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INTRODUCTION
Name : Mrs Olivia S. Otieno-Mwembe
Background: QS by profession Cum Construction

Project Manager

Course Objective

Course Objective

Considerations of various materials used in finishes,

Introduce students to technology of design and

plaster, tiles, timber, sheets, paints, etc

construction of building finishes and fixtures

Considerations of design, construction technique and
materials functional, structural, thermal and acoustic
requirement for these building elements;

Joinery fixtures in a simple domestic house

wardrobes, built in cupboards, skirtings, corners,

mouldings, etc
Drawing exercises of the various finishes and fixtures
covered in the course

Openings windows
Opening doors
Wall finishes Internal and external
Floor finishes
Ceiling finishes
Sheets and other rigid applied finishes
Paneling
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Course Importance

References

Student Quantity Surveyor ought to understand all

Barrys introduction to construction of buildings, by

aspects of building technology, this being one of them.

Stephen Emmit and Christopher Gorse, 2005.

Finishes and fixtures form a big component of

Barry, The construction of Buildings 2: Windows,

buildings, hence greatly affects costs; course will help

improve the understanding of these aspects for
purposes of capturing proper costings.
Help to advice the clients on the best available options
for finishes and fixtures at affordable and reasonable
prices.
Understand design choices vs cost considerations.

Doors, Fires, Stairs, Finishes, 4th edition , 1992.

All building/construction technology books
Journals and magazines
Internet

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Schedule of Classes

Expectations

Week 1 Expectations & Introduction

Week 2 Windows

Examination will be as follows;

Course Work = Sit in CAT (40 Marks) + Group Projects
(60 Marks)
The total for coursework is out of 100, will be converted
to 30% to get score for coursework.
Main examination = 70%
Failure to do both CAT and Group Project will lead to an
automatic fail, even if exams marks are available.
There will also be simple studio exercises in every lesson
to improve the understanding of the technology behind
these building elements.
All drawings are as per class notes and construction
technology books

Week 3 Doors
Week 4 Wall finishes
Week 5 Floor finishes
Week 6 Ceiling finishes
Week 7 Joinery fixtures
Week 8 Continuous Assessment Test
Week 9 Rigid finishes
Week 10 Presentation of group projects
Week 11-12 Revisions and exercises
Week 14 15 - Exams
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Introduction

Introduction

Definitions;
Building finishes; This comprises those nonstructural
parts of the building. The finish is divided into
EXTERIOR finish (located principally on the
outside of the structure) and INTERIOR finish
(located inside of buildings).
Finishing is important to cover up the rough surfaces of
constructed walls, ceilings and floors. Good finishing
work result in smooth and aesthetically appealing
surfaces.
Examples
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Introduction

Other meanings of Finish;

To arrive at the end of; to bring to an end; to put an end to; to make an end of; to

terminate.
To bestow the last required labor upon; to complete; to bestow the utmost
possible
labor
upon;
to
perfect;
to
accomplish;
to
polish.
To come to an end; to terminate.
In respect to buildings, it may refer to the joiner work and other finer work

required for the completion of a building, especially of the interior, and also
exterior.
Finishing work usually requires a lot of labour to give final and fair completion
to any these types of work; hence, minute detail, careful elaboration, are always

required.

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A window is an opening formed in a wall or roof of a

Building fixture is any of the fittings or furniture of a

house, store, etc. attached to the building and,

ordinarily, considered legally a part of it: example
include kitchen fittings, bathroom fixtures, etc.
Other examples

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building to admit daylight through some transparent or

translucent material fixed in the opening.
This means that its primary function is to provide a means
for admission of natural daylight to the interior of the
building.
This primary function of a window is served by a sheet of
glass fixed in a frame in the window opening.
A window can also serve as a means of providing the
necessary ventilation of dwellings, as required under
building regulations, by including into the window design
opening lights.
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Windows, like doors can be made from a variety of

materials such as timber, metal and plastic.

They can also be designed in various ways by arranging the
sashes to slide, pivot, or swing, or hang as a casement to one
of the frame members.
As the window is part of the wall or roof envelope, it should
serve to exclude wind and rain, and act as a barrier to
excessive transfer of heat, sound and spread of fire in much
the same way as the surrounding wall or roof does.
The functional material of a window, glass, is efficient in
admitting daylight and excluding wind and rain but is a poor
barrier to the transfer of heat, sound and spread of fire.

The traditional window is designed to ventilate rooms

through one or more parts that open to encourage an

exchange of air between inside and outside.
Ventilation is not a necessary function per se; since it can
be achieved openings in walls and roofs that are either
separate from the window or linked to perform the
separate function of ventilation.
The advantage of separating the functions of day lighting
and ventilation is that windows may be made more
effectively wind and weather tight and ventilation can be
more accurately controlled.

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Functional requirements of a window;

The primary function of a window is; Admission of light, and
the secondary functions are; a view out, and ventilation.
Day lighting is a necessary function and a view out is
generally a desirable function. Ventilation is neither a
necessary nor a desirable function yet it is traditionally
expected of a window.
Aesthetics; the location of window in the faade of a
building is also of importance to the appearance of the
building, since the style of the window used has a strong
influence on the architectural style of the building
(fenestration).

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The functional requirements of a window as a component

part of wall or roof are;

Structure strength and stability
Resistance to weather
Durability and freedom from maintenance
Fire safety
Resistance to the passage of heat
Resistance to the passage of sound
Security
Cleaning

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the prime function of a window is to admit adequate

Windows in opposite walls of narrow rooms give good

penetration and reduce glare by lighting opposite walls
around windows.(Insert Fig 1).
View out
As well as admitting daylight, it is generally accepted that
windows perform the useful function of providing a view out
of the buildings as a link with the outside and to provide the
variations of interest that stimulate and break the monotony
of repetitive tasks.
Studies have indicated that majority of people in sedentary
occupations, such as office workers, derive benefit from a view
out.

