Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc
Abstract
Material nonlinear analyses of reinforced concrete (RC) beams considering the tension softening branch and bond
slip have been conducted. Instead of adopting the sophisticated layer approach which has some limitations in application to large structures with many degrees of freedom, we have used the momentcurvature relationships of RC
sections previously constructed through section analysis. To reduce numerical instability according to the nite element
mesh size used, a relation simulating the tension softening branch has been taken into consideration. For the purpose of
removing the imprecision in calculation of ultimate resisting capacity, we have included the plastic hinge length in nite
element modeling. In addition, governing equations describing the bond-slip behavior in beams have been derived.
Unlike the conventional bond elements using double nodes, the proposed model has used beam elements representing
the structural response by two nodes at both ends, and has simplied the nite elements modeling and analytical
process, besides eectively describing the bond-slip behavior. Moreover, the developed algorithm has been reected in
the momentcurvature relationship of RC section. Finally, correlation studies between analytical and experimental
results have been conducted with the objective to establish the validity of the proposed algorithms. 2002 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Momentcurvature relation; Bond slip; Plastic hinge length; RC beam; RC section; Tension softening branch
1. Introduction
In accordance with the development of industrial
society and the expansion of the magnitude of economies, structures have become larger and more complex.
The safety and serviceability assessment of those complex structures necessitates the development of accurate
and reliable methods and models for their analysis. To
ensure the safety of structures in the case of earthquake,
both analytical and experimental studies about structural behavior under over-load conditions and cyclic
loads are carried out side by side [12], but experimental
0045-7949/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 5 - 7 9 4 9 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 3 0 - 5
616
2. Material models
2.1. Concrete
The response of a structure under load depends to a
large extent on the stressstrain relation of the constituent materials and the magnitude of stress. Since concrete is used mostly in compression, the stressstrain
relation in compression is of primary interest. The concrete stressstrain relation exhibits a nearly linear elastic
response up to about 30% of the compressive strength.
This is followed by gradual softening up to the concrete
compressive strength, when the material stiness drops
to zero. Beyond the compressive strength, the concrete
stressstrain relation exhibits strain softening until failure takes place by crushing.
Many mathematical models of concrete are currently
used in the analysis of RC structures. Among those
models, the monotonic envelope curve introduced by
Kent and Park and later extended by Scott et al. [14] was
adopted in this study for its simplicity and computational eciency. In this model, as shown in Fig. 1(a), the
monotonic concrete stressstrain relation in compression is described by three regions:
rc
Kfc0
" #
2
ec
ec
;
2
ec0
ec0
ec 6 ec0
rc Kfc0 1 Z ec ec0 ;
rc 0:2Kfc0 ;
ec0 6 ec 6 eu
2
3
ec P eu
where
ec0 0:002K;
K 1
qs fyh
fc0
0:5
r
3 0:0284fc0
h0
0:75qs
0:002K
14:21fc0 1000
sh
3. Momentcurvature relation
Since a structure is composed of many structural
members, and a member is formed by the integration of
each section, the nonlinear behavior of a section causes
nonlinear behavior in the structure. Especially, in the
case of beams and columns which are the primary members of a frame structure, internal member forces are
concentrated on the sections located at both ends and
the center of a member. Using this structural characteristic, plastic hinge analysis is broadly adopted in the
nonlinear analysis of frame structures. Accordingly, the
nonlinear analysis of RC beams can be conducted with
the momentcurvature relation constructed by section
analysis because most of the deformations in beams
arise from the strains associated with exure. The curvature / representing the gradient of the strain prole at
a section can be calculated by classical beam theory [11]
if the strains are measured from the increase of bending
moment to failure, permitting the momentcurvature
relation for a section to be obtained.
617
618
7
/cr
c
H c
2
c d0
1
1 H c 3
2
Es Asc
ecc Ec B
Mcr ecc Ec c B
c
c
3
3
2
d c
ecc Es Ast
8
c
where Ast and Asc are the areas of tension and compression steels, the corresponding steel ratios are q
Ast =Bd and q0 Asc =Bd, the modular ratio n Es =Ec ,
and the distance from the extreme compression ber to
the neutral axis c H 2ndq d 0 q=f1 nq q0 g.
3.2. Yielding point
The moment and curvature at rst yield of the tensile
in Fig. 4) should be calculated using the
steel (point
dened stressstrain relations for the concrete. Based
on the normal force equilibrium, the section analysis is
carried out by assuming rst that the tension steel
C rsc A0s
Atc
Z
rc dA
10
Acc
where fy is the yield strength of steel, Atc and Acc represent the areas of concrete acted on by the tensile and
compressive stresses, respectively.
