Construction of an Interchange at 0-00 km at

Yamuna Expressway Project

A Practical Training Report

On Yamuna expressway project, Noida
From 15.05.2010 to 14-06-2010
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for
the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in Civil Engineering

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Vimal Gahlot Abhishek Mathur
Reader & Head Civil- Final year

Department of Civil Engineering

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY BIKANER
Bikaner 334001, INDIA
AUGUST, 2010
 Abstract

This report is a summer internship report submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Civil Engineering as per norms of Rajasthan Technical
University Kota. The author visited the site for construction of trump
interchange structure, at Yamuna expressway, Noida in his training
period and attained technical knowledge during the course, after which
he was able to compile this report. The report consists of brief study
and description of materials, equipments and procedures used at site
for construction of an interchange. Author put his best to elaborate the
actual site conditions, and problem faced at site and the tactics used to
deal with them.

The main objective of this report is to present a systematic text on the

execution of construction of an interchange based on the Indian
Standard codes. The report also covers the fundamental aspects of
practical requirement such as safety, feasibility and economy at site.
In this report the objective was to introduce, wherever necessary,
material which embodies the most recent methodologies.

Chapter 1 discusses introduction to organization profile, management

structure, products, plants, capacity, turnover, market share, problem
definition (objectives, deliverables etc), and the main conclusions.
Chapter 2 deals with materials and equipments used at site, literature
review. Chapter 3 contains description of the process plant/site where
practical training was undertaken including block diagrams for showing
process scheme, major operations and process equipments, stream
compositions, site conditions governing the process control. Chapter 4
discusses summary of the project with main findings and conclusions,
the method of adoption of the proposed solution by the organization

i
and expected benefits (technical and financial) Chapter 5 presents the
results obtained after the tests performed on site proceeding with their
conclusion.

In spite of every care taken, it is possible that some errors might have
been left unnoticed. The author sincerely welcomes the constructive
criticism for improving the report.

ii
iii
 Certificate

It is certified that the work contained in this training report titled

“Construction of interchange at 0-00 km at Yamuna Expressway
project, Noida" is the original work done by Abhishek Mathur
(07ECTCE003) and has not been submitted anywhere.

(Vimal Gahlot)
Date: Reader & Head
Place: Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering &
Technology
Bikaner 334001

iv
 Acknowledgment

I take immense pleasure in thanking Prof. R.C Gaur, Principal,

College of Engineering & Technology, Bikaner and Mr.Vimal Gahlot,
(Reader, civil department) for having permitted me to carry out this
training.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my teachers, Mr.

Surender beniwal, Mrs Pratibha Choudhary, Mrs. Karanjeet
kaur, civil department, for their able encouragement and useful
suggestions, which helped me in completing the training work, in time.

Needless to mention that Mr.Ramesh Kamboj,(Vice President

projects V.N.C) and Mr.K Mohan (project manager V.N.C), who
had been a source of inspiration and for his timely guidance in the
conduct of my training. I would also like to thank Mr.Rajesh pustry,
Mr.Sudarhan Murty, Mr. Garurav Maroo and Mr.Dinesh Pawar of
for all their valuable assistance during training.

Words are inadequate in offering my thanks to the Project team of

Vijay Nirman Construction company for their guidance and cooperation
in carrying out the training work.

Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to

my beloved parents for their blessings, my friends/classmates for their
help and wishes for the successful completion of this training.

v
 Table of Contents
Abstract i
Certificate from company iii
Certificate iv
Acknowledgement v

Chapter 1: Introduction 1-9

1.1 Company’s Profile 1
1.2 Project Profile 3
1.3 Interchange 6

Chapter 2: Material & Equipment 10-33

2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Cement 10
2.1.2 Coarse aggregate 11
2.1.3 Fine aggregate 11
2.1.4 Reinforcement bar 12
2.1.5 Water 14
2.1.6 Admixture 17
2.1.7 RMC 19

2.2 Equipments 20
2.2.1 Batch Mix Plant 20
2.2.2 Transit mixer 23
2.2.3 Post tensioning 23
2.2.3.1 Duct 23
2.2.3.2 Bearing plate 24
2.2.3.3 Wedges 25
2.2.3.4 Jack 27
2.2.3.5 Meter Gauge 28
2.2.4 Grouting 28

vi
 2.2.4.1 Mixer 29
2.2.4.2 Storage Hopper & screens 29
2.2.4.3 Grout pumps 30
2.2.4.4 Pressure gauge 31
2.2.4.5 Hoses 31
2.2.5 Auto Level 31

Chapter 3: Structural Components 34-79

3.1 Sub Structure
3.1.1 Foundation 34
3.1.2 Pile cap 36
3.1.3 Piers 38
3.2 Super Structure
3.2.1 Piers cap 39
3.2.2 Bearing 46
3.2.3 Precast Girder 52
3.2.4 Diaphragm wall 75

Chapter 4: Results & Discussions 80-88

4.1Test for Aggregate 80
4.2Test for Reinforcement 83
4.3Test for Concrete 85

Chapter 5: Construction management 89-95

5.1 Basic concept 89
5.2 Choice of technology & method 90
5.3 Work task 91
5.4 Relationship among activities 91
5.5 Estimating activity duration 92
5.6 Resource requirement 93
5.7 Reporting 93
5.8 Safety 93

vii
Conclusion 96
Appendix 97-109

Appendix I 97
Appendix II 100
Appendix III 105
Appendix IV 108

Reference 110

Suggestions

viii
 Chapte r
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Company’s Profile

VIJAY NIRMAN COMPANY was established in the year 1982 by Dr. S.

Vijaya Kumar. The company started its operation from Visakhapatnam,
port city of Andhra Pradesh, India with construction of Industrial
structures and Pile foundations. Over the years, Vijay Nirman Company
has expanded into the fields of marine work (Berths/Jetties), power
projects, road and bridges, electrical sub stations, residential and
commercial buildings, and water works. Vijay Nirman has also executed
silos & chimneys involving slip form technology.

Vijay Nirman has completed more than 350 projects to date, and
maintains an arbitration–free record, with all over India and an Annual
turnover of ` 400 cores, projected for the year 2010-2011
Corporate social responsibility environment philosophy they believe is
that as long as we are in harmony with nature, it will provide us with
everything in abundance, at the appropriate time
1.1.1 Turnover

Rs.inMilions `6450
7000
6000
`4500
5000
4000 `2700
3000
2000 `940 `811 `870
`610
1000
0
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11

1
1.1.2 Major Projects Completed by Vijay Nirman

Industrial Workshops building at NYC site A at Naval Dockyard,

/Defense Visakhapatnam, involving 6000MT of structural steel
Projects fabrication & erection; Sulphur Recovery Unit for HPCL,
Visakhapatnam; Aluminum alloy wheel plant at Duvvada,
Visakhapatnam; Wet Process unit for Transworld Garnet India,
Visakhapatnam.
Roads & Western Transport Corridor Tumkur-Haveri NH4 project; Rail
Bridges Bridge across Lakshamanteertha river,Mysore; R.B. across
river Pennaiyar 600 mt, Melpattambakkam; Road over bridge
near Pakur Station, Jharkand; Main Carriage Way of elevated
highway of Hosour road; Underpasses & ROBs
construction/strengthening of existing two lane Tindivanam-
Ulundurpet section of NH45.
Power 208MW combined cycle power plant at Kakinada, involving 5
Plants cell RCC cooling tower; 1x300MW Captive Power Plant for
ARYAN Coal Benefications Pvt Ltd; captive power plant at
Bhadrak; 30 MW Diesel Power Plant near Visakhapatnam.

Marine Construction of Jetty for ONGC in Fisheries’ harbor,

Works Visakhapatnam; Construction of sea Water Intake System and
approach jetty, Srikakulam; Construction of Pipe bridge of
total length 2200 Kakinada; Pile foundation for Matsya Dock at
Naval Dockyard, Visakhapatnam; Upgradation and renovation
of Fishing Harbor at Visakhapatnam.
Buildings Construction of new building for Bharat Electricals, Bangalore;
Works Expansion of Chinnaswamy Cricket Stadium, Bangalore; HIGH
IQ luxury apartment, Bangalore; Construction of Independent
Villas, Housar road, Bangalore; Chaulukya Holidays Resort,
Bangalore; Sea Valley Resorts,

Material Construction of Wagon Tippler & other facilities for handling

Handling iron ore and coal a Ganagavaram Port; Expansion of Alumina
Projects handling Facilities at Nalco’s Port facility, Visakhapatnam.

2
1.2 Project Profile

‘Yamuna Expressway Project’ at a glance

The Government of Uttar Pradesh has been working proactively to

improve the connectivity of the National Capital Region to improve tourist
attraction of Taj Mahal at Agra through the new 6 lanes (extendable to 8
lanes) Access Controlled Expressway with brand name of Yamuna
Expressway (erstwhile Taj Expressway).

Almost everyone who comes to India makes it a point to make a trip to

the Taj Mahal, Agra. Presently Agra is about 210 km from Delhi by road.
It takes normally nine to ten traveling hours on a return trip between
Delhi and Agra which leaves very less time in Agra to see the Taj and
other places of historical importance. The concept of the Yamuna
Expressway (erstwhile Taj Expressway proposes a 160 km Expressway
between Greater Noida and Agra thus reducing the travel time to 100
minutes only.

For implementing the Yamuna Expressway Project and allied development

in the region, Government of UP constituted Taj Expressway Industrial
Development Authority (TEA) vide its Notification No.697/77-4-2001-
3(N)/2001 dated 24th April, 2001, under U.P. Industrial Area
Development Act, 1976 (U.P. Act No.6 of 1976). The main
responsibilities of TEA, inter alia, included:

 Execution of Yamuna Expressway.

 Acquisition of land for construction of Expressway.
 Preparation of Zonal/Master plan for planned development along
the Expressway.

3
  Development of drainage, feeder roads, electrification and other
facilities in the area.

Approx. 334 villages of District Gautam Buddh Nagar, Bulandshahar,

Aligarh, Mahamaya Nagar (Hathras), Mathura and Agra are Notified under
Yamuna Expressway Industrial Development Authority vide various
Notifications of Government of UP.

1.2.1 Project Map

Fig. 1.1: Map of Yamuna Expressway

4
Table 1: Quick Facts about Yamuna Expressway

Length 165.537Km
Right of Way 100m
Number of lane 6 lane, extendable to 8 Lanes
Type of Pavement Rigid (Concrete)
Cost `1400 millions
Structures
Interchange 7
Main Toll Plaza 3
Toll Plaza on interchange loop 7
Underpass 35
Rail Over Bridge 1
Major Bridge 1
Minor Bridge 42
Cart Track Crossing 68
Culverts 204

5
1.3 Interchange

Fig. 1.2: A typical interchange

In the field of road transport, an interchange is a road junction that

typically uses grade separation, and one or more ramps, to permit traffic
on at least one highway to pass through the junction without directly
crossing any other traffic stream. It differs from a standard intersection,
at which roads cross at grade. Interchanges are almost always used when
at least one of the roads is a limited-access divided highway (expressway
or freeway), though they may occasionally be used at junctions between
two surface streets.

At rotary intersection weaving is an undesirable situation in which traffic

veering right and traffic veering left must cross paths within a limited
distance, to merge with traffic on the through lane. In the worst
circumstances, a large portion of through traffic must change lanes to
stay on the same roadway. Weaving creates both safety and capacity

6
problems. Some interchanges use collector/distributor roads to deal with
weaving-while doing so does not eliminate the problem entirely.
Collector/distributor roads separate the weaving traffic from the
highway's main lanes or carriageway, thus improving traffic flow. Some
areas that had such bad junctions have gone through the expensive
process of ‘unweaving the weave’ to improve traffic flow. Another way to
avoid weaving is to have braided ramps, in which an on-ramp passes over
or under an off-ramp using an overpass structure such as interchange.

7
1.3.1 Types of Interchange

1.3.1.1 Four-way interchanges

Cloverleaf A cloverleaf interchange is typically a two-level,
four-way interchange whereby all left turns are
handled by loop ramps (right turns if traveling on
the left). To go left, vehicles first cross over or
under the targeted route, then bear right onto a
sharply curved ramp that loops roughly 270
degrees, merging onto the interchanging road from
the right, and crossing the route just departed.

Stack A stack interchange is where left turns are handled

by semi-directional flyover/under ramps. Vehicles
first turn slightly right (on a right-turn off-ramp) to
exit, and then complete the turn via a ramp which
crosses both highways, eventually merging with the
right-turn on-ramp traffic from the opposite
quadrant of the interchange. A stack interchange,
then, has two pairs of left-turning ramps, of which
can be stacked in various configurations above or
Clover stack below the two interchanging highways.

Partial cloverleaf interchange (parclo) is design

modified for freeway traffic emerged, eventually
leading to the clover stack interchange. Its ramps
are longer to allow for higher ramp speeds, and loop
ramp radii are made larger as well. For countries
using right hand-drive, the large loop ramps
Turbine eliminate the need for a fourth, and sometimes a
third level in a typical stack interchange, as only two
directions of travel use flyover/under ramps.

