9.2.

Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as

ethylene for the production of other substances

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions
from the refining of petroleum
Industrial source: crude oil/ petroleum; either as by-product of petrol refining or
cracking of higher boiling point fractions. Cracking is the chemical process of
breaking large hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Catalytic cracking is the process in
which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil are catalytically broken into
lower molecular weight substances (an alkane and alkene), like petrol, to increase
output of these high demand products.
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily
transformed into many useful products
Ethylene has a double bond since its an alkene, which makes it
reactive. Ethylene undergoes an addition reaction in which the
double bond opens out to form two single bonds thus linking
molecules together, i.e. (CH2=CH2)n (-CH2 CH2-)n. It forms useful
products
such
as ethanol as a result.
Double bond
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Ethylene monomers polymerise to form low or high density polyethylene.
Low density polyethylene is made from the gas phase process high pressure, high
temperatures and an organic peroxide initiator.
High density polyethylene is made using Zeigler-Natta process just above
atmospheric pressure, temperatures around 60C and zeolite catalyst.
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Polyethylene is called an addition polymer. This means that it forms by molecules
adding together without the loss of any atoms. Each double C=C bond opens out to
form single bonds with adjacent molecules thus linking molecules together.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer
1. Catalyst (for HDPE) or initiator (for LDPE) attaches to ethylene molecule
creates activated species.
Z + CH2=CH2 Z CH2 CH2
Catalyst/ Initiator

Activated species
Ethylene molecule

2. Ethylene molecules attach to the species, expanding the chain.

1

Z CH2 CH2 + CH2=CH2 Z CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

3. Polymerisation stops when two activated species collide, forming a stable
polymer.
Z (CH2 CH2)x + Z (CH2 CH2)y Z (CH2 CH2)x+y Z
Note: Since activated chains of various lengths can collide, polymer molecules
formed have different chain lengths and different masses, therefore, in a polymer
sample there is a distribution of molecular weights, but the average is 46000.
Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:
- vinyl chloride
- styrene, both by their systematic and common names
Vinyl Chloride
Styrene
Systematic Name: chloroethene
Systematic Name:
phenylethene/ ethenylbenzene
Common Name: vinyl chloride
Common Name: Styrene
Chlorine
Benzene
C6H
replaces
ring
hydrogen of
replaces
regular
hydrogen of
ethene
regular
Describe the uses
of the polymers made from the above monomers
molecule
ethenein terms of

their properties
Polymer
Structure
Low
Extensive chain
density
branching; no stiffening
Polyethyle side groups; no cross
ne
linking
High
No chain branching; no
density
chain stiffening side
Polyethyle groups; no cross linking
ne
Poly (vinyl Considerable chain
chloride) stiffening Cl side
groups; polar C-Cl
bonds produce strong
intermolecular forces
Polystyre
ne

Large phenyl stiffening

side groups; minimal
chain branching; C-C
and C-H bonds

Properties
Soft; flexible; low melting
point; transparent; not
strong
Hard; brittle; high melting
point; translucent

Hard; inflexible;
vulnerable to UV attack
(inhibitor added to absorb
UV light, preventing
degradation)

Crystalline PVC transparent; resistant

to UV attack; hard;
rigid
Expanded PVC light
weight; spongy;

Uses
Cling wrap,
carry bags;
squeeze
bottles
Kitchen
utensils; food
containers;
milk bottles;
rubbish bins
Electrical
wiring
insulation;
garden hoses;
drainage and
sewerage pipes
Disposable
drink glasses;
foam packing
material

moulded easily; good

insulator; soft
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the
reactivities of appropriate alkenes with their corresponding alkanes in bromine
water
Background Information: Alkanes and alkenes are both non-polar molecules with
weak dispersion (intermolecular) forces. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions
(reactions in which an atom in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of
atoms). Alkenes undergo addition reactions.
Aim: To compare the reactions of cyclohexene and cyclohexane in bromine water
Safety Precaution: Cyclohexane, cyclohexene and bromine water are toxic by all
routes of exposure; protect yourself by using small quantities, wearing safety
glasses and avoiding inhalation by using a fume cupboard.
Method: In two test tubes, place ten drops of cyclohexene and cyclohexane. To
each sample add 10 drops of bromine water. Shake vigorously. Observe for a colour
change.
Results: cyclohexene decolourises bromine water; cyclohexane shows no reaction
Conclusion:
Cyclohexene undergoes an addition reaction: C6H10 + Br2 C6H10Br2 (cyclohexane
+ bromine water 1, 2 dibromocyclohexane)
Cyclohexane does not undergo a chemical reaction (however, in the presence of
UV light, a substitution reaction occurs)

9.2.2

Some scientists research the extraction of materials from

biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained
from the petrochemical industry
There is only a finite supply of crude oil; all reserves will be used up within
the next few decades
There is pressure to reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
As oil supplies diminish, oil prices rise, one day to such an extent that oil will
be too expensive a fuel source
When oil reserves run empty, if there were no alternatives, there would be no
fuel or plastic
For these reasons and more, ethanol and cellulose are being researched as
alternative fuel sources.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymers are chains of linked monomers that form when a functional
group of one monomer reacts with the functional group of another monomer,
joining and eliminating a small molecule (often water).
Describe the reactions involved when a condensation polymer is formed
Using glucose as an example,
HO C6H1004 OH HO C6H1004 OH HO C6H1004 OH
O C6H10O4 O - C6H10O4 O - C6H10O4 + xH2O
When two glucose monomer molecules react through two -OH hydroxyl groups, a
H-OH (water) molecule is condensed out, leaving an -O- linking the two monomer
molecules. The first two glucose molecules to join condense out an H-OH, and
every glucose molecule added to the growing chain then condenses out another HOH.
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation
polymer found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is a long, linear molecule because of the alternating CH2OH groups on
either side of the chain and COC bond angles. Hydrogen bonds make cellulose
difficult to break down, rigid and strong. The OH groups can not interact with
water, making cellulose insoluble. Cellulose has potential as a biopolymer because
it is a major component of biomass (organic material derived from living
organisms, e.g. crops, animal waste).
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon chain structures needed to build
petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material
Cellulose contains the basic carbon structures required by the plastics industry to
be a source of chemicals or a biopolymer. Plastics made from cellulose biodegrade
into fungi and bacteria.
Cellulose thermochemical pretreatment + hydrolysis breaks down into
constituent sugars fermented ethanol polymerised to form useful products
However, the breaking down of cellulose requires much energy (as it is hydrogen
bonded) and is more expensive than cracking crude oil form ethylene hydrated
4

to form ethanol. Nevertheless, research on cellulose needs to continue to see

through its potential as a raw material.
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and
analyse progress in the recent development of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme used or organism used to synthesise the
material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced
related to its properties
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic derived from renewable plant
material such as corn starch.
Corn kernels are milled extract starch enzymes break down starch in dextrose
lactic acid bacteria converts dextrose to lactic acid polymerised PLA
Uses:
Plant pots, mulch film and disposable nappies because of its biodegradability
and compostability.
Its transparency, rigidity and crack-resistance makes PLA suited for use as
food containers and drink cups, since the food would be visible and
containers would not break.
Advantages of PLA:
Biodegradable; compostable
Sustainable since it is made from renewable resources corn
Less greenhouse gas emissions, no toxic gases
Requires less energy for production than conventional plastics
Disadvantages of PLA:
Only biodegradable under controlled composting environmental conditions
which is not readily accessible by consumers
PLA breaks down into lactic acid, which demands a lot of oxygen. However,
research is being conducted into anaerobic digesters so that PLA can break
down without oxygen.

9.2.3

Other resources such as ethanol are readily available from

renewable resources such as plants

Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
C2H5OH C2H4(g) + H2O(l) in the presence of heat and concentrated sulfuric acid
which acts as a dehydrating agent and catalyst
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol
and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH in the presence of heat and dilute sulfuric acid which acts
as a hydrating agent and catalyst
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and
non-polar substances
The ethanol molecule consists of two parts the non-polar alkyl (-CH2CH3) end
and the polar hydroxyl (-OH)
end.
Non-polar alkyl end
forms dispersion
forces with non-polar
substances, thus
dissolving them

Polar hydroxyl end forms

dipole-dipole or hydrogen
bonds with polar
substances, thus dissolving
them

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable
resource
Ethanol has been proposed as an alternative fuel source because:
It undergoes complete combustion and unlike petrol, burns efficiently
does not release soot or carbon monoxide.
It is a renewable resource since it is made through fermentation of plant
material, and so would reduce our dependency on non-renewable crude oil.
Ethanol is made from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight and plant material and
when it is burnt it returns back to carbon dioxide and water, which can be
reconverted into ethanol.
Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of its use
Advantages of ethanol as a fuel:
At 10-20% concentration in petrol, it is a petrol extender and vehicle
engines do not need to be modified to utilise it.
It undergoes complete combustion [see previous dot point]
It is greenhouse neutral since the carbon dioxide released during
fermentation and combustion is used up in photosynthesis.
i.e. Fermentation: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
+ Combustion: 2C2H5OH + 3O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)
= Photosynthesis: 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 + 6O2
Disadvantages of ethanol as a fuel:
6

Large areas of agricultural land need to be devoted to growing crops for

fuel instead of for food
It does not release as much energy as petrol vehicles receive fewer
kilometres (-1367kJ in ethanol vs. -5464kJ in petrol)
Smelly wastes present environmental problems

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes

involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane

Sugarcane

Harvested and
transported to
mill

Clarified to
remove
impurities

Heated to turn
starch into liquid

Mixed with
enzymes and
water to convert
sugarcane into
pure sugars

Shredded and
crushed to
extract sugar-rich
juice

Cooled; yeast is
added to convert
sugars to ethanol
and carbon
dioxide

Carbon dioxide is
removed then
remaining
mixtureis
fractionally
distilled

Pure ethanol

Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as

an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
In Australia, ethanol is currently added to petrol to form E10 Unleaded which is
10% ethanol/90% petrol blend. At this concentration, vehicle engines need not be
modified; car manufacturers claim that higher concentrations corrode vehicle
engines. Ethanol is more expensive and less efficient than petrol as a car fuel
because and vehicles receive fewer kilometres because ethanol contains less
energy. Furthermore, there are no reliable studies to show that ethanol produces
less greenhouse gas emissions than petrol (although it does combust cleanly and
produces less soot and carbon monoxide).
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Fermentation is a process in which glucose is broken down into ethanol and
carbon dioxide by the action of enzymes in yeast. For fermentation:
Suitable grain or fruit is mashed up with water
Yeast is added
Air is excluded
7

The mixture is kept at 37C (body temperature)

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for
the fermentation of glucose to ethanol
1. Starch/ sucrose are mixed with enzymes (a biological catalyst) to convert it
into glucose.
2. Glucose mixture is clarified to remove impurities and waste, cellulose.
3. Yeast is added to convert mixture into carbon dioxide and ethanol
(fermentation).
i.e. C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
4. Fermented further to produce ethanol at 15% concentration (any higher
would kill yeast, ceasing further fermentation)
5. 15% ethanol mixture is fractionally distilled 95% ethanol
Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the
fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes
Method:
1. Measure and record the mass of the conical flask.
2. Add an aqueous mixture of glucose and measure and record the mass of
the flask plus the glucose mixture. Calculate the mass of the glucose
mixture.
3. Add 1 gram of yeast and secure flask opening with lid containing a pipe
which leads to a test tube containing limewater.
4. Incubate overnight.
5. Measure mass of conical flask with fermented ethanol mixture. Calculate
mass changes.
6. Record observations of limewater.
Results: 5 grams loss, limewater turns milky as carbon dioxide is produced during
fermentation.
Note: Additionally, you can test for ethanol by adding potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) to a sample of the final mixture, it should turn colourless.
Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for
ethanol from first-hand data
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one mole
of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard
atmospheric pressure with products being carbon dioxide and water. Value for
ethanol: -1367 kJ mol-1
Identify the
1 meth
2 eth
Formula for
Formula for
Formula for

IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

3 prop
5 pent
7 hept
4 but
6 hex
8 oct
alkanols: CnH2n+1OH
alkanes: CnH2n+2
alkenes: CnH2n

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to

determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per
gram and per mole
Calculating Heat Capacity: H= -mCT
i.e. Heat Capacity (in joules) = mass in grams of water X 4.18 X temperature
change
Heat of Combustion per gram: H (in kilojoules) mass of alkanol used
Heat of Combustion per mole: Heat of combustion per gram X molar mass of
alkanol

9.2.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a

source of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
Reactions between a metal and a solution containing the ions of a different metal
are displacement or redox reactions. The metal is oxidised and dissolves and the
ions of the metal in solution are reduced to form a solid metal deposit.
Oxidation: loss of electrons (LEO)
Reduction: gain of electrons (GER)
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other
metals to the relative activity of metals
Displacement reactions are electron transfer reactions. In such reactions, a more
active solid metal oxidises and will displace the ions of a less active metal in
solution (which is reduced).
Note: On the standard electrode potentials table, the metal higher up is oxidised.
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain
of electrons
Oxidation increase in oxidation state
Reduction decrease in oxidation state
Elements in their naturally occurring state have an OS of 0.
For ions, the OS is the charge/ valency of the ion (e.g. SO42- has OS -2)
Examples:
1. Find the OS of the underlined species in Cr2O72Sum of oxidation states of constituent elements=overall charge of entire
species
Therefore, 2x + 7-2 = -2 x=6: the OS of Cr2 is 6.
2. If MnCl3 is converted to MnO2, determine whether oxidation or reduction has
occurred.
OS of Mn in MnCl3 is +3; OS of Mn in MnO2 is +4 increase in OS oxidation
has occurred
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
A galvanic cell is an electron pump that produces electricity by pumping electrons
out of the anode, where oxidation occurs, into an external circuit (a metallic
conductor) and draws them back into the cathode, where reduction occurs.
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
A galvanic cell consists of:
Two different half cells, consisting of an electrode in electrolyte solution
An external circuit, which allows the flow of electrons from the anode to
cathode
A salt bridge, which allows the migration of ions and maintains electrical
neutrality
Define anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Anode: electrolyte at which oxidation occurs
10

Cathode: electrolyte at which reduction occurs

Electrode: conductor of a cell (metal or carbon) which gets connected to the
external circuit
Electrolyte: a substance which in solution conducts electricity

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic

cell is produced
Method: Set up a simple galvanic cell and observe the voltage. Observe what
happens to the voltage when: the salt bridge is removed; and electrode is
removed; two identical half cells are used.
Results: 0.7 V with 2 different half cells; 0 V without salt bridge; 0 V without
electrode; 0 V with two identical half cells.
Conclusion: The essential features of a galvanic cell are: two different half cells;
two different electrodes; a salt bridge.
Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure
the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte
solution
Method:
Set up a beaker of sulfuric acid. Attach a piece of copper
to a voltmeter and place this in the beaker. Attach
different metals (Zn, Fe, Pb and Mg) to the other end of
the voltmeter and place this end in the beaker as well.
Measure the potential difference of various combinations
of metals against copper.

Set up a standard galvanic

one half cell of copper in
let the other half cell be
corresponding solution.
potential difference.
different combinations of
Fe, Pb and Mg). The
investigation can be
repeat trials for the various
chosen.
Results: Greatest Potential
Potential Difference: Mg Zn Fe Pb

OR an alternate method:
cell with a voltmeter and
copper sulfate solution;
metal x in its
Measure and record the
Repeat process with
metal electrodes (Zn,
reliability of the
increased by the use of
combinations you have
Difference Least

Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement

of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half
equations
Process with worked example:
11

Calculate the standard cell potential of Co I Co2+ II Ag+ I Ag

1. Determine which metal is oxidised and which is reduced by referring to the
standard electrode potentials table; the metal higher up is oxidised.
Co is oxidised; Ag is reduced
2. Write the reduction half equation and record E.
2Ag+(aq) + 2e- 2Ag(s) E: +0.80
3. Write the oxidation half equation by reversing the appropriate reduction
equation and record E and also reversing its sign.
Co(s) Co2+(aq) + 2e- E: +0.28
4. Add the two half equations to form a redox equation (the electrons should
cancel out). Add the E potentials (a positive E indicates a spontaneous
reaction)
2Ag+(aq) + 2e- + Co(s) 2Ag(s) + Co2+(aq) + 2e2Ag+(aq) + Co(s) 2Ag(s) + Co2+(aq) E: 0.80 + 0.28 = 1.08
Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell and
evaluate it in comparison to the button cell in terms of: chemistry, cost and
practicality, impact on society, impact on environment
Dry Cell
Button Cell
Structure

Chemistry

Cost and
Practicality

Consists of a zinc anode, an

aqueous paste of ammonium
chloride and a mixture of
powdered carbon,
manganese, and a carbon
graphite rod as the cathode.
O: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2eR: 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s)
Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Cheap; mass produced;
useful in devices requiring a
small current, e.g. torches,
portable radios, clocks;
leaking problems common
because zinc casing erodes
during operation

Consists of a zinc anode, silver

oxide cathode with a conductive
substance C or Ag mixed with
Ag2O, and an alkaline electrolyte
solution of potassium hydroxide.
O: Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) +
2eR: Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s) +
2OHExpensive due to silver content;
but practical because of its small
size and constant voltage (1.5 V)

12

Impact on
Society

Impact on
Environment

Made the use of portable

appliances such as radios
possible and feasible.

Small quantities of zinc,

ammonium and carbon are
harmless; but not
rechargeable and large in
size increase in landfills.

Has allowed for use of miniature

appliances such as hearing aids
and watches; its long life means it
does not need frequent
replacement practical.
Little environmental impact as it
takes up little space in landfill;
contents are less likely to leak and
less toxic.

13

9.2.5

Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions
under which a nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of one element that differ by having different numbers of
neutrons but the same number of protons, hence have a different mass number.
An isotope is unstable if:
Its atomic number is greater than 83
Its ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability
The nucleus of a large radioactive atom has high energy, and therefore is unstable;
energy is reduced by expelling alpha, beta or gamma particles, and as a result the
atom is more stable.
Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements are artificial, man made elements with atomic numbers
greater than 92. Early transuranic elements were made in nuclear reactors where
existing elements were bombarded with slow thermal neutrons which were
absorbed to produce new elements. Later transuranic elements were made in
particle accelerators where heavy nuclei would be bombarded with positive
particles at high speed; since both the target and particles are positively charged,
fast speed is needed to overcome electrostatic repulsion.
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced
Radioisotopes are made in the same way as transuranic elements, i.e. in nuclear
reactors or particle accelerators; the only difference is that the target nuclei need
not be heavy.
Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of
elements
Elements 104-112 (not 108) have been produced using particle accelerators. For
example, Element 106, Seaborgium, is made in a particle accelerator involving
fusion of an isotope of Californium 249Cf with an oxygen isotope:
18
249
267
1
8O +
98Cf
106Sg + 4 0n
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic film: radiation is monitored by measuring the extent of the
darkening of photographic film.
Cloud chamber: as radiation passes through a supersaturated vapour, it
ionises the air, forming water droplets; the path of these droplets indicates
the type of radiation: alpha straight, dense tracks, beta less dense, wavy
tracks, gamma faint, random droplets.
Geiger- Muller counter: as radiation passes the Geiger tube, it hits gas
molecules and ionises them. Audible electrical pulses are produced as gas
molecules are ionised, the rate of these pulses indicates the amount of
radiation.
Scintillation counter: a flash of light is emitted as substances are irradiated
with radiation.
14

Identify one use of a named radioisotope: in industry; in medicine

Technetium-99m is used in medicine for diagnosis of blood, heart, brain and
thyroid abnormalities. Cobalt-60 is used in medicine for cancer therapy and in
industry as a thickness gauge.
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes
are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties
Radioisotop Radiat
HalfUses in terms of Chemical Properties
e
ion
life
Emitte
d
Technetium- Gamma 6
Medical diagnosis gamma rays are highly
99m
hours
penetrable so can be detected at the bodys
surface without invasion; short half life ensures
it leaves the body quickly, leaving minimal
damage; easily bonds with other chemicals, so
it combines with tin to form a serum which is
injected into the body and inside the body it
binds with red blood cells to detect circulation
disorders.
Cobalt-60
Beta;
5.3
Thickness gauge beta and gamma rays
Gamma years
penetrate through metal sheets (but only to a
certain degree); relatively long half life makes it
suited in machinery since the radioactive source
does not need frequent replacement.
Cancer therapy gamma rays kill cancer cells
because they contain high energy; half life is
short enough to expel reasonable bouts of
radiation at moderate intensity to kill cancer
cells.
Use available evidence to analyse the benefits and problems associated with the
use of radioisotopes in identified industries and medicine
Field
Benefits
Problems
Medicine
Opens a wide range of non Harmful to people and life
invasive diagnostic
forms
Causes tissue damage: skin
procedures
Radiation therapy is, in most
burns, nausea, radiation
cases, the most effective
sickness

Can cause cancer: leukaemia

treatment for cancer
and lung cancer
Genetic damage: deformities in
offspring
Industry
Monitoring equipment are
Radiation from equipment can
15

more sensitive and accurate

Enables examination of weld
and structural faults in
buildings and machinery
which otherwise can not be
detected

Writing Nuclear Equations:

x+y
x
y
a+bM aP + bR
Symbols:
Neutron: 10n
Proton: 11p

stray and leak if not carefully

monitored or stored in well
shielded containers

Electron/ beta particle:

Alpha particle: 42He

-1

16

9.3.1
Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of
some flowers depends on soil composition
Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
Common acids: vinegar, lime/ lemon juice, aspirin, vitamin C
Laboratory acids: hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric
Neutrals: water
Common bases: ammonia, washing soda, antacid tablets, oven/drain cleaners
Laboratory bases: all hydroxides and oxides, e.g. NaOH, Mg(OH) 2, Fe2O3
Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and
bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a
material over a range, which is identified by colour changes
Identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour changes
of a range of indicators
Common Indicator
Colour in Acid
Colour in Base
Litmus
Red (<5.0)
Blue (>8.0)
Phenolphthalein
Colourless (<8.3)
Pink (10.0)
Methyl Orange
Red (<3.1)
Yellow (>4.4)
Bromothymol Blue
Yellow (<6.0)
Blue (>7.6)
Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator
Method: Heat red cabbage leaves in a beaker under a Bunsen burner. Stop burner
after water turns purple and allow to cool. Pour purple water in three test tubes one containing acid (HNO3), one with water and one with a base (NaOH).
Results: Colour in: acid - red; water - purple; base - yellow
Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including testing of soil
acidity/basicity
Pool Ranger Home Swimming Pool pH Tester
Test: Collect pool sample in tube then add 5 drops of phenol red and shake.
Compare tube colour with adjacent colour markings.
Importance: Acid or basic pool water results from a buildup of bacteria and
pollutants. Pools need to maintain a relatively neutral pH as acidic or alkaline water
causes irritations to the skin and eyes. Aquasonic Home Aquarium pH Test Kit
Test: Collect water from aquarium in tube and add 3 drops of bromothymol blue.
Compare test tube colour with chart provided. Add appropriate chemicals (if
needed) to maintain pH between 6.0 - 7.8.
Importance: pH is lowered when there is a buildup of bacterial wastes. A pH
between 6.0 - 7.8 provides the ideal conditions for freshwater aquaria. Extreme
changes in pH reproductive abnormalities, dissolving of scale mucus membrane.
Soil pH Test Kit
Test: Place a teaspoon of sample soil on test plate and add indicator liquid and
barium sulfate white powder then stir. Compare colour of sample with colour card
provided.
17

Importance: Different plants prefer/grow best in different soils with varying pH, e.g.
azaleas prefer slightly acidic, vegetables prefer slightly alkaline, no plants grow if
pH < 4. Inadequate pH death, impaired plant growth.

