Aerodynamics Lab 3

Direct Measurement of Airfoil Lift and Drag

David Clark
Group 1
MAE 449 – Aerospace Laboratory
Abstract

The characterization of lift an airfoil can generate is an important process in the field of
aerodynamics. The following exercise studies a NACA 0012 airfoil with a chord of 4 inches. By varying
the angle of attack at a known Reynolds number, the lift coefficient, Cl, can be determined by using a
two-component dynamometer. Normalizing the lift and drag forces against the reference area, as well
as correcting for some disturbances due to the experiment setup. The lift and drag coefficient calculated
using this setup is less accurate than previous methods.

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Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 2

Introduction and Background................................................................................................................. 4

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 4

Governing Equations .......................................................................................................................... 4

Similarity ............................................................................................................................................. 5

Boundary Corrections ......................................................................................................................... 5

Equipment and Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 7

Equipment .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Experiment Setup ............................................................................................................................... 7

Basic Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 8

Data, Calculations, and Analysis ............................................................................................................. 8

Raw Data ............................................................................................................................................ 8

Preliminary Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 9

Results .................................................................................................................................................. 13

Discussion and Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 16

References ............................................................................................................................................ 17

Raw Data .............................................................................................................................................. 17

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Introduction and Background

Introduction

The following laboratory procedure explores the aerodynamic lift and drag forces experienced by a
NACA 0012 cylinder placed in a uniform free-stream velocity. This will be accomplished using a wind
tunnel and various pressure probes along an airfoil as the subject of study.
When viscous shear stresses act along a body, as they would during all fluid flow, the resultant force
can be expressed as a lift and drag component. The lift component is normal to the airflow, whereas the
drag component is parallel.
To further characterize and communicate these effects, non-dimensional coefficients are utilized.
For example, a simple non-dimensional coefficient can be expressed as
‫ܨ‬
‫ܥ‬௙ =
1
ቀ2 ߩܸ ଶ ቁ ‫ܣ‬ோாி
ோாி

Equation 1

where F is either the lift or drag forces, AREF is a specified reference area, ρ is the density of the fluid, and
V is the net velocity experienced by the object.

Governing Equations

To assist in determining the properties of the working fluid, air, several proven governing
equations can be used, including the ideal gas law, Sutherland’s viscosity correlation, and Bernoulli’s
equation. These relationships are valid for steady, incompressible, irrotational flow at nominal
temperatures with negligible body forces.
The ideal gas law can be used to relate the following
‫ܴܶߩ = ݌‬

Equation 2

where p is the pressure of the fluid, R is the universal gas constant (287 J/(kg K)), and T is the
temperature of the gas. This expression establishes the relationship between the three properties of air
that are of interest for use in this experiment.

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 Another parameter needed is the viscosity of the working fluid. Sutherland’s viscosity
correlation is readily available for the testing conditions and can be expressed as
ܾܶ ଴.ହ
ߤ=
ܵ
1+
ܶ
Equation 3

where b is equal to 1.458 x 10-6 (kg)/(m s K^(0.5)) and S is 110.4 K.

Finally, Bernoulli’s equation defines the total stagnation pressure as
1
‫݌‬଴ = ‫ ݌‬+ ߩܸ ଶ
2
Equation 4

Similarity

Using the previous governing equations, we can use the Reynolds number. The Reynolds
number is important because it allows the results obtained in this laboratory procedure to be scaled to
larger scenarios. The Reynolds number can be expressed as
ߩܸܿ
ܴ݁ =
ߤ

Equation 5

where c is a characteristic dimension of the body. For a cylinder, this dimension will be the diameter. As
a result, the Reynolds number based on diameter is referenced as ReD.

Boundary Corrections

The following experiment must consider three different corrections due to the setup of the
tunnel section.
First, the “squeezing” of the inviscid flow causes the streamlines to flatten and push toward the
center of the test section. This effect is referred to as horizontal buoyancy. To correct for this effect, the
following expressions can be defined.
6ℎଶ ݀‫݌‬
∆‫ܦ‬஻ = − Λߪ
ߨ ݀‫ݔ‬
Equation 6

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 ߨଶ ܿ ଶ
ߪ= ቀ ቁ
48 ℎ
Equation 7

The parameters used in these expressions include

• h, the height of the wind tunnel section
• Λ, the body shape factor (estimated from empirical charts)
• dp/dx, the static pressure gradient
• c, the chord of the foil
The second consideration corrects for blockage due to equipment within the wind tunnel itself.
Like the previous correction, simple expressions have been derived to adjust the parameters.
ߝ௦௕௪ = Λߪ