Another alternative to the four-level stack

interchange is the turbine interchange (also known
as a whirlpool). The turbine/whirlpool interchange
requires fewer levels (usually two or three) while
retaining semi-directional ramps throughout, and
has its left-turning ramps sweep around the center
of the interchange in a spiral pattern in right-hand
driving.

8
(a) Windmill (b) Diverging windmill (c) Full diamond

Fig. 1.3: Various other types of interchanges

1.3.1.2 Three-way interchanges

Trump
Trumpet interchanges have been used where
one highway terminates at another highway.
These involves at least one loop ramp
connecting traffic either entering or leaving the
terminating expressway with the far lanes of the
continuous highway.

Directional Directional T interchange uses flyover/under

ramps in all directions at a three-way
interchange. A semi-directional T does the
same, but some of the splits and merges are
switched to avoid ramps to and from the
passing lane. Directional T interchanges are
very efficient, but are expensive to build
compared to other three-way interchanges.
They also require three levels, which can be an
eyesore for local residents.

¾-volley Half-Clove
T – Bone

9
10
 Chapt er 2
MATERIAL & EQUIPMENT

2.1Materials

2.1.1Cement

Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates, aluminates and

aluminoferrite. It is obtained by blending predetermined proportions
limestone clay and other minerals in small quantities which is pulverized
and heated at high temperature – around 1500 deg centigrade to produce
‘clinker’. The clinker is then ground with small quantities of gypsum to
produce a fine powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When
mixed with water, sand and stone, it combines slowly with the water to
form a hard mass called concrete. Cement is a hygroscopic material
meaning that it absorbs moisture. In presence of moisture it undergoes
chemical reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement remains in good
condition as long as it does not come in contact with moisture. If cement
is more than three months old then it should be tested for its strength
before being taken into use.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three different
grades The classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of
2
cement-sand mortar cubes of face area 50 cm composed of 1 part of
cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with a water-cement ratio
arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are

10
 1. 33 grade
2. 43 grade
3. 53 grade

The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of

cement sand mortar in N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above mentioned
procedure. Nowadays good quality fly ash is available from Thermal
Power Plants, which are processed and used in manufacturing of PPC.

2.1.2 Coarse aggregate

Coarse aggregate for the works should be river gravel or crushed stone.
It should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clean, and free from clay or
loamy admixtures or quarry refuse or vegetable matter. The pieces of
aggregates should be cubical, or rounded shaped and should have
granular or crystalline or smooth (but not glossy) non-powdery surfaces.
Aggregates should be properly screened and if necessary washed clean
before use. Coarse aggregates containing flat, elongated or flaky pieces
or mica should be rejected. The grading of coarse aggregates should be
as per specifications of IS: 383-1970.

After 24-hrs of immersion in water, a previously dried sample of the

coarse aggregate should not gain in weight more than 5%.Aggregates
should be stored in such a way as to prevent segregation of sizes and
avoid contamination with fines.

2.1.3 Fine aggregate

Aggregate which is passed through 4.75 mm IS Sieve is termed as fine

aggregate. Fine aggregate is added to concrete to assist workability and
to bring uniformity in mixture. Usually, the natural river sand is used as

11
fine aggregate. Important thing to be considered is that fine aggregates
should be free from coagulated lumps.

Grading of natural sand or crushed stone i.e. fine aggregates shall be

such that not more than 5 percent shall exceed 5 mm in size, not more
than 10% shall IS sieve No. 150 mm not less than 45% or more than
85% shall pass IS sieve No. 1.18 mm and not less than 25% or more
than 60% shall pass IS sieve No. 600 micron.

Table 2.1: Limits Of Fineness Moduli in aggregate

Maximum size of aggregate Fineness modulus

Max. Min.
Fine aggregate 2.0 3.5

Coarse aggregate 20 mm 6.0 6.9

40 mm 6.9 7.5
75 mm 7.5 8.0

150mm 8.0 8.5

Mixed aggregate 20 mm 4.7 5.1

25mm 5.0 5.5

32 mm 5.2 5.7
40 mm 5.4 5.9

75 mm 5.8 6.3

150 mm 6.5 7.0

2.1.4 Reinforcement Bras

Steel reinforcements are used, generally, in the form of bars of circular

cross section in concrete structure. They are like a skeleton in concrete
body. Plain concrete without steel or any other reinforcement is strong in

12
compression but weak in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of
reinforcements, to take care of those stresses and to strengthen concrete
to bear all kinds of loads.

Mild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked steel high
strength deformed bars conforming to IS:1786 (grade Fe 415 and grade
Fe 500, where 415 and 500 indicate yield stresses 415 N/mm2 and 500
N/mm2 respectively) are commonly used. Grade Fe 415 is being used
most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use of plain mild steel
bars because of higher yield stress and bond strength resulting in saving
of steel quantity. Some companies have brought thermo mechanically
treated (TMT) and corrosion resistant steel (CRS) bars with added
features.

Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold-worked steel high strength

deformed bars start from 8 mm diameter. For general house
constructions, bars of diameter 6 to 20 mm are used.

Transverse reinforcements are very important. They not only take care of
structural requirements but also help main reinforcements to remain in
desired position. They play a very significant role while abrupt changes or
reversal of stresses like earthquake .They should be closely spaced as per
the drawing and properly tied to the main/longitudinal reinforcement.

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern

concrete. If this were not so, it would cause problems through additional
longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different than the
temperature of the setting. Although rebar has ribs that bind it
mechanically to the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete
under high stresses, an occurrence that often precedes a larger-scale
collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply

13
embedded into adjacent structural members (60-80 times the diameter),
or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other
rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place;
while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.
Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it
susceptible to rusting.

2.1.5 Water

Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people

still ignore quality aspect of this element. The water is required for
preparation of mortar, mixing of cement concrete and for curing work etc
during construction work. The quality and quantity of water has much
effect on the strength of mortar and cement concrete in construction
work. It has been observed that certain common impurities in water
affect the quality of mortar or concrete. Many times in spite of using best
material i.e. cement, coarse sand, coarse aggregate etc. in cement
concrete, required results are not achieved. Most of
Engineers/Contractors think that there is something wrong in cement, but
they do not consider quality of water being used. Some bad effects of
water containing impurities are following:

1. Presence of salt in water such as Calcium Chloride, Iron Salts,

inorganic salts and sodium etc. are so dangerous that they reduce
initial strength of concrete and in some cases no strength can be
achieved. There is rusting problem in steel provided in RCC.
2. Presence of acid, alkali, industrial waste, sanitary sewage and water
with sugar also reduce the strength of concrete.
3. Presence of silt or suspended particle in water has adverse effect on
strength of concrete.

14
 4. Presence of oil such as linseed oil, vegetable oil or mineral oil in
water above 2 % reduces the strength of concrete up to 25 %.
5. Presence of algae/vegetable growth in water used for mixing in
cement concrete reduce of the strength of concrete considerably
and also reduce the bond between cement paste and aggregate.

It has been observed at various places that cement concrete start falling
down in pieces after rusting mild steel from RCC slab, which is due to use
of bad quality/salty water in RCC slab. All this is due to negligence or
ignorance which creates great problems and also bears a heavy loss. It is
advisable that the water must be tested before using in construction
work.

Limits of Solids

Table 2.2: Limits of Solids

Organic 200 mg/L

Inorganic 1000 mg/L
Sulphate: 400 mg/L
Chloride 500 mg/L for RCC work and 2000 mg/L for concrete not
containing steel.
Suspended 2000 mg/L
matter

15
Main disadvantages of mixing too much water in mortar and
concrete

 The water occupies space in sand and it evaporates to create voids.

Moreover the water voids will be more and this will reduce the
density, strength and durability of mortar or concrete.
 When more water is used in concrete excess water brings a mixture
of excess cement paste with water floating on the surface. This
material forms a thin layer of chalky material on the surface which
reduces proper bonding with second layer of cement concrete in
case of water tank and dams etc. This will affect the strength of
concrete.
 When more water is used, the cement slurry starts coming out from
cement concrete mix. The excess slurry formed by water and
cement comes out through shuttering joints. This makes concrete
of less cement and reduces the strength of concrete.
 When more water is used, proper compaction is not achieved and
there is bleeding, large voids and more shrinkage, less durability
and less strength.
 When more water is mixed in cement concrete, the problem of
segregation of material is faced at the time of laying the mix. As a
result Coarse Aggregate and cement paste separate from each
other.

Hence strict control should be kept on water cement ratio for preparing
the mortar or concrete for qualitative finish/ strength.

16
2.1.6 Admixtures

Water Reducing Admixtures

The water reducer admixture improves workability of concrete/mortar for

the same water cement ratio. The determination of workability is an
important factor in testing concrete admixture. Rapid loss of workability
occurs during first few minutes after mixing concrete and gradual loss of
workability takes place over a period from 15 to 60 minutes after mixing.
Thus relative advantages of water reducing admixture decrease with time
after mixing. These admixtures increase setting time by about 2 to 6 hrs
during which concrete can be vibrated. This is particularly important in
hot weather conditions or where the nature of construction demands a
time gap between the placements of successive layers of concrete.

Advantages

 It can reduce 10% of water consumption.

 It can improve mixture of cement concrete for workability.
 Compression strength improves by more than 15 %.
 It can reduce initial stage of cement heat hydration by large
margin.
 It has no function of corrosion reinforcing bars.
 It increases workability, density and strength without increasing the
quantity of cement.

17
 Table 2.3 Type of admixture

Type of admixture Performance

Water reducing/plasticizing
High-range water
reducing/superplasticizing
Water retaining
Water reduction at equal consistence
Water Reduction ≥ 5%
Water reduction at equal consistence
Increase in consistence at equal w/c
ratio
Water Reduction ≥ 12%
Slump increase ≥ 120 mm
Reduction in bleeding

Shrinkage Reduction ≥ 50%

Water resisting Reduction in capillary absorption

Reduction ≥ 50% by mass

Air entraining Air void characteristics in hardened
concrete

Spacing factor ≤ 0.200 µm

Set accelerating Reduction in initial setting time

Initial setting time Reduction ≥ 40%

at 5°C
Hardening accelerating Compressive strength at 1 day
Increase ≥ 20% at 20°C
Compressive strength at 2 days
Increase ≥ 30% at 5°C

18
Set retarding
Set retarding/water
reducing/plasticizing
Set retarding/high-range
water reducing/superplasticizing
Set accelerating/water
reducing/plasticizing
Increase in initial and final setting time
Initial setting time increase ≥ 90 min.
Final increase ≤ 360 min
Water reduction at equal consistence
Increase in initial and final setting time
Water Reduction ≥ 5%
Initial setting time increase ≥90min.
Final setting time increase ≤ 360 min.
Water reduction at equal consistence
Increase in consistence at equal
w/c ratio
Increase in initial and final setting time
at equal consistence
Water Reduction ≥ 12%
Slump increase ≥ 120 mm
Initial setting time increase ≥ 90 min.
Final setting time increase ≤ 360 min.
Water reduction at equal
Consistence
Reduction in initial setting time
Reduction ≥ 5%
Reduction ≥ 30 min. at 20°C and ≥
40% at 50C

2.1.7 Ready Mix Concrete (RMC)

Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a
factory or batching plant, according to a set recipe, and then delivered to
a work site, by truck mounted transit mixers. This results in a precise
mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed and

19
implemented on construction sites. Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland
cement, water and aggregates comprising sand and gravel or crushed
stone. In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured
separately and mixed in specified proportions at site to make concrete.
Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and sold by volume - usually expressed
in cubic meters. RMC can be custom-made to suit different applications.
Table 2.4: Mix design adopted at RMC plant

S.No. GRADE SAND CEMENT WATER GRIT GRIT ADMIXTURE

(10mm) (20mm)

2 M-15 626.00 310.00 169.88 627.00 627.00 0.00

3 M-20 630.00 350.00 189.00 579.25 579.25 0.00

4 M-25 580.35 365.00 169.88 627.30 627.80 4.20

5 M-30 450.00 400.00 172.00 487.00 730.00 0.00

6 M-35 601.70 436.00 174.00 571.00 571.00 3.50

CAP

7 M-35 596.00 442.00 179.00 565.00 565.00 4.20

PILE

8 M-40 465.50 470.00 174.00 632.15 632.15 5.17

9 M-45 414.00 488.00 179.00 599.00 732.00 4.80

Source: RMC plant

20
2.2 Equipments

2.2.1 Batch Mix Plant

A concrete plant, also known as a batch plant, is a device that combines
various ingredients to form concrete. Some of these inputs include sand,
water, aggregate (rocks, gravel, etc.), fly ash, potash, and cement. There
are two types of concrete plants: ready mix plants and central mix plants.
A concrete plant can have a variety of parts and accessories, including
but not limited to mixers (either tilt-up or horizontal or in some cases
both), cement batchers, aggregate batchers, conveyors, radial stackers,
aggregate bins, cement bins, heaters, chillers, cement silos, batch plant
controls, and dust collectors (to minimize environmental pollution).

A central mix plant combines some or all of the above ingredients

(including water) at a central location. The final product is then
transported to the job site. Central mix plants differ from ready mix
plants in that they offer the end user a much more consistent product,
since all the ingredient mixing is done in a central location and is
computer-assisted to ensure uniformity of product. A temporary batch
plant is similar to the central batch plant but it can be constructed on a
large job site.

