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MATERIALS
BY
M. SANTHOSH,
Lecturer,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Contact:mkkksans@yahoo.co.in
MATERIAL
Material is synonymous with substance, and is anything made of matter –
hydrogen, air and water are all examples of materials
The basis of materials science involves relating the desired properties and
relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of
the atoms and phases in that material through characterization.
The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties
are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been
processed into its final form.
The process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in the fluid is
often referred to as crystallization.
Various types of crystal structures in interest
1. SC
2. BCC
3. FCC
4. HCP
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)
• Cubic unit cell is 3D repeat unit
• Rare (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions (directions along which atoms touch each other)
are cube edges.
A self interstitial atom is an extra atom that has crowded its way into an interstitial void
in the crystal structure.
A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the bulk atoms, which
has replaced one of the bulk atoms in the lattice. Substitutional impurity atoms are
usually close in size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom.
An example of substitutional impurity atoms is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc
atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some of the copper atoms, which have a
radius of 0.128 nm.
Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial
impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An
example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make
steel. Carbon atoms, with a radius of 0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the
larger (0.124 nm) iron atoms.
Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They are common,
especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change their
positions leaving behind empty lattice sites. In most cases diffusion (mass transport by
atomic motion) can only occur because of vacancies
LINEAR DEFECTS
Dislocations are another type of defect in crystals. Dislocations are areas were the atoms are out of
position in the crystal structure. Dislocations are generated and move when a stress is applied. The
motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic deformation to occur.
In the early 1900’s scientists estimated that metals undergo plastic deformation at forces much
smaller than the theoretical strength of the forces that are holding the metal atoms together.
There are two basic types of dislocations,
the edge dislocation
the screw dislocation.
EDGE DISLOCATIONS
Stacking faults
For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing
sequence
Ex: ABCABABC 16
GRAIN BOUNDARY CONCEPT
If you were to take a small section of a common metal and examine it under a microscope, you
would see a structure similar to that shown in figure.
Each of the light areas is called a grain, or crystal, which is the region of space occupied by a
continuous crystal lattice.
The dark lines surrounding the grains are grain boundaries. The grain structure refers to the
arrangement of the grains in a metal, with a grain having a particular crystal structure.
The grain boundary refers to the outside area of a grain that separates it from the other grains.
The grain boundary is a region of misfit between the grains and is usually one to three atom
diameters wide.
A very important feature of a metal is the average size of the grain. The size of the
grain determines the properties of the metal. For example, smaller grain size increases tensile
strength and tends to increase ductility. A larger grain size is preferred for improved high-
temperature creep properties.
Some of the more important physical and chemical properties
from an engineering material standpoint will be discussed in the
following sections.
Phase Transformation Temperatures
Density
Specific Gravity
Thermal Conductivity
Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
Magnetic Permeability
Corrosion Resistance
You should be familiar with the following terms which you
would have studied in lower classes.
1. Engineering stress
2. Engineering strain
3. True stress
4. True strain
5. Yield strength
6. Yield point
7. Ultimate point
And some basic definitions related to strength of materials
What is meant by loading a material?
The application of a force to an object is known as loading. Materials can be subjected to many different
loading scenarios and a material’s performance is dependant on the loading conditions.
There are five fundamental loading conditions; tension, compression, bending, shear, and torsion.
Tension is the type of loading in which the two sections of material on either side of a plane tend to be
pulled apart or elongated.
Compression is the reverse of tensile loading and involves pressing the material together.
Loading by bending involves applying a load in a manner that causes a material to curve and results in
compressing the material on one side and stretching it on the other.
Shear involves applying a load parallel to a plane which caused the material on one side of the plane to
want to slide across the material on the other side of the plane.
Torsion is the application of a force that causes twisting in a material.
If a material is subjected to a constant force, it is called static loading. If the loading of the material is not
constant but instead fluctuates, it is called dynamic or cyclic loading. The way a material is loaded greatly
affects its mechanical properties and largely determines how, or if, a component will fail; and whether it
will show warning signs before failure actually occurs.
PROBLEMS FACED BY
MATERIALS OPERATED
AT
ELEVATED
TEMPERATURES
The mechanical strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature and the
properties become much more time dependent.