Equation 8

0.96ሺܸ‫݈݋‬௦௧௥௨௧ ሻ
ߝ௦௕௦ = ଷ
‫ܣ‬௧௨௡௡௘௟ ଶ

Equation 9

ߝ௦௕ = ߝ௦௕௪ + ߝ௦௕௦

Equation 10

ܿ/ℎ
ߝ௪௕ = ‫ܥ‬
4 ௗ௨
Equation 11

Though some parameters have already been defined, the corrections for blockage introduce the
following parameters.
• Volstrut, the volume of the strut
• Atunnel, the cross-sectional area of the tunnel
• Cdu, the uncorrected drag coefficient
Finally, the last set of expressions corrects for the presence of the floor and ceiling within the
wind tunnel.
57.3ߪ
Δߙ௦௖ = ൬‫ܥ‬௟௨ + 3‫ܥ‬௠௖ ௨ ൰
2ߨ ସ

Equation 12

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 Δ‫ܥ‬௟,௦௖ = −ߪ‫ܥ‬௟௨

Equation 13

1
Δ‫ܥ‬௠௖ ,௦௖ = − Δ‫ܥ‬௟,௦௖
ସ 4

Equation 14

where
• Clu, the uncorrected lift coefficient
• Cmc/4u, the uncorrected c/4 moment coefficient
The use of each correction equation is further explained in the calculation section.

Equipment and Procedure

Equipment

The following experiment used the following equipment:

• A wind tunnel with a 1-ft x 1-ft test section
• NACA 0012 airfoil section
• A transversing mechanism to move the pitot tube to various sections of the test section
• A Pitot-static probe
• Digital pressure transducer
• Data Acquisition (DAQ) Hardware
• Two-component dynamometer (to measure lift and drag forces)

Experiment Setup

Before beginning, the pressure and temperature of laboratory testing conditions was measured and
recorded. Using equations 2 and 3, the density and viscosity of the air was calculated.
The UAH wind tunnel contains cutouts to allow the NACA airfoil to be mounted inside the test
section. The two-component dynamometer can measure the force exerted perpendicular and parallel to
the airflow, which represent the lift and drag respectively.

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 Basic Procedure

To ensure the working flow is relatively laminar and within a range acceptable for study, the
procedure initiated flow with a Reynolds number of 250,000. The velocity at which the laboratory air
must be accelerated was determined by solving equation 5 for velocity. First, the density and viscosity of
the air must be calculated using equations 2 and 3 respectively.
Using the DAQ hardware, the lift and drag at each angle of attack and specified dynamic pressure
was recorded.

Data, Calculations, and Analysis

Raw Data

The following table catalogs the pressure read by the DAQ hardware for the specified rotations.
Three data sets were taken to ensure integrity.

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 Data Set 1
Angle Dynamic Pressure Lift Drag
-4 868 -2.50 -0.51
-2 868 -0.65 -0.43
-0.25 867 1.32 -0.28
2 865 2.41 -0.35
4 866 5.77 -0.42
6 867 8.58 -0.54
8 864 9.92 -0.63
10 868 10.90 -0.75
12 867 8.10 -2.95
Data Set 2
Angle Dynamic Pressure Lift Drag
-4 869 1.35 -0.40
-2 868 1.50 -0.38
0 868 3.48 -0.41
2 867 5.83 -0.44
4 868 7.18 -0.50
6 868 8.49 -0.57
8 869 9.23 -0.58
10 867 10.97 -0.77
12 868 8.17 -2.99
Data Set 3
Angle Dynamic Pressure Lift Drag
-4 867 1.35 -0.38
-2 868 1.43 -0.40
0 866 3.03 -0.40
2 867 4.25 -0.42
4 867 5.95 -0.45
6 868 8.43 -0.56
8 867 10.05 -0.67
10 867 10.75 -0.75
12 868 9.30 -2.35
Table 1

Preliminary Calculations

First, the density and viscosity of the air at laboratory conditions was calculated. This can easily be
accomplished using equation 2 and 3.
‫݌‬ 99.1݇ܲܽ ݇݃
ߩ= = = 1.1660 ଷ
ܴܶ 287 ‫ ܬ‬296.15‫ܭ‬ ݉
݇݃‫ܭ‬