Daylight
daylight for efficient performance of daytime activities.
Quantity of light admitted depends in general terms on the
size of the window or windows in relation to the size of the
room lit, and the depth inside the room to which useful light
will penetrate depends on the height of the head of windows
above floor level.
The shape, size and position of windows affect the
distribution of daylight in rooms and the view out.
Tall windows give a better penetration of light than low
windows, separate windows give a less uniform distribution of
light than continuous windows, and windows in adjacent
walls give good penetration and reduce glare by lighting the
area of wall surrounding
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Sunlight
Majority prefer sunlight for a satisfying view, and also visual

Ventilation

privacy. Large windows enable people to mainly enjoy sunlight

and a view.
In very cold countries, smaller windows are sometimes
preferred to reduce heat loss and solar heat gain that can cause
discomfort.
Glass, which is used in most windows is known to be a poor
thermal and sound insulator, nonetheless, the subjective
preference for sunlight and a view out, and the economic
advantage of freely available daylight and controlled solar heat
gain, prompt the optimum use of glazing compatible with
reasonable thermal and sound insulation.

efficient use of insulation against excessive transfer of heat,

has led to the installation of double glazing to windows in both
new and old buildings, and the fitting of effective weather
stripping around the opening parts of windows and doors to
reduce draughts of cold air entering the building.
Open firs are also uncommon in modern buildings and many
open fireplaces in older buildings have been sealed so blocking
flue that provided some ventilation. This means that there is
less provision for permanent changes of air, the air in rooms
may become stuffy and uncomfortable and at worst unhealthy.

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For their to be some provision of natural building

ventilation, the building code now requires means of

ventilation to habitable rooms, kitchens, bathrooms, and
sanitary accommodation to provide air change by natural or
mechanical ventilation, and also to reduce condensation in
rooms where warm, moisture vapour laden air may condense
water. The provisions are for opening windows and vents and
some mechanical ventilation to kitchens, bathrooms and
sanitary accommodation.
For the comfort and well-being of people, it is necessary to
ventilate rooms by allowing a natural change of air between
inside and outside or to cause a change by mechanical means.
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The current trend towards conservation of energy, by more

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The traditional method of ventilating is through

opening lights in windows. The advantage of opening

lights is that they can be opened or closed to suit the
individual choice of the occupant of the room.
The disadvantage of opening the lights are that they are
difficult to open just sufficient for ventilation without
letting in cold air or gusts of wind; the necessary clearing
gaps around opening lights may allow an excess of air
leakage and rain leakage; the necessary framing around
them reduces the area available for glass; and they
present a high security risk.
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Top hung lights are reasonably efficient but less readily

For control of ventilation, the vertically sliding

controlled than the sliding sash in that there is likelihood

of both the extraction of air from below and the intake of
air from the sides.
Bottom hung windows will operate to enacourage the
intake of air over them and extraction from the sides.
Pivot windows are generally less efficient in control of
ventilation as they are difficult to open sufficiently to
prevent variable gusts of wind and cold draughts being
directed in at low level. In addition, large pivot windows,
when open, may be distorted by heavy gusts of wind, and
may then be difficult to close tight unless there is
mechanism to lock sash shut at several points.

window is the most efficient as it can be operated to

provide either small gap ventilation between meeting
rails and sashes and frame, or opened to nearly half its
total area, and the degree of opening can be closely
controlled between these extremes.
Side hung casements are less efficient as they are
difficult to open to provide closely controlled gap
ventilation around three open edges of the sash and for
this reason top hung vent lights are often used.

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Horizontally pivoted windows should be capable of being

Strength and stability

locked shut both at top and bottom else the top, opening in
part of the sash, may be forced in high winds and allow
considerable air seepage.
Apart form the wish to fling windows open, there is every
reason to dispense with opening lights and replace them
with ventilators designed to control air movement only.
These ventilators (also known as permanent ventilators),
can be included in windows either in place of part of the
glass or as part of the window head or cill construction, or
they may be fixed separate from the windows.(Insert fig 2)

A window should be strong enough when closed to resist the

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likely pressures and suctions due to wind, and when open be

strong and stiff enough to resist the effect of strong winds on
opening lights.
A window should also have sufficient strength and stiffness
against pressures and knocks due to normal use and appear to
be safe, particularly to occupants in high buildings.
A window should be securely fixed in the wall opening for
security, weather tightness and the strength and stiffness given
by fixings.
Window choice and design should take into consideration the
direction and strength of wind blowing

Resistance to weather
oAir permeability (air tightness) windows should be designed so

as to conserve heat and avoid cold draughts. Air movement

through closed windows may occur between the window frame
and the surrounding wall, through cracks between glass and the
framing, through glazing joints, and more particularly through
clearance gaps between opening lights and the window frame.
oLeakage of air around window frames, around glass and through
glazing joints can be avoided by care in design, construction and
maintenance.
oThe necessary clearance gaps around opening lights can be
made reasonably airtight by care in design and use of weatherstripping.
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oWater tightness penetration of rain through cracks and

around opening lights, frames or glass occurs when rain is

driven on to vertical windows by wind, so that the more the
window is exposed to driving rain the greater the likelihood of
rain penetration.
Due to smooth, impermeable surface of glass, driven rain will
be driven down, across and up the surface of glass thus
making seals around glass and clearance gaps around opening
lights vulnerable to rain penetration.
To minimize the penetration of driven rain through vertical
windows, it is advantageous to;

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1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Set face of window back form wall face so that projecting head and
jamb will give protection by dispersing rain.
Ensure that external horizontal surfaces below openings are as few and
narrow as possible to avoid water being driven into the gaps.
Ensure no open gaps around opening lights by use of lapped and
rebated joints; also narrow joints that may act as capillary paths.
Restrict air penetration by means of weather- stripping on the room
side of the windows so that pressure inside the joint is the same as that
outside; a pressure difference would drive water into joint.
Ensure that any water entering the joints is drained to the outside of
the window by open drainage channels that run to the outside.
Use weather stripping internally around opening lights to exclude wind
and reduce air filtration, and rebates and drain channels externally to
exclude rain.
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In the past, Steel windows were used and they acquired a bad name

due to the progressive, corrosive rusting that occurred with the use of
mild steel sections not protected with a galvanized zinc coating, which
though used currently, also does not give a total protection against
corrosion. They therefore need frequent painting.
Aluminium windows when exposed to air, forms an oxide that generally
protects aluminium below it form further corrosion. This coating is
coarse textured, dull and silver grey and readily collects dust, is not
easily cleaned and has an unattractive appearance. For this reason,
aluminium is coated by anodizing, polyester powder, organic or acrylic
coatings, to inhibit corrosion and appearance sake.
UPVC windows have been in use for many years, and they have
maintained their original characteristics over the period in various
climatic conditions. Use of coloured uPVC bleaches with exposure to
ultra violet rays, hence white is usually recommended. Other than
occasional washing, these windows need no maintenance.