21
 Fig 2.1 Batch Mix Plant

All the feeder bins have pneumatic operated gates. The four bins
combined have a storage capacity of 7.5 m³.The gates are radial type for
coarse/fine discharge. Sand bin is also provided with discharge.
Aggregates are discharged into Gathering Conveyor. Is suspended on 6
load cells as soon as the desired recipe accumulates, gathering conveyor
discharges the mix on to the slinger conveyor. Gathering conveyor and
slinger conveyor are provided with idler rollers and return rollers.
Weighing hopper is mounted on 3 load cells with butterfly valve for
discharge. Cement weighing hopper capacity 500 kg is provided with
pneumatic vibrator and two inlets for two screw conveyors. Water tank
supported on load cells and it has gate with rubber gasket at the bottom.
Additives comprise of admixture flask of capacity 10 liters with feeding
pump. Cement is fed from SILO to the cement weighing hopper.
Temporary storage hopper is provided with vibrator and it is utilized for
holding the batch of 4 aggregates before feeding into the mixture Pan
Type Mixture comes in capacity of 1 m³ and is fixed on the basic

22
structure of the plant. Mixer having 7 arms and shell is reinforced with
replaceable high wear resistance NI hard liners. The aggregates, cement,
water ad additives are discharged to the Pan Mixer.

After proper and homogenous mixing the batch is ready to be discharged

by hydraulic system. Fully computerized cabin with SCADA based
controller are a standard on ATLAS DM Series plant. Software which is
very user friendly ensures top notch performance. Proxy switches are
available for each control panel. Display of the entire process of control
parameters is available and provision for printing entire data like-Mix
Proportion, Batch Weigh, Total No. of Batches, Sub Total, Gross Total,
etc. Preset batch controls the number of batches for Transit Mixer. There
is provision to store, edit production details, and mix proportions up to 99
recipes. Auto and manual control can be accessed. Cabin is fabricated
with M. S. Structured frame and insulated by wood. Strategic location of
seat ensures complete view of the plant.

2.2.2 Transit Mixer

Transit Mixer are made to transport and mix concrete from a plant to the
construction yard more modern plants load the truck with 'Ready Mixed'
concrete. With this process, the material has already been mixed, and
then is loaded into the truck. The ready mix truck maintains the
material's liquid state, through agitation, or turning of the drum, until
delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete truck is fitted with a
spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper
into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete
is being transported to the building site. This is known as ‘charging’ the
mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction.

23
2.2.3 Post Tensioning

2.2.3.1 Duct

Corrugated plastic duct (Figure 2.2) to be completely embedded in

concrete should be constructed from either polyethylene or
polypropylene. The minimum acceptable radius of curvature should be
established by the duct supplier according to standard test methods.
Polyethylene duct should be fabricated from resins meeting or exceeding
the requirements of Indian Specification The duct should have a minimum
material thickness of 2.0 mm + 0.25 mm. Ducts should have a white
coating on the outside or should be of white material with ultraviolet
stabilizers.

Fig2.2 Corrugated Plastic Duct

2.2.3.2 Bearing Plate

A basic bearing plate is a flat plate bearing directly against concrete.

Covered by this definition are square, rectangular, or round plates,
sheared or torch cut from readily available steel plate. Basic bearing
plates are used in conjunction with galvanized sheet metal or plastic

24
trumpets to transition from the strand spacing in the wedge plate to the
duct.

Fig 2.3: Bearing Plate

2.2.3.3 Wedges

Wedge performance is critical to the proper anchoring of strands.

Different wedges have been developed for particular systems and
applications such that there is no single standard wedge. However, all are
similar. The length is at least 2.5 times the strand diameter, with a 5° to
7° wedge angle and serrated teeth for gripping the strand. They are of
case-hardened low carbon or alloy steel. A wedge assembly typically has
2 or 3 part wedges with a spring wire retainer clip in a groove around the
thick end.

Wedges are case hardened with a ductile core, in order to bite into the
strand and conform to the irregularity between the strand and wedge
hole. In so doing, the surface may crack. This is normally acceptable and
does not affect performance so long as wedges do not break completely
into separate pieces. Often, it is only the portion outside the retainer ring
that cracks Wedges and Strand-Wedge Connection Wedge performance is

25
critical to the proper anchoring of strands. Different wedges have been
developed for particular systems and applications such that there is no
single standard wedge. However, all are similar. Wedges are case
hardened with a ductile core, in order to bite into the strand and conform
to the irregularity between the strand and wedge hole. In so doing, the
surface may crack. This is normally acceptable and does not affect
performance so long as wedges do not break completely into separate
pieces. Often, it is only the portion outside the retainer ring that cracks.

Fig 2.4 Arrangement of wedges and bearing plate

2.2.3.4 Strands
Uncoated stress relieved low relaxation seven ply strands. The seven wire
strand shall have a centre wire at least 14 percent greater in diameter
than the surrounding wires enclosed tightly by six helically placed outer
wires with a uniform length of lay of at least 12 times but not more than
16 times of the nominal diameter of the strand. The length of lay for the
two and three wire strands shall be uniform throughout and shall be 24 to
36 times the diameter of element wire. The wires in the strand shall be so
formed that they shall not unravel when the strand is cut and they shall

26
not fly out of position when the strand is cut without seizing. After
stranding, all strands shall be subjected to a stress-relieving. Stress
relieving shall be carried out as a continuous process on a length of
strand by uncoiling and running through any suitable form of heating to
produce the prescribed mechanical properties. Temper colours, which
may result from the stress-relieving operation, shall be considered normal
for the finished appearance of the strand.

Fig 2.5: Strands for Post tensioning

2.2.3.5 Jack

Multi-Strand Jacks
Multi-strand post-tensioning tendons are usually stressed as an entire
group, using very large custom made jacks. This ensures that all strands
are tensioned together and avoids the risk of trapping an individual
strand. Stressing jacks are generally of the center-hole type i.e. tendons
pass through a hole in the middle and are attached at the rear of the jack
(Figure 2.6). Post-stressing jacks must be very accurate which is difficult
to achieve. Stressing jacks have more wearing surface and packing than
a conventional jack of the same capacity. This, and the necessity of a
long jack stroke, increases the potential for variations in the accuracy of
27
the applied force. Other factors that affect the accuracy and efficiency of
stressing jacks are: use of dirty oil, exposure of the system to dust or
grit, eccentric loading, type of packing, ram position, oil temperature,
hydraulic valves, ram and packing maintenance, and readout equipment.

Fig 2.6: Post tensioning jack

2.2.3.6 Master Gauge

The master gauge measures hydraulic pressures accurately. The load cell
operates on the principle that changing pressure results in a
corresponding change in electrical resistance. The readouts are made with
a so-called Transducer Strain Indicator.
Gauge readings should not be taken while the ram is retracting or in a
static condition as hysteresis will likely result in erroneous values. The
calibration curves and master gauge readings are only valid when the
ram is extending. If there is any indication of damage to the gauge, the
stressing system should be checked with the master gauge. For this

28
reason, the master gauge should be kept locked away in a safe place so
that it is always in good working order.

2.2.4 Grouting
2.2.4.1 Mixer
The mixer should be capable of continuous mechanical mixing to produce
a homogeneous, stable, grout free of lumps or un-dispersed material that
it supplies continuously to the pump. Mixers are of two main types: vane
(or paddle) mixers with a speed of about 1,000 rpm or high- speed shear
(colloidal) mixers with a speed of about 1,500 rpm. The high speed mixer
distributes cement more uniformly, improves bleed characteristics and
minimizes cement lumps.
A high-speed mixer is recommended for pre-bagged grouts.

2.2.4.2 Storage Hopper and Screen

Most grouting equipment has a mixing (blending) tank which discharges
through a screen into a storage hopper or tank mounted over the grout
pump (Figure 2.7). The storage hopper should also have a mixing rotor
to keep the grout agitated for continuous use and should be kept
partially full at all times. The screen should contain openings of 3mm
maximum size to screen lumps from the mix. The screen should be
inspected periodically. If lumps of cement remain on the screen, then the
mix is not suitable.

29
 Fig 2.7: Grout Mixing and Pumping Equipment

2.2.4.3 Grout Pump

Grout pumps should be of the positive displacement type and able to
maintain an outlet pressure of at least 1MPa (145psi) with little
variation. The pump, hoses and connections should be able to
maintain pressure on completely grouted ducts. A shut-off valve
should be installed in the line so that it can be closed off under
pressure, as necessary.

Pumps with a variable output capability are adaptable to delivery

demands of different duct diameters or to group grouting. However,
the grouting pressure should be limited to help prevent blow-outs in the
equipment, protect operators, prevent excessive segregation or bleed
and prevent possible splitting of concrete by over-pressurizing the
ducts.

Pumps should have a system for re-circulating the grout when pumping is
30
not in progress and should have seals to prevent oil, air or other
foreign substance entering the grout or prevent loss of grout or water.
At the pump, grout piping should incorporate a sampling tee with a
stop valve. The number of bends and changes in size should be
minimized.

2.2.4.4 Pressure Gauge

A pressure gage with a full scale reading of not more than 2MPa (300
psi) should be attached between the pump outlet and duct inlet. For
short lengths (say less than about 10m (30 feet) of grout hose, the
gauge may be placed near the pump - for long lengths, at the inlet.
For hose lengths over 30m (100 ft), a gage near the pump and one
at the inlet may help identify whether sudden pressure build-ups are
in the hoses or the ducts.

2.2.4.5 Hoses
The diameter and pressure rating of hoses should be compatible with
the pump and anticipated maximum pressures. All hoses should be
firmly connected to pump outlets, pipes and inlets. It is recommended
that grout hoses be at least 20mm inside diameter for lengths up to
about 30m (100 ft) and that a reduction in size at connectors be
avoided. Also, narrow openings should be avoided. Both can lead to
pressure build-up and possible risk of blockage.

2.2.5 Auto Level

An Auto Level machine is the equipment used for all surveying and
engineering level applications. They are suitable for obtaining accurate
levels during surveys even if the ground is not levelled. For this, an
automatic level comes complete with an internal compensator
mechanism which is a swinging prism. When this mechanism is set
close to level, it automatically removes any remaining variation from

31
level. This reduces the requirement to set the instrument truly level
even when it is a dumpy or tilting level. It is, therefore, a self-levelling
instruments designed by auto level manufacturers for accuracy, ease
of operation and rugged dependability. Auto level is now the preferred
instrument on building sites, construction and surveying due to ease of
use and rapid setup time. They also give maximum portability. Most of
the auto levels are supplied with aluminium telescopic tripod stand.

With the rising popularity of auto levels for surveying and other
engineering application, the auto level manufacturers have included
many useful features in today's automatic levels. The popular features
of any auto level include:

 Most of the auto levels are provided with aluminum telescopic

tripod stand.
 They are rigidly constructed and ensure accuracy for years under
severe conditions.
 Available in various types of models.
 They can be set up very easily.
 Includes hard shell carrying case with dual latches, plumb bob,
Allen wrench, adjusting pin, and instruction manual.
 Ensures accurate leveling.
 The equipment has easy adjusting features.
 They are portable.

Functions of Auto Level Instrument

Auto level has dominated the most of the market due to the useful
features they provide for surveying and engineering work. Some of the
important functions performed by an auto level include:

 Conducting research work smoothly in extreme weather

conditions.
 Ensuring accuracy to the test performed.

32
  Making telescopic magnification possible through the apparatus.

Applications of Auto Level Instrument

Auto Level equipment is mainly used to obtain accurate leveling while

surveying, engineering and other such works. Some of the applications
of auto level include:

 Excavation
 Optical Surveys
 Topographic Surveys
 Construction (Buildings, Roadways, etc.)
 Mapping

2.2.6 Jacks

The adjustable base plate stirrup heads provide a method of

adjustment which can be used at either the top or bottom of a scaffold
support structure. It is in conjunction with foreheads and adapter and
can accept the full loading capacity of cup lock when fully braced.

Fig 2.8: Adjustable Stirrup Head

Range of adjustable stirrup heads available with us come in standard

sizes of:

32 mm diameter, 225 mm adjustment

35 mm diameter, 350 mm adjustment
35 mm diameter, 450 mm adjustment

33
 Chapte r
3
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT

3.1 Sub-Structure

3.1.1 Foundation

Pile Foundation

A deep foundation is a type of foundation distinguished from shallow

foundations by the depth they are embedded into the ground. There
are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep
foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common
reasons are very large design loads. Deep foundations can be installed
by either driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it
with concrete, mass or reinforced. They are also called as caissons,
drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or
Cast-in-Situ piles.

Rotary boring techniques offer larger diameter piles than any other
piling method and permit pile construction through particularly dense
or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the
site. In particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground
conditions or through water-logged but stable strata i.e. 'wet boring'.