Equation 15

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 ݇݃
ܾܶ ଴.ହ ൬1.827 × 10 ݉ ‫ ܭ ݏ‬଴.ହ ൰ ሾሺ296.15 ‫ܭ‬ሻ ሿ
ି଺ ଴.ହ
݇݃
ߤ= = = 1.83 × 10ହ
ܵ 110.4 ‫ܭ‬ ݉‫ݏ‬
1+ 1+
ܶ 296.15 ‫ܭ‬
Equation 16

For a Reynolds number of 250,000, the velocity of the airflow must therefore be
݇݃
ܴ݁ ߤ ሺ250000ሻ ൬1.83 × 10ହ ൰ ݉
݉‫ݏ‬
ܸ= = = 38.57
ߩܿ ݇݃ ‫ݏ‬
൬1.1660 ൰ ሺ0.1016 × 10ିଶ ݉ሻ
݉ଷ

Equation 17

This value is determined using the definition of the Reynolds number where c, the reference length, is
the known value of the chord, 0.1016 meters. For reference, the value for q can be calculated as
1 1 ݇݃ ݉ ଶ
‫ݍ‬ஶ = ߩܸ ଶ = ൬1.1660 ଷ ൰ ቀ38.57 ቁ = 867.37 ܲܽ
2 2 ݉ ‫ݏ‬
Equation 18

All three data sets can be combined by averaging the three records for each angle.

Averaged Data
Angle Lift Drag
-4 0.0667 -0.4300
-2 0.7600 -0.4033
-0.25 1.3200 -0.2800
0 3.2550 -0.4050
2 4.1633 -0.4033
4 6.3000 -0.4567
6 8.5000 -0.5567
8 9.7333 -0.6267
10 10.8733 -0.7567
12 8.5233 -2.7633
Table 2

The lift and drag can be used in equation one to determine the lift and drag coefficients. For
example, for -4 degrees angle of attack
‫ܨ‬ 0.0667ܰ
‫ܥ‬௙ = = = 0.0025
1 ଶ 1 ݇݃ ݉ ଶ
ቀ2 ߩܸ ቁ ‫ܣ‬ோாி ൬ ൬1.660 ଷ ൰ ቀ38.57 ቁ ൰ ሺ0.03064݉ଶ ሻ
ோாி 2 ݉ ‫ݏ‬

Equation 19

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 ‫ܨ‬ 0.4300ܰ
‫ܥ‬ௗ = = = 0.0162
1 ଶ 1 ݇݃ ݉ ଶ
ቀ ߩܸ ቁ ‫ܣ‬ோாி ൬ ൬1.660 ଷ ൰ ቀ38.57 ቁ ൰ ሺ0.03064݉ଶ ሻ
2 ோாி 2 ݉ ‫ݏ‬

Equation 20

Below is a table of the lift and drag coefficients. These lift coefficients must be corrected for the
three corrections mentioned previously.

Averaged Data
Angle Lift Coefficient Drag Coefficient
-4 0.0025 0.0162
-2 0.0286 0.0152
-0.25 0.0497 0.0105
0 0.1225 0.0152
2 0.1567 0.0152
4 0.2371 0.0172
6 0.3198 0.0209
8 0.3662 0.0236
10 0.4091 0.0285
12 0.3207 0.1040
Table 3

To begin correcting for horizontal buoyancy, the following parameters need to be calculated.
ߨ ଶ ܿ ଶ ߨ ଶ 0.1016݉ ଶ
ߪ= ቀ ቁ = ൬ ൰ = 0.0228
48 ℎ 48 0.3048݉
Equation 21

6ℎଶ ݀‫݌‬ 6ሺ0.3048݉ሻଶ ܲܽ

∆‫ܦ‬஻ = − Λߪ =− ሺ0.3ሻሺ0.0228ሻ ൬−120.3 ൰ = 0.1463ܰ
ߨ ݀‫ݔ‬ ߨ ݉
Equation 22

It is important to note Λ is assuming a thickness to chord ratio is 0.3.

ߝ௦௕௪ = Λߪ = ሺ0.3ሻሺ0.0228ሻ = 6.853 × 10ିଷ

Equation 23

0.96ሺܸ‫݈݋‬௦௧௥௨௧ ሻ 0.96ሺ5.96 × 10ିହ ݉ଷ ሻ

ߝ௦௕௦ = = = 2.021 × 10ିଷ
‫ܣ‬ଷ/ଶ ሺ0.0929݉ଶ ሻଷ/ଶ

Equation 24

The volume of the strut and cross-sectional area were known.