18

9.3.2

While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the

atmosphere naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen
and sulfur. The concentration of these acidic oxides have been
increasing since the Industrial Revolution

Identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions under
which they act as acids
CO2 carbon dioxide, SO2 sulfur dioxide and NO2 nitrogen dioxide are oxides of
non-metals which dissolve in water to form acids and react with bases to form salts
and water.
Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the
relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and their
acidity/basicity of oxides
Acidic character of elements increases across a period. Elements of the left
(metals) form basic oxides; elements in the middle form amphoteric oxides (i.e.
they display both acidic and basic character); elements on the right (non-metals)
form acidic oxides; noble gases are inert so do not form any oxides.
Define Le Chateliers principle
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, then the system adjusts itself as to
minimize the disturbance.
Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an
equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers principle
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H: negative
More CO2 shift to the right more H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
Less CO2 shift to the left less H+(aq) less acidic
Add H+ or HCO3- shift to the left more CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Add base reacts with H+ shift to the right
Add heat shift to the left (since reverse reaction absorbs heat) [vice versa]
Note: If H is negative, the forward reaction is releasing heat, if H is
positive, forward reaction is absorbing heat.
Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
Increase in concentration reaction shifts to the side which uses up the
added species
Decrease in concentration (removed) reaction shifts to the side which
produces the removed species
Increase in volume decrease in pressure shift to the side which produces
the most gaseous molecules. Note: No change if both sides produce same
number of gaseous molecules
Decrease in volume increase in pressure shift to the side which produces
the least gaseous molecules
Increase temperature shift to the endothermic side that uses up the added
heat
19

Decrease in temperature shift to the exothermic side that produces the

removed heat

Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Source
Sulfur Dioxide
Oxides of Nitrogen
Natural
Geothermal hot springs
High temperatures from lightning
Volcanoes
(which forms nitric oxide, NO)
Smoke from bushfires
Bacteria acting on nitrogenous
Bacterial decomposition
material in soil (which forms
Industri
al

Burning of fossil fuels (such as

coal, which contains sulfur)
Extraction of metals from
sulfide ores (smelting)

nitrous oxide, HNO2)

Combustion of nitrogen and
oxygen in vehicle chambers and
power stations (which forms
nitric oxide, as in lightning)

Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur

dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
As bacteria decompose, it forms hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which oxidises to
form sulfur dioxide:
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Coal contains sulfur, so when it is burnt, it reacts with oxygen to form sulfur
dioxide:
S [in compound] + O2(g) SO2 (g)
High temperatures from lightning or vehicle chambers causes nitrogen and
oxygen to combine forming nitric oxide, which further oxidises to form
nitrogen dioxide:
O2(g) + N2(g) 2NO(g) then 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
Industrial Revolution increased burning of coal + extraction of metals
increased SO2 emissions
Electricity + motor car high temperature combustion increased levels of
nitrogen oxides
There is a lack of reliable evidence before 1970 since there was a lack of
technology that monitored atmospheric concentrations, and also the technology
that existed at the time was insufficient in monitoring such low levels which
existed then since the problems were just emerging.
Calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substance in reactions, and
calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving
gases at 0C and 100kPa or 25C and 100kPa
Mole Ratio Equations:
n = m fm i.e. number of moles = mass formula mass
n = V mV i.e. number of moles= volume molar volume which is 22.71 at
0C/100kPa or 24.79 at 25C/ 100kPa
Process with worked example:
20

What volume of carbon dioxide gas measured at 0C/100kPa can be reacted from
15.5g of NaOH to form NaCO3 and water?
1. Write a chemical equation
2NaOH(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
2. Find the number of moles of the known substance
nNaOH = 15.5 39.998 = 0.3875
3. Determine the mole ratio (i.e. moles of unknown : moles of known)
CO2: NaOH = 1:2
4. Find the moles of unknown (i.e. multiply moles of known by mole ratio)
nCO2 = nNaOH = 0.38752
5. Convert moles of known into units asked for
V= (0.38752) 22.71 = 4.4 L
Explain the formation and effects of acid rain
SO2 dissolves in air to form aqueous droplets of sulfurous acid, which oxidises to
form sulfuric acid.
i.e. SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) then 2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq)
Similarly, NO2 dissolves in the air to form nitrous acid and nitric acid.
i.e. 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
Sulfuric acid and nitric acid together form acid rain.
Effects of acid rain:
Increases the acidity of lakes detrimental effect on fish as it upsets their
reproductive processes and strips mucus membrane on their scales
Damages pine forests and vegetation corrodes leaves, changes soil
concentration and pH
Erodes marble, limestone and metal structures (carbonates in these
materials react with acid weathering and erosion), e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of
sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their
release into the environment
Buildup in atmosphere of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen formation of acid
rain + photochemical smog detrimental health effects on population (e.g.
breathing difficulties) + detrimental effects of acid rain (see previous syllabus dot
point). Therefore, the rate of emission of these chemicals needs to be monitored
and regulated.
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to
measure the mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at
25C and 100kPa
Method: Weigh an unopened soda can on an electronic balance. Similarly, weigh
another soda can that has been refilled with water this is a control. Open the
soda can. Leave both cans overnight. Reweigh add record the mass changes.
Calculate the volume of CO2 released.

21

9.3.3 Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our
stomachs
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water
An acid ionises in water to form hydronium ions and donates a proton to form a
conjugate base:
Acid (aq) H3O+ + Conjugate Base
Identify acids such as acetic (ethanoic acid), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3tricarboxylic acid), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid (in fruits and as a preservative), hydrochloric (in
the stomach and made industrially) and sulfuric acid (in acid rain) are common
acids.
Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases
The pH scale is used to compare the concentration of hydrogen ions in solutions of
acids and bases
In a neutral solution, e.g. water, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol L-1 and so pH =7.
In an acidic solution, [H+] > 10-7 mol L-1 and pH < 7.
In a basic solution, [H+] < 10-7 mol L-1 and pH > 7.
pH increases as [H+] decreases
Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong,
weak, concentrated and dilute
Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate the
ionisation of strong and weak acids
In a strong acid, all acid molecules ionise, there are no neutral acid molecules.
In a weak acid, only a small percentage of acid molecules ionise, most remain as
neutral molecules.
The concentration of an acid refers to its molarity; concentrated if it is above 5 mol
L-1 and dilute if it is less than 2 mol L-1.
Identify pH as -log10 [H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold

change in [H+]
To calculate pH given [H+]: pH = -log10 [H+]
To calculate [H+] given the pH: [H+] = 10-pH
To calculate [H+] given [OH-]: [H+] = 10-14 [OH-]
22

As pH increases by 1, the concentration of the hydrogen ions, i.e. [H+], decreases

by a factor of ten, or ten fold. E.g. if pH = 1, [H+] = 10-1 = 0.1 but if pH = 2, [H+] =
10-2 = 0.01
Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and
hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their
molecules
Gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic equations to
represent the ionisation of acids
Acid
Acetic
Citric
Hydrochloric
Ionisati CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) C6H8O7 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
HCl (g) + H2O (l)
+
3+
on
H3O (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
C6H5O7 (aq) + 3H3O (l)
H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Equatio
n
pH
2.9
2.1
1.0
Degree 1%
8%
100%
of
Ionisati
on
HCl: strong acid ionises completely high [H3O+] low pH
Citric and Acetic: weak acids only partially ionise less [H3O+] higher pH
Describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of equilibrium
between the intact molecule and its ions
An aqueous solution of a strong acid contains only hydronium ions and the anions
of the acid; there are no neutral acid molecules, i.e. the ionisation reaction goes to
completion.
An aqueous solution of a weak acid is at equilibrium between the neutral acid
molecules and hydronium ions and anions of the acid [see ionisation equations in
table above].
Solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH meters/probes
and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral chemicals
Using a pH meter/ probe is a non destructive means of measuring the pH of
chemicals. Using indicators is a destructive means.
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical
concentrations of strong and weak acids
Method: Using a pH probe measure and record the concentration of a strong acid,
such as HCl. Rinse the probe with distilled water to avoid cross contamination.
Repeat with a weak acid, such as acetic acid.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of acids
as food additives
Acids are added to foods to:
Preserve food acids lower the pH to a range outside one which
microorganisms can survive in, thus enzyme reactions are inhibited or
23

slowed down. e.g. citric acid is a preservative in jams; acetic acid preserves
canned beetroot and pickled onions.
Enhance flavour and/or nutritional value provides a tart, sour taste. e.g.
phosphoric acid in soft drinks; citric acid and ascorbic acid are antioxidants.

Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify
examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical composition
Acid or Base Name
Chemical
Where is it Found?
Formula
Hydrochloric Acid
HCl
In the stomach
Lactic Acid
CH3CH(OH)CO2 Milk and Yoghurt
H
Ammonia (base)
NH3
Formed in the anaerobic decay of organic
matter
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
Limestone
(base)
Process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids given
appropriate hydrogen ion concentrations
Example:
Calculate the pH of 2.0 mol L-1 solution of sulfuric acid
[H2SO4] = 2.0
H2SO4 (l) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
ratio of H SO : H+ = 1 : 2
2

[H+] = 2 2.0 = 4.0

pH = -log 4.0 = -0.6

10

Process with Harder Worked Example:

[A neutralisation reaction] 50 mL of 0.100 mol L-1 hydrochloric acid is added to 75
mL of 0.050 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate the pH of the resulting
solution.
1. Equation states mole ratio. Calculate the moles of H+ from acid information.
VHCl = 0.050; CHCl = 0.100
C=nV
n = C V = 0.100 0.050 = 0.005 moles
H+

2. Calculate the moles of OH- from basic information.

VNaOH = 0.075; CNaOH = 0.050
n = 0.050 0.075 = 0.00375 moles
OH-

3. Determine which is in excess and by how many moles.

H+ is in excess
Excess = (moles of H+) (moles of OH-) = 0.005 0.00375 = 0.00125
4. Find the concentration of excess H+ or OH-.
[H+] = moles total volume = 0.00125 (0.050 + 0.075) = 0.01
Note: If OH- is in excess, calculate its excess, then calculate [H+] using [H+] =
10-14 [OH-]
24

5. Calculate pH.
pH = -log10 [H+] = -log10 0.01 = 2

25

9.3.4

Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have

been used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time, the
definitions of acid and base have been refined

Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
Lavoisier
Davy
Arrhenius
Gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in
understanding and describing acid/base reactions
Scienti
Observations
Theory of Acids
Example
st by
Date
Lavoisi Non-metal oxides dissolve in
Acids contain oxygen CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
er
water to produce acids
H2CO3 (aq)
(1780)
Davy
Decomposed HCl and found that Acids contain
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)
(1815)
it did not contain oxygen
replaceable
ZnCl2 (aq) + H2
hydrogen (ability to
(g)
be replaced by
metals)
Arrheni When an electrical current was
Acids ionise in
CH3COOH (l)
us
passed through acid, hydrogen
solution to produce
H+ (aq) +
(1884)
gas evolved at the anode
hydrogen ions
CH3COO (aq)
The Bronsted-Lowry definition [see below] expanded our understanding of
acids/bases as it proposes that the acidity of a substance depends on its properties
relative to those of the solvent, and not just its structure. This concept furthers our
understanding of acid-base equilibrium and pH calculations.
Outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
Bronsted-Lowry (1923) analysed the experiments of the scientists before them to
propose their theory that acids are proton donors and bases are protons acceptors.
e.g. HA + H2O H3O+ + A- where HA is an acid or B + H2O HB+ + OH- where B is
a base
Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and
its conjugate acid
Acid (aq) H3O+ + Conjugate Base when the acid donates a proton
Base + H+ Conjugate acid when a base accepts a proton
Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain
their acidic, neutral or basic nature
Strong Base e.g. H2O, NaOH
Weak Base e.g.
NH3
Strong Acid Neutral salt (neither the conjugate base of the
Acidic salt (as
26

e.g. HNO3,
HCl
Weak Acid
e.g.
CH3COOH

acid nor the conjugate acid of the base

significantly react with water to alter the pH)
Basic salt (as anion reacts)

cation reacts)
Neutral salt

Identify conjugate acid/base pairs

Conjugate
Acid
Acid
Conjugate
Base
HCl
Cl
H2SO4
HSO4NH4+
NH3
H2O
OHH3O+
H2O
Base
CO32HCO3HCO3
H2CO3
NH3
NH4+
OHH2O
H2O
H3O+
Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their
behaviour in acidic and basic solutions
Amphiprotic substances are those which can react as both a proton donor and a
proton acceptor.
e.g. water - [as a B.L. acid]: H2O H+ + OH-; [as a B.L. base]: H2O + H+ H3O+
or HCO3- - [as a B.L. acid]: HCO3- H+ + CO32-; [as a B.L. base]: HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic
Neutralisation reactions are exothermic proton transfer reactions.
e.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq) a H+ proton from HCl reacts with OH- in
NaCl to form water; heat is liberated H < 0 (approx. -56kJ mol L-1)
Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of
standard solutions
Perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and
including the preparation of standard solutions, and use available evidence to
quantitatively and qualitatively describe the reaction between selected acids and
bases
Preparing a Standard Solution
1. Measure the mass of the primary standard using a beaker and an electronic
balance.
2. Dissolve the standard in 100 mL of water.
3. Transfer dissolved solution to a volumetric flask using a filter funnel.
27

4. Rinse beaker with distilled water and transfer rinsed solution to volumetric
flask. Swirl gently.
5. Fill the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus is in line with the
calibration mark.
6. Invert and shake to ensure a homogenous mixture.
7. Calculate the concentration of the solution: n = mass molar mass then C =
n V (0.250)
To be a primary standard, the substance must be:
Of high purity and stability not be volatile, not absorb moisture or react
with CO2, as these would create an impure substance
Soluble in water
Of accurately known concentration
e.g. Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 but not NaOH
Conducting a Titration
1. Collect 200 mL of the base solution (e.g. NaOH) in a beaker.
2. Rinse the burette with 10 mL of the base solution, including running the
solution through the stopcock.
3. Fill the burette and attach it to the retort stand using a burette clamp. Record
the volume of base solution in the burette.
4. Rinse the pipette with 10 mL of the acid solution (e.g. HCl).
5. Pipette out 25 mL accurately into a clean, dry conical flask.
6. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator (or another indicator that will show
a colour change as the equivalence point is reached).
7. Run the base solution from burette, at the same time, gently swirling the
conical flask. As the equivalence point gets closer, add solution drop by drop.
Stop when the solution turns a pale pink colour (for phenolphthalein). [Carry
out a rough titration first to get an estimate]
8. Repeat another 2 to 3 times for reliability.
9. Determine the concentration of the acid solution, using CiVi = CfVf.
Titration Calculation Process with Worked
Tri
Volume of NaOH
Example:
al
used (mL)
A student performed a titration of 25.00 mL of
1
23.30
acetic acid of unknown concentration with 0.123
-1
2
22.70
mol L solution of sodium hydroxide. Her results
3
22.70
are shown right:
4
22.80
Calculate the concentration of the acetic acid
solution.
1. Write an equation
NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) NaCH3COO (aq) + H2O (l)
2. Find the moles of one species.
Average VolumeNaOH = (22.70 + 22.70 + 22.80) 3 = 22.73
Note: Trial 1 is a rough titration so do not include this
result.

28

nNaOH = 0.123 0.02273 = 0.00280

3. Use mole ratio to find moles of required
species.
Mole ratio of NaOH : CH3COOH = 1 : 1
n
= 0.00280
CH3COOH

4. Find the concentration of the required

species.
C = n V = 0.00280 0.02500 = 0.112 mol
L-1
Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the
concentration of a domestic acidic substance using
computer based technologies
Method: Carry out a titration reaction to determine
the mass of acetic acid in vinegar with the aid of
technologies such as a magnetic stirrer and
computer programs that plot the pH as the titrant
from the burette is added.

Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in

a natural system
A buffer solution is one that contains comparable amounts of weak acid and its
conjugate base, so therefore is able to maintain an approximately constant pH
even when significant amounts of strong acid or base are added.
Example of a naturally occurring buffer: H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
As rainwater falls, it forms a dilute solution of carbonic acid with a pH of 5.7 6.0:
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)
When it lands in the lake or river, comparable amounts of HCO3- from surrounding
carbonate rocks, such as limestone, provide a natural buffer and react with H3O+ in
carbonic acid shifts the equilibrium to the left removes H+ raises pH to 6.5
7.0:
H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H2CO3 + H2O (l)
OH- in water then reacts with H3O+ shifts equilibrium to the right removes OH restores/ maintains slightly acidic pH:
OH- (aq) + H2CO3 (aq) HCO3-(aq) + H2O (l)
Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH of a
range of salt solutions
Equipment:
Test tubes
Universal Indicator
pH chart
A range of 0.1 mol L-1 salt solutions
Method: Add 5 mL a salt solution into a test tube. Add 3 drops of universal
indicator and record the colour and corresponding pH with reference to a pH chart.
29

Conclusion: From the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, the ions in the salt
solutions act as acids or bases when reacting with water; acidic solutions donate
H+; basic solutions accept H+.
Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation
reactions as a safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical
spills
As acids are highly corrosive and bases are highly caustic, it is important to
neutralise any spills of these substances if they occur. Amphiprotic substances like
HCO3- in NaHCO3 is suitable for neutralising both acidic and alkaline spills as it can
act as a B.L. acid or base:
In an acidic spill: H+ + HCO3- H2CO3
In an alkaline spill: HCO3- + OH- H2O + CO32NaHCO3 is preferred as it is can be safely handled and stored, it is cheap, if excess
is used it is not harmful.

30

9.3.5

Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be

performed in the
laboratory

Describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups
in carbon compounds
Alkanols contain a hydroxyl OH- functional group attached to a C atom. General
formula: CnH2n+1OH
Alkanoic acids are polar, weak acids that contain a carboxylic COOH group
attached to a C atom. General formula: CnH2n+1COOH
Alkanols are a subset of alcohols and alkanoic acids are a subset of carboxylic
acids. Both alkanols and alkanoic acids only contain C, H and O atoms.
Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straightchained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol structures
Alkanoic acids have higher melting and boiling points than their corresponding
alkanols. Alkanols have relatively high boiling points as O H bonds are able to
form strong hydrogen bonds. But alkanoic acids, due to their COOH group, have
the ability to form 2 hydrogen bonds, creating even higher melting and boiling
points as more energy is needed to break 2 bonds than 1.
Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe,
using equations examples of esterification
Esters (alkyl alkanoates) are formed in a condensation reaction between alkanols
and alkanoic acids.
i.e. alkanol + alkanoic acid ester (alkyl alkanoate) + water
e.g. ethanol + propanoic acid ethyl propanoate + water

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for

describing the esters produced by
reactions of straight-chained alkanoic
acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained
primary alkanols from C1 to C8

+
H2O
Number
of
Carbons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Alkyl
Part

Alkanoate
Part

Methyl
Ethyl
Propyl
Butyl
Pentyl
Hexyl
Heptyl
Octyl

Methanoate
Ethanoate
Propanoate
Butanoate
Pentanoate
Hexanoate
Heptanoate
Octanoate

Describe the purpose of using acid in

esterification for catalysis
As esterification is a moderately slow
reaction, a few drops of concentrated
sulfuric acid is added to speed up the
rate of reaction. Sulfuric acid is a
dehydrating agent so absorbs the water produced in the reaction which shifts the
equilibrium to the right, thus producing more ester.
Explain the need for refluxing during esterification
31

Refluxing is the process in which any alcohol vapour, which rises in the heat of the
reaction, is condensed using a water cooling condenser to prevent the loss of
reactants or products. Thus, the reaction is able to be heated to a higher
temperature pushes the equilibrium to the right (as reaction is endothermic)
produces more ester.
Refluxing provides a safe alternative to performing the reaction in a closer
container, which leads to a toxic build up of gases and possibly an explosion.
Outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters
Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of
esters as flavours and perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters naturally occur in fruits and flowers and are responsible for their taste and
scent. Industrially, esters are artificially produced for practical uses, e.g. ethyl
ethanoate is a solvent in nail polish remover; the sweet scent is replicated for use
in perfumes, such as apple or pear flavours. Producing esters industrially is
cheaper than extracting them from their natural sources.
Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to
prepare an ester using reflux
Equipment:
15 mL of acetic (ethanoic) acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid
15 mL of ethanol
500 mL beaker
Round bottom flask with water
Wire gauze
cooling condenser
Tripod
3 boiling chips
Bunsen burner
Method:
1. Place 15 mL of ethanol and 15 mL of acetic acid into
the round bottom flask. Add 3 boiling chips (to ensure
even boiling) and 10 drops of concentrated sulfuric
acid.
2. Heat the mixture using reflux apparatus for 20 to 30
minutes, until 2 layers are visible. Allow to cool.
3. Add 100 mL of water to the mixture and shake. Allow
the 2 layers to separate again.
4. Run this mixture through a separating funnel. Discard
the aqueous layer.
5. Add 50 mL of Na2CO3 solution to the remaining
mixture in the separating funnel. Shake gently,
expelling gas that evolves. Allow the 2 layers to
separate again.
6. Run the mixture through the separating funnel again.
Discard the lower layer.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 to leave a pure sample of the
ester, ethyl ethanoate.

32

9.4.1 Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the

reactants and products of reactions and managing reaction
conditions

Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise,

identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and
explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the
work of practising scientists identifying:
the variety of chemical occupations
a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study
An analytical chemist working for Sydney Water will use AAS to monitor
concentrations of metals, such as Pb and Hg, in water samples which
eventually will be supplied to households. The principle of chemistry used by
the scientist is that metal electrons move from one energy shell to a higher
one by absorbing electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength specific to that
metal, giving each metal a unique emission spectrum metals can be
identified and their concentration can be determined even in the presence of
other metals. It is important that the scientist monitor and regulate the
concentrations of metals in drinking water sources as excessive
concentrations can lead to poisoning and illness, e.g. lead poisoning can
cause mental retardation, but trace element metals, like Zn, are essential in
small concentrations for body functioning.

Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and
analyse data
Chemists specialising in various fields of chemistry, e.g. analytical, organic,
industrial, need to collaborate to solve problems requiring a broad spectrum
of chemical knowledge.
Chemists need to regularly exchange viewpoints and have an open minded
but critical approach to ensure that our scientific knowledge is constantly
improving.
Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where
reactants form different products under different conditions and thus would
need monitoring
Combustion reactions can produce solely carbon dioxide or a mixture of
poisonous carbon monoxide and pollutant soot (C), depending on the amount
of oxygen present. Using methane as an example:
O
Bun
F
Rate of
Reaction Equation
x
sen
l
Combustion
33

y
g
e
n
S
u
p
p
l
y
S
u
f
fi
c
i
e
n
t
L
i
m
it
e
d
B
l
o
c
k
e
d

Bur
ner
Hol
e

a
m
e

Ope
n

Parti
ally
ope
n

Clos
ed

C
o
l
o
u
r
B
l
u
e

Complete
combustion;
maximum
energy released

M
a
u
v
e

Incomplete
combustion

2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO

(g) + 4H2O (l)

Y
e
ll
o
w

Incomplete
combustion

CH4 (g) + O2 (g) C (g) +

2H2O (l)

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g)

+ 2H2O (l)

34

9.4.2 Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and

management to maximise production

Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia

Fertilisers (ammonium nitrate) important for growing food and crops for
growing populations; ammonia is reacted with nitric acid to form ammonium
nitrate i.e. NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
Explosives during WWI, Germany called for more explosives

Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases,

nitrogen and hydrogen
Hydrogen + atmospheric nitrogen ammonia i.e. 3H2 (g) + N2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic

H = -92 kJ mol-1 (exothermic)

Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will

reach equilibrium
The synthesis of ammonia is a reversible reaction, meaning that ammonia is
formed at the same time as it is being decomposed. Equilibrium is reached
when the synthesis (forward) reaction proceeds at the same rate as the
decomposition (reverse) reaction.

Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures

Increasing reactants temperatures increase in their kinetic energy
brings them closer to their activation energy higher chance of successful
collisions increased reaction rate

Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chateliers principle
By Le Chateliers principle, if the temperature is increased, the equilibrium
will shift to the side that uses up the heat. Since the synthesis (forward)
reaction of ammonia is exothermic (heat is produced), the equilibrium will
shift to the left to oppose the change decomposition of ammonia reduced
yield of ammonia.

Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving
reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium
Increased temperatures reduced yield but also an increased reaction rate
a balanced, compromised temperature is needed to maximise yield and
have a moderate reaction rate

Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature
required and identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process
The addition of an iron catalyst, such as magnetite Fe3O4, lowers the
activation energy, which enables a faster reaction rate. Thus, the reaction
35

proceeds at a moderate rate at lower temperatures. The catalyst has no

effect on temperature so does not affect the equilibrium.
Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the
Haber process
A high pressure (250 atmospheric pressure) increases both the reaction
rate and the yield.
Higher pressure more moles of gas in the closed container increased
chance of successful collision faster reaction rate
Higher pressure shifts equilibrium to the right (as least gaseous molecules
are produced on this side) more ammonia (increased yield)
Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is
crucial and discuss the monitoring required
Temperatures need to be monitored as excessively high temperatures
permanently damage the catalyst and low temperatures compromise the
optimum yield and reaction rate
Pressure needs to be monitored as high pressure could be explosive
Incoming gases lower the reactions efficiency and in the case of oxygen,
could lead to explosions if it reacts with hydrogen gas

Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the

conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia
and evaluate its significance at that time in world history
Haber (and Bosch) discovered that a temperature of 400C, high pressure of
20MPa and an iron catalyst were the ideal conditions needed to optimise the
synthesis of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen.
Significance:
The synthesis of ammonia was necessary for the production of explosives for
Germany in WWI after the British cut off Chilean guano (bird dropping)
supplies
Habers contributions helped Germanys war efforts, and even prolonged the
war
The synthesis of ammonia facilitated the manufacture of fertilisers for food
production for growing populations

36

9.4.3 Manufactured products, including food, drugs and

household chemicals, are analysed to determine or ensure their
chemical composition

Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests

Perform a first hand investigation to carry out a range of tests, including
flame tests, to identify the following ions:
Phosphate
Chloride
Lead
Sulfate
Barium
Copper
Carbonate
Calcium
Iron

Orange
Apple
red
green
flame
flame
Ca2+
Ba2+
Blue precipitate forms Cu2+
Grey green precip

37

Unknown Anions

CO32-, SO42-, PO43-, Cl

Add 2 mol L-1 HNO3

Bubbles seen

No bubbles

Acidify solution with HNO3 and add Ba(NO3)2

Anion: CO32

No precipitate forms

White/ pale blue precipitate forms

Anions:
Anion: SO42
PO43-,
Cl

Add NH3
makes solution basic, then add aqueous Ba(NO3)2

White precipitate
forms PO43Acidify by adding HNO3, then add aqueous AgNO3

Silver chloride precipitate forms Cl

Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for
the need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in
society
Phosphate
Low concentrations are essential in waterways for normal aquatic plant
growth
High phosphate concentrations algal bloom algae grows to cover
lake/river surface kills fish + uses up all the phosphate then, algae
38

decays anaerobically low oxygen levels in water death of marine life in

the water
Monitoring the amount of phosphate entering and already present in
waterways, scientists can guard against algal blooms
Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting
concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific
understanding of the effects of trace elements

Process:
1. A hollow cathode lamp emits light of a specific wavelength in a metals
emission spectrum.
2. The sample to be analysed is fed into a flame which vaporises molecules and
ions, converting them into atoms.
3. A monochromator selects a particular wavelength and directs it to a
photomultiplier/ detector.
4. The photomultiplier measures the intensity of the light. By comparing the
intensity absorbed with and without a sample, the concentration of a
particular element can be calculated.
5. Measure the absorbance of several standard solutions and plot a calibration
graph.

Principle of Chemistry:
An electron in a metal atom moves from one energy shell to a higher one by
absorbing electromagnetic radiation of a specific wavelength the
wavelength is unique to the metal the metal has its own unique absorption
or emission spectrum. This fact is critical to the success of AAS as elements
can be distinguished, and their concentration can be found, even in the
presence of other elements.

Trace Elements:
Elements present in very small but essential amounts
Help enzymes function to maintain optimum nutrition and functioning in soils
and organisms
39

Prior to AAS, trace elements went unnoticed as analytical methods were not
sensitive enough to measure their minute concentrations
Alan Walshs discovery of AAS has made it possible to monitor and maintain
safe but essential amounts of trace elements nutrient soils for maximum
yield of crops and produce + optimum functioning of organisms

Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from

AAS measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
AAS ability to measure very low concentrations of a wide range of elements
makes it an effective means of monitoring pollution.
Water and soil samples can be analysed to identify the presence of specific
trace elements [refer to principle of chemistry] and their concentrations.
Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first hand investigations to
measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry
involved
Ionic equation: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s)
Method:
1. Dissolve 0.5 g of fertiliser in 25 mL of deionised water use deionised water
as sulfate contaminants in normal water may alter the results.
2. Add 5 drops of HCl HCl breaks down insoluble sulfate complexes.
3. In another beaker, add 25 mL of Ba(NO3)2.
4. Heat both solutions until near boiling heating increases the kinetic energy
increases rate of successful collisions increases particle size.
5. Add Ba(NO3)2 drop by drop to the hot fertiliser solution, constantly stirring
adding Ba(NO3)2 slowly allows BaSO4 precipitate crystals to form.
6. Allow to cool for 30 minutes and then add 5 mL of acetone acetone acts as
a coagulating agent.
7. Filter through a sintered glass funnel.
8. Wash the precipitate 3 to 4 times and then dry using a vacuum pump and
more acetone washing the precipitate several times minimises mass loss;
drying using a vacuum pump and acetone ensures no water is mistaken for
BaSO4.
9. Weigh the synthesised BaSO4.
10.
Repeat steps 8 and 9 until a constant mass is reached.
11.
Determine the amount of sulfate present.
12.
Calculate percentage mass of sulfate in fertiliser sample, using:

fm (SO4) fm (BaSO4) mass of BaSO4 weighed 100

Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above

investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the
procedure
Measures taken that ensure
Sources of error that
reliability
compromise reliability

40

Adding HCl
Heating the solutions
Adding BaNO3 very slowly
Adding acetone
Washing the precipitate 3 to 4
times
Using a vacuum pump
Reweighing until a constant mass
was reached

Precipitate adheres to walls of

apparatus or is spilt so is lost
when transferring solutions
Contamination by substances
absorbed from the solution during
precipitation
Incomplete drying, leaving water
in the final BaSO4 precipitate

41

9.4.4 Human activity has caused changes in the composition

and the structure of the atmosphere. Chemists monitor these
changes so that further damage can be limited

Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere

Laye
A
Composition
r
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
(
k
m
)
Tropo
0
Contains 80% of the atmospheres mass
spher
(
Major constituent gases: nitrogen
e
s
(78.08%), oxygen (20.95%) and argon
e
(0.93%) and water vapour (0.5-5%)
a
Minor constituent gases/pollutants:
l
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon
e
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides
v
and ozone (0.02 ppm)
e
l)

1
5
Strat
1
Same percentage composition of
osphe
5
gaseous molecules as the troposphere
re

but greater spacing between gaseous

5
particles low pressure. Water vapour
0
concentration drops 5 ppm.
Meso
5
As altitude increases, spacing between
spher
0
molecules becomes greater pressure
e

decreases exponentially. Major

8
constituent gases: nitrogen, oxygen and
5
carbon dioxide.

Tem
pera
ture
Ran
ge
(C)

15
-50

-50
0

0
-100

42

Ther
mosp
here

8
5

5
0
0

Gases are widely spread apart and

include electrically charged ions, such as
O2+ and NO+, and atoms, such as O, and
free electrons which would not be stable
in the lower atmospheric layers.

100
+

Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Pollutan
Main Source(s)
t
Carbon
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in cars, e.g.
monoxid
incomplete combustion of petrol: C8H18(l) + 6O2(g) CO2(g) +
e
CO(g) + 5C(s) + 9H2O(l)
Nitrogen
High temperature combustion, e.g. power stations, internal
oxides
combustion engine:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) then 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Sulfur
Smelting of sulfide ores
dioxide
CFCs
Refrigerants, air conditioning, halon fire extinguishers

Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV

radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant
In the stratosphere, ozone acts as a radiation shield by absorbing, and thus
filtering out, short wavelength ultraviolet UVB and UVC radiation from the
Sun. A balanced cycle of ozone formation and decomposition reactions
converts dangerous UVB and UVC radiation to heat energy and maintains a
steady concentration of ozone in the stratosphere:
1. Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules (O2) absorb energy from short
wavelength UVC radiation forming energised oxygen atoms: O2(g) + UV light
2O(g)
2. These free radicals rapidly combine with oxygen molecules to form ozone:

O2(g) + O(g) O3(g) [H = -106 kJ/mol exothermic]

3. Ozone decomposes back into oxygen molecules and oxygen atoms as it
absorbs the longer wavelength UVB and remaining UVC radiation: O3(g) + UV
light O2(g) + O(g)

Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond

Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis
electron dot structures
A coordinate covalent bond is formed when one atom donates both a pair of
electrons to another, resulting in a complete valence electron shell in both
atoms. E.g. in the formation of ozone:

Coordinate covalent bond

43

1.
2.
3.
4.

Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for
them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding
Oxygen
Ozone
Str

uct
ur
e
Me
Lower m.p. and b.p. than
Higher m.p. and b.p. than
lti
ozone, due to:
oxygen, due to:
ng/
Lower molecular mass
Higher molecular mass
Weak dispersion forces
Polar molecule
Boi

Non-polar
molecule
Strong intermolecular forces
lin
more energy is needed to
g
Poi
overcome these forces
nt
Re
Less reactive than ozone,
More reactive than oxygen,
act
due to its double covalent
due to its coordinate covalent
ivit
bond which requires lots of
bond which requires much
y
energy to be broken
less energy to be broken
Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free
radical
Oxygen free radical has unpaired electrons in its incomplete valence electron
shell very unstable and highly reactive more reactive than oxygen and
ozone
Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the
atmosphere
CFCs are compounds containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon only, they do
not contain hydrogen. Until 1996, CFCs were released into the atmosphere
through their use in refrigerants, fire extinguishers and foam plastics as they
were relatively cheap, non-toxic and inert.
Halons are compounds containing carbon, bromine and other halogens. They
were used as BCF fire extinguishers in cars and boats until 1994.
Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical)
of haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms
Count the number of carbons to determine the alkane, e.g. methane, ethane.
Name, in alphabetical order, any groups attached to the alkane, e.g. Br
bromo, Cl chloro, F fluoro, I iodo.
Count how many of each group is present, then denote the number using
prefixes, e.g. 2 di, 3 tri, 4 tetra.
State the position of each group along the carbon chain, numbering using
the lowest numbers.
44

 Note: Use hyphens (-) between numbers and words and commas between
numbers and do not have any space between words, e.g. 2-bromo-3chloropentane

Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems
The reaction of the chlorine atom from CFCs with ozone destroys many ozone
molecules resulting in a thinning of the ozone layer. Ozone depletion more
UV radiation reaching the Earths surface which results in:
Increased incidence of skin cancer and sunburn
Increased risk of eye cataracts and irritations if its concentration in the lower
atmosphere is greater than 0.3 ppm
Lowering of immune response increased risk of disease and illness
UV radiation interferes with photosynthesis reduced plant growth
To alleviate these problems, countries have phased out the use of CFCs and
halons and provide alternatives like HFCs and HCFCs [refer to next syllabus
dot point].

Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals

used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a
replacement for CFCs
HFCs and HCFCs are alternatives replacing CFCs in refrigerants, air
conditioners and aerosols.
The C-H bonds in HCFCs and HFCs are reactive so they readily react and
decompose to a significant extent in the troposphere do not diffuse into

the stratosphere to damage the ozone.

HCFCs contain C-Cl bonds which form chlorine atoms which contribute to
ozone depletion so are only a temporary substitute for CFCs.
HFCs do not contain C-Cl bonds no Cl available to react with ozone
does not contribute to ozone depletion.
HFCs are more expensive and less efficient than CFCs.

Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric

ozone concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this
information was obtained
Total Ozone Mapping Spectroscopy (TOMS)
Satellites situated above the atmosphere
Measures ultraviolet radiation backscattered off the earth and compared to
incoming radiation
Measures total column ozone
Covers the entire planet and produces contour maps of total ozone over
large areas of the Earths surface
Dobson Spectrometer
Situated on the ground
45

Measures the difference between UV levels coming into the earth from the
sky at a frequency which is absorbed by the ozone and a frequency which is
not absorbed by ozone
Measures total column ozone and profiles of ozone in the atmosphere
Provides measurements for a small area only

Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show

the reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone
from the atmosphere
When CFCs, like CCl3F, reach the ozone layer, they undergo the following
reactions:
1. Ultraviolet light breaks CCl3F into a chlorine atom and CCl2F: CCl3F(g) + UV
light CCl2F(g) + Cl(g)
2. The chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to form chlorine monoxide
and oxygen:
Cl(g) + O3(g) ClO(g) + O2(g)
3. Chlorine monoxide reacts with an oxygen atom to form a chlorine atom and
an oxygen molecule: ClO(g) + O(g) Cl(g) + O2(g)

46

9.4.5 Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical

monitoring and management assists in providing safe water for
human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms
Identify that water quality can be determined by considering:
Concentrations of common ions
Turbidity
Total dissolved solids
Acidity
Hardness
Dissolved oxygen and
biochemical oxygen demand
Perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to
analyse and compare the quality of water samples
Wate
Testing Procedure
Water Quality Information
r
Prop
erty
Conce Quantitative test Na+,
High concentrations of Na+ and
ntrati
Ca2+, Mg2+ are measured by
Cl- indicate salinity important
ons of
AAS
to monitor as aquatic organisms
3
Qualitative
test

PO
is
4
comm
only survive in a narrow range
present if adding ammonium
on
of salt concentration

Mg2+ and Ca2+ indicate water

molybdate [(NH4)2MoO4] to
ions
an acidified water sample
hardness

PO43- is tested to monitor algal

produces a yellow
blooms and eutrophication
precipitate
Total
Measured by using a
TDS increased by irrigation and
dissol
conductivity meter:
industrial and sewage effluent
1.
Calibrate
the
conductivity
ved
discharge into waterways
meter

TDS in drinking water needs to

solids
be < 500 ppm
(TDS) 2. Insert the electrodes into
water sample and swirl
If TDS > 1000 ppm freshwater
once.
marine bugs/ plankton shrivel
3. Read measurement.
and die
Hardn Qualitative test add a
High concentrations of Mg2+ and
ess
small soap scraping into
Ca2+ indicate hard water
Hard water produces CaCO3 and
hard and soft water
MgCO3 a grey scale which sticks
samples, shake both
to baths and sinks
vigorously and observe for
lathering/scum; hard water
does not lather
Quantitative test
volumetric titration to
measure the concentration
of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions; the
47

Turbid
ity

Acidit
y

result is expressed as mg/L

of CaCO3 or MgCO3
1. Pour water sample into a
turbidity tube in small
volumes
2. Repeat until the black
markings can not be
distinguished.
3. Read the volume below the
water level.

Dissol
ved
Oxyg
en
(DO)

Determine pH of water using

a pH meter
Determine pH using test
strips and comparing
colours to a standard colour
chart

1. DO sample bottle filled and

recapped while immersed in
test water; ensure no air
bubbles are present.
2. Add 2 drops of MnSO4 and 2
drops of KI. Recap and mix.
3. Brown precipitate appears
light brown low DO; dark
brown high DO.
O2(g) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 4OH-(aq)

MnO(OH)2(s)

4. Add 8 drops of sulfuric acid

forms a yellow iodine
solution.
5. Titrate solution with sodium
thiosulfate using a starch

Turbidity is a measure of water

cloudiness a greater amount
of suspended solids higher
turbidity
Caused by clay/silt from soil
drainage, algae and fine organic
matter
Prevents light penetration
reduced photosynthesis
lesser quantity of oxygen
decreased plant growth limits
food supply to marine animals
decreases biodiversity. Also,
suspended particles clog gills of
fish suffocation improper
reproductive development
pH levels outside 6.5 8.2
indicates pollution by limestone,
leaf litter, detergents and
fertilisers
Acidic corrosion of water
pipes and tanks + fish suffering
from skin irritations, impaired
gill functioning and/or ulcers
Dissolved O2 is essential for
respiration in aquatic life
DO increases through
photosynthesis of aquatic plants
and algae; and wave action
near the waters surface
DO decreases in high
temperatures; high salinity; as
plants and animals respire or
decompose
DO in clean water = 7-9 ppm;
DO in polluted water < 5 ppm

48

Bioch
emica
l
Oxyg
en
Dema
nd
(BOD)

indicator.
1. Collect 2 samples of test
water.
2. Determine DO of one
sample immediately using
Winkler method [above].
3. Store the second sample in
the dark for 5 days.
4. Carry out Winkler method on
second sample the
difference in measurement
between the two samples is
the BOD

BOD assesses organic

pollution as it measures the
concentration of dissolved
oxygen that is needed for the
complete breakdown of the
organic matter in the water
by aerobic bacteria.

Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in

natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans
Pathway from rain to water body
If rain runs off bushland into streams, it only picks up small quantities of Ca2+,
Mg2+, NO3- and PO43- from surface nutrients and decomposing minerals
If water penetrates down to underground aquifers, it will contain increased
concentrations of these ions, and in addition also have SO42-, Cl- and CO32If water percolates even further into deep underground aquifers, the water
would contain even higher concentrations of these ions, and in addition also
have Fe3+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+
The Nature and Amount of Human Activity in the Catchment
Land clearing destabilises soils increased sediments carried with the
water increases turbidity
Increased fertiliser use on agricultural land, the water run-off will have
increased concentrations of PO43- and NO3- and organic wastes from animals
Effluents Discharged into Water Bodies
Industrial effluents discharge heavy metal ions, such as Pb2+, Hg2+, Cu2+,
Zn2+
Raw or treated sewage discharge introduces PO43- and NO3-

Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise
mass water supplies
1. Flocculation Lime [Ca(OH)2] is added to increase pH encourage the
formation of a precipitate. Iron (III) chloride is added, it absorbs suspended
particles and bacteria to produce a gelatinous precipitate of iron hydroxide.
This step is cost effective and relatively fast.
2. Sedimentation the floc formed settles at the bottom of the tank for
removal. This step reduces running costs as it is based on gravity but it is
slow not efficient.
49

3. Filtration the water is filtered through a sand and gravel bed to remove
remaining suspended particles. This step does not remove dissolved particles
and microscopic pathogens.
4. Chlorination chlorine reacts with water to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
which kills residual bacteria and prevents algal growth as water travels down
pipes to households. Chlorination is cost effective and kills most bacteria but
in 1998 Sydney residents had to boil their water due to a Cryptosporidium
and Giardia outbreak.

Describe the design and composition of

microscopic membrane filters and explain
how they purify contaminated water
A membrane filter is a thin film of a synthetic
polymer, like polypropylene, through which
there are 0.2 m pores. Sheets of this
polymer are pleated around a porous core
and held with mesh. As contaminated water
enters through an opening cavity, it is forced
by gravity, vacuum pumps and centrifugal
pressure through the microscopic pores of
the polymer, leaving behind harmful
microorganisms. Clean water passes out a
central cavity.

Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the
tests used to:
Identify heavy metal pollution of water
Monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
Heavy Metal Pollution
Heavy metals are those of relatively high atomic mass such as the transition
metals and lead and arsenic.
Mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic are the heavy metals that
need monitoring in water as they are poisonous to humans.
AAS is used to monitor heavy metal concentrations due to its advantage of
being able to assess the concentration of several metals in one sample,
provided there is an adjustable lamp. [Refer to the principle of chemistry
used in AAS on page 33]
Gather, process and present information on the features of the local supply
in terms of:
Catchment area
Possible sources of contamination in this catchment
Chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
Physical and chemical processes used to purify water
Chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these
additives

50

51

9.6.1 The chemical composition of the ocean implies its

potential role as an electrolyte

Identify the origins of the minerals in oceans as:

leaching by rainwater from terrestrial environments
hydrothermal vents in mid-ocean ridges
Leaching involves rainwater, streams and rivers dissolving soluble minerals
from terrestrial rocks and soils and carrying them to oceans
Seawater seeps through mid-oceanic ridge cracks gets heated by
upwelling magma hot water dissolves ionic substances hot, mineral-rich
water is vented back into the ocean water is cooled and minerals
crystallise to deposit on the ocean floor.
Outline the role of electron transfer in oxidation-reduction reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons from the
oxidation site (anode) to the reduction site (cathode). Ions in solution act as
an electrolyte/salt bridge allows for migration of ions ability to conduct
electricity.
Identify that oxidation-reduction reactions can occur when ions are free to
move in solid and liquid electrolytes
Ionic substances in solid form cannot conduct electricity (i.e. be an
electrolyte) as they are in fixed positions in a crystal lattice. The ions need to
be free to move to conduct electricity and be apart of oxidation-reduction
reactions.