Boring is done until the hard rock or soft rock layer is reached in the
case of end bearing piles. If the boring machine is not equipped with a
rock auger, then socketing of the hard rock layer is done with the help
of a heavy chisel which is dropped from a height of about 1.5
m(depends on the weight of the chisel and design requirements) by

34
suspending it from a tripod stand attached to a winch crane. The
socketing is carried out until the desired depth within the rock layer
has been attained. Usually, the required depth within the rock layer is
considered to be equal to the diameter of the pile in hard rock layers
and is taken to be equal to 2.5 times the diameter of the pile in soft
rock layers.

'Dry' boring methods employ the use of a temporary casing to seal the
pile bore through water-bearing or unstable strata overlying suitable
stable material. Upon reaching the design depth, a reinforcing cage is
introduced; concrete is poured in the bore and brought up to the
required level. The casing can be withdrawn or left in situ.

'Wet' boring also employs a temporary casing through unstable ground

and is used when the pile bore cannot be sealed against water ingress.
Boring is then undertaken using a digging bucket to drill through the
underlying soils to design depth. The reinforcing cage is lowered into
the bore and concrete is placed by tremmie pipe, following which,
extraction of the temporary casing takes place.

The reinforcement cage may need to be lapped with another cage if

the depth of the pile exceeds 12m as that is the standard length of
reinforcement bars of diameter 16mm and above.

In some cases there may be a need to employ drilling fluids (such as

bentonite suspension) in order to maintain a stable shaft. Rotary auger
piles are available in diameters from 350 mm to 2400 mm or even
larger and using these techniques, pile lengths of beyond 50m can be
achieved.

Such piles commonly fail due to the collapse of the walls of the shaft
resulting in the formation of a reduced section which may not be able
to bear the loads for which it had been designed. Hence at least a third
of piles in projects with a large number of piles are tested for
35
uniformity using a ‘Pile Integrity Tester’. This test relies on the manner
in which low intensity shock waves are affected as they pass through
the pile and are reflected to judge the uniformity and integrity of the
pile. A pile failing the integrity test is then subjected to a pile load test.

3.1.2 Pile cap

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles

connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the heads of
the piles are embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one
pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with
grade beams to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural
elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements bear
directly on the pile cap.

Sequence for construction of pile cap

3.1.2.1 Excavation

At road locations the pit shall be excavated to the dimensions

providing working space all around the pile cap. Proper side slope or
shoring shall be provided depending upon the suitability of the soil
found in the area. The last 200mm excavation shall be carried out
manually.

3.1.2.2 Fixing of shuttering and formwork

After excavation the proper shuttering is fixed with supporting form
work according to drawing and maintaining the size of pile cap.

3.1.2.3 Removal of laitance

After excavation the laitance of the piles shall be removed by using
pneumatic jack hammer minimum sever days after casting of pile or
manually minimum. Three days after casting of pile. The top of pile
after striping shall project 300m above the cut-off level.

36
 Fig.3.1: Removal of Laitance

3.1.2.4 P.C.C Laying

After leveling the bottom, the pit shall be watered to keep the soil
moist, mix concrete used as a P.C.C and transported for batching plant
to the P.C.C Laying site through transit mixer. The concrete shall be
directly poured by chute & shall be spread, leveled manually to the 150
mm thickness.

3.1.2.5 Pile cap reinforcement

The reinforcement bar shall be cut in a proper length and bend
according to bar bending schedule. The bar shall be provided with
inhibitor treatment by applying inhibitor solution mixed with cement in
a ration of 600ml: 1 kg of cement and stacked for drying under shed
for 24 hrs.
The reinforcement bar is fixed in a proper location according to
drawing over the P.C.C and tied with 1mm diameter Galvanizing iron
binding wire. 75 mm clear cover is provided at the bottom both side

37
and upper face of rebar cage. The vertical reinforcement of pier is also
tied with pile cap reinforcement and crash barrier reinforcement also
tied.

Refer drawing for Dimension Details of Pile Foundation & Pile cap.

3.1.3 Piers

Piers are constructed above the footings. They provide vertical support
to the bridge superstructure Pier construction begins once the footings
are in place. The forms are typically constructed to cast/build
segments of the pier vertically, and moving the forms upward as the
pier construction takes place. Many different shapes of the piers are
possible; the most economical shape would have a consistent cross
section. The size and frequency of piers depends on the type of super
structure and spans they are supporting. Concrete is the most likely
construction material to be used. Twin Piers are constructed to
facilitate balanced cantilever construction technique. Steel form used
to construct oblong pier shape, Steel rebar extending from pile cap is
continued in piers up to pier cap. Steel forms are used to place around
rebar cage to cast concrete.

3.1.3.1 Reinforcement
Fabricated and tie the pier reinforcement cut and bend the
reinforcement bar for tie reinforcement according to drawing bar
bending Schedule. The bar shall be provided with inhibitor treatment
by applying inhibitor solution mixed with cement in ratio of 600ml: 1kg
of cement and stacked for drying under shed form 24 hrs. Tie
reinforcement tied with the vertical reinforcement through galvanized
iron binding wire according to drawing.

38
3.1.3.2 Shuttering and Formwork for Pier
Shuttering and form of pier formwork fixed the pier shuttering and
form proper formwork is fixed form supporting the pier shuttering
according to drawing.

3.1.3.3 Concreting
Completion of shuttering concreting would be started with the help of
concrete pump. Before pouring concrete we check the slump. The
range of slump is 100 –120mm. The drop height of the concrete should
not more than 1.5m. At one time we can concrete max 2m and
compacted by needle vibrator 60mm full of concreting should be done
continuously one pour. Total concreting time 6-8 hrs. In the pier 5-6
layer of concrete should be sufficient. The max range of concrete
temperature is 40°C.

3.1.3.4 Curing
Curing of pier concrete is done with the help of wet jute cloth for min 7
days.

3.2 Super Structure

3.2.1 Pier Cap
Sequence work for pier cap

3.2.1.1 Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a temporary structure used to support people and

material in the construction or repair of buildings and other large
structures. It is usually a modular system of metal pipes or tubes. The
key elements of a scaffold are standards, ledgers and transoms. The
standards, also called uprights, are the vertical tubes that transfer the
entire mass of the structure to the ground where they rest on a square
concrete base plate to spread the load. The base plate has a shank in
its centre to hold the tube and is sometimes pinned to a sole board.

39
Ledgers are horizontal tubes which connect between the standards.
Transoms rest upon the ledgers at right angles. Main transoms are
placed next to the standards. The height of strands and ledger
available are 0.5m, 1m, 1.5m, 2m, 2.5m, 3m, 4m etc.

Fig.3.2: Scaffolding for pier cap

3.2.1.2 Level transferred to pier
After completion of pier, the levels as per drawings are transferred to
the pier with the help of auto level (see appendix IV) the bottom level
of pier cap is marked on the pier and scaffolding is erected up to that
level, some space is left for bottom shutter plat and IS Medium Beam
125 to support the dead load of pier cap before it attains its full
strength. Adjustable stirrup head are placed between the ISMB 125
and top of scaffolding to adjust the top level of bottom shutter plate.

40
 Fig 3.3: Arrangement of shutter plate, ISMB, Adjustable stirrup head

After fixing of bottom shutter plate the top level of bottom shutter
plate are checked by auto level (see appendix IV) the top surface of
shutter plate should be in a same level, so that the bottom of pier cap
is to be casted should be smooth.

3.2.1.3 Reinforcement
The reinforcement bar is to be placed as per drawings and bar bending
schedule. Rebar cages are fabricated either on the project site
commonly with the help of hydraulic benders and shears, however for
small or custom work a tool known as a Hickey or hand rebar bender,
is sufficient. The rebars are placed by rod busters or concrete
reinforcing ironworkers with bar supports separating the rebar from
the concrete forms to establish concrete cover and ensure that proper
embedment is achieved. The rebars in the cages are connected by
welding or tying wires. Welding can reduce the fatigue life of the rebar,
and as a result rebar cages are normally tied together with wire.
Besides fatigue concerns welding rebar has become less common in
developed countries due to the high labor costs of certified welders.

41
There are different types of ties used for securing rebars. It is better to
use two twisted strands of annealed 0.9 to 1.6 mm diameter wires.

3.2.1.4 Concreting
Concreting at a higher altitude is a difficult task, so concrete pump is
required concrete pump is attached to a truck. It is known as a trailer-
mounted boom concrete pump because it uses a remote-controlled
articulating robotic arm (called a boom) to place concrete with pinpoint
accuracy. Boom pumps are used on most of the larger construction
projects as they are capable of pumping at very high volumes and
because of the labour saving nature of the placing boom. They are a
revolutionary alternative to truck-mounted concrete pumps. The bends
in the pipes conveying concrete from the pump should be minimal in
order to avoid losses. In addition, these should not be sharp. Each 10o
bend is equivalent to an extra length of pipe of 1 m. The pipe diameter
should be at least 3 times the maximum aggregate size. Large
aggregates can especially tend to get blocked near the bends.
The economy of pumping depends on the number of interruptions.
Each time, the priming of the pipes using mortar is required (0.25
m3/100 m of 6 inch pipe), and the pipe also has to be cleaned.
Aluminum pipes should be avoided, as the Al reacts with alkalis in the
cement, and leads to the evolution of hydrogen gas. These gases tend
to introduce voids in the concrete, which reduce the efficiency of
pumping.
Pumping enables concreting of inaccessible areas. Moreover, the direct
conveyance of concrete from the truck to formwork can avoid double
handling of the concrete.

42
Requirements for pumped concrete

 Concrete mixture should neither be too harsh nor too sticky;

also, neither too dry nor too wet.
 A slump between 50 and 150 mm is recommended (note that
pumping induces partial compaction, so the slump at delivery
point may be decreased).
 If the water content in the mixture is low, the coarse particles
would exert pressure on the pipe walls. Friction is minimized at
the correct water contents. The presence of a lubricating film of
mortar at the walls of the pipe also greatly reduces the friction.
 High cement content in concrete is generally beneficial for
pumping.
 Water is the only pump able component in the concrete, and
transmits the pressure on to the other components.

Two types of blockage to efficient pumping could occur:

 Water can escape from the mixture if the voids are not small
enough; this implies that closely packed fines would be needed
in the mixture to avoid any segregation. The pressure at which
segregation occurs must be greater than that needed to pump
concrete.
 When the fines content is too high, there could be too much
frictional resistance offered by the pipe. The first type of
blockage occurs in irregular or gap-graded normal strength
mixtures, while the second type occurs in high strength mixtures
with fillers. In order to avoid these two types of failure, the
mixture should be proportioned appropriately.
 Other mixture factors that could affect pumping are the cement
content, shape of aggregate, presence of admixtures such as

43
 pumping aids or air entrainment. Air entrainment is helpful in
moderate amounts, but too much air can make pumping very
inefficient.
 When flowing concrete is being pumped, an over-cohesive
mixture with high sand content is recommended. For lightweight
aggregate concrete, pumping can fill up the voids in the
aggregate with water, making the mixture dry.

Fig.3.4: Boom placer concreting pier cap

3.2.1.5 Compaction
It is important that concrete be vibrated at the correct frequency to
fluidise the mix, to coat the aggregate with cement paste and to
release trapped air. The operating frequency of internal vibrators may

44
be less than specified values, which may have been measured with the
vibrator operating in air. A reduction in frequency results in an energy
reduction, which in turn reduces the effective compaction area. It is
important to introduce the vibrator in a systematic way, so that the
compaction areas overlap and all the concrete is compacted. An
internal vibrator with an electric motor and electronic speed control
has been developed. This gives controlled energy input and has the
added benefit of a lighter, more flexible cable.

Fig.3.5: Needle vibrator for Compaction

3.2.1.7 Finishing
When the concrete compaction and screeding is done, the slab is
roughly floated with a trowel to give a smooth surface. After floating,
slab is left to set hard. Free water (bleed water) will rise to the surface
of the slab after it is leveled. Wait until the surface water dries before
doing the final float or trowel finishing. On a cold day the bleed water
may have to be dragged off by pulling a rope or hose over the surface.
Never spread dry cement or sand over the slab to absorb the bleed
water as this will make the finished surface weak and dusty. Wood or
steel hand-floats and trowels do a good job too; the whole surface
should be worked over twice. Save finishing time by finishing the

45
girder only to the standard needed for the type of finish to be used,
the top surface is finished smooth.
3.2.1.7 Curing
Approved curing compounds may be used in lieu of moist curing with
the permission of the engineer-in charge. Such compounds shall be
applied to all exposed surfaces of the concrete as soon as possible
after the concrete has set. Water covering closely the concrete surface
may also be used to provide effective barrier against evaporation. For
the concrete containing portland cement, portland slag cement or
mineral admixture, period of curing may be increased.

