2102311 Electrical Measurement and

Instruments (Part II)

¾ Bridge Circuits (DC and AC)

¾ Electronic Instruments (Analog & Digital)
¾ Signal Generators
¾ Frequency and Time Interval Measurements
¾ Introduction to Transducers
อาภรณ ธีรมงคลรัศมี
ตึกไฟฟา 6 ชัน้ หอง 306
Textbook:
-A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, “Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques” Prentice Hall, 1994.
- D.A. Bell, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, 2nd ed., Prentice Hell, 1994.
 Resistor
Resistor Types
Types Importance parameters
™Value ™Tolerance
™Power rating ™Temperature coefficient

Type Values (Ω) Power rating Tolerance (%) Temperature picture

(W) coefficient
(ppm/°C)
Wire wound 10m~3k
(power) 3~1k ±1~±10 ±30~±300

Wire wound
(precision) 10m~1M 0.1~1 ±0.005~±1 ±3~±30

Carbon film 1~1M 0.1~3 ±2~±10 ±100~±200

Metal film 100m~1M 0.1~3 ±0.5~±5 ±10~±200

Metal film
(precision) 10m~100k 0.1~1 ±0.05~±5 ±0.4~±10

Metal oxide film 100m~100k 1~10 ±2~±10 ±200~±500

Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)
 Resistor ™Color codes
Resistor Values
Values ™Alphanumeric
4 band color codes
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance Temperature
(%) coefficient
(ppm/°C) Most sig. fig.
of value Tolerance
Silver 10-2 ±10 K Least sig. fig. Multiplier
- - -
Gold 10-1 ±5 J of value
Ex.
Black 0 100 - - ±250 K
Brown 1 101 ±1 F ±100 H
Red 2 102 ±2 G ±50 G Green

Orange 3 - D Red
103 ±15 Blue Brown
-
Yellow 4 104 - ±25 F R = 560 Ω ± 2%
Green 5 105 ±0.5 D ±20 E
Blue 6 106 ±0.25 C ±10 C
Alphanumeric
Violet 7 107 ±0.1 B ±5 B R, K, M, G, and T =
Gray 8 108 - ±1 A x100, x103 , x106 , x109 , and x1012
-
White 9 109 - Ex. 6M8 = 6.8 x 106 Ω
- -
- ±20 M 59Ρ04 = 59.04 Ω
Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)
 Resistor Values Commonly available resistance for a fixed resistor
R = x ± %∆x

Tolerance
Nominal value
Ex. 1 kΩ ± 10% ≡ 900-1100 Ω

For 10% resistor

10, 12, 15, 18, …

10 12 15
R

E
R ≈ √10n
where E = 6, 12, 24, 96
for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
For 10% resistor E = 12
n = 0; R = 1.00000…
n = 1; R = 1.21152…
n = 2; R = 1.46779…
n = 3; R = 1.77827…
Resistance
Resistance Measurement
Measurement Techniques
Techniques
Bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter
Substitution
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter
V V

A A
R R
Substitution
A A
Decade resistance
Unknow box substituted in
Supply resistance Rx Supply place of the
unknown
 Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
•Simple and theoretical oriented
•Requires two meter and calculations
•Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx

- - - - -

Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V + VA V Measured Rx: Rmeas = = =
Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x = Rx + A I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas ≈ Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas ≈ Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
 Ohmmeter
•Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
•Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx k 5k
45 50
R1
Battery 25 75
Rm Meter Infinity
VS resistance

0
10
0
Vs

0µ
Rx = − R1 − Rm Meter

A
I

Basic series ohmmeter Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit

DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency

Wheatstone Bridge Maxwell Bridge Schering Bridge Wien Bridge

Kelvin Bridge Hay Bridge
Megaohm Bridge Owen Bridge
Etc.
 Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition

Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1 Ω to 10 MΩ

A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 = I 2 R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3 R3 = I 4 R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C
R1 R2 or R2
= Rx = R4 = R3
R3 R4 R1
Example
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω

12 V 12 V

1Ω 1Ω 2Ω 2Ω

(a) Equal resistance (b) Proportional resistance

1Ω 10 Ω 1Ω 10 Ω

12 V 12 V

2Ω 20 Ω 2Ω 10 Ω

(c) Proportional resistance (d) 2-Volt unbalance

 Measurement Errors
 R ± ∆R2 
1. Limiting error of the known resistors Rx = ( R3 ± ∆R3 )  2 
R
 1 ± ∆R1 

Using 1st order approximation: R2  ∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 

Rx = R3 1 ± ± ± 
A R1  R1 R2 R3 

R1 R2 2. Insufficient sensitivity of Detector

3. Changes in resistance of the bridge

arms due to the heating effect (I2R) or
V D B temperatures

4. Thermal emf or contact potential in the

bridge circuit
R3
Rx 5. Error due to the lead connection
C 3, 4 and 5 play the important role in the
measurement of low value resistance
 Example In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade resistance with a specified in
accuracy ±0.2% and R1 and R2 = 500 Ω ± 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the null position is
520.4 Ω, determine the possible minimum and maximum value of RX