Durability and freedom from maintenance

Traditionally, windows were made of softwood timber, and these

suffered moistures movement with change of moisture content and may

rot where water opens open joints, if not well protected by paint or
other protective coating.
A wood window strongly framed form sound, well seasoned wood
protected by a sufficiently elastic paint coating, that is adequately
maintained, may have a useful life comparable to that of most
buildings.
The disadvantage of softwood windows is that they require frequent
maintenance expenditure at intervals of five to ten years. It is these high
costs of maintenance of that have recently led to the large market in
replacement windows of uPVC and aluminium.

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Fire safety
Windows should provide adequate means of escape in case of fire, limit

internal fire spread (linings & structure), limit external fire spread and
provide access and facilities for the fire service.
The windows put in place should not encourage spread of fire when
subjected to intense heat, and to be that which does give too much heat
when burning.

Resistance to passage of heat

A Windows which is a component part of a wall or roof, affects thermal

comfort by transmission (passage) of heat, and through penetration of

radiant heat from the sun, that causes solar heat gain.
Glass which is the major part of the window, offers poor resistance to the
passage of heat and readily allows penetration of solar radiation. Glass has
low insulation and high transmittance value. Therefore, calculations can be
done to limit use of glass, but improve insulation and control transfer of
heat or use of energy.

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Resistance to the passage of sound

windows and doors prime source for entry of airborne sound both

through glass, with afford little insulation through sound, and by clear
gaps around opening parts of windows and doors.
Reduction of this sound can be achieved by weather striping around
opening parts of openings.
Transmission of sound through materials depend mainly on their
mass; the more dense the material the more effective it is in reducing
sound.
The thin material, of a single sheet of glass provides poor insulation
against airborne sound. A small increase in insulation or sound
reduction can be effected by use of thicker glass, or use of double
glazing. (Figure FBT 184).

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Security
Windows and doors are main routes for illegal entry into buildings. Burglary

may be carried out through; forcing open locks, bolts and catches, or removal
or flimsily placed window hinges, removal of insecurely fixed window frames ,
breakage of glass, or removal of a window pane to gain entry.
Some of these can be avoided by using wired glass which will retain wire even
if glass is broken, toughened glass which is hard to break compared to ordinary
glass, laminated glass is the best protection against burglary since it is note
easily broken, but will not shatter but break into small pieces which have to be
removed for access. Double glazing also give the thief an extra sheet of glass to
break.
All security measures will involve extra cost in better quality frames, sashes.
Locks, bolts, hinges and glass.
Invest more in vulnerable windows, which can easily be broken into i.e
hidden and rear windows.
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Cleaning
To provide optimum light transmission and to enable
occupants to view the outside environment through
windows, the glazing needs to be frequently cleaned.
This is easy in small buildings since ladders can be
used, but in taller buildings, it may be difficult and
more technical systems employed for cleaning.

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Materials used for windows windows are generally

manufactured from the following materials;
1. Timber/Wood
2. uPVC (plastic)
3. Aluminium
4. Steel
5. Bronze (not common)
Each of these materials have their advantages and
disadvantages.

Insert Figure 3 - Traditional window showing parts (CT

289)

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Timber/Wood
Traditionally, these were the most popular material for

windows, due to its ready availability, low cost, ease of working

by hand or machine, had favourable strength to weight ratio
and good appearance.
Because it is a good thermal insulator, there is little problem
with surface condensation on the frames of timber windows.
They are normally fixed into position by the builder as the
external wall is constructed. The glazing is normally fitted into
position with putty before building is made weather tight. High
performance timber windows are generally delivered with
sealed double glazing units already fitted.
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Steel
Disadvantages

Steel section windows have been in use for many years, but their

Their high moisture movement, which can make casement

progressive corrosion and rusting was a disadvantage until the

introduction of hot dip galvanizing protective coating, which now
makes more durable.
Majority of steel sections ar emade form hot-rolled steel bars which is
an expensive process from which limited range of scetions can be
produced economically.

difficult to open or close in rainy seasons when the timber is

swollen. Any remedial treatment such as planing around edge of
casement can increase gap between casement and frame when
timber shrinks in drier conditions. Increased gap may lead to
greater amount of air infiltration and a reduced thermal and
acoustic performance. However. Modern high performance ones
are supplied double glazed and weather-stripped.
They are also vulnerable to wet rot unless they are adequately
protected (by painting or staining every 3- 4 years). They can
also be clad in plastic or faced in aluminium.
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Advantages
The slender sections for both frame and opening lights are possible to
produce due to their inherent strength and rigidity of the material.
The small sections provide optimum daylight admission, compared to
timber.

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Disadvantages
High thermal conductivity that makes the window framing acts as a cold
bridge to the transfer of heat. This may lead to condensation which in turn
affects the internal wall finishes. This can be prevented by placing them in a
timber sub-frame.
Due to their corrosive nature, they must be hot-dip galvanized, and be
periodically painted once every 4- 5 years.
they are not as attractive as timber windows.
they require regular painting to protect them from rusting
They have narrow sections which do not readily accommodate double
glazing.
Stainless steel windows are also available but too expensive for consideration
in housing. It is however corrosion resistant, and can be used as a thin
coating to timber and aluminium for its appearance and freedom form
corrosion. To keep its lustre, the stainless steel finish requires regular
washing.
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Aluminium windows
These are made from aluminium alloy to BS 4873 that is extruded in

channel and box sections with flanges and grooves for rebates and
weather-stripping.
These thin walled channel and box sections give the material adequate
strength and stiffness for use as window sections.
The material can be readily welded and has good resistance to corrosion.
The aluminium alloy is resistant to corrosion that might cause loss of
strength, yet the surface of the material fairly loses lustre owing to white
corrosion products. The corrosive effect of the natural mill finish might
be inhibited by anodising (creates a protective coating obtained from
electronic oxidation) or liquid organic (produced by using acrylic or
polyester powder coating in a variety of colours) or clad in stainless steel.
All these finishes provide a high standard of durability and give them a
good appearance.
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To maintain the initial lustre of the surface of these windows it

is necessary to wash them at regular intervals.