In the past the operating temperatures in applications like steam power plant,
chemical plant and oil refineries seldom exceeded 500oC, but since the development
of the gas turbine in the 1940's successive designs have pushed this temperature up to
typically 1000 o C.
Developments in high temperature alloys with improved high temperature strength
and oxidation resistance have had to keep pace with these demands, and applications
like rocket engines present greater problems.
At homologous temperatures of more than 0.5, creep is of engineering significance
HIGH TEMPERATURE
>0.3TM
Creep
High temperature fracture
Corrosion
Fatigue
Embrittlement
These are the factors affecting the functional or
service life of components at elevated
temperatures
CREEP
CREEP
Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform
permanently under the influence of stresses.
It occurs as a result of long term exposure to levels of stress that are below the yield
strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat
for long periods, and near the melting point.
Creep always increases with temperature.
The rate of this deformation is a function of the material properties, exposure time,
exposure temperature and the applied structural load.
The temperature range in which creep deformation may occur differs in various
materials.
the effects of creep deformation generally become noticeable at approximately 30%
of the melting point for metals and 40–50% of melting point for ceramic
Creep deformation is important not only in systems where high temperatures are
endured such as nuclear power plants, jet engines and heat exchangers
In steam turbine power plants, pipes carry steam at high temperatures (566 °C or
1050 °F) and pressures (above 24.1 MPa or 3500 psi). In jet engines, temperatures
can reach up to 1400 °C (2550 °F) and initiate creep deformation in even advanced-
coated turbine blades. Hence, it is crucial for correct functionality to understand the
creep deformation behavior of materials.
Creep data for general design use are usually obtained under conditions of
constant uniaxial loading and constant temperature. Results of tests are usually
plotted as strain versus time up to rupture.
As indicated in the image, creep often takes place in three stages. In the initial
stage, strain occurs at a relatively rapid rate but the rate gradually decreases until
it becomes approximately constant during the second stage.
This constant creep rate is called the minimum creep rate or steady-state creep
rate since it is the slowest creep rate during the test. In the third stage, the strain
rate increases until failure occurs.
Creep in service is usually affected by changing conditions of loading and
temperature and the number of possible stress-temperature-time combinations is
infinite. While most materials are subject to creep, the creep mechanisms is
often different between metals, plastics, rubber, concrete.
High homologous temperatures (Tservice/Tmelting)
Unlike brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the
application of stress. Instead, strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress.
Creep deformation is "time-dependent" deformation.
MECHANISMS OF CREEP IN METALS
GRAIN GROWTH
If a specimen is left at the high temperature beyond the time needed for complete
recrystallization, the grains begin to grow in size. This occurs because diffusion
occurs across the grain boundaries and larger grains have less grain boundary
surface area per unit of volume.
Therefore, the larger grains lose fewer atoms and grow at the expense of the
smaller grains. Larger grains will reduce the strength and toughness of the
material.
SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
Solid solution strengthening is a type of alloying that can be used to
improve the strength of a pure metal. The technique works by adding
atoms of one element (the alloying element) to the crystalline lattice
another element (the base metal). The alloying element diffuses into the
matrix, forming a solid solution
Depending on the size of the alloying element,
Substitutional solid solution or
Intersitial solid solution
Substitutional solid solution strengthening occurs when the solute atom is
large enough that it can replace solvent atoms in their lattice positions.
According to the Hume-Rothery rules, solvent and solute atoms must differ
in atomic size by less than 15% in order to form this type of solution.
When the solute atom is much smaller than the solvent atoms, an
interstitial solid solution forms. This typically occurs when the solute
atoms are less than half as small as the solvent atoms. The smaller solute
atom essentially "crowds" into the spacings within the lattice structure,
causing defects in the material. Elements commonly used to form
interstitial solid solutions include H, N, C, and O. Carbon in iron (steel) is
one example of interstitial diffusion.
FRACTURE
FRACTURE
A separation of an object into two or more pieces in response
to active stresses below the melting temperature of the
material.
Two steps in the process of fracture:
Crack initiation
Crack propagation
Types of Failure in Materials
heat treating
chemical processing
automotive
waste incineration
During operation, blades and vanes of gas
turbines are subjected to high thermal stresses
and mechanical loads.