R2  ∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 

SOLUTION Apply the error equation Rx = R3 1 ± ± ± 
R1  R1 R2 R3 

520.4 × 500  0.1 0.1 0.2 

Rx = 1 ± ± ±  = 520.4( 1 ± 0.004) = 520.4 ± 0.4%
500  100 100 100 
Therefore the possible values of R3 are 518.32 to 522.48 Ω

Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3 Ω. The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 Ω. Find the change of Rx due to
the temperature change.
R2 1
SOLUTION At first balance: Rxold = R3 = 1000.3 × = 10.003 Ω
R1 100
R2 1
After the temperature change: Rx new = R3 = 1002.1× = 10.021 Ω
R1 100
Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018 Ω
 Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.

consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
A VCD = VAC − VAD = I1 R1 − I 2 R2
I1 I2
where I1 =
V V
R1 R2 and I 2 =
VS R1 + R3 R2 + R4
C G D
R3 R4 Therefore  R1 R2 
VTH = VCD = V  − 
R
 1 + R3 R2 + R4 

B
Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)

Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

R1 A R2

C D
RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4
R3 R4

Completed Circuit
RTH
C
VTH
Ig= VTH
RTH+Rg Ig =
VTH G RTH + Rg
D
where Ig = the galvanometer current
Rg = the galvanometer resistance
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/µA and an internal resistance of 100 Ω.
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 Ω.
A Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
100 Ω 1000 Ω
 100 1000 
R1 R2
VTH = VAD − VAC = 5 V ×  − 
5V D G C  100 + 200 1000 + 2005 
R3 R4 ≈ 2.77 mV
200 Ω 2005 Ω

B
Thévenin Resistance (RTH)
(a)

100 Ω A 1000 Ω
RTH = 100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 = 734 Ω
C
200 Ω 2005 Ω
D
The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig = = = 3.32 µ A
RTH= 734 Ω C RTH + Rg 734 Ω + 100 Ω
Ig=3.34 µA
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100 Ω
Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d = 3.32 µ A × = 33.2 mm
(c) µA
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 Ω and a current sensitivity of 1mm/µA. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5-Ω unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thévenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thévenin resistance of
734 Ω. The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.

VTH 2.77 mV
Ig = = = 2.24 µ A
RTH + Rg 734 Ω + 500 Ω

The galvanometer deflection therefore equals 2.24 µA x 1 mm/µA = 2.24 mm,

indicating that this galvanometer produces a deflection that can be easily observed.
Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50-Ω unbalance in
arm BC)

SOLUTION
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
•Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a ground or a short
circuit fault. Power or
communication cable
R3 X1
short R1
circuit fault
R2
R4 X2
Short
circuit
fault
ground Murray Loop Test
fault
Let R = R1+R2
R3 R1
At balance condition: =
R4 R2
 R3   R4 
Assume: earth is a R1 = R   R2 = R  
good conductor R +
 3 4R R +
 3 4R
The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculate back into distance.
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20oC)
Wire dia. In mm Ohms per km. Meter per ohm
0.32 218.0 4.59
0.40 136.0 7.35
0.50 84.0 11.90
0.63 54.5 18.35
0.90 27.2 36.76
Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1oC rise in Temp.

Let R = R1+R2 and define Ratio = R4/R5

X1
R4
R1
R R1
At balance condition: Ratio = 4 = R2
R5 R2 + R3 R5
X2
Short
R3
circuit
Ratio R - RatioR3 fault
R1 = R + R3 R2 =
Ratio + 1 Ratio + 1 Varley Loop Test
Example Murray loop test is used to locate ground fault in a telephone system. The total
resistance, R = R1+ R2 is measured by Wheatstone bridge, and its value is 300 Ω. The
conditions for Murray loop test are as follows:
R3 = 1000 Ω and R4 = 500 Ω
Find the location of the fault in meter, if the length per Ohm is 36.67 m.

Power or
communication cable SOLUTION
R3 X1
R1  R3  1000
R1 = R   = 300 × = 200 Ω
 R3 + R4  1000 + 500
R2
R4 X2
Short
 R4  500
circuit R2 = R   = 300 × = 100 Ω
fault  R3 + R4  1000 + 500
Murray Loop Test

Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 Ω× 36.67 m/Ω = 3667 m
 Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +∆R. if ∆R/R << 1
R R
Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
V
C G D
∆R
VTH = VCD ≈ V
R R+∆R 4R

B Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

Small unbalance
occur by the external RTH ≈ R
environment
RTH = R
C

This kind of bridge circuit can be found in sensor

VTH=V
∆R
G applications, where the resistance in one arm is
4R sensitive to a physical quantity such as pressure,
D
temperature, strain etc.
Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to the
temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). Find (a) the
temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output signal at Temperature of
60oC.
6
5 kΩ 5 kΩ 5
4

R v (kΩ )
6V
3
2 4.5 kΩ
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 kΩ signal
Temp (oC)