Fig.3.6: curing of pier cap

3.2.2 Bearings
POT bearings for incrementally launched bridges have a dual function.
First, they provide low friction sliding surfaces over piers as the deck is
launched during construction. Thereafter, they become permanent
bearings for the completed bridge. A POT bearing serving both
functions is shown in the picture above. During construction, a fixing
device avoids relative movement between sliding plate and pot
cylinder. POT bearing for bridge the sliding plate is supplied with a

46
second stainless steel sheet on top. Inserting neoprene-teflon pads
between deck and bearings allows the launching operation to be
carried out. Pads, second stainless steel sheet and fixing device are
removed after launching. To achieve this, the deck is lifted by means
of hydraulic jacks placed on top of the piers. Once this operation is
achieved, the deck is lowered to its final position, the jacks are
removed and the sliding plate is connected to a previously embedded
steel plate in the deck. Finally, the fixing devices used for
transportation are released, thus the bearing is in its final service
position. For the correct design of these bearings, it is very important
to know the loads during launching, because, they have major
influence in the actual length and thickness of the sliding plates.
Although the cost of this type of bearing is higher than the standard
ones, their use represents a saving for the job because:
 Temporary launching bearings are not required
 Demolition and replacement of the temporary bearings by
permanent ones, is costly and time consuming therefore avoided

Fig. 3.7: POT bearings

47
Site Installation
3.2.2.1 Preparation of the piers
Build the piers leaving on them the required recesses according to the
dimensions indicated on the drawings. Pedestal reinforcement is
anchored during the formation of mesh of reinforcement of pier cap.

Fig. 3.8: Reinforcement for pedestal

3.2.2.2 Levelling of bearings

Fig. 3.9: Plan view Fig. 3.10: Elevation

48
Place the pot bearing in its position levelling it with Steel wedges. It is
important to ensure that the X-axis of the bearing is aligned in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge and that the X and Y directions are
accurately horizontal. For bearings allowing horizontal displacements it
should be checked that the arrow painted on the slide plate is pointing
in the correct direction.
Install the form for grouting the space between pier and pot bearing.
Grout the space between pier and pot bearing. Fill in the recesses
checking that the level is the correct.

3.2.2.3. Formwork for diaphragm wall

The formwork of the deck is placed embedding the upper dowels of the
bearing

Fig. 3.11: Formwork for Diaphragm wall

3.2.2.4 Removal of fixing plates

Once the formwork has been removed, the bearing is definitively
installed. Remove the lateral fixing plates of the bearing in order to
allow its free movement.

49
 Fig. 3.12: Removal of fixing plates

3.2.2.5 Types of Bearing for joints of girder on pier cap

Fixed joint

Fig. 3.13: Bearing for fixed joint

50
Expansion joint

Fig. 3.14: Bearing for expansion joint

Free joint

Fig.3.15: Bearing for free joint

51
3.2.3 Precast Girder

3.2.3.1 P.C.C

The plane cement concrete strip of cement mix 1:6 is laid and a strip
of length and breadth about 1.4 times than that of dimension of
precast girder and thickness of 20 mm. A constant level line is
maintained throughout the strip by help of auto level and its top
surface is leveled by flat trowels.

3.2.3.2. Runner

At some intermediate distance C shaped steels bars of diameter 16

mm and length 1.2 times width of precast girder are placed across the
length of P.C.C strip. Runners are provided to stop skidding the
shuttering plates in outward direction due to force produced by
concrete placement and compaction of concrete.

Fig 3.16: P.C.C for casting girder

3.2.3.3 Flats
Steel plates of 5 mm thick are placed over the P.C.C strip to provide
smooth bottom of precast girder.

52
3.2.3.4 Reinforcement
Steel reinforcements are used, generally, in the form of bars of circular
cross section in concrete structure. They are like a skeleton in human
body. Plain concrete without steel or any other reinforcement is strong
in compression but weak in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of
reinforcements, to take care of those stresses and to strengthen
concrete to bear all kinds of loads.

Mild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked steel
high strength deformed bars conforming to IS: 1786 (grade Fe 415
and grade Fe 500, where 415 and 500 indicate yield stresses 415
N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2 respectively) are commonly used. Grade Fe
415 is being used most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use
of plain mild steel bars because of higher yield stress and bond
strength resulting in saving of steel quantity. Some companies have
brought thermo mechanically treated (TMT) and corrosion resistant
steel (CRS) bars with added features.

Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold worked steel high

strength deformed bars start from 8 mm diameter. For general house
constructions, bars of diameter 6 to 20 mm are used.

Transverse reinforcements are very important. They not only take care
of structural requirements but also help main reinforcements to remain
in desired position. They play a very significant role while abrupt
changes or reversal of stresses like earthquake etc.

They should be closely spaced as per the drawing and properly tied to
the main/longitudinal reinforcement.

53
Terms used in Reinforcement

3.2.3.5 Bar-bending-schedule

Bar-bending-schedule is the schedule of reinforcement bars prepared

in advance before cutting and bending of rebars. This schedule
contains all details of size, shape and dimension of rebars to be cut.
(Refer Appendix II).

3.2.3.6 Lap length

Lap length is the length overlap of bars tied to extend the

reinforcement length. Lap length about 50 times the diameter of the
bar is considered safe. Laps of neighboring bar lengths should be
staggered and should not be provided at one level/line. At one cross
section, a maximum of 50% bars should be lapped. In case, required
lap length is not available at junction because of space and other
constraints, bars can be joined with couplers or welded (with correct
choice of method of welding).

3.2.3.7 Anchorage length

This is the additional length of steel of one structure required to be

inserted in other at the junction. For example, main bars of beam in
column at beam column junction, column bars in footing etc. The
length requirement is similar to the lap length mentioned in previous
question or as per the design instructions.

3.2.3.8 Cover block

Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods from touching the
shuttering plates and thereby providing a minimum cover and fix the
reinforcements as per the design drawings. Sometimes it is commonly
seen that the cover gets misplaced during the concreting activity. To
prevent this, tying of cover with steel bars using thin steel wires called
binding wires (projected from cover surface and placed during making

54
or casting of cover blocks) is recommended. Covers should be made of
cement sand mortar (1:3). Ideally, cover should have strength similar
to the surrounding concrete, with the least perimeter so that chances
of water to penetrate through periphery will be minimized. Provision of
minimum covers as per the Indian standards for durability of the whole
structure should be ensured.

Shape of the cover blocks could be cubical or cylindrical. However,

cover indicates thickness of the cover block. Normally, cubical cover
blocks are used. As a thumb rule, minimum cover of 2” in footings,
1.5” in columns and 1” for other structures may be ensured.

Table 3.1: Minimum cover to reinforcement

Structural element Cover to reinforcement (mm)

Footings 40
Columns 40
Slabs 15
Beams 25
Retaining wall 25 for earth face

20 for other face

3.2.3.9 Things to Note

Reinforcement should be free from loose rust, oil paints, mud etc. it
should be cut, bent and fixed properly. The reinforcement shall be
placed and maintained in position by providing proper cover blocks,
spacers, supporting bars, laps etc. Reinforcements shall be placed and
tied such that concrete placement is possible without segregation, and
compaction possible by an immersion vibrator.

55
For any steel reinforcement bar, weight per running meter is equal to
d2/162 kg, where d is diameter of the bar in mm. For example, 10 mm
diameter bar will weigh 10×10/162 = 0.617 kg/m.

Three types of bars were used in reinforcement of a slab. These

include straight bars, crank bar and an extra bar. The main steel is
placed in which the straight steel is binded first, then the crank steel is
placed and extra steel is placed in the end. The extra steel comes over
the support while crank is encountered at distance of one fourth of
span from the supports.

For providing nominal cover to the steel in beam, cover blocks were
used which were made of concrete and were casted with a thin steel
wire in the center which projects outward. These keep the
reinforcement at a distance from bottom of shuttering. For maintaining
the gap between the main steel and the distribution steel, steel chairs
are placed between them.

For details of reinforcement refer to drawing no 3.1.1.

Profiling
Duct Installation
3.2.3.10 Alignment
Correct duct alignment and profile is of paramount importance for
proper functioning of a post-tensioning tendon, whether that tendon is
internal or external to concrete. Duct alignment and profile should be
clearly and sufficiently defined on the plans and approved shop
drawings by dimensions to tangent points, radii, angles and offsets to
fixed surfaces or established reference lines and by entry and exit
locations and angles at anchorage or intermediate bulkheads.
Alignment, spacing, clearance and details should be in accordance with
Indian Specifications.

56
General recommendations for fabrication are that ducts should be:
 Installed with correct profile (line and level) within specified
tolerances.
 Tied and properly supported at frequent intervals.
 Connected with positively sealed couplings between pieces of
duct and between ducts and anchors.
 Aligned with sealed couplers at temporary bulkheads.
 Positively sealed at connections made on-site and in cast-in-
place splice joints.
 The elevations and alignments of ducts should be carefully
checked.
 Installed to connect correct duct location in bulkhead with correct
duct location in matchcast segment.
 Correctly aligned with respect to the orientation of the segment
in the casting cell and the direction of erection.
 Elevations and alignments of longitudinal and transverse ducts
should be carefully checked.

Fig. 3.17: Profiling of Ducts

57
3.2.3.11 Local Zone Reinforcement
Regardless of the type of anchor, it is essential to provide
reinforcement in the local anchor zone – this is the region directly
behind the anchor bearing plate(s).
For longitudinal strand, tendons comprise a spiral shape (Fig 3.18).
Local zone reinforcement should be placed as close as possible
(i.e.12mm maximum) to the main anchor plate in all applications. A
series of relatively rectangular stirrups is normally provided to
reinforce the general anchor zone (region around and beyond the local
zone) until the local anchor force has dispersed to the full effective
depth of the section. Typically, for an I-girder, this extends over a
length approximately equal to the depth of the beam from the anchor.
Local anchor zones for transverse deck slab tendons anchored in the
relatively shallow depth at the edge of segments are most effectively
reinforced by multiple-U shaped bars placed in alternating up and
down arrangement, beginning very close to the anchor plate. This
arrangement has been found to be very effective for intercepting
potential cracks that might originate at the top or bottom corner of the
anchor bearing plate and travel diagonally through the adjacent
surface – apart from the classical splitting stress along the line of the
tendon itself.

Fig. 3.18: General and Local Anchor Zone in end of I-Girder

58
3.2.3.12 Shuttering
Shuttering or formwork is the term used for temporary timber,
plywood, metal or other material used to provide support to wet
concrete mix till it gets strength for self support. It provides supports
to horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces or also provides support to
cast concrete according to required shape and size. The formwork also
produces desired finish concrete surface. Shuttering or formwork
should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete mix
and the pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the
top of form work/shuttering. It should be rigid to prevent any
deflection in surface after laying cement concrete and be also sufficient
tight to prevent loss of water and mortar form cement concrete.
Shuttering should be easy in handling, erection at site and easy to
remove when cement concrete is sufficient hard. The shuttering plates
are pre designed as per dimensions from drawing. The plates are
cleaned and lubricating oil is polished on the surface of plate in contact
with concrete. A layer of liquid proofing material is applied between the
two plates the plates are bolted together till the settling of concrete.
Shuttering is supported by the manual jacks.

Alignment of Shuttering

Fig. 3.19: Shuttering of girder

59
When shuttering plates are fixed they are not vertical. Thus the final
shape of girder will not be smooth and linear. So the alignment of
shuttering is to be done. A thread is tied along the length of girder at a
fixed distance (x) outward from shuttering plates, at the last plate near
to end face of girder a plumb bob is placed and verticality of the plates
is checked by measuring the distance of thread of plumb bob from
plate, this distance should be same to the distance (x), the distance is
checked both at top of plate and bottom of plate, if distance is larger
than that of fixed at bottom of plate then upper jack supporting the
plate is tightened or vice versa, this procedure is repeated on every
plate to check the alignment of plate.

Fixing of anchor cone

Anchor Cone is made of steel. It is a steel guide embedded in concrete,

while providing shuttering on face of girder, one end of anchor cone is
fixed on shuttering plate through bolts and at other end of it,
sheathing is mounted. It is covered by the spiral rebar. It provides a
firm base to jack for post tensioning and protect concrete from
bursting.

Fig. 3.20: Anchor cone

60
3.2.3.13 Concreting
Concrete is ordered by strength-grade and slump. Never use concrete
less than M20 grade (20 MPa of strength, with 20 mm nominal
maximum aggregate size and 80 mm slump). The concrete grade used
for girder was M45 as per design. Reject the concrete with a slump of
more than 100 mm. In fact 80-mm slump is better. It may be slightly
harder to work into place, but it can be finished sooner and will shrink
less. The slump of concrete is a rough measure of the amount of water
in the mix. If water is added the mix will become sloppy and easier to
work into place – but the concrete will be weaker, more cracks will be
there and have a poor surface finish. For this reason no water should
be added to concrete during the placement and finishing operations.
Place each batch of concrete next to the previous batch. Start from
one end and work along the girder making sure that each new batch is
well mixed into the batch before.
Do not let concrete free-fall more than 1m from a chute, pipe or
bucket when it is being placed. Level the surface of the concrete with a
screeding board. It is important to move the screeding board with a
sawing and chopping motion as this helps to compact the concrete.

3.2.3.14 Compaction
A needle vibrator is used to compact the concrete. Poke the vibrator
into the concrete every half m over the length of the beam and hold it
in place until the concrete settles and bubbles stop rising to the
surface. Hold the vibrator straight up and be careful not to move the
steel reinforcement, or damage the underlay or formwork. Curing
should be done.

