The payback period criterion evaluates the time required to
recover the initial investment through an annual net cash flow. It
is defined as the investment cost divided by the cash flow. The
payback period criterion does not take into consideration the
discount rate, the change in energy prices, or the lifetime of the
investment project. In practice, investment projects with a
payback period of three years or less always have a positive NPV
(net present value). Thus, the payback period is often used as a
filter, calculating the NPV when the payback period is over
three years and accepting the project when it is less.
In general, energy efficiency in SMiEs is low. There is
considerable scope for improving energy efficiency in SMiEs
such as foundry, glass, food processing, silk weaving, and
puffed rice. Efforts to promote energy conservation in such
06-Chapter.p65
58
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
59
Table 2 Resource-efficient technologies for small and micro enterprises

Sector/
application
Conventional
technology
Improved
technology
Key
features
Foundry
Conventional cupola Divided blast cupola

wet cap, dry cyclone
Glass
Coal/natural gas-fired Natural gas-fired
pot furnace
pot furnace with
recuperator
Thermal gasifier Direct burning of
Gasifier-based
applications
biomass and fossil
furnaces for various
fuels
end user applications
Brick
BTKs, downdraught
VSBK
kilns,and clamps
Best operating
practices in BTKs and
downdraught kilns
Puffed rice
Conventional ovens
Improved oven with
heat recovery unit and
dust arrestor
Coke savings of
25%65%
Energy savings of
25%50%
Energy savings of
35%60%
Energy savings of
20%40%
Energy savings of
10%15%
Energy savings of
15%45%
BTKs bulls trench kilns; VSBKvertical shaft brick kiln
industries could lead to substantial reduction in their cost of

production, making them more competitive. Significant
energy savings could be achieved through better
housekeeping, improved capacity utilization, waste heat
recovery, introducing energy retrofits, and alternative energyefficient technology penetration. TERI has developed
resource-efficient technologies for small and micro enterprises
and the details are summarized in Table 2.
BEE (Bureau of Energy Efficiency). 2003
General Aspects of Energy Management and Energy Audit
New Delhi: BEE
Bibliography
TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute). 2003

Improving the competitiveness of small and micro enterprises
New Delhi: TERI
[TERI CoSMiLE brochure]
The Handbook on Energy Audit and Environment Management
New Delhi: TERI
06-Chapter.p65
59
4959
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
60
Role of energy efficiency in small and

micro enterprises
Chapter 7
I Thanumoorthi, Fellow, T E R I-SRC
Abstract
Need for
efficient use
of energy in
SMiEs
SMiEs (small and micro enterprises) are the second largest

segment of the Indian economy in view of their size in terms
of number of units, people employed, value of output, and
value of exports, absolutely as well as relatively. Their
sustained economic performance is imperative for Indias
economic development. Individually, a small-scale units
energy consumption may not be high but together the
consumption in millions of small-scale units across the
country will add up to a very large quantity and place a very
high demand on limited energy resources. In 2002/03, smallscale industries comprised 3.57 million units, generated
production worth Rs 7420 billion and employed nearly
20 million persons. The sectors exports stood at Rs 698 billion
in 2000/01. In 2000/01, small-scale industries, with an
investment of nearly Rs 797 billion, accounted for about 40%
of the industrial production nearly 7% of the GDP (gross
domestic product) and 34.3% of the total exports of Indian
economy and manufactured more than 7500 products. Thus,
small-scale industries have a diversified and prominent
presence in the Indian economy. Considering the size of
SMiEs, their demand for energy is likely to be substantial and
will only increase in the future, looking at its prospects for
growth and the current policy emphasis on small industry
modernization. There are a number of issues related to the
development of SMiEsinefficient utilization of energy,
shortage in the supply of cleaner fuels, environmental
pollution caused due to inefficient combustion, and clustering
of units and occupational health hazards due to poor working
conditions.
Energy efficiency is the key to a systematic approach for
decision-making in the area of energy management. It
attempts to balance the total energy input with its use, and
serves to identify all the energy streams in a facility. Energy
being an essential input to economic growth, its efficient use
in any sector of the economy will have multiple benefits in
India, which is a net importer of energy.
07-Chapter.p65
60
6064
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
61
P Demand will grow at a lesser rate and thereby reduce the

need for energy imports and additional energy supply
capacity.
P Energy saved can be made available for other economic
activities.
P Reduction in per unit cost will make the concerned sector
more competitive.
P Negative environmental impacts will be reduced.
The industry-wise energy consumption pattern of small
industry is still not known as no comprehensive study has
been undertaken so far. But the few studies that have been
carried out by TERI with reference to some specific industries
such as puffed rice, silk weaving, foundry, and textile reveal
that there is scope for improvement in energy efficiency,
which, in turn, would lead to cost reduction.
Among others, government policy has a major role to play in
the promotion of energy efficiency. This is particularly true in
the context of small industry. Small industry units individually
may not take the initiative for enhancing energy efficiency due
to reasons like lack of awareness, prohibitive costs, and lack of
competence. Though the Government of India has evolved a
comprehensive policy since independence for small industry
promotion, the policy emphasis on the promotion of energy
conservation and efficiency is not substantial and is largely
confined to energy-intensive sectors of small industry such as
foundry, re-rolling mills, glass, and ceramics. To promote
awareness among the concerned entrepreneurs, TERI has
conducted seminars on energy conservation and sponsored
studies to identify energy efficiency gaps and potential for
energy conservation with reference to the energy-intensive sub
sectors of small industry such as puffed rice industry, textile
industry, and foundry.
Policy issues
Another significant feature of SMiEs in India is that they have

clustered naturally and spontaneously in different regions of
the country. It has been found out that there are over 400
small industry clusters in India. Many of these small industry
clusters are found to be energy intensive. Though individual
small industry may not consume large amount of energy,
collectively, their energy needs in such clusters cannot be
ignored. Improving energy efficiency is necessary for the
survival and growth of these clusters, because, higher energy
efficiency not only improves their competitiveness through
cost reduction but also minimizes the adverse environmental
implications associated with energy consumption.
Purpose of
energy
efficiency
studies in
SMiEs
07-Chapter.p65
61
6064
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
62
Energy
efficiency as
an effective
tool
Requirement
of a clusterbased
approach
Need for
energy
efficiency
training in
SMiEs
The energy efficiency objectives include the following.

P To probe the dimensions of energy intensity (energy cost
per unit of value of output) and its relationship with various
economic performance measures
P To analyse the energy consumption pattern and probe and
estimate the scope for energy efficiency improvement
P To make heat balance by using inputoutput parameters
and to generate powerful pictorial representations such as
Sankey diagrams and thus identify areas for improvement
P To make policy recommendations to promote energy
efficiency in small-scale industry clusters
A cluster-based approach is required to analyse for the
following reasons.
P The energy demand emanating from an individual small
industry unit may be insignificant both absolutely and
relatively. But when small industry units coexist together in
a particular region, their total energy consumption as well
as demand may be considerably significant.
P Small industry units may not implement any energy
efficiency improvement measures due to lack of awareness,
high costs involved and/or inadequate institutional
infrastructure support. These deficiencies could be easily
overcome in clusters as they give scope for collective action
among the clustered units.
P The alternative policy measures, if any, could be more
effectively implemented in a cluster of units than among
dispersed units.
Technology upgradation alone will not result in efficient use
of energy. The quality of human resource available with the
SMiEs is also equally significant in determining the level of
energy use. It is a possibility that the best technology used by
untrained manpower is producing poor-quality products with
inefficient use of resources. Therefore, a perfect match
between technology and quality human resource is essential to
optimize the resource use and thereby reduce the
environmental impacts. Any technology upgradation in a unit
should be preceded by having quality workforce in place. Any
government agency promoting technology upgradation should
ensure appropriate training to the existing manpower
simultaneously. That is, the employee training should be made
part of the technology upgradation package. The skill level of
the labour force should be given due importance and,
accordingly, they should be trained periodically. Even though
07-Chapter.p65
62
6064
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
63
a majority of the workers in the clusters were not skilled.

Furthermore, all the skilled workers also may not have had
adequate training to undertake manufacturing operations
efficiently. The fact that there is a strong positive relationship
between energy efficiency and labour efficiency, which has
been observed both at the macro and micro levels,
underscores the point that a periodic training for skilled
workers will not only enable them to contribute more
efficiently but will also facilitate efficient utilization of energy.
TERI has conducted energy-efficiency studies in various
SMiEs and the results of a study carried out in a few smallscale industries in Erode textile cluster are presented in
Table 1.
In general, energy efficiency in SMiEs is low. Energy
efficiency improvement may be an important objective from
the countrys perspective in order to preserve scarce natural
resources, reduce environmental damages, and minimize
dependence on imported energy carriers. However, this need
not be an important issue from the perspective of an
Conclusion
Table 1 Findings of a study of small-scale industries in Erode textile cluster
Industry
AL-LAN textile
processors
Unifront textile
processors
Network
clothing
company
Krishna textile
processors
CETP plant
associated
with the textile
cluster
Type of
equipment
focused
Percentage
fuel
savings (wood)
Percentage
electrical
energy savings
Reference
Boilers, thermic
fluid heater,
compressors,
pumps, and drives
Boilers, thermic
fluid heater,
compressors,
pumps, and drives
Boilers, thermic
fluid heater,
compressors,
pumps, and drives
Boilers, thermic
fluid heater,
compressors,
pumps and drives
Boilers, pumps,
and drives
12%
8%
TERI Report
2005BB011
(AL-LAN)
7.3%
10.1%
TERI Report
2005BB011
(Unifront)
15%
6%
TERI report
2005BB011
(NCC)
27%
13%
TERI Report
2005BB011
(Krishna)
12%
8%
TERI Report
2005BB011
(CETP)
07-Chapter.p65
63
6064
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
64
entrepreneur who is running a small-scale unit. He will be

motivated to take energy efficiency improvement measures if
energy savings are likely to result in significant increase in
value addition (or increase in gross profits). Under such
situations, the unit can adopt efficiency improvement
measures either as a cost-cutting strategy or as a profit
maximization strategy. Unless these benefits are realized, no
small-scale unit will come forward to implement any efficiency
improvement measures. This brings out the fact that
government intervention is imperative to achieve higher
energy efficiency in small industry clusters. There is
considerable scope for improving energy efficiency in SMiEs
such as textile, foundry, glass, food processing, silk weaving,
and puffed rice. Efforts to promote energy conservation in
such industries could lead to substantial reduction in their
cost of production, thus making them more competitive.
Significant energy savings could be achieved through better
housekeeping, improved capacity utilization, waste heat
recovery, and introducing energy retrofits and alternative
energy-efficient technology penetration.
Bibliography