After iterations based on the reassumed neutral axis
depth until the dierence between the tensile force and
compressive force is less than the given tolerance, the
moment and curvature are nally determined.
3.3. Cracked stage between two points
After dividing the curvature range between /cr and
/y into four equal parts, rst the bending moment corresponding to each boundary curvature can be calculated, following the same iteration procedure described
in the preceding section. Then the connection of each
point with straight lines gives the simplied moment
curvature relation used in this study (see Fig. 5(b)). Also,
the momentcurvature relation to the post-yielding stage
Fig. 5. Momentcurvature relations of RC section. (a) Classical layered section approach and (b) simplied approach.
619
4. Bond-slip eect
dPs fb dx R0 Eb D dxR0 As Es des
Since bond stresses in RC structures arise from the
change in the steel force along the length, the eect of
bond becomes more pronounced in the cracked region.
In the simplied analysis of RC structures, complete
compatibility of strains between concrete and steel is
usually assumed, which implies a prefect bond. This
assumption is realistic only in regions where negligible
stress transfer between the two components takes place.
In regions of high transfer stresses along the interface
between reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete,
such as near cracks, the bond stress is related to the
relative displacement between reinforcing steel and
concrete. Therefore, the bond-slip eect must also be
considered to simulate the structural behavior more
exactly.
Two basically dierent elements, namely, the bondlink element and bond-zone element, have been proposed to date for inclusion of the bond-slip eect in the
nite element analysis of RC structures [5,9]. However, the use of those elements requires a double node to
represent the relative slip between reinforcing steel and
concrete. In a beam structure dened by both end nodes
along the direction, it is impossible to use the double
node at each end node. To address this limitation in
adopting the bond model, a numerical algorithm which
includes the bond-slip eect into the momentcurvature
relation is proposed in this study.
dPc
12
11
620
Z
dPc fb R0 dx Ec dec dAc
Z c
1
Ec d/x yb dy Ec b d/x c2
2
0
13
14
es ec
dx
dx
dx
15
d2 Dx des dec Eb R0
1 7:5nqDx
dx2
dx dx
As Es
16
Accordingly, the very well known following governing dierential equation for the bond slip is obtained.
d2 D
k2 D 0
dx2
17
5. Solution algorithm
The region ranged from the end to the loaded point
where the maximum bending moment occurs is assumed
to be subdivided into n elements, as shown in Fig. 8. The
general solution of Eq. (17) represents the force equilibrium and the compatibility condition at the steel interface along the length. Focusing attention on the ith
element see Fig. 8), the following boundary condition at
li
2
Di0
18
1
cosh kli
Pi
Qi
k sinh kli
k sinh kli
Bi Pi Ai Qi
19
i
i
6B
Dl
Bi 7
i
7 D0
6
fDl gi
41
Ai 5 Qi
Pi
Bi
Bi
Ci fD0 gi
20
For the transition from the (i 1)th to the ith element using the force equilibrium and the compatibility
condition, the following equation can be determined
i
i1
1 0
D0
Dl
SfDl gi1 21
fD0 gi
0 1
Qi
Pi1
and the substitution of Eq. (20) into Eq. (21) yields
fDl gi Ci fD0 gl Ci S fDl gi1 Ci fDl gi1
22
This equation relates the bond-slip and strain dierence at the end of the ith element with those of (i 1)th
elements. By applying Eq. (22) successively to elements
i 2; i 3; . . . ; 2; 1 and summing up the results, and
extending to the nth element, the following relation between the bond slip (D) and strain dierence es ec at
the two ends of the steel interface can be obtained.
fDl gn C n Cn1 C2 C1 fD0 g1 Rn fD0 g1
23
where C i Ci S.
If two boundary values among the four unknowns
are determined, it is possible to solve Eq. (23) for the
remaining two unknowns. For a beam structure, it can be
621
encl
1 rr2111
T
2
24
622
26
Ks
0 1 0 1
2
l
1
1
2
!6
l
l2
~
6
2l
GA 6 2
2
l
6
l 4 1 2
1
l
2
l2
4
2l
l
2
l2
4
7
7
7
l7
25
27
l2
4
~
where EI is the exure rigidity, GA is the shear rigidity
A~ aA , and the parameter a is a correction factor to
allow for cross-sectional warping (a 1:5 for a rectangular section). Moreover, the internal member forces M
and S can be represented in terms of nodal displacements.