Advantages
They have variety of sections available for the production of a
wide range of window types.
They are also free from destructive corrosion.
They have low maintenance requirements, hence low costs.
They also have a long life span.

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Disadvantages
They are generally more expensive than comparable wood or

steel windows.
High thermal conductivity of the material which acts as a cold
bridge to heat transfer. To prevent this, they are constructed as a
two sections mechanically linked by plastic bridge that acts as
thermal break. As an alternative, the inner face of aluminium is
covered with plastic, clip-on facing.
It is a relatively soft metal and window frames can easily
become scratched or dented during construction process. They
are therefore constructed at a later stage in the construction
sequence than is normally the case with timber or steel
windows.
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Plastic UPVC
The polymer, Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) was first used in forming
window sections in Germany during the middle of the twentieth
century. the polymer in form of unplasticised (rigid) polyvinylchloride (uPVC) is softened by heating, extruded through a die and
pressure formed to produce hollow box sections for window frames
and sashes.
High impact uPCV include modifiers added to the constituent
material of uPVC to improve the impact resistance of the material
which is, by itself , readily subject to damage by slight knocks or
abrasions.
They are much larger in size and therefore for the same area of
window have the least area of glazing of all the four materials
considered. Thus the amount of daylight admitted by these windows
is less than with the other framing materials.
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Advantages
It is maintenance free and maintain its smooth textured
surface for the useful life of the material with occasional
washing to remove grime.
As the material is formed by extrusion it is practical to form
variety of rebates and grooves to accommodate draught seals.
The basic colour of the material is off-white which is colourfast on exposure to ultra-violet light for the useful light of the
material.
A range of coloured plastic can be produced either with the
colour integral to the whole of the material or as surface of
finish.
They are durable and have low cost of maintenance.

Disadvantages
Because uPVC has less strength and rigidity than metal
sections, it is formed in comparatively bulky,hollow box sections
that are not well suited for use in small windows such as
casements.
The comparatively large coefficient of expansion and
contraction of the material with change of temperature and its
poor rigidity require the use of reinforcing metal sections fitted
into the hollow core of the sections to strengthen it and to an
extent restrain expansion and contraction.
They also had an initial consumer reluctance to accept them
since plastic had an association with cheap and shoddy goods.
They are quite expensive to purchase.
Can easily get damaged during construction.

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Fixed lights (or dead light), is used to describe the whole or

part of the window in which glass is fixed so that no part of the
glazing can be opened. They are typically of one sheet of glass.
Opening light an opening light is the whole or part of a
window that can be opened by being hinged or pivoted to the
frame or which can slide open inside the frame.
Windows with opening lights are classified according to the
manner in which the opening lights are arranged to open inside
the frame.
Various types illustrations (FTB pg 189)

Illustrate (Figure 4 - Bar. Win.23)/(refer to FBT 189).

Hinged side hung , top hung, bottom hung
Pivoted horizontally pivoted, vertically pivoted
Sliding vertically sliding, horizontally sliding
Composite action side hung projected, top hung projected,
bottom hung projected, sliding folding

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Fixing windows to ensure a good fit between the

window frame and the wall it is preferable to build
windows in as the construction progresses.
The frames may be secured to the wall by means of
galvanised steel fixing cramps, or the frames may be
screwed to wooden or plastic plugs that have been
inserted into mortar joints of the wall. The vertical dpc
that is built into the gap between the frame and the walls
is then sealed with mastic.
Steel windows may be fixed directly to the wall reveals by
means of steel fixing lugs that are bolted to the back of
the frame.
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Glass/Glazing
Glass is produced by fusing together silica, lime, magnesia,
alumina and iron oxide at approximately 1500 - 1550. It is
then formed into sheets by a process of drawing, floating or
rolling. The common types of glass are classified as below;

Annealed flat glasses

Processed flat glasses

Miscellaneous glasses

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Alternatively they may be screwed into timber or

plastic plugs inserted into the wall. Steel window may

also be fixed to a timber sub-frame, which has been
built into the wall reveals.
Aluminium uPVC windows are normally fixed into
prepared openings, formed around a temporary timber
template. The windows may either be fixed into plugs
inserted into the wall reveals or aluminium frames may
be fitted into a timber sub-frame in a similar manner to
that of steel windows. (insert fig 5 - draw figs FBT
195/6).

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a) Annealed flat glasses

1) Float or polished plate glass is transparent with surfaces
that are flat and parallel so that they provide clear
undistorted vision and reflection. Float glass is made by
running molten glass continuously on to a bed of molten
tin on which the glass floats and flows until the surfaces are
flat and parallel. Polished plate glass is made by grinding
and polishing both surfaces of rough cast glass. These can
be modified to form, body tinted float/polished plate glass,
surface modified tinted float glass, surface coated float
glass (reflective float glass).
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2) Sheet glass clear sheet (drawn sheet) glass is

transparent glass manufactured by the flat drawn process

in which a continuous sheet is drawn from a bath of
molten glass. Others are body tinted sheet glass and clear
cast glass, body tinted cast and wired glass (cast with wire
completely embedded in it).
b) Processed flat glasses
1) Toughened (tempered glass)
2)Laminated glass
3)safety glass
4)Polycarbonate sheets

c) Miscellaneous glasses Includes roof and pavement lens

lights, copper lights, leaded lights and hollow glass blocks.
Fixing of glass - Glass may be held in position within its rebates
by means of glazing beads, putty or neoprene gaskets. All
openings to receive glass should have a minimum rebate of 5mm
and the glass should be cut 3mm shorter in length and breadth
than the actual size of the opening.
Note: Please read more from your text books on glass and glazing.