In addition, they are also attacked chemically by
oxidation and/or high-temperature corrosion.
Only composite materials are able to meet such a
demanding spectrum of requirements; the base
material provides the necessary mechanical
properties and coatings provide protection against
oxidation and corrosion
Hot corrosion
Hot corrosion may be defined as an accelerated corrosion, resulting
from the presence of salt contaminants such as Na2SO4, NaCl, and
V2O5 that combine to form molten deposits, which damage the
protective surface oxides
Hot corrosion occurs when metals are heated in the temperature
range 700–900°C in the presence of sulphate deposits formed as a
result of the reaction between sodium chloride and sulphur
compounds in the gas phase surrounding the metals.
At higher temperatures, deposits of Na2SO4 are molten (m.p.
884°C) and can cause accelerated attack on Ni- and Co-based
superalloys. This type of attack is commonly called ‘hot corrosion’.
Accelerated corrosion can also be caused by other salts, viz.
vanadates or sulphates– vanadate mixtures and in the presence of
solid or gaseous salts such as chlorides
CHARACTERISTICS AND MECHANISM OF
HOT CORROSION
Hot corrosion can occur at high temperatures,
where the deposit is in the liquid state right
from the beginning, or the solid deposit turns
into liquid during exposure as a result of
reaction with the environment.
These two types of hot corrosion processes are
termed as
High Temperature Hot Corrosion (HTHC) or Type I
Low Temperature Hot Corrosion (LTHC) or Type II
respectively
TYP
ES OF OXIDE LAYERS
Hig
h temperature oxidation usually results in formation of an oxide layer on the
surface of the oxidizing metal. Thin oxide layers (commonly thinner than 3000 Å)
are called films. Thicker oxide layers (above 3000 Å) are called scales.(1.0 Å =
10-10 m) Oxide scale may be composed of several layers of different oxides. At the
temperatures above 1050ºF (566ºC) iron scale consists of three layers: FeO (the
layer adjacent to iron), Fe3O4 (middle layer) and Fe2O3 (surface layer).
Depending on their structures, the scales may be categorized into two groups:
protective scales and non-protective scales.
Prot
ective scale prevents access of oxygen to the metal surface due to non-porous
continuous structure of the oxide layer.
Non-
protective scale has loose porous structure providing free access of oxygen to the
underlaying metal.
T
he scales type may be determined by the Pilling- Bedworth rule:
T
he scale is protective (adherent and non-porous) if the volume of the oxide is not less than
the volume of metal, from which the oxide was formed.
T
he scale is non-protective (porous) if the volume of the oxide is less than the volume of
metal, from which the oxide was formed.
O
xides with volume much greater (twice and more) than the volume of metal, from which the
oxide was formed cause developing compressive stresses. The stresses may lead to cracking
and spalling of the scale, which result in faster penetration of oxygen to the metal surface.
Protective oxides Non protective
oxides
Be 1.59 K 0.45
Cu 1.68 Ag 1.59
Al 1.28 Cd 1.21
Cr 1.99 Ti 1.95
Mn 1.79 Mo 3.40
Fe 1.77 Hf 2.61
Co 1.99 Sb 2.35
Ni 1.52 W 3.40
Pd 1.60 Ta 2.33
Pb 1.40 U 3.05
Ce 1.16 V 3.18
Effect of oxide structure on oxidation
In n-type oxides.
Addition of higher valency cation (eg. addition of Al to Zn) results in lowering
the oxidation rate.
Addition of lower valency cation (eg. addition of Li to Zn) results in increasing
the oxidation rate.
In p-type oxides.
Addition of higher valency cation (eg. addition of Cr to Ni) results in
increasing the oxidation rate.
Addition of lower valency cation (eg. addition of Ni to Cr) results in lowering
the oxidation rate.
Kinetics laws of oxidation
Three basic kinetic laws have been used to
characterize the oxidation rates of pure metals.
Parabolic rate law
Logarithmic rate law
Linear rate law
SUPER ALLOYS
The different materials used in a Rolls-Royce
jet engine. In blue, titanium is ideal for its
strength and density, but not at high
temperatures, where it is replaced by nickel-
based superalloys (red). In orange: steel used
for the static parts of the compressor.
SINGLE CRYSTAL SOLIDIFICATION