ߝ௦௕ = ߝ௦௕௪ + ߝ௦௕௦ = 6.853 × 10ିଷ + 2.021 × 10ିଷ = 8.887 × 10ିଷ

Equation 25

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 The correction parameters εwb, Δαsc, ΔClsc, and ΔCmc/4sc are calculated on the fly for each angle since
these expressions utilize the uncorrected lift and drag coefficient, which varies for each angle of attack.
For example, for 0 degrees angle of attack
ܿ/ℎ 0.1016݉/0.3048݉
ߝ௪௕ = ‫ܥ‬ௗ௨ = ሺ−0.0152ሻ = −0.0013
4 4
Equation 26

Δ‫ܥ‬௟,௦௖ = −ሺߪሻሺ‫ܥ‬௟௨ ሻ = −ሺ0.0228ሻሺ0.1225ሻ = −0.0028

Equation 27

1 1
Δ‫ܥ‬௠,௖ ,௦௖ = − Δ‫ܥ‬௟,௦௖ = − ሺ−0.0028ሻ = 0.0007
ସ 4 4

Equation 28

To further demonstrate the usage of the correction factors above, the parameters for the zero
angle of attack will all be calculated.
݉ ݉
ܸ = ܸ௨ ሺ1 + ߝ௦௕ + ߝ௪௕ ሻ = 38.56 ൫1 + ሺ8.874 × 10ିଷ ሻ + ሺ−0.0013 × 10ିଷ ሻ൯ = 38.86
‫ݏ‬ ‫ݏ‬
Equation 29

‫ݍ = ݍ‬௨ ሺ1 + 2ߝ௦௕ + 2ߝ௪௕ ሻ = 867.37ܲܽ൫1 + 2ሺ8.874 × 10ିଷ ሻ + 2ሺ−0.0013 × 10ିଷ ሻ൯ = 880.87ܲܽ

Equation 30

ܴ݁ = ܴ݁௨ ሺ1 + ߝ௦௕ + ߝ௪௕ ሻ = 249947൫1 + ሺ8.874 × 10ିଷ ሻ + ሺ−0.0013 × 10ିଷ ሻ൯ = 251847

Equation 31

57.3ߪ 57.3ሺ0.0228ሻ
ߙ = ߙ௨ + ൬‫ܥ‬௟௨ + 4‫ܥ‬௠,௖ ,௨ ൰ = 0 + ൫0.1225 + 4ሺ0.0007ሻ൯ = 0.03 ‫݀ܽݎ‬
2ߨ ସ 2ߨ

Equation 32

ሺ‫ܦ‬௨ − Δ‫ܦ‬஻ ሻ ൫ሺ0.4050ܰሻ − ሺ0.1463ܰሻ൯

‫ܥ‬ௗ௨ = = = 0.0208
‫ݍ‬௨ ܵ ሺ867ܲܽሻሺ0.0306݉ଶ ሻ

Equation 33

‫ܥ‬ௗ = ‫ܥ‬ௗ௨ ሺ1 − 3ߝ௦௕ − 2ߝ௪௕ ሻ = 0.0208൫1 − 3ሺ8.874 × 10ିଷ ሻ − 2ሺ−0.0013 × 10ିଷ ሻ൯ = 0.0095

Equation 34

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Results

Using the same procedure outlined above, the following table catalogs all the parameters used in
calculating the corrected lift and drag coefficient.
Correction Calculation Summary
Uncorrected Data
Average
Experimental Dynamic Lift Drag
Angle of Attack Pressure Reynolds Number Velocity Coefficient Coefficient
-4 868.0 250091 38.59 0.0025 0.0162
-2 868.0 250091 38.59 0.0286 0.0152
-0.25 867.0 249947 38.56 0.0497 0.0105
0 867.0 249947 38.56 0.1225 0.0152
2 866.3 249850 38.55 0.1567 0.0152
4 867.0 249947 38.56 0.2371 0.0172
6 867.7 250043 38.58 0.3198 0.0209
8 866.7 249898 38.56 0.3662 0.0236
10 867.3 249995 38.57 0.4091 0.0285
12 867.7 250043 38.58 0.3207 0.1040
Corrected Data / Correction Factors
Experimental Corrected Dynamic Corrected Reynolds Corrected
Angle of Attack ε,wb Pressure Number Velocity ΔCl,sc
-4 0.0013 885.75 252647 38.98 -0.0001
-2 0.0013 885.60 252626 38.98 -0.0007
-0.25 0.0009 883.91 252384 38.94 -0.0011
0 0.0013 884.59 252482 38.96 -0.0028
2 0.0013 883.90 252384 38.94 -0.0036
4 0.0014 884.87 252523 38.96 -0.0054
6 0.0017 886.10 252698 38.99 -0.0073
8 0.0020 885.46 252607 38.97 -0.0084
10 0.0024 886.84 252806 39.01 -0.0093
12 0.0087 898.10 254428 39.26 -0.0073
Corrected Data / Correction Factors
Experimental Corrected Angle
Angle of Attack of Attack ΔCm,c/4,sc Cl Cdu Cd
-4 -4.00 0.0000 0.0024 0.0107 0.0104
-2 -1.99 0.0002 0.0274 0.0097 0.0094
-0.25 -0.24 0.0003 0.0476 0.0050 0.0049
0 0.03 0.0007 0.1172 0.0097 0.0095
2 2.03 0.0009 0.1499 0.0097 0.0094
4 4.05 0.0014 0.2268 0.0117 0.0113
6 6.07 0.0018 0.3057 0.0154 0.0150
8 8.08 0.0021 0.3499 0.0181 0.0175
10 10.09 0.0023 0.3906 0.0230 0.0222
12 12.07 0.0018 0.3021 0.0984 0.0941
Table 4