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Window furniture; there are two main ones

casement fastener security device to fix the casement into
its closed position. It is always operated by a hand-operated
blade fixed to the edge of the opening casement and locating
over a projecting wedge on a plate fixed to the mullion. Insert
fig 6 - (FBT 198)
Casement stay this is a fixing device designed to hold the
casement in any number of desired opening positions. It
comprises an arm with a series of locating holes and is fixed to
the cill member. A locating pin on a plate is fixed to the cill
member.

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Window cills - this sets the outside face of the windows back
from the outside face of the wall in which they are set so that
reveals of the opening give some protection against driving
rain. They can be formed using tiles, bricks, stone, metal,
precast concrete, etc.(insert fig 7 -Bar.Win.66)
Window boards the internal surface to a window is covered
for appearance with a chosen material designed for the
purpose. The surface of the internal sill should be such that it
can be kept clean. Can also be made of tiles, plastic, timber.
(insert fig 8 - Bar.Win.68)

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Definitions
A door is a solid barrier to a doorway or opening that can be
opened for access and closed to deny access for privacy and
security, and serves as a thermal, acoustic and fire barrier as
part of an external wall.
A doorway is an opening in a wall or partition , for access and
a door frame or lining is the timber, metal, plastic frame or
lining fixed in the door way or opening to which the door
closes on hinges, pivots or runners.

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Double leaf doors are commonly used for access to grand, large

Functional requirements
The primary function of a door is; means of access, and the
secondary function is; privacy.
Means of access
A door opening should be sufficiently wide and high for
reasonably comfortable access of people. In Kenya, the
standard size of a door is 900mm by 2100mm high, which
sometimes varies, both in width and height depending with
the function of a building.
The standard height makes allowance for all but the few
exceptionally tall people. For large rooms and spaces, a greater
width is often adopted for appearance. The standard width and
height has been chosen as convenient for the majority of the
people.

spaces for appearance , and for convenience in busy corridors.

The side on which the door is hung by hinges, its handing, and
whether it opens into or out of a room, are a matter of convenience
in use.
By convention, doors usually open into the room of which they
are part of the enclosure.
Privacy
Doors should serve to maintain privacy inside rooms to the same
extent as the enclosing walls or partitions.
For visual privacy, doors should be as obscure as the walls or
partitions. For acoustic privacy, doors should offer the same
reduction in sound as the surrounding walls, and be close fitting to
the door frame or lining, and be fitted with flexible air seals all
round.

67

The functional requirements for doors will be dependent on

the location of the door in the building. External doors have
different requirements to internal doors. The various
functional requirements of a door as a component part of a
wall or partition are;
Weather resistance
Structure strength and stability
Durability and freedom from maintenance
Fire safety
Resistance to the passage of heat (thermal insulation)
Resistance to the passage of sound
Security
Operation, the ability to be operated

68

Weather resistance
External doors as part of the external envelop

of the
building, and its associated frame should not allow rain or air
infiltration into the building. This can be difficult to achieve as
the door needs to be able to be opened and closed easily and
there therefore needs to be a sufficient gap between the door
and frame to allow this. This gap can be a potential point of
entry for rainwater and draughts into the building.
The design of the door and frame must therefore provide
features that will overcome these potential problems as
effectively as possible.
The ability to retain the shape of the door when it is
subjected to changes in climatic conditions is a major concern
with the timber doors.

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Structure strength and stability

This shape stability seems to be better achieved on

Because doors are the main entry and exit points into a house

heavier timber doors than it is on their lighter counterparts.

The addition of a metal foil vapour barrier behind the
facings of flush doors helps to maintain shape stability.
Usually, for maximum water tightness on external doors,
a door will need effective weather-stripping which will to an
extent, make opening more difficult, and a high or complex
threshold which may obstruct ease of access

and to various rooms in the house, they need to be strong

enough to resist onslaught by intruders.
Whether it be side hinged, top or bottom pivoted, or on
tracks to slide and fold, a door must have adequate strength to
support its own weight and suffer knocks and minor abuses in
service, as well as adequate shape stability for ease of opening
and accuracy of closing to frame or lining.
Both strength and shape stability depend on the materials
from which a door is made and the manner in which the
materials are framed as a door.

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Strength of doors is measured by four criteria; resistance to

torsion, resistance to closing against obstruction, resistance
to impact with heavy body and resistance to impact with hard
body. It should also be resistant to vibrations and misuse of
door handles.
Dimensional stability a door should not bow, twist or
deform in normal use to the extent that its appearance is
unacceptable or it is difficult to open or close.
Hardwood door frames are stronger than softwood frames
since they have better resistance to splitting.
The type of locks, bolts and latches that are fixed to the door
also influences the security of doors.

Durability and freedom from maintenance

The material that the door and its associated frame are

manufactured from will affect their durability. In general,

uPVC and aluminium doors will have longer life span than
timber doors but will also be more expensive to purchase
initially.
Timber doors, although inexpensive to purchase initially,
do require regular protection to be applied to them in the
form of paint, stain or sealant. This maintenance cost needs
to be added to the initial cost of the door and frame before a
true cost comparison can be made between timber doors and
their aluminium and uPVC equivalent.
This life cycle costing considers the total costs as well as
the initial purchase and installation cost of the product.

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There should be adequate means of escape form

Fire safety and resistance

buildings in case of fire, to a place of safety outside, which is

capable of being safely and effectively used at all times.
To meet this basic requirement it is usual to define escape
routes from most buildings along corridors and stairways
which are protected by fire barriers and doors form the
effects of fire for defined periods.
This latter function of afire door is described as smoke
control. The majority of doors along escape routes will need
to serve as fire doors to resist spread of fire and to control
smoke.