Describe the work of Galvani, Volta, Davy and Faraday in increasing

understanding of electron transfer reactions
Process information from secondary sources to outline and analyse the
impact of the work of Galvani, Volta, Davy and Faraday in understanding
electron transfer reactions
Scient
Experiments
Contribution
ist/
Date
Galvan
Connected a wire from
Credited with the
i
frogs spinal cord to a
generation of electric
(1791)
brass hook which was in
current.
contact with an iron
Electric fluid in animals
railing to observe
caused muscle contraction
continual muscle
animal electricity.
contraction.
52

Volta
(1800)

Davy
(1807)

Farada
y
(1830)

Repeated Galvanis
experiment using different
metals.
Constructed the first
voltaic pile (galvanic cell)
by sandwiching
electrolytic cardboard
discs soaked in brine
between two different
metal plates (Zn and Cu),
then attaching a wire to
each end to produce an
electric current.
Constructed the largest
galvanic cell and passed a
strong electric current
through molten salts of
various compounds
suspected of containing
undiscovered elements.
Extended on Davys
electrolytic decomposition
studies.
Investigated quantitative
relationships in
electrolytic processes.

Demonstrated that two

different wires in solution
generated an electric
current to cause muscular
contraction.

Recognised that chemical

reactions were the source
of electric current.
Identified new elements:
Group I metals Na, K;
Group II metals Ba, Ca, Sr,
and Mg.
Established electrolysis
laws, e.g. the quantity of a
substance produced during
electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity
of electric charge passed
through the circuit.
Developed the terminology
used today.

53

 9.6.2

Ships have been made of metals or alloys of metals

Account for the differences in corrosion of active and passivating metals

Corrosion is the degradation of metals as it reacts with environmental
substances, like oxygen, so that it loses its strength and becomes unable to
fulfil its intended purpose.
Passivating metals, e.g. aluminium, form an impervious oxide layer as the
metal reacts with oxygen and water when first exposed. This passivating
layer prevents more oxygen and water penetrating through to the unaffected
metal underneath provides protection from further corrosion.
Active metals, e.g. impure iron, form a porous, flaky oxide layer which water
and oxygen can easily penetrate to continue corrosion until the metal has
corroded completely.
Identify iron and steel as the main metals used in ships
Iron and steel (an iron alloy) are the main metals used in ships.

Identify the composition of steel and explain how the percentage

composition of steel can determine its properties
Gather and process information from secondary sources to compare the
composition, properties and uses of a range of steel
S
Comp
Properties in relation to
Uses in
u
ositio
composition
relation to
b
n
properties
st
a
n
c
e
Pu
100%
Soft; malleable; corrodes very
Not used
re
Fe
slowly as impurities which act
commercially
Ir
as cathodes for corrosion are
on
absent
Mi
<0.2%
Added carbon makes it
Carbodies
ld
C
relatively soft but harder than
malleability
St
pure iron; more brittle but
allows for
ee
relatively malleable; corrodes
easy
l
quickly
moulding
St
4-30%
Chromium corrosion and heat
Kitchen sinks
ai
Cr
resistance
and cutlery
nl
1-22%
Nickel and Manganese
does not
es
corrode in
Ni
increased strength and
s
the presence
1-10%
hardness
St
of acids/
Mn
54

ee
l

To
ol
St
ee
l

5% Co
4% Cr
14%
W
0.5%
Mn

Chromium and manganese

corrosion resistance
Cobalt and Tungsten
increased strength and
hardness

bases from
foods and
detergents
High speed
cutting tools
does not go
soft when
heated due
to strength
and hardness

Describe the conditions under which rusting of iron occurs and explain the
process of rusting
Use available evidence to analyse and explain the conditions under which
rusting occurs
Rusting Equations
Oxidation: Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e-(aq)
Reduction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-(aq) 4OH-(aq)
Redox equation: 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4OH-(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe(OH)2 (s) further oxidises to form rust, Fe2O3. H2O, i.e. Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g)
Fe2O3. H2O + 2H2O
Conditions for Rusting
Oxygen undergoes reduction, forms the cathode
Water acts as a salt bridge as it is an electrolyte allows for the migration
of ions, i.e. Fe2+ moves to cathode, OH- moves to anode
Factors that Accelerate Rusting
Salt water contains Na+ and Cl- ions a better electrolyte faster
migration of ions
Points under stress e.g. sharpened points, bends, heads; forms a site for
oxidation as the crystal lattice is distorted to expose more iron atoms
Iron in contact with a less active metal e.g. tin, copper; less active metal
becomes the cathode, forcing iron to be the anode

Identify data, select equipment, plan and perform a first-hand investigation

to compare the rate of corrosion of pure iron and an identified form of steel
Equipment:
Stainless steel
Mild steel
0.1 mol L-1 NaCl
2 test tubes
Method:
1. Place pieces of stainless steel and mild steel (of a relatively similar size and
shape) into separate but identical test tubes.
55

2. Fill both test tubes with 25 mL of 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl.

3. Leave for 7 days, then record observations and degree of rusting, i.e. look for
the amount of red-brown deposit.
The mild steel piece corrodes more rapidly than stainless steel as there is
more red brown deposit. The carbon content in mild steel provides sites for
reduction galvanic cell is produced corrosion occurs. The chromium
content in stainless steel makes it corrosion resistant.

56

 9.6.3

Electrolytic cells involve oxidation-reduction reactions

Describe, using half equations, what happens at the anode and cathode
during electrolysis of selected aqueous solutions
Anode (+)
Oxygen gas produced at the inert anode if the anions present are more
difficult to oxidise than water or hydroxide ions. Sulfate, nitrate, carbonate or
phosphate ions are never oxidised at the anode.
Cathode (-)
Hydrogen gas produced at the inert cathode if the cations present are more
difficult to reduce than water or hydrogen ions. Potassium, sodium,
magnesium or aluminium ions are never reduced at the cathode.
Describe factors that affect an electrolysis reaction, including:
Effect of concentration
Nature of electrolyte
Nature of electrodes
Factor
Effect on Electrolysis Reaction
Concentratio
High concentration of ions improves conductivity
n of
increased rate of electrolysis.
Electrolyte
Changing concentrations of species which have similar
standard potentials different products. E.g. In molten
or concentrated aqueous NaCl solutions (>2 mol L-1),
where Na+ and Cl- are present but there is no/ very little
H2O, Na+ reduces and Cl- oxidises. In dilute NaCl
solutions, Na+ reduces but H2O oxidises.
Nature of
The electrolyte itself affects the products of the
Electrolyte
reaction, e.g. CuCl2, CuSO4 and Na2SO4 each produce
different products. Both, one or neither of the ions in the
electrolyte may be reacted, depending upon their ease
of oxidation or reduction relative to water.
Nature of
The greater the surface area of the electrodes, the
Electrodes
greater the conductivity.
The smaller the distance between the electrodes, the
greater the conductivity.

Plan and perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand data to

identify the factors that affect the rate of an electrolytic reaction
Testing the Effect of Different Electrolytes
Method:
1. Half fill a 150 mL beaker with 1 mol L-1 solution of potassium bromide.
2. Insert two graphite electrodes and connect these to a voltameter which is set
at 4-6 volts.
57

3. Pass a current through the solution for about one minute and observe colour
changes around each electrode.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 with solutions of potassium iodide and copper sulfate.

Testing the Effect of the Nature of Electrodes

Method:
1. Half fill a 150 mL beaker with 1 mol L-1 solution of copper sulfate.
2. Insert a copper anode and graphite cathode and connect these to a
voltameter which is set at 4-6 volts.
3. Record observations to the electrodes and the solution.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 using two graphite electrodes.
5. Compare results of both experiments.

Risk Assessment: Safety goggles were worn to protect the eyes from any
splashes of chemicals which would cause burns and irritations.

58

 9.6.4 Iron and steel corrode quickly in a marine environment

and must be protected

Identify the ways in which a metal hull may be protected, including:

Corrosion resistant metals
Development of surface alloys
New paints
M
How Method Prevents Corrosion
e
t
h
o
d
U
Aluminium and chromium form passivating oxide layers which are
si
impervious and tightly bound to the steel prevents exposure to
n
oxygen and water. However, chromium oxide layer reacts with
g
chloride ions in sea water so is not suitable for ships hulls.
c
o
rr
o
si
o
n
r
e
si
s
t
a
n
t
m
e
t
a
ls
S
Formed by the bombardment of metal ions (e.g. chromium or
u
nickel) onto the surface of steel where they become embedded as
rf
atoms. This alloyed surface is corrosion resistant and more
a
economical than using solid pieces of steel alloys.
c
59

e
a
ll
o
y
s
N
e
w
p
a
i
n
t
s

Forms a physical barrier that stops oxygen and water coming into
contact with the metal.
New polymer based paints form a pyroaurite interlayer between the
paint and metal. This is a highly insoluble, ionic layer that is tightly
bound to the metal surface prevents the migration of ions from
one place on the steel to another prevents corrosion.
Zinc rich paints prevent corrosion by providing cathodic protection
as zinc is a sacrificial anode.

Predict the metal which corrodes when two metals form an electrochemical
cell using a list of standard potentials
When comparing two metals, the one with the algebraically smaller (higher
up on the SPT) standard potential will corrode (oxidise) more easily than the
other.
For example, iron has E = -0.45V and tin has E = -0.14V iron is more
readily oxidised/corroded (as in galvanic cells).

Outline the process of cathodic protection, describing examples of its use in

both marine and wet terrestrial environments
Gather and process information to identify applications of cathodic
protection, and use available evidence to identify the reasons for their use
and the chemistry involved [refer to next syllabus dot point aswell]
Cathodic protection is a method of protecting a metal from corrosion by
making it the cathode of a galvanic cell. There are two types sacrificial
anode or applied voltage.
Sacrificial Anode
A sacrificial anode is a block of a more active metal than iron, e.g. zinc or
magnesium, which is in contact with the ships hull via an electrolytic
medium, e.g. salt water or moist earth, which acts as a salt bridge. The
active metal corrodes preferentially to the iron; iron is made the cathode
it does not oxidise and corrode. This method works well in a marine
environment as the ships hull is immersed in a sea water electrolyte. It does
not work well in terrestrial environments as there is no electrolyte/salt bridge
no galvanic cell.

60

Applied Voltage
The hull is attached to the negative terminal of a voltage source (4-5V)
supplied with electrons becomes the cathode prevents
oxidation/corrosion. An inert electrode, e.g. platinum, is mounted on the
ships hull and connected to the positive terminal forms the anode. The
inert electrode is insulated from the ships hull, preventing the migration of
ions a galvanic cell cannot form. This method is used in terrestrial
environments to prevent corrosion in underground storage tanks and
pipelines.

Describe the process of cathodic protection in selected examples in terms of

the oxidation- reduction chemistry involved
Iron: Fe2+ + 2e- Fe E = -0.45V
Zinc: Zn2+ + 2e- Zn E = -0.76V
Zinc has a lower E than iron zinc oxidises/corrodes more easily than iron
zinc is used as sacrificial anode by galvanising (coating) steel with zinc
provides cathodic protection, i.e. zinc corrodes preferentially, protecting the
iron (steel).
Even if Fe2+ ions are formed, Zn reacts with it to convert it back to Fe, i.e.
Fe2+ is reduced:
Zn + Fe2+ Zn2+ + Fe
Water is reduced at the iron cathode (ships hull): 2H2O + O2 +4e- 4OHCoating steel with tin is less effective as tin is less reactive than iron if tin
is scratched, iron becomes the anode and tin becomes the cathode
accelerates the rate of corrosion.