General Aspects of Energy Management and Energy Audit
New Delhi: BEE
Energy Audit Project Report No-2005B011
Bangalore: TERI
Improving the competitiveness of small and micro enterprises
[TERI CoSMiLE brochure]
The Handbook on Energy Audit and Environment Management
New Delhi: TERI
Towards Cleaner Technologies a process story on small-scale
foundries
New Delhi: TERI (supported by the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation)
Website
http://www.smallindustryindia.com
07-Chapter.p65
64
6064
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Energy initiative in small enterprises manufacturers perspective
65
Energy initiative in small enterprises

manufacturers perspective
Chapter 8
Dhananjay Navangul, Dhanaprakash Industrial Corp, Miraj 416 410, India
Indian industry is growing at an unexpected pace. However,

this may be the last opportunity for sustainable growth
considering the threat from China, rising fuel prices, and
environmental concerns. The energy initiative is the only
solution, particularly for small and medium industries, in
order to avoid unprecedented energy crisis in future.
The purpose of the energy initiative is to promote clean and
efficient production and use of energy for sustainable
development. This involves in-house analysis like energy audit
and opting for new processes and schemes so as to make use of
available energy sources effectively and efficiently as well as
dissemination of the information to the industrial clusters.
This chapter provides an overview of the significance of
end-use energy efficiency improvement for sustainable
development and information about the newer technologies
that fit into the projects under the Kyoto Protocols CDM
(Clean Development Mechanism).
However, it has been found that the CDM is making only a
very small contribution to the promotion of energy efficiency
(approximately 140 ktCO2e [kilotonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalent per year]), despite significant potential for
improvement in developing countries worldwide. This paper,
therefore, offers recommendations on how to improve the
process, including the creation of dedicated energy efficiency
programmes and developing best practices.
The most important methodologies for end-use energy
efficiency projects are the recommendations based on a
detailed analysis of common challenges facing energy
efficiency projects and means of overcoming them. The paper
appeals to all the district industry centre heads to
acknowledge and give greater attention to the three efficiency
aspectsretrofit, planned replacement, and new installations.
Abstract
Energy conservation should have been a major consideration

long time back, as unchecked utilization led to the threat of
global warming. However, it took many years to understand
the worldwide impact of global warming. The industrialized
Clean
Development
Mechanism
08-Chapter.p65
65
6569
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
66
countries are now optimizing their energy utilization, while

the developing countries are improving their energy efficiency.
The Kyoto Protocol gave birth to the CDM, a process that
aims to assist developed countries in lightening their burden
of excessive greenhouse gas emissions and help developing
countries move on a less polluting growth trajectory.
Appropriate
combustion
way to energy
efficiency
Importance of
perfect
combustion
The CDM is designed to assist the developing countries in

achieving sustainable development by reducing emissions
through investments by developed countries to achieve their
targets. Substantial initiative is required to increase the share of
energy-saving technologies in the fight against global warming.
India has a lot more opportunities, as many industry bases have
shifted from Western countries to India, as well as China. India
has a large number of SMiEs (small and micro enterprises),
which are the backbone of the countrys industrial growth.
There exists a great potential for energy saving and for reducing
operating costs, claiming carbon credits through CDM, to earn
for upgradations/capacity enhancements.
Indias SMiEs have low-end technologies, low awareness,
limited energy resources, and pollution norms that are not
very high. All these lead to inefficient use of energy.
Combustion processes and their applications are among the
major tools to carry out the manufacturing processes.
Fossil fuels are extensively used for industrial
manufacturing processes and this article highlights with
illustrations as to how the available energy sources can be
effectively employed using newer technologies developed inhouse, based on theoretical aspects and practical experience.
The manufacturing industry is a vast field, with a variety of
equipment, temperatures, operational cycles, capacities,
atmospheres, and types of fuels. It is not possible to cover so
many variables from every perspective.
This chapter describes the requirements of industries and
how these are met with the development of appropriate
combustion technologies covering a wide range of process
equipment. It is also dedicated to newer technologies with
simple solutions and applications, highlighting the efficient
use of heating and burning equipment.
The objective of good combustion is to release all the heat in the
fuel. This is accomplished by controlling the three Ts of
combustion, which are (1) temperature high enough to ignite
and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) turbulence or intimate
mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) time sufficient for
complete combustion.
08-Chapter.p65
66
6569
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
67
Commonly used fuels like

furnace oil consist of carbon and
hydrogen. Water vapour is a byproduct of burning hydrogen. This
robs heat from the flue gases,
which would otherwise be
available for more heat transfer.
Too much, or too little fuel with
the available combustion air may
potentially result in unburned fuel
and carbon monoxide generation
Figure1a Incomplete combustion
(Figure 1a). A very specific
amount of O2 is needed for
perfect combustion (Figure 1b)
and some additional (excess) air
is required for ensuring good
combustion. However, too much
excess air will result in heat and
efficiency losses.
Not all of the heat in the fuel
is converted to heat and
absorbed by the process
equipment. Usually, all of the
hydrogen in the fuel is burned
and the main challenge in
Figure1b Perfect combustion
combustion efficiency is
directed towards unburned carbon.
Optimizing
excess air and
combustion
For complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil, 14.1 kg

of air is needed. In practice, mixing is never perfect, a certain
amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion and
ensure the release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil. If
more air than what is required for completing combustion
were allowed to enter, additional heat would be lost in heating
the surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result
in increased stack losses. Less air would lead to incomplete
combustion and smoke. Hence, there is an optimum excess air
level for each type of fuel.
Control of air and analysis of flue gas
In actual practice, the amount of combustion air required will

be much higher than optimally needed. Therefore, some of the
air gets heated in the furnace boiler and leaves through the
stack without participating in the combustion. Chemical
08-Chapter.p65
67
6569
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
68
Figure 2 Relation between CO2 and excess air for fuel oil
analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps in

achieving finer air control. By measuring CO2 (carbon
dioxide) or O2 (oxygen) in flue gases by continuous recording
instruments or Orsat apparatus or portable fyrite, the excess
air level as well as stack losses can be estimated with the
graph as shown in Figure 2. The excess air to be supplied
depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. For
optimum combustion of fuel oil, the CO2 or O2 in flue
gases should be maintained at 14%15% in case of CO2 and
2%3% in case of O2.
Case study of
energy
efficiency in
small-scale
industries
Bibliography
Some of the energy-saving techniques of the heating processes

in the manufacturing for metallurgical industries are
described in Table 1.
Such energy conservation techniques have already been
adopted by NGOs, manufacturers, and cluster-based
organization in various fields like textile, leather, energy, food,
and automobile. Information is being disseminated all over
India through seminars, workshops, and so on.
General Aspects of Energy Management
New Delhi: BEE
08-Chapter.p65
68
6569
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
69
Table 1 Example of energy efficiency in metallurgical industry

Energy
Environment
efficiency (%) friendly
Process
Equipment
Upgradation
Sand drying
Oil-fired rotary
sand drier
Insulation, enclosure,
combustion system
30
Yes
Shell sand
resin coating
Resin coater
Replacement by oilfired burners
20
Yes
Core baking
Core oven
Hot air generator

technology
30
Yes
Mould coat baking Tunnel mould drier Hot air burner

tunnel core drier internal recirculation
20
Yes
Ladle preheating
Ladle preheater
50
Yes
Heat treating
Heat treatment
High velocity burner
20
furnaces oil/gas insulation, recuperator,
electrical
high insulation material 20
Yes
Aluminium melting Skelner type

furnace oil-fired
Oil-fired instant ladle

preheater
New combustion
technology, totally
enclosed, recuperation
Aluminium melting Dry hearth melting New combustion

/holding
crucible holding
technology, totally
2050
Yes
Shell firing furnace New combustion

technology, totally
2050
Yes
Wire annealing
Pot furnace
New combustion
technology, totally
20
Yes
Continuous operation,
improved operation,
recuperation
25
Yes
Surface treatment Suction duct burners,

process
insulation
20
Yes
Tank heaters
69
Yes
Ceramic shell
heating (investment casting)
Hardening furnace Rotary hearth

forge hardening
furnace
08-Chapter.p65
2050
6569
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
70
Scope of technology upgradation in scrap aluminium melting units
Scope of technology upgradation in scrap

aluminium melting units in Karnataka
Chapter 9
Hanka Jendro* and S N Rajendra# , TER ISRC
Abstract
A typical scrap aluminium unit has scrap aluminium melting

unit, annealing unit, and dross melting unit. The process in a
typical household utensil manufacturing unit consists of
sorting of scrap, grading, melting, die casting, series of
pressing and annealing, cutting, hydraulic pressing, trimming
and shaping, chemical washing and drying.
A survey conducted in one of the conventional aluminium
melting units in Belgaum, Karnataka, indicates that the
average production cost is about Rs 12 480 per day of which
44% is spent on fuel furnace oil (32%) and firewood (12%).
This indicates that the expenditure on fuel is an important
factor with respect to the industry.
The technical evaluation made on the performance of
conventional aluminium melting oven indicated that the
thermal efficiency was around 22% and the average specific
fuel consumption was around 0.1 kg of furnace oil per kg of
product (aluminium blocks). Other issues related to workers/
operators health, which was affected by the liberation of
unburnt carbon particles and exposure to very high
temperatures near the oven.
Due to the above-mentioned problems, there was need to
improve the conventional ovens by introducing energy-efficient
technologies. Two possibilities were considered as possible
interventions: (a) improved furnaces with air recuperator for
using the waste heat to feed the oven as secondary air, which
uses existing furnace oil as fuel and (b) improved oven with
integration of biomass thermal gasifier as heat resource.
This paper discusses the survey conducted on conventional
scrap aluminium melting units in the region of Belgaum, the
performance of existing aluminium ovens with description of
efficiency and energy losses, and the potential of energy saving
by the use of energy-efficient technologies.
* Student of process engineering and biotechnology, University of Applied
Science, Flensburg, Germany
#
Research Associate, Rural and Renewable Energy Area, TERI, 4th Main, 2nd
Cross, Domlur 2nd Stage, Bangalore 560 071, Email: rajendra@teri.res.in
09-Chapter.p65
70
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
71
Scrap aluminium melting units are small-scale industries,