3.2.3.15 Post-tensioning
Principle of Post-tensioning
The function of post-tensioning is to place the concrete structure under
compression in those regions where load causes tensile stress. Tension

61
caused by the load will first have to cancel the compression induced by
post-tensioning the before it can crack the concrete. Fig. 3.21 shows a
plainly reinforced concrete simple-span beam and fixed cantilever
beam cracked under applied load.

Fig. 3.21: Reinforced concrete beam under load

By placing the post-tensioning low in the simple-span beam and high
in the cantilever beam, compression is induced in the tension zones;
creating upward camber.

Fig. 3.22 shows the two post-tensioned beams after loads have been
applied. The loads cause both the simple-span beam and cantilever
beam to deflect down, creating tensile stresses in the bottom of the
simple-span beam and in top of the cantilever beam. The bridge
designer balances the effects of load and post-tensioning in such a way
that tension from the loading is compensated by compression induced
by the post-tensioning. Tension is eliminated under the combination of
the two and tension cracks are prevented. Also, construction materials
(concrete and steel) are used more efficiently; optimizing materials,
construction cost. Post-tensioning can be applied to concrete members
in two ways, by pre-tensioning or post-tensioning.

In pre-tensioned members the pre-stressing strands are tensioned

against restraining bulkheads before the concrete is cast. After the
concrete has been placed, allowed to harden and attain sufficient

62
strength, the strands are released and their force is transferred to the
concrete member.

Pre-stressing by post-tensioning involves installing and stressing pr-

stressing strand or bar tendons only after the concrete has been
placed, hardened and attained a minimum compressive strength for
that transfer.

Fig. 3.22: Comparison of reinforced and post-tensioned concrete beams

Tendon Installation
Multi-strand tendons are the most frequent choice for main longitudinal
tendons in bridges. All the strands of one tendon are tensioned
together using a multi-strand jack. The sequence in which tendons are
stressed and the ends from which they are stressed should be clearly
shown on the contract plans or approved shop drawings and must be
followed.

Anchoring Tendons
A bearing plate is fixed having holes equal as no of strands and an
anchorage body for anchoring tendons with wedges, having a central
passage or bore for the tendon, at least one part or section of which
passage widening conically from the inlet end to the outlet end in order
to form a seat for wedges, said anchorage body presenting at the inlet
end of said passage a projection integral with the remaining part of the

63
body and having also a passage or bore for the tendon to form a
holding means for a sealing element surrounding the portion of a
tendon near the anchoring body.

Fig. 3.23: Anchor set or wedge set

Jacking Methods
When the tendons are very long, losses over the length of the tendon
due to friction and wobble become large. Stressing the tendon from
the second end results in a higher force in the tendon than if only
stressed from one end. Also, for symmetrical tendons two-end
stressing becomes effective when the effect of anchor set at the
jacking end affects less than half of the tendon (Fig. 3.23). Stressing
from the second end should not be done if the calculated elongation is
less that the length of the wedge grip. Re-gripping in a portion of the
old grip length should be avoided. ‘Two End Stressing’ results in
symmetrical stresses, and, in longer tendons, higher stress levels.

64
 Fig. 3.24: Stresses along tendon for Two End Stressing

Fig. 3.25: Arrangement of post-tensioning Jack

The force required in each tendon is determined by the designer and is

given on the approved shop drawings or job stressing manual. Also,
the corresponding elongations are predetermined taking into account
all losses due to curvature friction, wobble, wedge set, and friction
within the anchor and jack, as necessary (refer to Appendices III). For
post-tensioning, measurement of elongations serves as a check of the
anticipated jacking force primarily given by the gauge pressure and

65
calibration chart. The stressing operation should constantly be
monitored by an inspector. There are two basic pieces of information
that need to be recorded: tendon elongations and gauge pressures.
Both will give an indication whether the tendon is stressed to the force
required. The gauge pressure is a direct measurement of the force at
the jack and the elongation will give an indication how the remainder
of the tendon is being stressed. Normally the tendon will be stressed to
a predetermined gauge pressure, representing a certain force in the
tendon at the stressing end. The elongation measured at this point is
compared to the theoretically determined elongation.

Measuring Elongations on Strand Tendons

When stressing a tendon a certain portion of jack extension will be
needed to remove the slack. This gives a false initial elongation that
should not be part of the real elongation measurements. For this
reason, the first step is to stress the tendon an initial force of
approximately 20% of the final force to remove the slack. From this
point up to 100% of the required load, the extension of the jack will
cause pure elongations of the tendon. At the end of the operation, a
correction can be made for the unmeasured portion of the elongation
by straight extrapolation. The accuracy of the determination of the
elongation obtained during the first step, i.e. tensioning up to 20% of
the jacking force, can sometimes be improved by recording elongations
at intermediate gauge readings of 40%, 60% and 80% and plotting
results on a graph. Ideally, the graph should be a straight line.
Intermediate elongations must be recorded if a long tendon has to be
stressed using two or more pulls on the jack when the required
elongation is greater than the available stroke For short, mono or
multi-strand tendons it may suffice to check the elongation for the
stressing range between 20% and 100% load against the calculated
value for this range. Short tendons are those generally less than about
30m (100 feet) long where the expected elongation is only about 0.2m

66
(8 inches) or less and is easily made with a single, steady and
continuous stroke of the jack. Elongation may be measured by the
extension of the cylinder beyond the barrel of the jack. However, this
is acceptable only if the wedge pull-in of the internal wedges that grip
the strand inside the jack is reliably known; it is deducted from the
measured extension on the cylinder to give the actual strand
elongation. This method is often preferred for convenience.

Strand End Cut-off

The ends of the strands should only be cut off if the jacking forces and
elongations are satisfactory. If there is any doubt that might require
verification by a lift-off test or additional jacking, strands should not be
cut. Preferably, strands should be trimmed as soon as possible, so that
permanent grout caps can be placed over the wedge plate to seal the
tendon until grouting. Strands should be cut off at the wedges leaving
approximately 12 to 20mm (½” to ¾”) of strand projecting but no
greater than that which can be accommodated by any permanent non-
metallic grout cap supplied for installation with the post-tensioning
system. Strands should be cut only with an abrasive cutting tool.
Under no circumstances should flame cutting be used as the heat can
soften the strands and wedges and lead to loss of strands. Recently,
plasma cutters have become available; their use should only be with
strict inspection and approval of the Engineer.
After strand tails have been cut-off, the ends of the tendon should be
temporarily protected in an approved manner until the tendon has
been grouted. Preferably, a non-metallic (plastic) grout cap should be
placed over the strands and wedges.

3.2.3.16 Grouting
The purpose of grouting is to provide permanent protection to the
post-tensioned steel against corrosion and to develop bond between
the post-tensioned cables and the surrounding structural concrete.
67
Grouting shall be carried out as early as possible, but generally not
later than two weeks of stressing. Whenever this stipulation cannot be
completed with for unavoidable reasons adequate temporary
protection of the cables against corrosion by methods or products,
which will not impair the ultimate adherence of the injected grout shall
be ensured till grouting.

Verification of Post-Tensioning Duct System Prior to Grouting

Check for Water and Debris

Prior to grouting, tendon ducts, grout inlets and outlets, and anchors,
should be examined and a water jet is injected at pressure of
50kg/cm2 to remove debris and water to avoid blockages or dilution.

Inlets, Outlets and Connections

Connections from grout hose to inlets and outlets should be airtight
and free from dirt. Inlets and outlets should be provided with positive
shut-offs capable of withstanding the maximum grouting pressure. The
required grouting pressure should take into account the pressure head
for vertical changes in profile.
Appropriate repairs should be made to any damaged inlets and outlets
prior to grouting.

Fig. 3.26: Arrangement of grout cap, inlets & outlets

68
Pressure Check of Duct System
Prior to grouting, it is recommended that the post-tensioning ducts be
tested using compressed air to verify if any duct connections, joints or
fittings require sealing or repair. Compressed air should be clean, dry
and free from any oil or contaminants.
A possible test would be to consider the duct system satisfactory if,
after pressurizing to an initial pressure (e.g. 0.7MPa (100 psi)) the
pressure loss over five minutes is less than 10% (e.g. 0.07MPa, In any
case, it would be necessary to temporarily seal the ends of ducts. This
could be done with anchor grout caps. Testing to 0.7MPa (100 psi)
before concrete placement, connections and fittings or using a suitable
sealant approved by the manufacturer of the PT duct system and
acceptable to the Engineer. Leaks at match-cast joints could be sealed
by epoxy injection or other acceptable means. In no case should duct
tape be used as a seal; however, it may be used to provide temporary
support or restraint.

Batching and Mixing

The proportions in the mix should be based upon the mix approved
prior to grouting is begun whether for a mix to be blended on site or
for a pre-qualified, pre-bagged grout. Dry powder and pre-bagged
grout materials should be batched by weight to an accuracy of ±2%.
Water and liquid admixtures may be batched by weight or volume to
an accuracy of ±1%. Any water content in any liquid admixtures should
be counted towards the quantity of water.

The materials should be mixed to produce a homogeneous grout

without excessive temperature rise (limiting up to 10 ºC) or loss of
fluid properties (flow cone). The mix should be continuously agitated
until it is pumped. Water must not be added to increase fluidity if it
has decreased by delayed use of the grout. Typically, the mix time for

69
grout should be in accordance with the qualification trials and
generally not more than 4 min for a vane mixer or 2 min for a high-
speed shear mixer.
Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, the constituents may
be added as follows:

 For a vane mixer: all the water, about 2/3 cementitious material,
the admixture and the remaining water.

 For a high speed shear (colloidal) mixer: water, admixture and

cementitious material.

Condensed, dry compacted silica fume should not be added to a mix as

it agglomerates and does not blend well, leading to a poor mix.

Injection of Grout
Pumping
Grout pumping methods should ensure complete filling of the ducts
and encasement of post tensioning steel. Grout should be pumped in a
continuous operation and be ejected from the first, and subsequent
outlets, until all visible slugs of water or entrapped air have been
removed prior to closing each outlet in turn. At each outlet and final
grout cap, pumping should continue until the consistency of the
discharged grout is equivalent to that being injected at the inlet. At
least 7.5 liters (2 gallons) of good, consistent, quality grout should be
discharged through the final anchor and cap before closing them.

Limiting Grout Injection Pressures

For normal operations grout should be injected at a pressure of less
than 0.52 MPa (75psi) at the inlet. Pumping pressures should not
exceed 1MPa (145 psi). Although higher pressures than this might be
sustained by internal ducts of HDPE or steel or external ducts of steel
pipe, higher pressures are not recommended for grouting. Sometimes
an initial temporary higher pressure may be needed to mobilize a

70
thixotropic grout, but, once flowing, pumping pressures should be the
same as for normal grout.
Vacuum Grouting Operation
Vacuum grouting generally involves the following activities:
 Pressurize void and check for leaks.
 Seal leaks (tighten all caps and seal leaks with epoxy or epoxy
injection).
 Measure the volume of the void to determine the necessary
quantity of grout.
 Mix sufficient grout for use and for testing, record quantity of
mixed grout.
 Test the grout using the flow-cone or modified flow-cone
method.
 Evacuate air from the voids.
 Switch valve and inject grout into voids under pressure.
 Record quantity of grout remaining and calculate the amount
injected.
 Seal grout injection inlets.
 Clean equipment, area of operations on structure and properly
discard unused grout.
 Record and report vacuum grouting operations.

Sealing of Grout Inlets and Outlets

It is recommended that threaded plastic caps be used to seal all grout
inlet and outlet pipes and that threaded plugs be installed in
anchorages and grout caps once the grout pipe and shut-off valve have
been removed (Fig. 3.27). Where an inlet or outlet is permanently
recessed within the concrete, provision should be made to
accommodate the threaded plastic cap at clear depth of at least 25mm
(1”) by means of a formed recess. The recess should be cleaned and
completely filled with an approved epoxy material. The surface of the

71
recess should be prepared to receive the epoxy material in accordance
with the recommendations of the manufacturer of the epoxy.

Fig. 3.27: Sealing of grout inlets and outlets

3.2.3.17 Erection of girder

Stool Fixing

Fig. 3.28: Stool for girder

Stools are temporary arrangements for resting of girder on pier cap
they are made of high strength steel, they are fixed on pier cap with

72
the help of high strength friction grip bots having gross dia of 22.5
mm, there bottom plate is fixed on pier cap and its top surface has
arrangement for adjustment of level below it. Thus the top plate of
stool can be adjusted accordingly to required level or chamber of
bridge (see Appendix IV).
Erection of the precast concrete girders must be done accurately and
carefully, as shown on the drawings and in a manner that will prevent
damaging the girders.
 Contractor must clean the bearing surfaces and the surfaces to
be in permanent contact before the members are assembled.
 Check the elevations, camber, and girder alignment and ensure
that the diaphragms are completely connected. Take profiles of
the girder tops so that camber adjustments may be determined
with particular emphasis on the differential camber between
adjacent girders.
 When the girders are satisfactorily erected and approved, ensure
that the lifting devices are cut off, all lifting pockets are filled
with grout, and lifting holes on exterior girders are filled with
grout.
 Inspect the girders for cracks, chips or other damage, which may
have occurred during erection.
 Report any damaged girders noted to the Bridge Project
Engineer.
 If post-tensioning of the girders is required, discuss the
procedures and all aspects of the inspection required with the
Bridge Project Engineer.