Identify data, gather and process information from first-hand or secondary

sources to trace historical developments in the choice of materials used in
the construction of ocean-going vessels with a focus on the metals used

Me
U
Advantages
Disadvantages
D
tal
se
Us
of
ed
M
et
al

Co
Sh
Poisonous deters
Sheathing
1
pp
ea
marine organisms
attached by iron
er
thi
nails forms
ng
galvanic cell
on
corrosion
w
oo
de
61

Iro
n

Ste
el

Alu
mi
niu
m

n
hu
lls
Bo
dy
of
sh
ip
s
Bo
dy
of
sh
ip
s
Hu
ll;
mi
lit
ar
y
ve
ss
el
s

Malleable moulded
into sheets
Overcame wood rot
problems
Stronger/Safer/Faster
/Durable
Lighter than iron
more cargo
Later, increased
manganese +
decreased carbon
increased usage
Light weight faster
ships
Strong
Malleable readily
cast
Corrosion resistant

Fouling due to
marine growths

Expensive
Low manganese +
high phosphorous
and sulfur
brittle, less ductile,
not strong
More expensive
than steel did
not meet yield
requirements
Passivating
aluminium oxide
layer does not
adhere well in
marine
environments

Identify data, choose equipment, plan and perform a first-hand investigation

to compare the corrosion rate, in a suitable electrolyte, of a variety of
metals, including named modern alloys to identify those best suited for use
in marine vessels
Equipment:
Brass
Mild steel
0.1 mol L-1 NaCl
Stainless steel
Aluminium
4 test tubes

62

 Method:
1. Place a piece of brass into a test tube half filled with 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl.
2. Repeat step 1 with pieces of stainless steel, mild steel and aluminium that
are of a relatively similar size and shape to brass.
3. Leave the 4 test tubes in a room for 7 14 days.
4. Observe the test tubes each day for signs of corrosion, i.e. the amount of
red-brown deposit.
5. Label the metals/alloys from 1-4 in order of their degree of corrosion, 1 being
the least corrosive and 4 being the most corrosive.

Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the effectiveness of

different protections used to coat a metal such as iron and prevent corrosion
Method:
1. Collect a range of iron samples which have been treated differently for
protection from corrosion: e.g. painted, lacquer with inhibitor, galvanised
with zinc, coated with wax.
2. Use a control of an untreated iron piece.
3. Record observations of signs and the extent of corrosion of both the treated
and untreated samples of iron, e.g. look for colour changes/ rusting red
brown deposits/ dullness/ scratching.
4. Compare results of the treated samples and the control to analyse the
effectiveness of each form of protection.

9.6.5 When a ship sinks, the rate of decay and corrosion may
be dependent on the final depth of the wreck

Outline the effect of:

Temperature
Pressure
on the solubility of gases and salts
The solubility of gases decreases with increasing temperature.
The solubility of gases increases with increasing pressure.
The solubility of salts increases with increasing temperature.
The solubility of salts increases with increasing pressure.
Identify that gases are normally dissolved in the oceans and compare their
concentrations in the oceans to their concentrations in the atmosphere
The most abundant
Gas
%
%
dissolved gases are
dissol
dissol
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
ved in
ved in
dioxide. The solubility of a
the
sea
gas in the ocean is directly
atmos
water
proportional to the partial
phere
pressure of that gas above
Nitrog
78
48
the ocean, i.e. in the
atmosphere.
en
An exception is carbon
Oxyge
21
36
dioxide which has a very low
n
concentration in the
Carbon
0.036
15
atmosphere but a higher
Dioxid
concentration in sea water.
e
This is because carbon
dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3 (aq)
H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
Compare and explain the solubility of selected gases at increasing depths in
the oceans
G
Concen
Reason
a
tration
s
at
Increas
ing
Depth
O
Low
Photosynthetic phytoplankton and wave action
x
dissolving atmospheric oxygen increases
y
concentration near ocean surface.
g
At ocean depths, oxygen is consumed by
e
respiration and decomposition but is not

C
a
r
b
o
n
D
i
o
x
i
d
e

High

replenished by photosynthesis as light can not

penetrate beyond 200 m.
Photosynthetic plants consume carbon dioxide near
the ocean surface.
At ocean depths, no photosynthesis occurs but
carbon dioxide continues to be produced through
respiration and decomposition.

Predict the effect of low temperatures at great depths on the rate of

corrosion of a metal
Use available evidence to predict the rate of corrosion of a metal wreck at
great depths in the oceans and give reasons for the prediction made
At ocean depths, the concentration of oxygen is low and temperatures are as
low as 4C scientists predict that corrosion of wrecks would be very slow
or inhibited. This hypothesis comes from the knowledge that oxygen is
essential for corrosion and that corrosion is accelerated at higher
temperatures.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Perform a first-hand investigation to compare and describe the rate of

corrosion of materials in different:
Oxygen concentrations
Temperatures
Salt concentrations
Oxygen Concentrations
Method:
Add a mild steel nail into a test tube containing tap water. Secure with a
rubber stopper.
Add an identical mild steel nail to a second test tube containing tap water
which has been boiled and allowed to cool back to room temperature. Secure
with a rubber stopper.
Leave both test tubes for 7-14 days.
Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed
on both nails.
Temperatures
Method:

1. Set up 3 identical test tubes, each half filled with tap water and containing a
mild steel nail.
2. Place one test tube in the fridge, one in a room, and one in an incubator.
3. Leave test tubes for 7-14 days.
4. Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed
on each nail.

Salt Concentrations
Method:
1. Add a mild steel nail into 4 test tubes.
2. Half fill each test tube with the following solutions: T1 deionised water
(control); T2 0.01 mol L-1 NaCl; T3 0.1 mol L-1 NaCl; T4 1.0 mol L-1 NaCl.
3. Leave test tubes in a room for 7-14 days.
4. Each day, record observations for the amount of red-brown deposit formed
on each nail.

 9.6.6 Predictions of slow corrosion at great depths were

apparently incorrect

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Explain that ship wrecks at great depths are corroded by electrochemical

reactions and by anaerobic bacteria
The formation of rusticles and black metal sulfides around ship wrecks is due
to anaerobic bacteria, such as sulfate reducing bacteria, which rely on
energy obtained from the reduction of sulfate ions to hydrogen sulfide.
Cathode: SO42-(aq) + 10H+(aq) + 8e- H2S(aq) + 4H2O
The electrons required for the reduction are supplied by the oxidation of iron.
Anode: Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2eDescribe the action of sulfate reducing bacteria around deep wrecks
Sulfate reducing bacteria obtain energy by reducing sulfate to sulfide:
SO42-(aq) + 5H2O(l) + 8e- HS-(aq) + 9OH-(aq)
These bacteria multiply by feeding on the abundant organic food sources,
such as textiles and wood, supplied from ship wrecks.
Corrosion by bacterial reduction accounts for the rusticle formations that
hang from ship wrecks.
Explain that acidic environments accelerate corrosion in non-passivating
metals
The rate of corrosion of non-passivating metals, such as iron, in deep ocean
ship wrecks is accelerated by the creation of an acidic environment.
Fe2+ ions, produced from the oxidation of iron, react with H2S, produced from
the reduction of SO42-, to form H+ ions makes sea water acidic: Fe2+(aq) +
H2S(aq) FeS(s) + 2H+(aq)
The hydrolysis of iron also from H+ ions: Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) Fe(OH)2(s) + H+(aq)
The presence of H+ ions increase the rate at which oxygen gas is reduced:
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l)
Perform a first-hand investigation to compare and describe the rate of
corrosion of metals in different acidic and neutral solutions
Method:
Collect 4 pieces of iron each of a similar size and shape.
Collect 4 test tubes each containing a solution of HCl with either pH = 2, 4
and 6 or distilled water with pH = 7.
Immerse a piece of iron in each test tube.
Record immediate observations, after 2 hours, after 1 day and after 5 days.
Look for signs of corrosion, such as metal flaking into solution, bubbles on
metal surface, coloured deposits on metal.
Repeat steps 1-4 with other metals, such as zinc, copper and brass.
Results:
Iron bubbles in the first few minutes at pH = 2; red-brown deposits in all
solutions after 5 days
Zinc corroded fastest at pH = 2; no signs of corrosion in pH = 7
Copper no signs of corrosion in any solution

Brass few bubbles but otherwise no signs of corrosion

 9.6.7 Salvage, conservation and restoration of objects from

wrecks requires careful planning and understanding of the
behaviour of chemicals

Explain that artefacts from long submerged wrecks will be saturated with
dissolved chlorides and sulfates
Metals have been seriously corroded because of the presence of electrolytes
Artefacts are severely encrusted with calcium carbonate deposits or coral
due to marine organisms causing differential aeration, i.e. they consume
oxygen limited supply near artefact artefact becomes anodic
accelerates corrosion
Porous objects, such as leather and wood, are impregnated with sea water
containing dissolved chlorides and sulphates
Describe the processes that occur when a saturated solution evaporates and
relate this to the potential damage to drying artefacts
Recovered wrecks should not be left to dry in the air or in an oven as water
evaporates and leaves solid salts. These salts crystallise in the pores of the
objects the destruction of the cellular structure distortion, cracking or
chemically react with the artefact.
Identify the use of electrolysis as a means of removing salt
Chlorine accelerates corrosion as it provides an acidic environment as it
reacts with water to form HCl.
Chlorine is difficult to remove from metal artefacts by leaching in clean water
so electrolysis is used to free and remove chlorine ions from insoluble
compounds.
Identify the use of electrolysis as a means of cleaning and stabilising iron,
copper and lead artefacts
Electrolysis with a dilute solution of NaOH is used to remove chlorine from
recovered metal objects. NaOH speeds the removal of chlorine as OHreplaces Cl- in insoluble compounds, like Fe(OH)Cl, and also retard further
corrosion. The recovered object becomes the cathode and a stainless steel
mesh surrounding the object forms the anode.
Oxidation: 4OH- (aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-(aq)
Reduction: 2Fe(OH)Cl(s) + 4e-(aq) 2Fe(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Discuss the range of chemical procedures which can be used to clean,

preserve and stabilise artefacts from wrecks and where possible, provide an
example of the use of each procedure
When artefacts are first recovered, they must be kept wet in the sea water
they were found in to maintain stability and prevent evaporation and
crystallisation of salts.
Desalination
Artefacts, like leather shoes, undergo desalination to remove impregnated
chlorine and sulfate salts. The object is immersed in clean water for periods

ranging from hours to weeks. Salts diffuse out into the water; the water is
replaced as the salt concentration reaches equilibrium. The treatment is
complete when the diffusion rate is less than 50 ppm.
Removing Concretions
Bacteria feed on the wreck/artefact increases the concentration of carbon
dioxide precipitation of calcium carbonate crusty deposits/ concretions:
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CaCO3(s)
There are two ways to remove concretions:
Treat the artefact with dilute acid, such as HCl or CH3COOH:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
X-ray the artefact to observe the thickness of the concretion, then break away
slabs of concretions using a hammer or a dentist drill for delicate areas.
Protection
Recovered wooden objects are washed with cold water then conserved using
polyethylene glycol. Wooden objects are regularly sprayed with PEG of
increasing concentrations over long periods of time until PEG completes
replaces sea water. PEG fills in wood cavities restores wood strength +
stops further degradation.

Perform investigations and gather information from secondary sources to

compare conservation and restoration techniques applied in two Australian
maritime archaeological projects

Vernon Anchors
Endeavour Cannon
Cons
Iron surface blasted with
Disinfected using 10%
ervat
copper slag garnet
formalin in sea water coral
ion
polished coated with
concretions removed using
Proc
zinc epoxy paint to
hammers electrolytic
ess
prevent rusting.
treatment using 2% NaOH to
Timber stocks saturated
remove chlorine washed
with distilled water with
with zinc napthenate
chromate ions (chromic oxide
solution to prevent
protective layer forms)
deterioration.
dried for 48 hours treated
with protective wax.
Displ
Outside; exposed to the
Inside; conditioned
ay
elements rain, sea
environment controlled
spray, sun, humidity.
temperature, restricted light,
fenced (no contact)
Main
Inspected for
Minimal maintenance as
tena
deterioration
display environment is
nce
Regularly hosed down
controlled
with fresh water to reduce
salt build up as anchors
are situated near the sea