M EI Bf /T
1
1
EI 0; ; 0; w1 ; h1 ; w2 ; h2 T
l
l
EI
h1 h2
28
l
1
1 1
1
S GABs /T GA ; ; ; /T
l
2 l
2
w2 w1
h1 h2
GA
l
2
29
where the curvaturedisplacement matrix Bf
0; dN1 =dx; 0; dN2 =dx, the shear straindisplacement
matrix Bs dN1 =dx; N1 ; dN2 =dx; N2 , and the shape
functions N1 x2 x=l and N2 x x1 =l. The shear
force varies linearly over each element but it is assumed
to be constant over the element and calculated at the
midpoint of the element, x x1 x2 =2.
The internal force vector P caused by the internal
moment M and shear force S can be calculated, and
P f becomes a residual force to be applied for the iteration. More details can be found elsewhere [11].
2
3
2
3
0
1=l
Z
Z
6 x x2 =l 7
6 1=l 7
6
7S dx
6
7
P
5
4 0 5M dx 4
1=l
l
l
x1 x=l
1=l
S;
M Sl=2;
S;
M Sl=2 T
30
7. Solution algorithm
Every nonlinear analysis algorithm consists of four
basic steps: the formation of the current stiness matrix,
the solution of the equilibrium equations for the displacement increments, the state determination of all elements in the model and the convergence check. These
steps are presented in some detail in the ow diagram of
Fig. 11. Since the global stiness matrix of the structure
depends on the displacement increments, the solution of
equilibrium equations is typically accomplished with an
iterative method through the convergence check. The
nonlinear solution scheme selected in this study uses the
tangent stiness matrix at the beginning of each load
step in combination with a constant stiness matrix
during the subsequent correction phase, that is, the incremental-iterative method.
The criterion for measuring the convergence of the
iterative solution is based on the accuracy of satisfying
the global equilibrium equations or on the accuracy of
determining the total displacements. The accuracy of
satisfying the global equilibrium equation is controlled
by the magnitude of the unbalanced nodal forces. The
accuracy of the node displacements depends on the magnitude of the additional displacement increment after
each iteration. The latter convergence criterion is used in
this study. This can be expressed as
hP
i1=2
i 2
j Ddj
Ed h
6 TOLER
31
P i 2 i1=2
j dj
where the summation extends over all degrees of freedom j, dj is the displacement of degree of freedom j, Ddji
is the corresponding increment after iteration i and
TOLER is the specied tolerance.
In the nonlinear analysis of RC structures, the
load step size must be small enough so that unrealistic
623
8. Numerical applications
numerical cracking does not take place. These spurious cracks can articially alter the load transfer path
within the structure and result in incorrect modes of
failure. Criseld [4] has shown that such numerical disturbance of the load transfer path after initiation of
cracking can give rise to alternative equilibrium states
and, hence, lead to false ultimate strength predictions. In
order to avoid such problems after crack initiation, the
load is increased in steps of 2.55.0% of the ultimate
load of the member.
Table 1
Material properties used in applications
Beam
T1MA
B5
J4
Ec (kg/cm2 )
5
2:71 10
1:10 105
2:67 105
Es (kg/cm2 )
6
1:98 10
2:04 106
2:07 106
fc (kg/cm2 )
fy (kg/cm2 )
q Ast =Bd
q0 Asc =Bd
323
334
340
3236
5623
3157
0.0062
0.015
0.0099
0.0
0.0075
0.0
624
Table 2
Details of RC beams
Beam
B (cm)
H (cm)
d (cm)
Loading
T1MA
B5
J4
15.24
17.78
15.24
30.48
38.10
50.80
27.23 B-type
32.385 B-type
45.72 A-type
a or b (cm)
90.00
91.44
180.0
Fig. 13. Momentcurvature relation of T1MA. (a) Tension softening branch and (b) bond-slip eect.
625
Fig. 14. Bond-slip eect of beam T1MA. (a) Exclusion of tension softening branch and (b) inclusion of tension softening branch.
626
Fig. 16. Momentcurvature relations of beam B5. (a) Exclusion of tension softening branch and (b) inclusion of tension softening
branch.
Fig. 17. Loaddeection relations of beam B5. (a) Exclusion of tension softening branch and (b) inclusion of tension softening branch.
627
Fig. 19. Momentcurvature relations of beam J4. (a) Exclusion of tension softening branch and (b) inclusion of tension softening
branch.
Fig. 20. Loaddeection relations of beam J4. (a) Exclusion of plastic hinge length and (b) inclusion of plastic hinge length.
9. Conclusions
628