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 2.5000
Cl versus Angle of Attack
Force Measurement Method (Lab 3)

Pressure Method (Lab 2)

2.0000
Xfoil Results

NACA Data (Re=130000)

1.5000
Naca Data (Re=330000)

1.0000
Cl

0.5000

0.0000
-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

-0.5000
Angle of Attack (Degrees)

Figure 1

Figure 1 contains the various lift coefficients versus angle of attack for all the methods described
previously, as well as the previous lab session.

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 0.0400
Cd versus Angle of Attack
Force Measurement Method (Lab 3)
0.0350
Xcode Results

0.0300 NACA 0012 (Re=170000)

NACA 0012 (Re=330000)

0.0250
Cd

0.0200

0.0150

0.0100

0.0050

0.0000
-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Angle of Attack

Figure 2

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 L/D versus Angle of Attack
100
Force Measurement Method (Lab 3)
Xfoil Results
80
NACA 0012 (Re=170000)
NACA 0012 (Re=330000)
60

40
L/D

20

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

-20

-40
Angle of Attack

Figure 3

Discussion and Conclusions

Comparing the lift coefficient curves plotted in figure 1, the pressure measurement method
most closely matches the NACA data. The worst method was the force measurement technique, which
was the only method that did not recognize zero lift at a zero angle of attack. The Reynolds number had
very little effect on the lift coefficient.
The best method for determining the drag coefficient is the force measurement method. As
Reynolds number increases, the amount of drag decreases.
The accuracy of the computer simulation is dubious. The software would not solve reliably, and
several data points were off the charts.
The force measurement method should not be the recommended procedure for determining
the lift and drag coefficients due to the poor control and lack of repeatability.

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References

“Aerodynamics Lab 3 – Direct Measurement of Airfoil Lift and Drag.” Handout

Raw Data

Aero Lab 1

Fall 07
R= 287
p 99100 b= 0.000001458
t 23 S= 110.4 T= 296.15
row 1.165950252 c= 0.1016
u 1.82773E-05 Re= 250000
q 867.3710308 span= 0.3016
V 38.57246947 Aref 0.030643

Data Set 1
experimental experimental
Angle angle q Lift Drag
-4 -4 868 -0.25 -0.051
-2 -2 868 -0.065 -0.043
0 -0.25 867 0.132 -0.028
2 2 865 0.241 -0.035
4 4 866 0.577 -0.042
6 6 867 0.858 -0.054
8 8 864 0.992 -0.063
10 10 868 1.09 -0.075
12 12 867 0.81 -0.295

Data Set 2
experimental experimental
Angle angle q Lift Drag
-4 -4 869 0.135 -0.04
-2 -2 868 0.15 -0.038
0 0 868 0.348 -0.041
2 2 867 0.583 -0.044
4 4 868 0.718 -0.05
6 6 868 0.849 -0.057
8 8 869 0.923 -0.058
10 10 867 1.097 -0.077
12 12 868 0.817 -0.299

Data Set 3

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 experimental experimental
Angle angle q Lift Drag
-4 -4 867 0.135 -0.038
-2 -2 868 0.143 -0.04
0 0 866 0.303 -0.04
2 2 867 0.425 -0.042
4 4 867 0.595 -0.045
6 6 868 0.843 -0.056
8 8 867 1.005 -0.067
10 10 867 1.075 -0.075
12 12 868 0.93 -0.235

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