majority of them unregistered, forming part of the unorganized
sector. These units usually function to manufacture household
utensils used for cooking and grain storage. Aluminium utensils
are preferred, as they are not corroded when treated with water
and have high thermal conductivity.
According to the census of registered and unregistered smallscale industries in Karnataka, conducted by the Directorate of
Industries and Commerce, Government of Karnataka, the total
number of SSI (small-scale industry) units in Karnataka was
about 658 000 in 2001. Out of these, 16.8% were registered and
83.2% were unregistered units (Figure 1).
Electricity is the main source of energy in both registered and
unregistered sectors, with higher proportion of other sources of
energy such as firewood, coal, oil, non-conventional energy, and
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) in the unregistered sector
(Department of Industries and Commerce 2005). Scrap
aluminium melting units fall in the unregistered sector. More
than 150 units are estimated to function in the whole of
Karnataka.
Aluminium is a soft alloy with a unique property to mix with
most of the metals. The scrap aluminium is heated up to 650 C
to melt the metal and further up to 800 C, which is preferable
for casting. Cast iron crucibles are preferably used in these units,
which have semi-spherical shape and have different capacities to
hold 180, 300, and 500 kg of molten aluminium at a time.
Different types of fossil fuels such as furnace oil and diesel oil are
used in the melting units. A typical aluminium melting crucible
of 300-kg capacity will produce about 1.2 tonnes of aluminium
blocks in a batch time of about 10 hours per day.
Introduction
Figure 1 Distribution of registered and unregistered units in the small-scale

industry sector in Karnataka, 2001
Source Department of Industries and Commerce (2005)
09-Chapter.p65
71
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
72
Profile of
typical
aluminium
melting
operation
Generally, the scrap aluminium melting process can be

divided into three steps.
1 Cleaning and sorting of scrap
2 Aluminium melting
3 Casting into rectangular blocks
Scrap aluminium is collected from other industries,
households, and bus depots. Scrap aluminium metal of good
condition is purchased at Rs 9095 per kg. The price varies with
the quality of scrap. In the first step, it is cleaned and sorted.
Then the scrap and flux agent are put into the crucible and
heated till aluminium melts. When it reaches molten condition (at
650 C), the first dross1 occurs and is reduced by adding flux
agents. The dross contains 35%95% of aluminium, depending
on how the melt was achieved and the effectiveness of any fluxing
agents added to the melt.2 Dross is removed from the crucible
while further heating. The molten aluminium is heated up to
800 C before pouring into moulds. About 80% of the molten
aluminium is put into the moulds. New scrap is added to the
crucible. This process becomes faster due to the additional heat
transfer of the remaining 20% of liquefied aluminium. The
molten aluminium needs about 6090 seconds to solidify in the
mould. Afterwards, the blocks are taken out and cooled down.
Figure 2 provides an illustration of the process of aluminium
scrap melting, while Table 1 profiles an existing scrap aluminium
unit.
Sorting and
cleaning of the
scrap
Melting of the
scrap
Pouring of molten
metal into the
moulds
Final product
Figure 2 Process of scrap aluminium melting unit

1
Dross: a mixture of aluminium and aluminium oxide, which forms on the

surface of molten aluminium
Details available at <http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/heattreat/
metalsadvisor/aluminum/recycle_and_scrap_melting/recycle_and_scrap_
melting_process_description.htm> last accessed on 7 November 2007
09-Chapter.p65
72
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
73
Table 1 Profile of an existing scrap aluminium melting unit

Particulars
Unit
Quantity
Capacity of crucible
Size (diameter x height)
Quantity of aluminium processed
Number of workers
Operation time
Quantity of fuel consumption
Specific fuel consumption
Price of fuel
Calorific value of fuel*
Fuel burning rate
Cost of fuel consumption
Number of annual working days
Cost of fuel in a year
kg
cm
kg/day
Number
h
kg/day
kg/kg
Rs/kg
kcal/kg
kg/h
Rs/day
Days/year
Rs (in million)/year
300
73 44
1200
4
10
176
0.16
25
10 500
17
4000
300
1.2
*<http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org/docs/tools/training_materials/
energy_equipment/>
Source Primary Survey, October 2007
The conventional melting oven is constructed by using brick

and cement mortar. The crucible has a capacity to melt about
300 kg of scrap at a time. The oven has provisions for crucible
placement, combustion of fuel and annular space around the
crucible for flue escape. The schematic view of the oven is
shown in Figure 3. To burn furnace oil, a suitable burner is
used, which has controlled flow of air and where fuel is kept at
the mouth of the combustion chamber. The inlet air for the
combustion of fuel is supplied by a 5-hp blower and furnace
oil is supplied from oil tank through gravity flow.
Initially, about 100 kg of solidified pure aluminium of the
previous day is heated up to melting point. When it turns to
molten condition, scrap aluminium pieces are put into it. The
molten metal helps the fresh metal pieces to liquefy faster.
Once all scrap metal turns into liquid and the crucible is full,
dross is removed and molten metal is further heated up to
800 C before pouring into the moulds.
Furnace
Performance
analysis
Technical performance tests were conducted at selected scrap

aluminium melting unit to analyse the thermal efficiency and
heat losses. Tests were conducted in two situations: cold start
(first batch) and hot start (second batch). Parameters such as
time, fuel flow rate, metal flow rate, and temperatures in different
zones of the oven and crucible were studied. The results of the
performance tests are shown in Table 2.
09-Chapter.p65
73
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
74
A crucible; B fuel tank; C burner; D electric blower

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of conventional aluminium melting unit (all
dimensions in cm)
Table 2 Performance of conventional scrap melting unit at Belgaum
Batch number
Item
Symbol
Unit
Time of operation
Type of fuel
Total quantity of aluminium used
Quantity of pure aluminium used
Quantity of scrap used
Ambient temperature
Maximum temperature
Total quantity of aluminium
blocks produced
Quantity of fuel used
Fuel burning rate
Calorific value of fuel
mal
kg
%
%
C
C
kg
2:55
2:45
Furnace oil
368.2
448.0
46.2
61.7
53.8
38.3
26.0
30.0
813.0
750.0
334.8
372.0
kg
kg/h
kg/kg
kcal/kg
kJ/kg
MJ
MJ
%
%
%
51.9
42.9
17.8
15.6
15.5
11.5
10 500
44 000
2284.5 1887.6
418.0
480.4
18.3
25.4
3.4
3.9
7.1
8.2
Heat input
Heat output
Efficiency (useful heat)
Heat losses through side walls
Heat losses due to opening
Tambient
Tmax
msheets
mfuel
SFC
hfuel
Qinput
Qoutput
h
MJ megajoule; kcal kilocalorie; kJ kilojoule

Source Primary Survey, October 2007
09-Chapter.p65
74
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
75
The specimen calculations used to find out the thermal

efficiency of the oven and heat losses due to openings and
through side walls are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Thermal efficiency of the oven and heat losses due to openings and
through side walls
kJ kilojoule; kcal kilocalorie
09-Chapter.p65
75
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
76
Energy flow of
the melting
process
Cost
economics
The performance analysis indicated that about 18.3%

(maximum) of the total heat input was utilized by the oven to
melt the scrap aluminium and the remaining heat was lost due
to various factors. The test revealed some of them, such as
losses through side walls and openings. The other losses
about 70.9% include sensible heat loss in flue gas, losses due
to excess air flow, and losses due to moisture in flue gas.
Theses losses were not measured as the oven was run without
chimney. The Sankey diagram for the energy flow in the
melting process is as shown in Figure 4.
The total production cost per day of a typical scrap aluminium
melting unit, which produces 1.2 tonnes of aluminium blocks, is
about Rs 12 480. In the total cost, about 41%, or about Rs 5500
(Rs 4000 for furnace oil and Rs 1500 for firewood), is spent on
fuel. This can be considered as one of the important factors for
the economy of the sector, which can be considered for cost
reduction. Even saving of fuel about by 15%20% can lead to
significant improvement in the economy of the sector. The cost
distribution of daily production is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 4 Sankey diagram showing energy flow of the melting process
Figure 5 Cost distribution of daily production
09-Chapter.p65
76
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
77
To improve the efficiency of a process it is necessary either to

decrease the heat input or increase the heat output. There are
different methods to improve the melting process and the
efficiency in the obtained unit.
Improvements
Thermal
gasifier based
on biomass
On the one hand, it is possible to introduce thermal gasifier

based on biomass as fuel. The biomass could be firewood or
agricultural residues. The advantages of using biomass as fuel
are that it is considered as renewable if grown in a sustainable
manner; it is considered carbon neutral; and it can be grown
and utilized locally. Furthermore, it offers a higher thermal
efficiency of about 40%, and fuel savings of about 55% as
compared to conventional furnace-oil-based units are feasible.
The calculations for a suitable gasifier configuration for the
observed unit (Figure 6) are shown in Table 4. Around 55% of
fuel can be saved per year while using biomass as fuel.
The proposed system offers considerable savings on the
cost of fuel. Comparison of expenditure in the old and new
system is given in Table 5.
Table 4 System configurations for gasifier-based oven to melt 370 kg aluminium
Description
Unit
Value
Rate of consumption of furnace oil = 52 kg/2.9 h

Calorific value of furnace oil
= 10 500 kcal/kg 0.004187 MJ/kcal
Heat energy required for melting of aluminium
= 17.9 kg/h 44.0 MJ/kg
Calorific value of wood
= 4000 kcal/kg 0.004187 MJ/kcal
Assuming gasifier combustion efficiency is 80%,
the heat energy value = 16.8 MJ/kg 0.8
Rate of firewood burning per hour
= 788.3 MJ/h/13.4 MJ/kg
Thermal efficiency of furnace-oil-based oven
Thermal efficiency of gasifier-based oven (assumption)
The reduction in fuel use by the use of gasifier oven
The capacity of gasifier-based oven
= 58.8 kg/h 0.45
kg/h
MJ/kg
17.9
44.0
MJ/h
788.3
MJ/kg
16.8
MJ/kg
13.4
kg/h
58.8
%
%
%
kg/h
18
40
55
26
MJ megajoule; kcal kilocalorie
09-Chapter.p65
77
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
78
Figure 6 Schematic diagram of gasifier for thermal applications

Table 5 Comparison of expenditures of the old and new systems
Particulars
(A)
1
2
(B)
1
2
3
Unit
Value
Expenditure of existing melting unit

Cost of furnace oil per year
Rs/year
= 200 litres/day Rs 20/litre 300 days
O & M expenditure = Rs 8.480/day 300 days Rs/year
Total A
Rs/year
Expenditure of gasifier-based melting unit
Cost of firewood per year
= 26 kg/h 10 h/day Rs 3.5/kg 300 days
Electricity charges to operate air blower
= 2 kWh 10 h Rs 4/kWh 300 days
O&M expenditure = Rs 8.065/day 300 days
Total B
Net savings in the fuel expenditure per annum
(A B)
Percentage of cost savings with the use
of gasifier-based oven
1 200 000
2 544 000
3 744 000
Rs/year
273 000
Rs/year
24 000
Rs/year
2 419 500
2 716 500
Rs/year
1 027 500
27
O&M operation and maintenance; kWh kilowatt-hour
By introducing the gasifier technology to the unit, it is

possible to save around Rs 0.010 million (27%) of the annual
expenditure.
It can be seen that with a total expenditure of Rs 300 000,
it is possible to get payback within 6 months (Table 6).
09-Chapter.p65
78
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
79
Table 6 Investment cost on a gasifier-based system
Improved
furnaceoilbased melting
unit
Particulars
Unit
Value (Rs in million)
Cost of gasifier unit (26 kg per hour)