73
 Fig. 3.29: Erection of girder

3.2.4 Diaphragm Wall

3.2.4.1 Formwork
The formwork shall be designed and constructed so as to remain
sufficiently rigid during placing and compaction of concrete, and shall
be such as to prevent loss of slurry from the concrete. For further
details regarding design, detailing, etc. reference may be made to IS
14687. The tolerances on the shapes, lines and dimensions shown in
the drawing shall be within the limits given below:

Table 3.2 limits of tolerances on the shapes, lines and dimensions

a) Deviation from specified dimensions 12±6 mm
of cross-section of columns and beams
b) Deviation from dimensions of footings
1) Dimensions in plan 50±12mm
2) Eccentricity 0.02 times the width
of the footing in the
direction of

74
 deviation but not
more than 50mm
3)Thickness + 0.05 times the
specified thickness

These tolerances apply to concrete dimensions only, and not to

positioning of vertical reinforcing steel or dowels.
The number of props left under, their sizes and disposition shall be
such as to be able to safely carry the full dead load of the slab, beam
as the case may be together with any live load likely to occur during
curing or further construction.

3.2.4.2 Cleaning and treatment of formwork

All rubbish, particularly, chippings, shavings and sawdust shall be
removed from the interior of the forms before the concrete is placed.
The face of formwork in contact with the concrete shall be cleaned and
treated with form release agent. Release agents should be applied so
as to provide a thin uniform coating to the forms without coating the
reinforcement.

3.2.4.3 Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be bent and fixed in accordance with procedure
specified in IS 2502. The high strength deformed steel bars should not
be re-bendor straightened without the approval of engineer-in charge.
Bar bending schedules shall be prepared for all reinforcement work. All
reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in the position shown in
the drawings by providing proper cover blocks, spacers, supporting
bars, etc. Crossing bars should not be tack-welded for assembly of
reinforcement unless permitted. Welded joints or mechanical
connections in reinforcement may be used but in all cases of important
connections, tests shall be made to prove that the joints are of the full
strength of bars connected. Welding of reinforcements shall be done in

75
accordance with the recommendations of IS 275 1 and IS 9417. Where
reinforcement bars up to 12 mm for high strength deformed steel bars
and up to 16 mm for mild steel bars are bent aside at construction
joints and afterwards bent back into their original positions, care
should be taken to ensure that at no time is the radius of the bend less
than 4 bar diameters for plain mild steel or 6 bar diameters for
deformed bars. Care shall also be taken when bending back bars, to
ensure that the concrete around the bar is not damaged beyond the
band. Reinforcement should be placed and tied in such a way that
concrete placement be possible without segregation of the mix.
Reinforcement placing should allow compaction by immersion vibrator.
Within the concrete mass, different types of metal in contact should be
avoided to ensure that bimetal corrosion does not take place.

3.2.4.3 Concreting
The concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final
position to avoid re-handling. The concrete shall be placed and
compacted before initial setting of concrete commences and should not
be subsequently disturbed. Methods of placing should be such as to
preclude segregation. Care should be taken to avoid displacement of
reinforcement or movement of formwork. As a general guidance, the
maximum permissible free fall of concrete may be taken as 1.5 m.

3.2.4.4 Compacting
Concrete should be thoroughly compacted and fully worked around the
reinforcement, around embedded fixtures and into comers of the
formwork Concrete shall be compacted using mechanical vibrators
complying with IS 2505, IS 2506, IS 2514 and IS 4656. Over vibration
and under vibration of concrete are harmful and should be avoided.
Vibration of very wet mixes should also be avoided. Whenever
vibration has to be applied externally, the design of formwork and the

76
disposition of vibrators should receive special consideration to ensure
efficient compaction and to avoid surface blemishes.

3.2.4.5 Curing
Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the
concrete whilst maintaining a satisfactory temperature regime. The
prevention of moisture loss from the concrete is particularly important
if the water cement ratio is low, if the cement has a high rate of
strength development, if the concrete contains granulated blast
furnace slag or pulverised fuel ash. The curing regime should also
prevent the development of high temperature gradients within the
concrete. The rate of strength development at early ages of concrete
made with super sulphated cement is significantly reduced at lower
temperatures. Super sulphated cement concrete is seriously affected
by inadequate curing and the surface has to be kept moist for at least
seven days.

3.2.4.6 Stripping time of form work & finishing

Forms shall not be released until the concrete has achieved strength of
at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the
time of removal of formwork. The strength referred to shall be that of
concrete using the same cement and aggregates and admixture, if
any, with the same proportions and cured under conditions of
temperature and moisture similar to those existing on the work.
While the above criteria of strength shall be the guiding factor for
removal of formwork, in normal circumstances where ambient
temperature does not fall below 15°C and where ordinary Portland
cement is used and adequate curing is done.
Where the shape of the element is such that the formwork has re-
entrant angles, the formwork shall be removed as soon as possible
after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking occurring due to
the restraint imposed.

77
Fig.3.30: Diaphragm wall

78
 Chapte r
4
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

Tests for Materials

4.1 Tests for Aggregates

Table 4.1: Physical properties

Nominal Size
S. No. Properties
20 mm 10 mm
1 Specific Gravity 2.65 2.64
2 Impact Value 23.0 % ----
3 Abrasion Value 21.0 % ----
4 Bulk Density (Compacted) 1.64 gm/cc 1.53 gm/cc
5 Water Absorption 0.77 % 0.85 %
6 Free Surface moisture Nil Nil
Source: VNC
Table 4.2: Gradation of Coarse Aggregates

Source: VNC

80
4.2 Tests for Fine Aggregate
Fine Aggregate Gradation (Sieve Analysis)
Specific Gravity : 2.63
Bulk Density : 1.83 gm/cc
Free Surface Moisture : 0.20 %
Gradation : As per table 4.3
Fineness Modulus : 2.41
Silt Content : 0.80 %

Table 4.3: Gradation of fine aggregate

Source : VNC

81
4.3 Tests for Reinforcement:

Reinforcement is very important and essential part of any construction

work there are some important tests are conducted at VNC Lab. Test
result of these are given below in the table 4.4

Table 4.3: Tests on reinforcement bars of different diameter

Test Required: Tensile strength, Yield stress, % Elongation, Nominal mass, Bend test,
Rebend test
S.No. Name of test Standard Actual sample Remarks
specification results
1 Nominal Dia. 10mm
Tensile strength Min. 485 MPa 721.0 MPa

Yield stress Min. 415 MPa 556.0 MPa

All samples
% Elongation Min. 14.5 % 20.2 %
confirm to
Nominal mass 0.617 kg/m 0.620 kg/m
IS:1786-1985
Bend Test There shall not be No transverse crack
for Fe 415 grade
any transverse observed
with respect to
crack
test performed
Rebend Test There shall not be No fracture
any fracture in observed in bent
bent portion portion

2 Nominal Dia. 12mm

Tensile strength Min. 485.0 MPa 612.0 MPa
Yield Stress Min. 415.0 MPa 525.0 MPa
% Elongation Min. 14.5 % 17.5 % All Samples
Nominal Mass 0.888 kg/m 0.908 kg/m confirm to
Bend Test There shall be not No transverse crack IS:1786-1985
any transverse observed Grade Fe-415 in
crack respect of test
Rebend Test There shall not be No fracture performed

any fracture in observed in bent

bent portion portion

82
 3 Nominal Dia. 16mm

Tensile strength Min. 485.0 MPa 593.0 MPa

Yield Stress Min. 415.0 MPa 524.0 MPa All Samples

% Elongation Min. 14.5 % 25.0 % confirm to
Nominal Mass 1.580 kg/m 1.58 kg/m IS:1786-1985
Bend Test There shall be not No transverse crack Grade Fe-415 in
any transverse observed respect of test
crack performed
Rebend Test There shall not be No fracture
any fracture in observed in bent
bent portion portion

Source: VNC

83
4.4 Tests for Concrete

Mix Design (M25)

Target Avg. comp. strength (fck ) (IS: 10262-1982 Clause 2.2)
The target average strength required to be achieved by the designed mix
in the laboratory
Fck = fck + t x s = 25 + 1.65 x 5.3 = 33.75 N/mm2
where,
Fck = Target average compressive strength at 28 days (N/mm2)
fck = Characteristic compressive strength in 28 days (N/mm2)
t = Statistical factor depending upon no. of tests and acceptable low
results
s = Standard deviation
Fck =33.75 N/mm2
Quantity of materials for the mix (IS: 10262-1982, Clause-3)
Corresponding to the design strength of concrete mix the following ratio
and quantities are obtained as per standard guidelines.
(i) Water Cement Ratio : 0.465
(ii) Water : 169.73 L/m3
(iii) Cement : 365.0 kg/m3
(iv) Sand Content : 580.35 kg/m3
(v) Coarse Agg(10 mm) : 627.80 kg/m3
(20 mm) : 627.80 kg/m3
(vi) Slump : 82.0 mm
(vii) Filling Frequency : 3 Cubes on (5m3-10m3)
(viii) Curing : 7 – 28 days

84
 Fig. 4.1: Cube curing by ponding

4.4.1 Compressive Strength Test

Following table shows the test results of concrete cube after 28 days.
Table 4.6: Compressive strength test results

Source: VNC

85
 Fig. 4.2: Compressive strength testing machine

4.4.2 Slump Test

Following table shows the slump test result
Table 4.7: Result of slump test

Source: VNC

86
Different Grades of Concrete
These various kind of concrete grades were used for concrete work at
site. Following shows the properties and these mix gradients.

Table 4.8: Constituents of different grades of concrete

S.No. Water w/c Aggregate Sand Cement Slump Admixture
3 3
(kg/m ) Ratio (kg/m ) (mm)
20 mm 10 mm

M-45 179.10 0.367 % 732.00 599.00 414.0 488 105 1%

M-40 174.84 0.367 % 632.15 632.15 465.3 470 105 1%

M35 174.40 0.400 % 571.16 571.16 601.6 436 70 1%

(Cap)
M35 179.01 0.405 % 565.76 565.76 596.7 442 130
(Pile)
M-30 172.00 0.430 % 730.00 487.00 450.0 400 90

M-25 169.73 0.465 % 627.80 627.80 580.3 365 82

M-20 189.70 0.542 % 579.25 579.25 630.0 350 44

M-15 169.88 0.548 % 627.75 627.75 626.2 310 66

Source: VNC

87
 Chapte r 5
CONSTRUCTION
MANAGMENT

Construction Planning

5.1 Basic Concepts in the Development of Construction Plan

Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the

management and execution of construction projects. It involves the
choice of technology, the definition of work tasks, the estimation of the
required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the
identification of any interactions among the different work tasks. A
good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the
schedule for work. Developing the construction plan is a critical task in
the management of construction, even if the plan is not written or
otherwise formally recorded. In addition to these technical aspects of
construction planning, it may also be necessary to make organizational
decisions about the relationships between project participants and
even which organizations to include in a project.

For example, the extent to which sub-contractors will be used on a

project is often determined during construction planning. In developing
a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on
either cost control or on schedule control as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
Some projects are primarily divided into expense categories with
associated costs. In these cases, construction planning is cost or
expense oriented. Within the categories of expenditure, a distinction is

89
made between costs incurred directly in the performance of an activity
and indirectly for the accomplishment of the project. Scheduling of
work activities over time is critical and is emphasized in the planning
process. In this case, the planner insures that the proper precedence’s
among activities are maintained and that efficient scheduling of the
available resources prevails.

Fig. 5.1 Alternative emphases in construction planning

5.2 Choice of Technology and Construction Method

In selecting among alternative methods and technologies, it may be

necessary to formulate a number of construction plans based on
alternative methods or assumptions. Once the full plan is available,
then the cost, time and reliability impacts of the alternative
approaches can be reviewed. This examination of several alternatives
is often made explicit in bidding competitions in which several

90
alternative designs may be proposed or value engineering for
alternative construction methods may be permitted

5.3 Work Tasks

The definition of appropriate work tasks can be a laborious and tedious

process, yet it represents the necessary information for application of
formal scheduling procedures. Since construction projects can involve
thousands of individual work tasks, this definition phase can also be
expensive and time consuming. Fortunately, many tasks may be
repeated in different parts of the facility or past facility, construction
plans can be used as general models for new projects.

5.4 Defining Precedence Relationships among Activities

Once work activities have been defined, the relationships among the
activities can be specified. Precedence relations between activities
signify that the activities must take place in a particular sequence.
Numerous natural sequences exist for construction activities due to
requirements for structural integrity, regulations, and other technical
requirements. For example, design drawings cannot be checked before
they are drawn. Diagrammatically, precedence relationships can be
illustrated by a network or graph in which the activities are
represented by arrows as in (Fig. 5.2). The arrows in Fig.5.2 are called
branches or links in the activity network, while the circles marking the
beginning or end of each arrow are called nodes or events. In this
figure, links represent particular activities, while the nodes represent
milestone events.