Doors may serve two functions in the event of fire in

buildings, firstly as a barrier to limit spread of fire and

secondly to protect escape routes.
To limit the spread of ire it is usual to divide larger
buildings into compartments of restricted floor area by
means of compartment floors and walls. Where doors are
formed in compartment walls the door must, when closed,
act as a barrier to fire in the same way as the walls. For this
purpose, doors must have a notional integrity, which is the
period in minutes that they will resist the penetration of
fire.
75

Resistance to the passage of heat/thermal insulation

76

As doors form a part of the external fabric of the building,

Resistance to passage of sound/sound insulation

they will affect the amount of heat that may be lost from the
building.
Doors do not have the same level of thermal perfomance as
the walls in which they are fitted. Doors that fit badly within
their associated frames may suffer greater amounts of heat loss
than those that fit well.
Weather stripping to door frames reduced draughts caused
by air infiltration through the gaps between door and its frame
and also reduces heat loss through these gaps.
As glass offers poor resistance to heat transfer, it is sensible to
fit double glazing to reduce heat loss.

privacy and for those functions, such as lecture rooms, where

the noise level is of importance.
As with thermal insulation, doors will have poorer acoustic
perfomance than the wall into which they are installed.
The heavier and more massive a door the more effective a
barrier it is in reducing sound transmission.
A solid panel door is more effective than a flimsy hollowcore flush door. To be effective as a sound barrier, a door
should be fitted with air seals all round as barrier against
airborne sound.

77

A door should afford reduction of sound for the sake of

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Traditional type of door consists one leaf, hinged on one side to a frame or

Security
An external door, particularly at the rear or sides of buildings,
out of sight, is obviously a prime target for forced entry.
Glazing and thin panels of wood, brittle fiber glass and beaded
plastic panels invite breakage with a view to opening bolts or
latches. Solid hinge locks and loose key bolts to solidify framed
door in a soundly fixed solid frame are the best security against
forced entry.
Operation
A door should be easy to open, close, fasten or unfasten and
should stay closed when shut.

lining, to open in one direction for the convenient entry and exit of people.
Because of its simple construction, this type of door is used more often
than all the others. (Fig 1 - Bar.Drs.74)
Where a wide door opening is wanted for convenience or for appearance,
a side hung, double leaf, single swing door may be used.(Bar.Drs.74)
Where there is moderate to heavy traffic through doors, as along access
corridors, Ii is usual to fit double swing doors either on double swing hinges
or floor springs, in the form of single or double leaf doors. As these doors
may be pushed open from both sides simultaneously, it is usual for a top
panel to be glazed to avoid accidents.
Sliding doors are used either where there is limited space that hinged
door would obstruct or for occasional access between rooms. Sliding doors
do not afford the same ease and speed of access as a hinged door. Sliding
doors may be arranged as single or double leaf or three or more overlapping
leaves (Bar.Drs.74)

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80

To convert two smaller rooms into one large room to

accommodate various activities, systems of hinged, sliding

and sliding folding doors may be used. Centre fold doors
open so that the leaves are folded back on the centre of the
frame and edge fold into one or other side of the frames.
(figure).

They can also be categorised as external and internal

doors.
External doors used to close the access to the interiors of a

building and provide a measure of security. They need to be

weather resistant since in general they are exposed to the
elements; this resistance is provided by thickness, stability
and durability of the construction and materials used
together with protective coatings of paint and polish.
Internal doors these are used to close access through
internal walls, partitions and to the inside of cupboards.
General internal doors are thinner than their external
counterparts since weather protection is no longer a
requirement.

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82

Panelled doors may be of single or multiple panel construction,

comprising a timber framework encasing panels of timber, plywood or

glass, door leaves and frames. They are framed with stiles and rails around
a panel or panels of wood or plywood. The stiles and rails are cut from
timbers of the same thickness.
This type of door is mostly used externally, therefore if plywood panels
are to be used, the plywood should be of external grade to provide
adequate weather resistance.
The stiles and rails have to be joined to resist the tendency of the door to
sink and the two types of joint used are a mortice and tenon joint and a
dowelled joint. (Fig 2/3 - Bar.Drs.77/76). Dowel joint is more popular, due
to its cheapness and ease of construction, which is particularly suited to
factory production lines. However, mortice and tenon joints tend to be
stronger. Where dowelling is used, there should be three dowels to the
bottom and lock rail, two dowels to the top rail and one on any
intermediate rails (Figure 4 - FBT 202). Where mortice and tenon joints
are used the middle and bottom rails should have double tenons.

Wood/timber doors
These may be classified into four types by their method
of construction;
Panelled doors
Flush doors
Glazed doors
Fire doors
Match boarded doors
The traditional door is formed from solid softwood or
hardwood members.
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The panels are framed into grooves within framing stiles and rails and are

covered by mouldings that are scribed at their corners.

Water that runs down the face of the door is thrown clear at the bottom
by a weather board, which is attached to the face of the door, preferably by
a tongued and grooved joint. The weatherboard has a sloping face and is
grooved on its underside to prevent the underflow of water
Where glazing is used, any glazing beads should be positioned on the
inside of the door.
Figures Traditional panel door (Fig 5/6 - Bar.Drs.79/80), bevel raised
doors (Fig 4 - FBT 202, Bar.Drs.80).

Flush doors
Traditionally, flush doors have plain faces that are easy to clean and

decorate, being free of the mouldings that collect dirt. Some may have
very shallow sinking, to resemble appearance of panelled doors.
Flush doors may be faced with hardboard or plywood and maybe
manufactured for internal or external use.
The shape and stability of these doors depends to an extent on the
fixing of the flush or moulded facings to the core; the lighter and
thinner the core the more the facings provide stability.
The method of construction for flush doors tends to be of three
distinct types, related to cost;
Cellular core
Semi-solid core
Solid core

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86

Cellular core flush doors

Semi-solid core flush door

These doors are made with a cellular, fiberboard or paper core in

Also known as skeleton-core flush door. This comprises an outer frame

alight softwood frame with lock and hinge blocks covered with plywood
or hardboard both sides.
These flimsy, light weight doors are for light duty such as internal
domestic doors.
They do not withstand rough usage, and they provide little acoustic
privacy, thermal and sound insulation, fire resistance or security.
They are mass produced and they are cheap.
It is also difficult to achieve flat surface to the facings at times due to
the limited support offered by core.