Cost of accessories such as duct, burner,
steel casing, as well as installation charges
Total
Simple payback
0.25
0.05
0.3
Initial gasifier cost/annual savings
Rs 0.3 million/Rs 1.027 million
0.29 years = 3.5 months
It is possible to introduce improved furnace-oil-based

techniques. Several successful installations have been done by
Dhanaprakash Industrial Corporation.3
The furnace (Figure 7) consists of one melting chamber
and one holding crucible. The scrap can be directly melted in
the melting zone. Due to direct heating,
most of the heat is absorbed by the scrap,
which melts faster. The molten aluminium
slips down to the crucible for holding and
superheating, where the temperature is
controlled. The exhaust of the crucible is
used to heat the melting zone and for
preheating the combustion air. Energy
savings of 20%50% can be achieved
Figure 7 Dry hearth
with these units. The expenditure on the
melting crucible
unit for a whole year can be reduced
holding furnace
from Rs 3.74 million per year up to
Rs 3.14 million per year (16% cost saved).
The payback time for the equipment is less than six months.
Generally, it is important to have proper insulation, an
efficient burner, a chimney, and a ceramic heat recuperator for
the exhaust system to recover waste heat for preheating the
combustion air. Also, the complete furnace needs to be
properly designed, with a reduction in the openings to
decrease the losses to save energy and improve the efficiency
of the process.4
Dhanaprakash Industrial Corporation, L1+L2, G M Industrial Estate,

Miraj 416 410, Sangli, Maharashtra, India, Phone: +91-233-2211701;
Email: dhanap@sancharnet.in
Details available at <http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/HeatTreat/
MetalsAdvisor/aluminum/recycle_and_scrap>, last accessed on
1 October 2007
09-Chapter.p65
79
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
80
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Bibliography
Introducing new techniques can have two effects at the same

time. On the one hand, it is possible to improve the working
conditions and health of the workers by reducing the exhaust
and the high temperature next to the furnace. On the other
hand, the owner can save on fuel due to higher efficiency of
the melting process. Either the consumption of fossil fuels will
be reduced or a complete change to renewable energy like
firewood or briquettes can be done.
The calculations for a gasifier system show that there is a
high potential for saving fuel, about 55% fuel that is used per
hour, and at the same time improving the industry economy to
a large extent by savings of Rs 1.027 million per year (27%).
Fuel savings from 20% up to 50% per day can be achieved
with a properly designed furnace. That means the expenditure
can be reduced by up to Rs 3.14 million per year (16%).
The gasifier system, as well as the improved furnace, can be
paid back in less than six months. The carbon emissions will
be reduced due to the reduction of fuel use.
We thank TERI and SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation) for giving us the opportunity to work on this
project together. A special thanks to Mr Sameer S Kanabargi,
who worked with us in the field, and to Ms C K Jalajakshi for
her support during the course of work.
We also thank Mr Dhananjay Navangul from Dhanaprakash
Industrial Corporation for sharing his experiences with us.
We are thankful to the workers and owners of the
companies for their time and cooperation in our survey,
especially in the technical observations.
Directorate of Industries and Commerce. 2005
Report on the Third All India Census of Registered and
Unregistered Small-scale industries up to 31 March 2001
Bangalore: Department of Industries and Commerce, Government of
Karnataka
Energy performance assessment of equipment and utility
systems, book IV, 2005
Details available at <http://www.bee-india.nic.in/sidelinks/
new_course.htm>, last accessed on 5 November 2007
09-Chapter.p65
80
7080
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
81
Efficient biomass energy use in the tiny

sector of Karnataka
Chapter 10
Yabbati Nagaraju* and C K Jalajakshi#, T E R I-SRC
Karnataka has an agriculture-based economy, and biomass is

used in both the domestic as well as industrial sector. Due to
rapid industrialization and a growing economy, the commercial
energy sector in Karnataka is undergoing accelerated growth.
The demand for biomass is also increasing. However, the evergrowing demandsupply gap in fuelwood is resulting in stress on
women and children, and on the environment. Demand for
fuelwood has always been a major concern of the energy and the
forestry sectors. Biomass resources are decentralized, and their
use as fuel is largely in the unorganized and/or non-commercial
sector. Huge quantities of fuelwood are being used in traditional
small-scale industries and cottage-based industries, which
normally operate with very low thermal efficiency of the order of
5%10%, resulting in tremendous loss of energy from raw
material. The increasing use of fuelwood is also causing rapid
deforestation. The present direct use of biomass as fuel in stoves,
boilers, and furnaces results in low conversion efficiency. There is
a need for efficient technologies for optimum use of biomass
resources and to improve the present economy of the industries.
This paper gives an overview of a few biomass-consuming sectors
in which there is actual need of efficient technologies and
integration of gasifiers for thermal application. The following
sectors are discussed.
P Jaggery making
P Tobacco processing
Abstract
The use of gasifier for thermal applications in the following

sectors is also discussed.
P Bakery
P Community cooking
P Crematoria
* Field Coordinator, Rural and Renewable Energy Area, TERI, 4th Main, 2nd
Cross, Domlur 2nd Stage, Bangalore 560 071, Email: nagaraju@teri.res.in
#
Associate Fellow, Rural and Renewable Energy Area, TERI, 4th Main, 2nd
Cross, Domlur 2nd Stage, Bangalore 560 071, Email: ckjalaja@teri.res.in
10-Chapter.p65
81
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
82
Jaggery
making
Conventional
jaggery
making
Jaggery is used as an ingredient in sweet dishes across India. It

is considered by some to be a particularly wholesome sugar
and, unlike refined sugar, it retains more mineral salts such as
iron, calcium, and phosphorus than sugar. Moreover, the
process does not involve chemical agents. Jaggery is prepared
from sugar cane, and is mainly used for making sweets,
medicines, chocolates, and alcohol.
Jaggery is produced by concentration of sugar cane juice in large
vessels by heating. The syrup is made by boiling raw sugar cane
juice in a large shallow round-bottomed vessel. The process
involves heating of sugar cane juice until the water has
evaporated. During the process, ingredients such as lime, sodium
bicarbonate and ladies finger plant mixture are added to extract
the scum. After removing the scum, the juice is heated for about
1.5 hours to get the jaggery (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1 Traditional jaggery-making oven
Figure 2 Stock of jaggery
10-Chapter.p65
82
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
83
Every year, 15.8 million tonnes of sugar cane is grown in

0.23 million hectares in Karnataka, out of which 60% is used
for sugar production and the remaining 40% for jaggery and
sugar candy production. The jaggery-making units are located
in sugar-growing areas of Karnataka. Sugar cane is the main
cash crop in Bagalkote, Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur,
Chamarajnagar, Davangere, Mandya, and Shimoga districts of
Karnataka. It is estimated that there are more than 10 000
jaggery-producing units1 in Karnataka alone. The maximum
jaggery production is from Mandya district, which has 4500 to
4700 jaggery units (50%). Mandya and Pandavapura talukas
have about 3000 units and the remaining units are in Krishna
Rajpet and Malavalli. Mandya city has a separate market for
jaggery. A total of 12 500 quintals of jaggery is being
marketed per day during May to November, and up to 1300
quintals of jaggery is marketed per day during December to
April.
Types of
ovens
The jaggery-making units have typical sheds built with a large

front or backyard, which is used for drying bagasse. Normally,
jaggery ovens are of four types.
1 Single-pan oven
2 Two-pan oven
3 Three-pan oven
4 Four-pan oven
Single-pan oven
A single-pan vessel is used for heating sugar cane juice. These

types of ovens are used in Belgaum and Bidar districts. Sugar
cane crushing capacity is 67 tonnes/day and batch time is
2.53 hours.
Two-pan oven
One preheating vessel is used with the main heating vessel.

These types of ovens are used in the area of Mandya. This
oven is an improvement over a single-pan oven. Sugar cane
crushing capacity is 610 tonnes/day and batch time is
22.5 hours.
Three-pan oven
Two preheating vessels are used with the main heating vessel.
These types of ovens are used in Mandya and Bidar districts.
Based on discussions with association leader, jaggery merchants

association, jaggery market, Mandya
10-Chapter.p65
83
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
84
Sugar cane crushing capacity is 1213 tonnes/day with the

batch time of 2 hours.
Four-pan oven
Three preheating vessels are used with the main heating

vessel. These types of ovens are used in Mandya district. Sugar
cane crushing capacity is 1620 tonnes/day and batch time is
45 minutes.
Single- and double-pan oven cooking vessels are in the
shape of cut cone with 1524 mm diameter at the bottom and
about 2164 mm at the top with a depth of 457 mm. Threeand four-pan oven cooking vessels are round with conical
bottom, and the vessel diameter is about 1574 mm and
508 mm depth. Quality and life of jaggery are high if
processed in single- or double-pan oven. The quality of
jaggery is low and fungus formation is very high if it is
processed in three- and four-pan oven, due to higher moisture
content in the jaggery.
Fuel for ovens
Bagasse, which is left over after crushing of sugar cane, is

dried and used as fuel. In the rainy season, rubber tyres and
coconut leaves are also used along with bagasse, as bagasse is
in wet condition. Table 1 gives details of the fuels used in
different ovens.
Table 1 Types of fuel used in different jaggery ovens
Single-pan
oven
Two-pan
oven
Three-pan
oven
Four-pan
oven
Capacity of sugar cane

crushing (tonnes/day)
1213
1620
SFC (specific fuel

consumption) (kg) of
bagasse/kg of jaggery
2.0
1.5
1.251.0
1.00.75
Jaggery production per

tonne process of sugar
cane (jaggery tonne/
tonne of sugar cane)
0.090
0.090
0.095
0.110
Time required to
process 0.1 tonne of
jaggery (minute)
180
150
120
45
Details
Source Primary discussion with entrepreneurs in Mandya and TERI field experience
10-Chapter.p65
84
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
85
Need for
intervention
Traditional ovens are usually constructed by using bricks and

clay. The ovens are inefficient due to improper design of
combustion chamber, flue gas path and chimney and their
positions. Most of the heat is lost through radiation and
convection, that is, through stove body and chimney. Specific
fuel consumption is about 2 kg/kg of jaggery. Traditionally,
jaggery making is energy intensive and often the bagasse
obtained after crushing sugar cane is inadequate for making
jaggery. The gap in the demandsupply of energy is made up
by burning other biomass fuels, often automobile tyres
(mainly in the rainy season) which is harmful to the
environment and the health of the workers in jaggery-making
units. There exists a lot of scope to improve the efficiency of
traditional ovens. Some of the salient aspects are the
following.
P Complete combustion of fuel for maximum generation of heat
Using proper sized fire box, proper entry for primary and
secondary air, proper chimney for smooth flow of flue gases
will increase the efficiency of the ovens.
P Maximum utilization of generated heat Improving the
furnace by reducing the losses through the walls and
ground will also increase the efficiency of the oven.
TERI
interventions
in single-pan
jaggerymaking units
TERI demonstrated a modified single-pan oven in Bidar

district in one of the TERI projects. The specific fuel
consumption of conventional oven is about 2.1 kg of bagasse/
kg of jaggery. Test also revealed that about 70% of the total
energy is lost through chimney. The following are the major
changes made in the conventional oven.
P Flue gas path provided just below the vessel bottom in
order to avoid bypass of hot flue gases
P Modification of existing combustion chamber volume
P Repositioning of grate from centre to fuel feeding side of
the combustion chamber
The schematic view of the traditional and improved oven is
shown in Figures 3 and 4.
With the above modifications, the specific fuel consumption of
the oven has decreased from 2.11.9 kg/kg of jaggery. The
improved oven also reduces cooking time by about 30 minutes
per batch. Details are given in Table 2.
10-Chapter.p65
85
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
86
Figure 3 Traditional single-pan jaggery oven
Figure 4 Modified single-pan jaggery oven
Table 2 Performance of traditional and improved single-pan oven