Fig. 5.2 Illustrative Set of Four Activities with Precedences

91
More complicated precedence relationships can also be specified. For
ex ample, one activity might not be able to start for several days after
the completion of another activity. As a common example, concrete
might have to cure (or set) for several days before formwork is
removed. This restriction on the removal of forms activity is called a
lag between the completion of one activity (i.e., pouring concrete in
this case) and the start of another activity (i.e., removing formwork in
this case). Many computers based scheduling programs permit the use
of a variety of precedence relationships.

5.5 Estimating Activity Durations

In most scheduling procedures, each work activity has associated time

duration. These durations are used extensively in preparing a
schedule. For example, suppose that the durations shown in Table 5.1.
The entire set of activities would then require at least 8 days, since the
activities follow one another directly and require a total of 2.0 + 2 +
3+ 1.0 = 8 days. If another activity proceeded in parallel with this
sequence, the 8 day minimum duration of these four activities is
unaffected. More than 8 days would be required for the sequence if
there was a delay or a lag between the completion of one activity and
the start of another.

Table 5.1 Durations and Predecessors for a Four Activity Project

Illustration

Activity Predecessor Duration (Days)

Excavate trench --- 2

Place formwork Excavate trench 2
Place reinforcing Place formwork 3
Pour concrete Place reinforcing 1

92
A probability distribution indicates the chance that particular activity
duration will occur. In advance of actually doing a particular task, we
cannot be certain exactly how long the task will require.

5.6 Estimating Resource Requirements for Work Activities

In addition to precedence relationships and time durations, resource

requirements are usually estimated for each activity. Since the work
activities defined for a project are comprehensive, the total resources
required for the project are the sum of the resources required for the
various activities. By making resource requirement estimates for each
activity, the requirements for particular resources during the course of
the project can be identified. Potential bottlenecks can thus be
identified, and schedule, resource allocation or technology changes
made to avoid problems.

The initial problem in estimating resource requirements is to decide the

extent and number of resources that might be defined. At a very
aggregate level, resources categories might be limited to the amount
of labor (measured in man-hours or in do), the amount of materials
required for an activity, and the total cost of the activity. At this
aggregate level, the resource estimates may be useful for purposes of
project monitoring and cash flow planning.

5.7 Reporting

Day to day work should be reported with accuracy in measurement in

prescribed format

5.8 Safety

As with all the other costs of construction, it is a mistake for owners to

ignore a significant category of costs such as injury and illnesses.
While contractors may pay insurance premiums directly, these costs

93
are reflected in bid prices or contract amounts. Delays caused by
injuries and illnesses can present significant opportunity costs to
owners. In the long run, the owners of constructed facilities must pay
all the costs of construction.

During the construction process itself, the most important safety

related measures are to insure vigilance and cooperation on the part of
managers, inspectors and workers. Vigilance involves considering the
risks of different working practices. In also involves maintaining
temporary physical safeguards such as barricades, braces, guy lines,
railings, toe boards and the like. Sets of standard practices are also
important, such as:

 Requiring hard hats on site.

 Requiring eye protection on site.
 Requiring hearing protection near loud equipment.
 Insuring safety shoes for workers.
 Providing first-aid supplies and trained personnel on site

While eliminating accidents and work related illnesses is a worthwhile

goal, it will never be attained. Despite these peculiarities and as a
result of exactly these special problems, improving worksite safety is a
very important project management concern.

94
5. 9 Rec om me nd at io ns

 Co ns tr uc ti on of an y wo rk sh ou ld st ar t on ly af te r ta ki ng
al l me as ur es of sa fe ty li ke pr op er li gh ti ng ar ra ng em en t,
re fl ec ti ve sa fe ty ta pe s et c.
 Tr af fi c pl an ni ng fo r GO & FR O Ve hi cl es sh ou ld be
di ve rt ed , el im in at in g Tr af fi c ja ms .
 Pl an ni ng of su ch pr oj ec ts sh ou ld be co mp le te ly
su pp or te d by a fi rm po li ti ca l wi ll in vo lv in g al l us er s an d
af fe ct ed ag en ci es or pe rs on s.
 Al l sa fe ty me as ur es as pe r sa fe ty co de s sh ou ld be
en su re d by ex ec ut in g as we ll as su pe rv is in g ag en ci es to
av oi d lo ss of li fe an d pr op er ty .
 Al l ma nd at or y te st s sh ou ld be co nd uc te d an d pr oper
re co rd s ma in ta in ed fo r th e fu ll li fe of su ch pr oj ec ts .
Te st s fr om ou ts id e ag en ci es sh al l on ly be go t do ne fr om
ac cr ed it ed la bs on ly .
 Wh en su ch pr oj ec ts ar e ta ke n in ur ba n ar ea s co mp le te
de ta il s of un de rg ro un d wa te r, el ec tr ic , se wa ge ,
te le ph on e li ne s mu st be ob ta in ed to av oi d tr af fi c ja ms
an d in co nv en ie nc e to pu bl ic .
 No co mp ro mi se sh ou ld be ma de wi th Qu al it y Co nt ro l
no rm s la id do wn in va ri ou s co de s to avo id lo ss of
pr op er ty an d li fe . Th er e sh ou ld be a co mp le te
co or di na ti on be tw ee n de si gn er s an d ex ec ut or s. Pu tt in g
up bl am es on ea ch ot he r is a ma jo r lo ss to th e
en gi ne er in g co mm un it y as a wh ol e.

95
 Appendix I

(Illustrative example on concrete Mix Design)

An example illustrating the mix design for a concrete of M 20 grade is
given below:

DESIGN STIPULATIONS
Grade Designation = M40
Type of cement = O.P.C 43 grade
Brand of cement = XXX
Admixture = XXX
Fine Aggregate = Zone-II
Sp. Gravity Cement = 3.15
Fine Aggregate = 2.61
Coarse Aggregate (20mm) = 2.65
Coarse Aggregate (10mm) = 2.66
Minimum Cement (As per contract) = 400 kg /m 3
Maximum water cement ratio (As per contract) = 0.45

Mix Calculation: -

1. Target Mean Strength = 40 + (5 x1.65) = 48.25 MPa

2. Selection of water cement ratio
Assume water cement ratio = 0.4
3. Calculation of cement content: -
3
Assume cement content 400 kg /m
(As per contract Minimum cement content 400 kg /m 3)

97
4. Calculation of water
400 X 0.4 = 160 kg
Which is less than 186 kg (As per Table No. 4, IS: 10262)
Hence o.k.

5. Calculation for C.A. & F.A.: – As per IS: 10262, Cl. No. 3.5.1

V = [W + (C/Sc ) + (1/p)x(fa/Sfa ) ] x (1/1000)

V = [W + (C/Sc ) + {1/(1-p)}x(ca/Sca) ] x (1/1000)

Where
V = absolute volume of fresh concrete, which is equal to gross volume
3
(m ) minus the volume of entrapped air,
W = mass of water (kg) per m 3 of concrete,
C = mass of cement (kg) per m3 of concrete,
Sc = specific gravity of cement,
(p) = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume ,
(fa) , (ca) = total mass of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (kg) per
3
m of Concrete respectively, and
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and
Coarse aggregate respectively.

(As per Table No. 3, IS-10262),

for 20mm maximum size entrapped air is 2% .

Assume F.A. by % of volume of total aggregate = 36.5 %

0.98 = [160 + (400 / 3.15) + (1 / 0.365) (Fa / 2.61)] (1 /1000)

98
Fa = 660.2 kg ≈ 660 kg.

0.98 = [160 + (400 / 3.15) + (1 / 0.635) (Ca / 2.655)] (1 /1000)

Ca = 1168.37 kg ≈ 1168 kg.

Considering 20 mm: 10mm = 0.6: 0.4

20mm = 701 kg
10mm = 467 kg
Hence Mix details per m 3
Cement = 400 kg
Water = 160 kg
Fine aggregate = 660 kg
Coarse aggregate 20 mm = 701 kg
Coarse aggregate 10 mm = 467 kg
Admixture = 0.6 % by weight of cement = 2.4 kg
Recron 3S = 900 gm
Water: cement: F.A.: C.A. = 0.4: 1: 1.65: 2.92
Observation
A. Mix was cohesive and homogeneous.
B. Slump = 110mm
C. No. of cube casted = 12 Nos.
7 days average compressive strength = 51.26 MPa.
28 days average compressive strength = 62.96 MPa which is
greater than 48.25MPa
Hence the mix is accepted.

99
 Appendix II
Bar bending Schedule of diaphragm wall as per drawing

100
101
102
103
104
 Appendix III

Level Transferred to Pier for Casting of Pier cap

To mark the bottom level of pier cap on the pier the bottom level of pier
cap should be known that will attained by reducing the thickness of
wearing course ,deck slab, diaphragm wall and thickness of pier cap.

All dimensions are in m

105
198.695 pier cap bottom level (as per drawing)
- 195.00 zero level

3.695
+ 1.500 height of zero level form ground level

5.195 height of pier cap bottom from ground level

- 0.300 adjustable margin
4.895 scaffolding had to be provided up to this height from G.L
Thus scaffolding is to be provided leaving a margin space of 300mm for
ISMB125, 0.125 m
adjustable jack 0.170 m
shutter plate 0.005 m
0.300 m

106
 Appendix IV

Calculation for leveling bearing

The level of bearing were fixed as per drawings, the top level of pier cap
was known by drawing and calculations so firstly set a auto level ,level
and center it take back sight as the top level of the pier cap determine
the height of instrument.

All dimensions are in m

107
Suppose H.I of the instrument is 1.48

203.14 + 1.48 = 204.62

-203.14 + 0.45 = 203.59
1.03m

Now place the staff on the top surface of bearing ,the actual reading
appear on staff is to be 1.03m,else shift the top of bearing up or down as
if actual reading on staff is greater than theoretical reading then shift the
top of bearing downward or vice versa until the actual reading and
theoretical reading do not concede.

Repeat same procedure for levellling of stool for girder.

108
 References

List of IS codes Referred

 IS 456 -2000 Plain & Reinforced concrete code of practice

 IS 383-1993 Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregate from

natural
 sources for concrete

 IS: 383 Zone-III- specifications for Coarse & Fine Agg. From natural
sources for Concrete.

 IS 1786 -1985 Specification for High strength Deformed steel bars

and wires for Concrete Reinforcement

 IS 2386 (Part - II) 1991 Method for Test for aggregates for
concrete Part - II Estimation of deleterious materials and organic
impurities

 SP-34 Hand Book on concrete reinforcement and Detailing

 SP-23 Hand Book on concrete Mix.

 IS 9103 1979 Specification for admixtures for concrete

 IS-383-1970.The grading of coarse aggregates should be as per

specifications

109
  IS 2751 and IS 9417 Welding of reinforcements in accordance with
the recommendations

 IS: 1786 1985 Test to be performed in Respect of Fe 415

 IS: 10262 1982 Recommended Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design.

 IS: 516 1959 Methods of tests for Strength of Concrete.

Books

 General Theory of Bridge Construction by Hermann Haupt

 Design and construction of bridge approaches by Harvey E. Wahls

 Bridge engineering: construction and maintenance by Wai-Fah Chen

 Design Of R.C.C. Structural Elements by S.S. Bhavikatti

 Significance of tests and properties of concrete by Joseph F.

Lamond, J. H. Pielert
 Materials in construction: an introduction by Geoffrey D. Taylor

 Advances in Construction Materials 2007 by Christian U. Grosse

 Reinforced concrete: a fundamental approach by Edward G. Nawy

110
 Corrugated plastic ducts for internal bonded post-tensioning
Fédération internationale du béton

 Post-tensioning manual by Post-Tensioning Institute

 Practical handbook of grouting: soil, rock, and structures by James

Warner

 Aggregates: sand, gravel and crushed rock aggregates for By Mick

R.Smith,

 Aggregates in concrete by Mark G. Alexander, Sidney Mindess

 Manual of ready-mixed concrete by J. D. Dewar, R. Anderson

 Construction management: new directions by W. D. McGeorge,

Angela Palmer, Kerry London

 Formwork for concrete by Mary Krumboltz Hurd

 Bridge bearings and expansion joints by David John Lee

 Structural bearings - Page 62 byHelmut Eggert, Wolfgang Kauschke

 E- sources

111
Suggestions

112
Suggestions

113
Conclusion

The primary objective of this report is a description of practical knowledge. I

attained on construction site of an interchange structure during my summer
internship training. In the period of training, i closely studied the aspects of
practical application of various methodologies and learnt the art of being
pioneer in solving practical problem faced at site; during the course of my
study i attained the following conclusions:

 There are differences between theoretical and practical approach to

execute various construction process. Theoretical knowledge is
insufficient to commence task at site.
 The quality of construction work was at priority with respect to
time. Various check were formatted at each step of construction to
ensure the quality of work.
 After the consecutive revisions of drawing, they are finally revised
to fulfil the requirements of site.
 The various factors such as climatic conditions, man power,
availability of resources and methods involved in construction plays
a crucial role in an optimised completion of project.
 Safety measures were taken to avoid injuries and accidents on site.

This report elaborates the sequence of work for construction of structural

components in a bridge. The report contains the characteristics of
materials and technique used in construction of RCC bridge. It gives a
brief introduction to construction planning.

96