within which smaller timber intermediate rails are spaced to provide a

minimum of 50% timber in its construction, over which are then fixed
the facings of hardboard or plywood.
A skeleton core occupying 30% - 40% is a light duty core suitable for
internal domestic use, and one with sub-stantial intermediate rails of
50% - 60%, is a medium duty door suitable for use internally in domestic
and public buildings and for external use in sheltered positions.
The framing core members are joined with glued tongued and grooved
joints.
This door is still relatively light and inexpensive but the intermediate
rails do provide more support for the facings so that a flat surface can be
achieved more easily than with cellular core door.
Fig. 7/8 - Bar.Drs.86/FBT 204

Figures Fig. 7/Fig 8 - Bar.Drs. 86/FBT 204

87

88

Solid core flush door

This door comprises a solid core of either block board, laminated board,

chipboard, flaxboard or compressed fibre board strips, onto which are

attached the plywood facings.
This door is of much heavier construction and consequently more expensive
than the skeleton core and semi-solid door types.
It also has good insulation properties, and some of them can be used as fire
doors with integrity rating of 20 30 mins. ( Fig 8/ Fig 9 - FBT
205/Bars.Drs.87).
Moulded panel doors these doors are of similar construction to flush doors,
but the facings are of hardboard that has been moulded under pressure to
produce a decorative appearance similar to that of a panelled door. However,
although the door is similar in appearance to a panelled door, it does not have
the same construction as a panelled door. ( Fig 8 - FBT 205).
Note: All flush doors and moulded panel doors may incorporate glazed
panels, secured by fixing beads. The facings of these doors tend to be
vulnerable at their edges, so a thin strip of timber is fixed at the edges to
provide lipping. This also provides a tolerance for planing the doors to fit the
frame or door lining when the doors are hung in position.
89

Glazed doors
Doors with one or more glazed panel are used to give some daylight to

spaces such as halls that have no windows, and to give some borrowed
light from a window through an internal door to an otherwise unlit space,
hence the term borrowed light.
They are prepared with rebates for glass panels to be fixed with either
bead or putty glazing. They can be single, double (two-panel)or multipanelled glazed doors. Some of its panels may have glazing and others to
have ply or wood panel. ( Fig 10 - Bar. Drs. 84/CT 266).
Purpose-made glazed doors these are constructed with diminishing or
thin stiles to provide a greater width for glazing. Lower panels may be of
wood, with a large glazed panel above that may be glazed in one square of
glass or with several squares to glazing bars. The members of the timber
door may be framed with mortice and tenon joints, with the glazing bars
through-tenoned to stiles and rails. (Fig 11 - Bars.Drs.85)
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Fire doors
To provide safe means of escape for the occupants of buildings in the early

stages of a fire, smoke control fire doors are fixed in enclosures to and along
escape routes.
To limit the spread of fire in buildings it is usual to divide all but small
buildings into compartments surrounded by floors and walls capable of
limiting the spread of fire for a stated period of minutes or hours.
Door in compartment walls and doors to a protected escape route should be
capable of resisting the spread of fire to the same extent that the enclosing
walls do.
Fire doors serve to protect escape routes and the contents and structure of
buildings by limiting the spread of smoke and fire. Fire doors that are fixed for
smoke control only should be capable of withstanding smoke at ambient
(surrounding ) temperatures and limited smoke at medium temperatures by
self closing devices and flexible seals. Those that are fixed to protect means of
escape routes should withstand smoke at ambient and limited smoke at
medium temperatures and have a minimum fire resistance, for integrity only,
of 20 minutes (or so specified)

A fire door should at once be easy to operate, serve as an effective

barrier to the spread of smoke and fire when closed and be fitted with
some effective self closing device.
For ease of operation, there must be clearance gaps around the door
leaf. These clearance gaps are effectively sealed when a door leaf closes
into and up to rebate in door frame.
As a barrier to the spread of smoke, flexible seals should be fixed to
door leafs of frames and as a barrier to the spread of fire heat activated
(intumescent) seals should be fitted.
For a fire door to be effective against the spread of smoke and fire, the
door leaf should, when not in use, be positively closed to the frame by
some self closing device. The conventional door closers are used,
overhead closers (fig 12 - Bars.Drs. 88) and floor closers (Fig 12 a Bar.Drs.83).
Figure for fire door FBT 207,Other examples (Bar.Drs. 116, showing
different facings.

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92

The nailing of the boards to the ledges does not strongly frame the

Match boarded doors

These are made with a facing of tongued, grooved and v-jointed boards
fixed vertically to either ledges and braces or a frame. They are used for
cellars, sheds and stores where the appearance of the door is not
considered important. There are three specific types namely;
Ledged
Ledged and braced
Framed, ledged and braces
Ledged match boarded door
The face of this door is constructed from approved tongued and grooved
boarding, called battens, with edge chamfers to form a V joint feature
between consecutive boards
The battens are clamped together to form a panel and are attached by
nailing to approved horizontal timbers, called ledges, positioned in the
middle of the door panel and also, from its top and bottom edges.

door which is liable to sink and lose shape. This door is inexpensive to
construct but there is a tendency, over time to, for the door to drop out
of shape.
This door is used for narrow openings only. (Figure 14 - Figure Bars.
Drs. 90).
Ledged and braced door
This type of door is strengthened against sinking with braces between
the rails that are fixed at an angle to resist sinking on the lock edge. The
braces are nailed to the boarding, and can also be fixed using mortice
and tenon joints.
To further resist the tendency for the door to drop out of square, three
hinges, rather than two are fixed to the edges on the hanging side of the
door.
Figure 15 FBT 208,

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Framed, braced and ledged match boarded doors

Aluminium doors

Added strength and rigidity can be provided to the door by enclosing

These are constructed of same material as windows. The doors

the panel in a mortice and tenoned frame comprising top, bottom ,

middle rails ,stiles and braces.
The boarding runs from the underside of the top rail, to protect the end
grain of the boards from rain, down over both middle and bottom rails.
To allow for the boards running over them the middle and bottom rails
are less thick than the stiles to which they are joined with a barefaced
tenon joint.
These doors are rarely now used for internal or external doors on houses
but are still specified for out buildings and garages
The framed, braced and ledged is commonly used for large openings
such as garage, factories and entrance gates. This is because their frame
construction makes them stronger than the others.
Figure Bars.Drs.90.
95

normally comprise top, middle and bottom rails and stiles of extruded
aluminium alloy sections enclosing glazed panels.
The slender sections possible with the material in framing the doors
provide the maximum area for glass.
These glazed doors can be made as both single-and multi-leaf doors to
hinge, slide or slide and fold to open.
The finishes to the doors are similar to those available for aluminium
windows. The doors can also be fitted into hardwood frames supplied
separately.
The particular use for these doors is to provide a large area of clear glass
for an unobstructed view out to gardens and to give ready access from
inside to outside.