Traditional
jaggery oven
Modified
jaggery oven
1200
1207
180
150
Yield of jaggery per batch (kg) 232

Fuel consumption (bagasse) 500
(kg/batch)
2.1
(kg/kg of jaggery)
235
450
Description
Weight of sugar cane juice
processed per batch (kg)
Time of operation (minutes)
1.9
10-Chapter.p65
86
Advantages of
modified oven
Time saving of
30 minutes (15%)
Almost same
Fuel savings of
50 kg/batch (10%)
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
87
Cost benefits
Cost of the improved single pan oven is Rs 18 000 and
payback on investment is three months.
P Cost of one kg of bagasse is Re 1.
P Fuel savings 50 kg/batch 4 batches/day Rs 1/kg
= Rs 200/day
Tobacco is an agriculture product processed from the fresh

leaves of plants in the genus Nicotine.2 After harvesting
tobacco leaves, they are immediately transferred to tobacco
barns, where they are cured. Curing methods will vary with
the type of tobacco grown, and tobacco dryer design varies
accordingly.
Tobacco
processing
Different
types of
tobacco curing
Air-curing
Air-cured tobacco is hung in well ventilated houses and

allowed to dry over a period of 48 weeks. The source of
energy is ambient temperature carried through air.3
Fire-curing
Fire is used as a source of energy. Fire-cured tobacco is hung

in large barns, where fires of hardwoods are kept on
continuous or intermittent low smoke without flame. It takes
310 weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco.3
Flue-curing
Flue-curing is an improved method of tobacco curing. The

curing involves drying green leaves under atmospheric
conditions by adopting a process that does not allow the green
leaf to come in direct contact with smoke or flame of the fuel
and which permits the regulation of temperature and
humidity.3
Sun-curing
In sun-curing, the whole plant is left to dry in the sun, either

on a string or spread on the ground.3
Most tobacco leaves are cured by flue-cure, for which fuel is
required. As mentioned above, tobacco is cured by air, sun or
fire (smoke). About 80% of flue-curing takes place in
traditional barns. These barns are constructed by using
Details available at <http//wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco#Curing>, last

accessed on 3 November 2007
Details available at <http://www.ikisan.com/links/ap_tobaccoCuring.shtml>,
last accessed on 10 November 2007
10-Chapter.p65
87
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
88
various materials such as wood, burnt brick, cement blocks

and mud, roofed with clay tiles, corrugated sheets or thatch
(Figure 5).4
Dimensions of commonly used dryers in Karnataka are
given in Table 3.5
Process details
of dryer
(size 3962
3962 3962)
The drying capacity of dryer is 1800 kg to 2000 kg of raw

tobacco, and in this dryer, the process will take about six days.
The drying ratio is about 1:6. The fuel consumption to
process 1800 kg of tobacco is about 1250 kg of wood. The
specific fuel consumption is 0.7 kg of fuel/kg of raw tobacco.
Number of
units
There are about 40 000 units in Karnataka. Out of 40 000 units

25 000 are registered and the rest are unregistered. An area of
about 40 000 hectares is under tobacco cultivation in Karnataka.
Out of 40 000 hectares, only 22 000 hectares are registered and
the remaining area is unregistered. Tobacco is grown in four
regionsMysore (80%), Shimoga (10%), Chikmagalur (10%),
and Hassan (5%). Figure 6 gives the percentage of tobacco
cultivated in the four regions in Karnataka.
Figure 5 Tobacco barn in Karnataka

Table 3 Dimensions of different dryers
Dryer dimension (length x breadth x height) (mm)
Use in Karnataka (%)
3962 3962 3962

4876 4876 3962
7315 4876 3962
6096 4876 3962
75
25
Details available at <www.tobaccoleaf.org/docs/infot6.htm>, last accessed

on 15 November 2007.
Data collected from Tobacco Board, Piriyapatana, and Bangalore
(17 November 2007).
10-Chapter.p65
88
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
89
Figure 6 Percentage of tobacco cultivated in four regions of Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh is the largest tobacco-producing state in

India. The state marketed about 171.9 million kg6 of tobacco
during 2006/07. Karnataka is the second largest tobaccoproducing state, marketing 96.98 million kg of tobacco in
2006/07.
Need for
intervention
Most of the tobacco is flue-cured, for which fuel is required.

As mentioned above, tobacco is cured by air, sun or fire
(smoke), and requires little or no artificial heating. About 80%
of flue-curing takes place in conventional barns. In Karnataka,
these barns are constructed from various materials such as
wood, burnt brick, and cement and roofed with tiles. Existing
conventional barns are inefficient. The tobacco-drying
industry needs to use fuel in a more cost-effective manner, as
well as improved barn, furnace, and flue design (heat
exchanger). Even simple modifications, such as ensuring an
airtight seal on a furnace door, could improve system revenue
considerably. Some possible solutions are discussed below.
Gasifier technology
Conversion of biomass into secondary gaseous fuel through

gasification route can enhance the utilization of this resource
in an efficient manner due to ease in handling and a better
degree of control. TERI has been involved in the development
of downdraft as well as updraft gasifier systems having
multifuel capability and end-use flexibility. The R&D
Details available at <http://www.indiantobacco.com/reports.php>, last

accessed on 11 November 2007
10-Chapter.p65
89
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
90
(research and development) efforts of the institute had been in

the direction of developing a variety of gasifier application
packages with emphasis on their commercialization to achieve
large-scale penetration in the field. Several prototype gasifier
systems for utilization of biomass, both for power generation
as well as for thermal applications, have been developed and
demonstrated in several areas. So far, more than 200 TERI
gasifier systems have been installed for a variety of thermal as
well as power applications throughout India.
Designing of heat exchanger
Proper designing of heat exchanger will improve the efficiency

of the system and distribute the uniform temperature. Under a
project sponsored by SERI-forum, TERI developed energyefficient and environment-friendly gasifier-based pupae dryer
(50100 kg/batch) demonstrated at M/S Sak Enterprises,
Vijayapura taluka, Kolar district, Karnataka. This dryer was
designed for drying of pupae coming out after reeling of silk
from cocoons. The pupae dryer works on gasifier-based heat
source. The flame coming out of the gasifier burner is passed
through flue gas duct for heating the air in the chamber.
Heated air is passed over the trays continuously inside the
dryer. The same technology can be adopted with slight
modification for tobacco curing.
Bakery
Gasifier for
thermal
applications
Bakeries across Karnataka are on a massive expansion drive to

cater to the increasing demand for cakes, bread, biscuits, and
other bakery products. On an average, the investment in
bakeries in cities is estimated to be Rs 50 000500 000,
including the cost of machinery in the unit. There is a large
number of bakeries in Bangalore. There are over 1200 Iyengar
bakeries in the city, catering to the vegetarian population,
apart from 300 bakeries that offer both vegetarian and nonvegetarian items.
In rural areas, traditional biomass-based ovens are used for
baking. The traditional oven is a chamber enclosed by
refractory material such as stone, brick, or refractory concrete.
These ovens are traditionally heated with wood, straw, or
some other locally available combustible material.
Traditionally, bread is baked after cleaning the residue and
ash from the oven. The walls of the oven store heat from a fire
built within the oven chamber. After the fire has sufficiently
heated the walls of the oven, all residue and ash are cleaned
out of the oven. The air within the oven is thus warmed by the
heat given off by the oven walls as they cool. This means that
10-Chapter.p65
90
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
91
bread is baked in an oven that is always getting cooler. When

the temperature has dropped to around 230 C, it is time to
put big roasts and other large meals in. Bread goes in last so
that it does not bake too fast on the outside.
In cities, sophisticated steam-injected hot air ovens are
used. In these ovens, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), diesel,
and electricity are mainly used as fuel. Operating temperature
is 250350 C. On an average, the fuel consumed per hour is
3.5 litres of diesel, 2.5 kg of LPG and 1.5 kW (kilowatt) of
electricity for bakery ovens. Normal operation hours of these
units are 810 hours per day. The major concerns in urban
areas are cost and availability of fuel.
Gasifier-based
bakery oven
A downdraft gasifier system was retrofitted to the existing

bakery oven to replace LPG and diesel. A first system was
installed at M/s Speciality Food Products Pvt Ltd, Hubli,
Karnataka. In this system, wood gas is allowed to burn in the
oven and flame is passed through the heat exchanger. The air
inside the heat exchanger gets heated and hot air is passed
into the baking chamber. The inside temperature of the baking
chamber will be in the range of 180220 C, depending on the
items to be baked. In terms of fuel consumption, the
10 kg/hr gasifier was able to replace 3.5 litres of diesel per
hour. The quality and quantity of the products were found
satisfactory and there was a saving of Rs 600 per day
compared to LPG-based baking oven (Figure 7).
Under its Annapoorna project, the charitable trust Adamya
Chetana provides mid-day meals to children in government
schools all over Bangalore, the farthest school being at a
distance of 28 km. The effort is supported by the mid-day
Mid-day meals
Figure 7 Gasifier-based bakery oven
10-Chapter.p65
91
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
92
meal scheme of the Karnataka state government and central

government. The trust has made the investments for the
kitchen equipment and requisite technology. Daily cooking
proportions are 5000 kg of rice, 750 kg of dal, 1200 kg of
vegetables, and 160 kg of roasted and pounded spices.
Prior to the introduction of gasifier, eight LPG-based
boilers were used to generate steam from 20 000 litres of
water, and 12 cookers were used to cook the meal. The steam
passed through insulated ducts into each of the 12 cookers
that were used to cook the meal. Every day 435 kg of LPG
(30 cylinders) was being used in cooking the mid-day meals.
Gasifier to
prepare midday meals
Crematoria
Three gasifiers have been installed in Adamya Chetana to

cook the meal (Figure 8). The three gasifiers account for
almost 50% of the steam production, each with a heat
capacity of 168 000 kJ (kilojoules)/hour. The hopper of the
gasifier holds 125 kg of sized biomass and is loaded every five
hours to supply the required clean fuel. These gasifiers have
been operating for the last two years. The use of clean fuel
through the biomass gasifiers has reduced the consumption of
LPG by more than half. Presently, 174 kg (12 cylinders) of
LPG is used compared to 435 kg (30 cylinders) earlier.
Cremation is the act of reducing a corpse to ashes by burning,
generally in a crematorium furnace or crematory fire. In India,
Hindus traditionally cremate the dead. Each day, an estimated
20 00030 000 bodies are cremated across India. Each
cremation requires 400600 kg of firewood, and about five
million tonnes of firewood are consumed each year due to this
practice (Figure 9). Besides leading to the depletion of forests,
traditional cremations have an adverse impact on the
environment.
Figure 8 Gasifier-based LPG boiler
10-Chapter.p65
92
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
93
Figure 9 Wood stacked on cremation pyre
Alternative systems (electric or diesel-fired) are available

for cremation, but have not gained popularity. These
crematoria are mainly installed in big hospitals and
municipalities, and are used mainly for unknown/unclaimed
dead bodies. These crematoria are expensive to adopt. A
typical electric (as well as diesel) crematorium costs over
Rs 200 000 and even operation costs are quite high;
approximately 100 units of electricity or 2530 litres of diesel
is required per cremation. Electric crematoria sometimes fail
because of power cuts and long time required for initial
heating.
TERIs
intervention in
developing
gasifier-based
crematorium
TERI developed energy-efficient and environment-friendly

gasifier-based crematoria under a project sponsored by the
MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy). Initially,
TERI developed a prototype cremation system and tested it at
its research station in Gual Pahari. The prototype crematoria
consisted of a downdraft gasifier and body combustion
chamber made with firebrick. The producer gas from the
gasifier was distributed through ducts to the combustion
chamber. Seven burners were provided in the combustion
chamberthree burners along the length of each of its two
walls, and one additional burner at the end, where the head
would be located. Several trials were also carried out to test
the viability of the system and to achieve reliable performance.
After a series of tests and improvements in design, a complete
system consisting of a gasifier, air preheater, producer gas
burner, and combustion chamber was fabricated by the
manufacturer, 2M Industries, Mumbai, for field testing. One
major modification was made to replace the multiple burners
used in the earlier model by single large burner with premixing of hot air. The gasifier-based crematoria installed in
Himachal Pradesh is shown in Figure 10.
10-Chapter.p65
93
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
94
Figure 10 Gasifier-based crematoria installed in Himachal Pradesh
P TERI demonstrated its first system with the help of Nagarik

Sewa Mandal, an NGO based in Ambarnath, Thane district,
Maharashtra.
P Each cremation in the gasifier-based system takes
approximately 6080 minutes, and consumes just
100150 kg of wood (as against 400600 kg wood in the
traditional cremation).
P The system cost is around Rs 500 000 and payback period
is around two years.
P The systems economic viability is further enhanced in big
cities like Mumbai, where the cost of firewood used for
traditional cremation is much higher than in the towns and
rural areas.
P The higher cost of firewood in metropolitan cities brings
down the payback period of the gasifier base system from
two years to six months or so.
Potential for
installation of
gasifier-based
crematorium
At present there are six city corporations, 44 city municipal

councils, 79 town municipal councils, and 93 town panchayats
in Karnataka. The population is increasing rapidly, going up
by 14.8% from 1991 to 2001. (The population of Karnataka
increased from 44.9 million in 1991 to 52.8 million in 2001).
Urban population also increased by 22.4%, from 1991 to
2001. (The urban population of Karnataka increased from
13.9 million in 1991 to 17.9 million in 2001). Most cities and
towns have serious shortage of land for cremation. Gasifierbased crematoria can help to solve this problem.
10-Chapter.p65
94
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
95
Jaggery production mainly depends on bagasse, which is being

used as fuel. In the rainy and winter seasons, there is always
shortage of fuel supply, due to which the owners have to
purchase firewood and other energy sources. The experiments
with the existing ovens have indicated that they are less
efficient, as well as time-consuming. There is an immense
potential to save fuel and time by improving the existing
ovens. TERI has worked on single-pan jaggery-making ovens
and made some modifications in the firebox, intake air, flue
flow path and chimney in order to burn fuel completely and
utilize the heat in a most appropriate manner. From the
intervention, TERI has showed that about 200 kg per day
(4 batches) can be saved. Considering about 10 000 units in
Karnataka, there is a potential to save about 2000 tonnes per
day. The saved bagasse could be used in case of inadequate
supply of the fuel, and could also be sold in the market.
Conclusion
Jaggerymaking oven
Tobacco
processing
Tobacco curing is done by using wood as fuel, an average of

4.55 kg of wood required to process 1 kg of tobacco (dried).
Average ratio is 6 kg:1 kg. Usually, firewood is purchased in
large quantities from the forest wood depots. Saving wood is
important to conserve precious forest resources. According to
latest statistics, there are about 77 586.9 tonnes (80% of
actual marketed: 96 983.7 tonnes) of tobacco produced
from 40 000 barns per year. Total firewood requirement is
387 934.9 tonnes. There is a potential to save about 10% to
20% (about 77 586.9 tonnes) of firewood by modifying the
heat exchanger and adopting the gasifier technology for heat
generation.
Bakery and mid-day meal
Gasifier for
thermal
applications
In these sectors people are dependant on fossil fuels and

biomass. Biomass gasifiers are a suitable choice for bakery,
mid-day meal, and SMiEs (small and micro enterprises) run
on low costs and marginal profits. The NSSOs (National
Sample Survey Organizations) report on unorganized
industries indicates that 40% of the 15 million enterprises in
the country consume biomass as fuel but in an inefficient
manner. Of the 3 million organized enterprises, 70% of them
require energy (both conventional and petroleum fuels).
Cheap and readily available fuel options such as wood or
agro-residues make gasifiers a viable and enduring option. It
provides secondary opportunities where energy plantations
can be grown on commercial basis.
10-Chapter.p65
95
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
96

Crematoria
Conventional cremation units require about 400600 kg of

firewood and Rs 300500 worth of electricity or diesel in wellinsulated cremation centres. In urban areas, cost of firewood
used for traditional cremation is much higher than in rural
areas. The electric crematoria have issues related to frequent
power cuts and the long time required for initial heating of
system. Traditional firewood method involves burning in open
spaces, which results in heat loss and air pollution. In this
area, there is immense potential to save fuel and time by using
improved practices.
To overcome the above-mentioned problems, TERI
developed gasifier-based crematorium system, which is
energy-efficient and eco-friendly. This system consumes
about 100150 kg of wood for every corpse and takes about
6080 minutes. By using TERI technology 300450 kg (more
than 50%) of firewood per body can be saved. This technology
can be adopted in city corporations, city municipal councils,
town municipal councils, and town panchayats.
Acknowledgements
References
Websites
We are thankful to our colleagues Dr V V N Kishore,

Dr Sanjay Mande, and Mr H H Ninga Setty for their inputs
preparing the paper.
Mande S and Kishore V V N (eds). 2007
Towards Cleaner Technologies a process story on biomass
gasifiers for heat application in small and micro enterprises
New Delhi: TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute)
<www.fnbnews.com/specials/BAKERY2006.asp>
<http://www.ovenindia.com/bread-making-baking-machines.html>
10-Chapter.p65
96
8196
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
Initiatives of the Karnataka Council for Technological Upgradation
97
Initiatives of the Karnataka Council for

Technological Upgradation
Chapter 11
N Chandrashekhar* and Siddalingappa B Pujari#
The KCTU (Karnataka Council for Technological Upgradation)

is a joint venture of the central government, state government,
and industry associations. The council has been set up to fulfil
the long-felt need for technological inputs in the MSMEs (micro,
small and medium enterprises) of Karnataka. The KCTU started
functioning from August 1996. It functions as a nodal agency for
technology transfer and as a facilitator. Since its establishment,
the KCTU has been a pioneer in creating awareness about the
technology, facilitating the entrepreneurs through its schemes and
programmes laid down within the broader framework of the
industrial policy of the Government of Karnataka and the
Government of India. It has been instrumental in transferring
commercially viable technology to entrepreneurs. The following
are a few initiatives of the KCTU, which is revolutionizing the
industrial sector in general by virtue of its operations.
Abstract
On 7 March 2000, the KCTU entered into an MoU

(memorandum of understanding) on the Technology
Management Programme with the TMD (Technology
Management Division), Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of
India. The activities are scheduled to be implemented in two
phases. Phase I has been completed successfully. The following
activities have been implemented under the programme.
Technology
Management
Programme
Activities
under Phase I
Cluster study
P Technology needs of cashew processing industries

P Technology needs of electronic process control,
instrumentation and small transformers
The KCTU has carried out an extensive field study and
detailed discussions with industries, as well as industry
associations and research institutions like the Central Food
* Managing Director, KCTU (Karnataka Council for Technological
Upgradation, Bangalore,
#
Assistant Director, Department of Industries and Commerce
11-Chapter.p65
97
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
98
Technological Research Institute. The KCTU has brought out

a detailed study report on the technology needs of the above
industries in Karnataka.
Awareness programme on technology management
The KCTU conducted awareness programmes in collaboration

with industry associations and district industries centre in four
districts to create awareness about technology management.
Case studies in technology management
Information for the industries in different sectors has been

imparted through technology management programmes. An
interactive CD has been brought out, in which the promoters
have expressed the need for technology upgradation and the
benefits derived by the industries in this regard.
Publication of the Technology Management Digest
The Technology Management Digest on the above initiatives has

been published and already circulated to the concerned
stakeholders. The council has brought out four quarterly
issues of the digest.
Activities
under Phase II
Sector-specific studies
Technology advancement in jaggery manufacturing units The

study is under process and experts from the regional sugar
cane and jaggery station, Kolhapur, after visiting the jaggery
manufacturing units in Mandya district, have felt that the lack
of adaptation of process technology is the main cause for
failure of the jaggery manufacturing units in the district.
There is a need for the implementation of process technology
and scientifically designed plant layout.
Technology advancement in tobacco barn A study on technology
advancement in fuel efficiency and improvement in tobacco curing
has been taken up. The process of heat circulation and moisture
evaporation has been controlled and experimented upon by
installing a suitable fan on the top of the tobacco barn. The initial
tests have been conducted and the results have been favourable.
Technology management awareness programme
A one-day workshop on hygienic process, adopting process

technology and other factors directly linked to jaggerymanufacturing units was conducted at VC Farm, Mandya.
Case studies in technology management
Case studies are being prepared for the tobacco and jaggery
sectors.
11-Chapter.p65
98
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
99
Publication of the Technology Management Digest
The KCTU has taken the initiative to publish the Technology