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A disadvantage of these doors is that there may be condensation on the

inside faces of the aluminium framing. To minimise condensation, it is

practice to fabricate them as thermal break doors. The main framing
sections of the doors, which are jointed with corner cleats, are fixed to
aluminium facings through plastic sections that act as thermal break.
The traditional aluminium doors may be a poor security risk unless the
panels are reinforced with aluminium sheet in the core and the panels are
fixed with screwed or secured beads.
An advantage of these doors is that they may be finished in a range of
coloured powder or liquid coatings that do not require periodic painting for
maintenance. The doors are sufficiently robust for use in domestic
buildings and may be fabricated as thermal break construction to minimise
condensation on the internal faces of the aluminium framing.

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98

UPVC doors
Similar to aluminium doors, uPVC doors are constructed from rigid uPVC

extrusions in a similar manner to uPVC windows.

Large doors may require these extrusions to be stiffened with steel sections
inserted into the hollow cores, mitred and heat fusion welded at corners.
These doors comprise top, intermediate, middle and bottom rails and stiles
of extruded uPVC sections enclosing uPVC panels and glazing according to
design.
The uPVC door leafs are framed for glazing with single or double glazing ,
secured with internal pop-in beads and weathered with wedge and blade
baskets.
As an alternative to glazed panels a variety of plastic panels is produced
from press moulded acrylic, generally moulded to imitate wood door panels
either as full door height panels or as two panels fitted to a middle rail.
They are generally supplied in white or off white, but other colours are
available, including timber effect. This is to minimise the considerable
thermal expansion that this material suffers due to solar radiation.
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100

The doors are fitted into uPVC frames supplied with the doors. Coloured

and wood grain finishes are also available.

The advantage of the uPVC door is that they require no maintenance
during their useful life, other than occasional washing.
The disadvantage of these doors is that they may jam shut due to thermal
expansion, knocks and indentations cannot disguise by painting, and they
are not as robust to heavy use as a traditional wood framed door.
Steel doors
Glazed steel doors - These are fabricated from the hot rolled steel sections
used for windows. The sections are assembled with welded corner joints.
The doors and frames, which are hot dipped galvanized after manufacture,
may be finished with an organic powder coating. Single glass is either
putty or clip on aluminium bead glazed. Glazed steel doors, which have
largely been superseded by aluminium doors, are mainly used for
replacement work.
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Door frames this is a surround in a door way or opening, to which the

door is hung and to which it closes, which has sufficient strength in
itself to support the weight of the door.
It consist so mainly four members head, a pair of vertical jambs,
threshold or cill, joined together by doweled mortice and tenon joints or
combed joints.
Mainly used on external doors and heavy doors.
To prevent the ingress of water beneath external doors, a galvanized
mild steel water bar can be placed within the threshold of the frame and
a rebate is cut in the bottom rail of the door to ensure a tight fit against
water bar. The top surface of the threshold to the exterior of the water
bar is sloped to allow water to be conducted away form the opening. The
underside of the threshold is throated to prevent water from running
underneath. (FBT 209).
The frames may be built in to the wall reveals, as the wall is being
constructed, by means of galvanized mild steel fixing cramps, as that
used in windows.

Flush steel doors these are manufactured from sheet steel which is
pressed to shape, often with lipped edges, hot dip galvanized or either
seam welded or joined with plastic, thermal break seals around a fiber
board, chip board or foamed insulation core, generally with edge, wood
inserts as framing and to facilitate fixing of hardware.
The sheet steel facings may be flush faced or pressed to imitate wood
paneling or glazed panels. The exposed faces of doors may be finished
ready for painting or with a stoved or organic powder or liquid coating.
These comparatively expensive, robust, heavy duty doors are generally
used in commercial and industrial buildings, and also as fire doors.
They are supplied as door sets complete with frame, door leaf ,
hardware and fittings.

103

Door linings is a surround inside a doorway or opening, as wide as the

reveal, to which the door is hung and closes, which is not in itself strong
enough to support the weight of the door without support form the
surrounding wall or partition.
These are never built in, but are fixed into a prepared opening by fixing
them directly to the reveals. The gap between the door lining and the
reveals is covered by an architrave.
Mainly used for internal doors.

104

Door sets (door assemblies)

These are combinations of doors with door frames or linings and

hardware such as hinges and furniture, prepared as package ready for use
on site. This plainly makes sense where many similar doors are to be used
and packets of doors can be ordered and delivered instead of separately
ordering doors, frames and hardware.
These door sets have the door fixed to the frame using rising butt
hinges, so that the door can be taken out of the frame prior to the frame
being fitted into the wall and then lifted back into position when the
finishes to the wall have been completed. Because the door is delivered to
site fitted in its frame, there is no need for subsequent planing of the
door to fit into the frame when the door is finally installed. (FBT 211).

Both frames and lining may be made from wood, metal or plastic.
Frame is a solid rectangular section and the lining a thin section as wide
as the wall or partition and plaster which it covers or lines. Figure
illustrating difference between door frame and lining (Bar.Drs.91)
Note: Read more on the various door frames and their designs from
technology books.
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106

Hardware for doors these are a wide variety of items that can
be fixed to the door for operational, security or durability
purposes. Ironmongery was a term used when most of these
items were made of iron or steel. It is the general term used to
refer to;
Hinges
Latches
Locks
bolts
Letter plates
Finger and kicker plates
Self closing devices
Read more on these and write short notes, with illustrations.
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