Management Digest on technology advancement in the jaggery
manufacturing and tobacco barn. The publication covers the
new areas of technology, technology management, and
technology applications.
Other programmes under Phase II
IIUS (Industrial Infrastructure Upgradation Scheme) The

Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Government of India, has approved
the upgradation of infrastructure facilities under the IIUS for
the foundry cluster, Belgaum, and machine tools cluster,
Bangalore. The KCTU is a nominated member on the Board
of Directors of these SPVs. The KCTU is playing a vital role
in ensuring the effective implementation of the projects on
behalf of the Government of Karnataka.
Incentives to micro, small, and medium enterprises for obtaining
ISO 9000/14000 and similar other international certifications
With a view to promoting total quality management and best
procedures in SMiEs (small and micro enterprises), the state
government is encouraging SMiEs by giving assistance in the
form of meeting 50% of the cost of obtaining ISO 9000/ISO
14 000 and similar international certification subject to a
ceiling of Rs 75 000 per industry through the KCTU. Table 1
Table 1 Details of incentives assistance extended to MSMEs for obtaining ISO 9000/14000 series certificates
by district
District
1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 Total
Bangalore (U)
6
Bangalore (R)
0
Mysore
2
Belgaum
0
Udupi
0
Dharwad
0
Tumkur
0
Shimoga
0
Chikmagalur
0
Dakshin Kannada
0
Mandya
0
Kolar
0
Gadag
0
Uttar Kannada
0
Davangere
0
Bellary
0
Gulbarga
0
Total numbers
8
Amount (Rs million) 0.6
17
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
1.5
12
0
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
1.35
8
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0.68
17
0
0
2
0
2
2
1
0
4
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
30
2.05
5
0
0
9
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
18
1.00
45
1
14
20
2
7
3
23
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
117
6.63
11-Chapter.p65
99
42
0
14
6
2
2
1
6
0
1
0
1
0
1
5
1
1
83
4.07
37
1
4
6
0
6
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
68
2.95
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
189
2
35
46
5
21
10
36
1
6
1
3
1
1
13
1
1
372
20.84
100
gives the details of incentives assistance extended to MSMEs

for obtaining ISO 9000/14000 series certificates by district.
In the year 2006/07, assistance was extended to 68 SMiEs
for successfully obtaining the ISO 9000 series certification.
The graphical representation of the assistance extended to
industries under the ISO and ISI incentives are shown in
Figure 1.
Technology transfer The KCTU grants an incentive of 25% of
the cost of transfer or Rs 50 000, whichever is less, to SMiEs
whenever technology is obtained from the CSIR (Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research), research and development
centres, institutions/organizations, and commercializes it
successfully. The following are the initiatives relating to the
technology transfer.
P M/s Space Age Electro Technology (India) Pvt. Ltd have
purchased technology for black chrome plating on copper
from the National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, and
the technology is proving very effective for solar water
heater systems both for industrial and commercial use. The
KCTU has encouraged the unit by reimbursing Rs 25 000
as incentive on the cost of technology transfer fees during
1999/2000.
P M/s Southern Tall Tree, BSK 3rd Stage, Bangalore, unit at
KIADB, Nanjangud, have effectively obtained the
technology transfer from Defence Food Research
Laboratory, Mysore, and Coconut Development Board,
Figure 1 Assistance extended to industries under the ISO and ISI incentives
11-Chapter.p65
100
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
101
Cochin, on preserving and processing of tender coconut

water. An amount of Rs 50 000, representing
reimbursement by way of incentive on the cost of
technology transfer fee, has been released during 2001/02.
P M/s Maha Gaven Foods, Chamarajpet, Bangalore, has
successfully taken the technology transfer from Regional
Research Laboratories, Jammu, for the manufacture of fruit
jam for diabetics. An amount of Rs 6250 has been released
as reimbursement of technology transfer fee incentive.
P M/s Sri Durga Biotech, Kodatti village, Sarjapur Road,
Bangalore, have successfully adopted the technology
transfer for Resham Jyothisilkworm bed disinfectant from
Silk Worm Seed Technology Laboratories, Bangalore. An
amount of Rs 50 000 has been released as reimbursement
by way of incentive on the cost of technology transfer fee
during 2003/04.
Dealing with WTO matters pertaining to industry and trade The
following measure are being taken in this area.
P The KCTU has established a WTO (World Trade
Organization) relay cell to look after these matters.
P Documentation and dissemination of information to
entrepreneurs is being done.
P The KCTU is also bringing out a quarterly newsletter to
disseminate WTO rules and TRIPS (Trade-Related aspects
of Intellectual Property Rights) and other relevant
information to industry and trade to keep pace with the
dynamics of the WTO and seize the new-found
opportunities. The newsletter is being published and
circulated among entrepreneurs, associations, and
organizations.
P The relay cell is conducting seminars, workshops, and
awareness programmes on WTO and IPR (intellectual
property rights) in various parts of Karnataka.
P The cell is facilitating the industries, organizations, and
individuals, for registration of the intellectual property
rights, that is, patents, trademarks, copyrights, and
geographical indications. As on 31 October 2007, the
KCTU had facilitated 101 enterprises for IPR-related
matters.
11-Chapter.p65
101
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
102
Table 2 shows the number of SSI (small-scale industry)

units that received assistance from the KCTU for patents,
designs, copyrights, and trademarks from 2001/02 to 2007/08.
Table 2 Number of SSI (small-scale industry) units that received assistance from the
KCTU for patents, designs, copyrights, and trademarks from 2001/02 to 2007/08.
Year
Number of units
Remarks
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
Total
8
18
21
17
17
17
3
101
Patent guidance and application forms

Patent and trademarks guidance
Patent, trademarks and GI (geographical indications)
Patent, trademarks and GI
Patent, trademarks, copyrights and GI
Trademarks, along with others
Patent guidance and application forms
11-Chapter.p65
102
97102
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
103
Chapter 12
N Chandrashekhar* and Siddalingappa B Pujari#
We are living in a time of change in all segments of society.

This requires adjusting to rapidly changing situations. Growth
is essential for two reasons. First, it is only in a rapidly
growing economy that we can expect to sufficiently raise the
income of the masses to bring about a general improvement in
living conditions. Second, rapid growth is necessary to
generate the resources needed to provide basic services to
all. It is very clear that economic development is accompanied
by employment generation.
The distribution of population in our country 72.2% of
the population living in rural India and 27.8% living in urban
India strongly proves that the country is still rural-based,
with an agrarian economy. India has become self-sufficient in
agricultural production, but due to the dismal performance of
the agriculture sector in the Tenth Five-year Plan, other
sectors are being given serious attention. Therefore, focus is
also being given to the MSMEs (micro, small and medium
enterprises), which provide the second largest share of
employment, after agriculture. India is now the 10th most
industrialized country in the world. The Eleventh Plan is
aimed at putting the economy on a sustainable growth
trajectory with a growth rate of approximately 10% by the end
of the Plan period. If this has to become a reality then the
MSMEs have to play a major role.
Abstract
The definition of small enterprises varies from one country to

another. In most countries, the size of the employment
provided by an enterprise is taken as the criteria. In some
countries both the investment made on plant and machinery
and the size of the employment provided by the unit is taken
as the criteria. Only a few countries, including India, have
adopted investment as the only criterion. The definition is an
important aspect of government policy, as it identifies the
Definition of
small
enterprises
* Managing Director, KCTU (Karnataka Council for Technological

Upgradation), Bangalore,
#
Assistant Director, Department of Industries and Commerce
12-Chapter.p65
103
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
104
target groups. Earlier, small enterprises were dealt with in the

two sections of the Industrial (Development and Regulation)
Act, 1951. Now, to facilitate the promotion, development, and
enhancement of the competitiveness of MSMEs, the central
government has formulated the Micro, Small, and Medium
Enterprises Development Act, 2006. Under this Act,
enterprises are classified broadly into two classes.
(1) Enterprises engaged in the manufacture/production of
goods pertaining to any industry
(2) Enterprises engaged in providing/rendering services
Manufacturing enterprises are defined in terms of
investment in plant and machinery and further classified into
the following.
P Micro enterprises: investment up to Rs 2.5 million
P Small enterprises: investment above Rs 2.5 million and up
to Rs 50 million
P Medium enterprises: investment above Rs 50 million and
up to Rs 100 million
Service enterprises are defined in terms of investment in
plant and machinery and further classified into the following.
P Micro enterprises: investment up to Rs 1 million
P Small enterprises: investment above Rs 1 million and up to
Rs 20 million
P Medium enterprises: investment above Rs 20 million and
up to Rs 50 million
Significance of
small
enterprises
Small enterprises play an important role in the economic

development of a country like India and they are highly
instrumental in realizing the many planned objectives. The
small enterprises sector has acquired a prominent place in the
socio-economic development of the country. It contributes
significantly towards the economic growth of the nation, with
over 39% of industrial production and over 34% of national
exports.
Micro and small enterprises cover a wide range, including
khadi, village and coir industries, handlooms, handicraft,
sericulture, wool, power looms, food processing, and other
agro and rural industry segments. These industries touch the
lives of the weaker and unorganized sections of the society,
with more than half of those employed being women,
minorities, and the marginalized. This sector has stimulated
the economic activity of a far-reaching magnitude and has
played a significant role in the following ways.
12-Chapter.p65
104
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
105
P They provide immediate large-scale employment due to

their higher labour intensity.
P They result in more equitable distribution of national income.
P They have the potential for balanced regional development.
P They help in optimum utilization of latent resources (that
is, capacities and skills) which otherwise might remain
unutilized.
P They contribute to the promotion of local
entrepreneurship, skills, and savings, particularly in semiurban and rural areas.
P Most small enterprises do not require a high level of
technology.
P They meet a substantial part of increased demand for
consumer goods, including mass consumption goods.
P They have low capital requirement and have a short
gestation period, with low risk.
P Due to their labour intensity and production of mainly
labour-intensive goods, they result in economical use of
capital and extensive use of labour.
P They are flexible in operation and are innovative and
productive.
They have simple processes and are method-oriented.
P They ease the pressure arising out of rapid urbanization
and can check ruralurban migration by providing gainful
employment in villages. They bring integration with rural
economy on the one hand and large-scale enterprises on the
other.
P They hold a huge potential for exports and earning foreign
exchange for the country.
According to the Third All India Census of Small-Scale
Industries 2001/02 conducted by the Government of India,
the total number of units registered as on 31 March 2001 is
2 305 725. Out of these, 1 437 704 are working and the rest
are closed. The total number of persons employed in this
sector is 3 448 356 and an investment of Rs 5 335 580 has
been made. In terms of number of working units, five states
Uttar Pradesh (12%), Tamil Nadu (11.7%), Gujarat (11.3%),
Kerala (10.5%), and Karnataka (9.1%) had a cumulative
share of 54.6%.
As on 30 September 2007, the total number of units
registered in Karnataka state is 353 222 with an investment of
Rs 840 49 million, providing employment to 2 001 236
people. The district-wise coverage of registered small
enterprises is given in Table 1.
Performance
of small
enterprises
12-Chapter.p65
105
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
106

Table 1 SSI units registered in Karnataka by district
Districts
Number of units
Investment (Rs in million) Employment
Bagalakote
Bangalore (U)
Bangalore (R)
Belgaum
Bellary
Bidar
Bijapur
Chamarajnagar
Chikkaballapur
Chikmagalur
Chitradurga
Dakshin Kannada
Davangere
Dharwad
Gadag
Gulbarga
Hassan
Haveri
Kodagu
Kolar
Koppal
Mandya
Mysore
Raichur
Ramanagara
Shimoga
Tumkur
Udupi
Uttar Kannada
Total
6 788
61 008
16 375
30 243
13 768
7 513
7 345
7 568
37
6 890
8 747
17 581
7 598
14 689
6 947
14 104
10 124
8 252
3 352
13 350
4 462
8 393
20 764
8 389
5
13 401
19 970
7 215
8 344
353 222
1 346.72
21 588.53
4 310.55
5 532.86
4 327.89
1 376.35
1 327.38
810.20
5.31
1 108.18
1 493.98
3 739.10
1 646.35
3 518.82
955.39
2 308.26
1 798.86
1 130.96
631.28
4 840.81
1 656.85
1 548.50
3 995.15
1 775.71
51.00
2 064.09
4 104.63
3 204.74
1 896.99
84 049.517
31 330
526 373
84 422
127 115
64 778
40 866
40 051
32 868
184
29 575
36 374
91 455
35 533
127 151
25 530
61 032
44 048
31 174
22 680
83 732
29 122
38 303
107 720
40 262
54
55 457
102 460
46 967
44 620
2 001 236
SSI small-scale industry
Major issues
and
challenges
More than 50% of the SMiEs are owner-run enterprises, with

one person owning the unit. Under normal market conditions,
many such enterprises would not be able to survive. However,
the urban-based enterprises have availed the benefits of many
of the governments promotional policies. The lack of
awareness about the policies, schemes, incentives, and market
conditions was a major reason for the failure of such
enterprises. Many government organizations are trying hard to
bring these enterprises back on track. Some of the market
imperfections are discussed below.
12-Chapter.p65
106
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
107
Labour
problems and
developing
human
resources
P There is a gap between the skills required for the industries

and skills imparted to a candidate at academic level in
India. No doubt, India has abundant human resources, but
the quality needs to be upgraded.
P Skilled workers demand higher wages. Large firms are able
to compensate these costs through higher efficiency, but
small firms are unable to do so.
P The New Industrial Policy 200611 has envisaged strong
efforts to reduce the human resource problem and increase
the employment generation opportunity.
Land
availability
and
infrastructural
bottlenecks
P The procurement of land for MSMEs has become difficult.

Land is becoming more expensive and unaffordable by the
enterprises.
P The availability of land in urban areas like Bangalore is
virtually nil. The Government of Karnataka has announced
incentives and concessions for small industries to be
established in other areas.
P Infrastructure facilities available in other areas are
inadequate for the enterprises. Therefore, the entrepreneurs
are looking forward to establishing their units in the areas,
where required infrastructure is available.
Increasing the
exporting
capacity
P The key challenge, however, is to maintain the growth levels

and to enhance our global presencemake Made in India
brand a reality, and develop the ability to achieve a no
protection environment.
Inadequate
finance
P There is a need to promote the MSME sector through the

creation of growth poles and business hubs, removal of
credit barriers, upgradation of technology, and provision of
marketing support. Indeed, credit availability is a major
problem for MSMEs.
P Credit to MSMEs must be progressive and in accordance
with the notifications and guidelines issued by the Reserve
Bank of India.
Delayed
payments
P This is another important problem faced by the small

enterprises. To minimize this problem, constitution of
SMiEs facilitation council by the states has been made
mandatory.
P No appeal against an order of the facilitation council is to
be entertained by any court without deposit of 75% of the
decreed amount payable by buyer.
12-Chapter.p65
107
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
108
Sick small
enterprises
P Sick small enterprises are being revived and rehabilitated

after the Appraisal Report on Revival of Sick Industry,
prepared by the financial institutions. The Karnataka
government has formulated a scheme for the revival of sick
industries. Every year in the budget, a separate amount will
be earmarked for the revival of sick industries in the state.
The problems related to MSMEs are internal as well as
external and multidimensional. These problems can be solved
by the coordinated efforts of entrepreneurs, promotional
agencies, and governmental assistance.
Policy
initiatives by
the
government
Over the years, small enterprises have emerged as leaders in

the industrial sector in India. In recognition of their
significance and status, the Government of India on 6 August
1991 announced for the first time in the post-independence
period, policy measures for promoting the strengthening of
small enterprises. The Indian government has extended a
special policy, which includes a combination of protectionist
and promotional approach. Since then, the policy initiative
has undergone a major shift as the priorities of the sector
have changed. The key points of the policy are the following.
P Generation of employment
P Preferential allocation of land
P Preferential procurement by the government
P Extension of investment subsidies
P Extension of fiscal concessions
P Supply of credit on priority basis
P Infrastructure development
P Technology upgradation and modernization
P The reservation policy
The policy of reserving items for the exclusive manufacture
in the small enterprises sector was initiated in 1967, when
only 47 items were reserved. Over the years the reservation
policy proved to be a disadvantage for the sector. In his study,
Rakesh Mohan1 argued that this policy has now become
obsolete and is now likely to be harmful to the development
of the sector and industrial development in general. After a
lot of debate and deliberations, the Government of India is
bringing down the number of reserved items. In 1984, the
1
Interim Report of the Study Group on Development of Small Enterprises,

Village and Small Industries Division, Planning Commission,
Government of India, 1999
12-Chapter.p65
108
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM
109
number of reserved items for the small enterprises was 873;

after 13 March 2007, the number of reserved items for small
enterprises was 114.
The following initiatives deserve special attention.
P Taxes and duties should be made non-distortive and
internationally competitive.
P Initiatives to provide infrastructure in general are important,
but they should be supplemented by efforts to promote
infrastructure development in local areas.
P Technological modernization is the key to high industrial
growth.
P In order to create an investor-friendly climate, there is a need
to ensure that delays in land registration, water and utility
connections, environmental and other clearances are
minimized.
P Some of our labour laws may be discouraging the creation
of employment opportunities in the organized manufacturing
sector, inducing capital-intensive rather than labour-intensive
industrial development.
P Although industrial licensing has been virtually eliminated,
residual restrictions and controls remain in the sugar,
petroleum refining, fertilizer, and drug industry. These
should be progressively eliminated.
P Sensitization to IPR (intellectual property rights)
requirements and tools, adoption of lean manufacturing
practices, wider use of IT (information technology) tools, and
so on, should be evolved.
P Competition is the best guarantee of consumer protection
and should be strongly encouraged.
The private sector, including farming, micro, small and
medium enterprises, and the corporate sector, has a critical role
to play in achieving the objective of faster and more
inclusive growth. This sector accounts for 76% of the total
investment in the economy and an even larger share in
employment and output. MSMEs in particular have a vital
role in expanding production in a regionally balanced manner
and generating widely dispersed off-farm employment. Our
policies must aim at creating an environment in which
entrepreneurship can flourish at all levels, not just at the top. To
stimulate private investment, policy-induced constraints and
excessive transaction costs need to be removed. To increase the
number of successful entrepreneurs, a competitive
environment must be created, which encourages new entrants
and provides enough finance.
Conclusion
12-Chapter.p65
109
103109
22/02/2008, 3:13 PM

Furnaces India SME PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Furnaces India SME PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PROCEEDINGS

The Energy and Resources Institute

The Energy and Resources Institute 2008

Tel. 2468 2100, 4150 4900

Printed in India at Innovative Designers and Printers, New Delhi

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Small and micro enterprises play a vital role in the Indian

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

benefits of energy-efficient and cleaner technologies and

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

The small-scale industry sector is a vital constituent of the

Dr Raj Kumar Khatri

TERISDC Partnership (CoSMiLE Project)

V V N Kishore, Senior Fellow, TERI

The goal of CoSMiLE is to improve the economic,

P Technology development and demonstration

Table 1 Cleaner technology packages developed and demonstrated in various sectors

All India level

Experiences reveal that energy and environment technologies

Technology dissemination among the small and micro

Table 2 Technologies developed under the umbrella of CoSMiLE

Divided blast cupola

Energy savings of 35%60% (and

Energy savings of 15%45% (and

Regional level workshops/seminars and one-to-one

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Stove with heat

2 (months) 100 installed

By all partners: 14 704

P Improved work environment

A large number of local institutions, directly or indirectly,

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

issues. It has worked in areas as diverse as setting up SHGs

Social action IMSE (Institute

PEPUS (Paryavaran Evam

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

P Identifying cleaner technologies and providing technical

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Gasifier applications in small and micro

Sanjay Mande, Fellow, T E R I

Biomass has been a source of energy for thousands of years.

Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas

P Process heat applications in agro-based industries

Biomass gasification is a process of converting solid biomass fuel

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas

simplicity in construction as well as operation. Compared to a

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas

SMiEs (small and micro enterprises) play a significant role in

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas

The majority of small-scale unorganized enterprises need

This is another low temperature (temperature requirement

In SMiEs, low-pressure steam is used in several chemical process

This application requires high temperature range (15001600 C)

Workshop on Dissemination of Learnings of CoSMiLE

Gasifier applications in small and micro enterprises in rural areas

enterprises use firewood, 8% of the enterprises use charcoal, and

Most of the biomass-consuming industries are located in rural

With continued rising prices of fossil fuels, coupled with their

Total firewood consumption