(b)
(a)
R3 × R2 5 kΩ× 5 kΩ
SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have Rv = = = 5 kΩ
R1 5 kΩ
The value of Rv = 5 kΩ corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.
(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 kΩ, thus ∆R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 kΩ. We will
use Thévenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.
∆R 0.5 kΩ
VTH = V = 6 V× = 0.15 V
4R 4 × 5 kΩ
It should be noted that ∆R = 0.5 kΩ in the problem does not satisfy the assumption ∆R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.
 Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1 Ω
Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting
terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
R2 R3 to a few Ohms
m
p Ry = the resistance of the connecting lead from R3 to
V G Ry
n Rx
R1 Rx At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too
high and indication of Rx
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.

The effect of the connecting lead will be

R
At point p: Rx + Rnp = ( R3 + Rmp ) 1 canceled out, if the sum of 2nd and 3rd term is
R2 zero. R1 Rnp R1
R R Rmp − Rnp = 0 or =
rearrange Rx = R3 1 + Rmp 1 − Rnp R2 Rmp R2
R2 R2
Where Rmp and Rnp are the lead resistance R1
Rx = R3
from m to p and n to p, respectively. R2
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001 Ω
Four-Terminal Resistor
Current Current
terminals terminals Four-terminal resistors have current terminals
and potential terminals. The resistance is
defined as that between the potential
terminals, so that contact voltage drops at the
current terminals do not introduce errors.
Voltage Voltage
terminals terminals

Four-Terminal Resistor and Kelvin Double Bridge

R3 • r1 causes no effect on the balance condition.

R2
• The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimized, if R1 >>
Rb r2 and Ra >> r3.
G
• The main error comes from r4, even though this value
Ra is very small.
r3 r4
R1
r2
Rx
r1
 Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001 Ω

l 2 ratio arms: R1-R2 and Ra-Rb

R2 R3 the connecting lead between m and n: yoke
I m
The balance conditions: Vlk = Vlmp or Vok = Vonp
Rb
p R2
V k G Ry Vlk = V (1)
R1 + R2
Ra
here V = IRlo = I [ R3 + Rx + ( Ra + Rb ) // Ry ]
n
R1
Rx  Ry 
o Vlmp = I  R3 + Rb  (2)
 Ra + Rb + Ry 

R Rb Ry  R1 Ra  R1
Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange: Rx = R3 1 +  −  Rx = R3
R2 Ra + Rb + Ry  R2 Rb  R2

If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.
 High Resistance Measurement

Guard ring technique: Volume resistance, RV

Surface leakage resistance, Rs

Guard
ring
µA µA
Is Is
High Iv Iv
High
voltage V voltage V Material
supply supply under test
Is

(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume (b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume
resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance
resistance
V V
Rmeas = Rs // Rv = Rmeas = Rv =
I s + Iv Iv
 High Resistance Measurement

Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested using 10,000 V supply
and a microammeter. A current of 5 µA is measured when the components are connected
without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the current is 1.5 µA.
Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the surface leakage
resistance
SOLUTION
(a ) Volume resistance:

IV =1.5 µA
V 10000 V
RV = = = 6.7 ×109 Ω
IV 1.5 µA

(b ) Surface leakage resistance:

IV+ IS = 5 µA IS = 5 µA – IV = 3.5 µA

V 10000 V
RS = = = 2.9 × 109 Ω
IS 3.5 µA
MegaOhm Bridge

Just as low-resistance measurements are affected by series lead impedance, high-

resistance measurements are affected by shunt-leakage resistance.

RA RB RA RB

E G E R2
G

R1
RC Rx RC

the guard terminal is connect to a bridge

corner such that the leakage resistances
are placed across bridge arm with low
resistances
R1 // RC ≈ RC since R1 >> RC RC
Rx ≈ RA
R2 // Rg ≈ Rg RB
since R2 >> Rg
 Capacitor
Capacitance – the ability of a dielectric to store electrical charge per
unit voltage
Area, A
conductor
A ε 0ε r
Dielectric, εr C = Typical values pF, nF or µF
thickness, d d

Dielectric Construction Capacitance Breakdown,V

Air Meshed plates 10-400 pF 100 (0.02-in air gap)
Ceramic Tubular 0.5-1600 pF 500-20,000
Disk 1pF to 1 µF
Electrolytic Aluminum 1-6800 µF 10-450
Tantalum 0.047 to 330 µF 6-50
Mica Stacked sheets 10-5000 pF 500-20,000
Paper Rolled foil 0.001-1 µF 200-1,600
Plastic film Foil or Metallized 100 pF to 100 µF 50-600
Inductor
Inductance – the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage
when the current varies.
N turns
2
µo µ r N A
L =
A l

l µo = 4π×10-7 H/m

µr – relative permeability of core material Air core inductor

Ni ferrite: µr > 200
Mn ferrite: µr > 2,000

L Re

Cd Iron core inductor

Equivalent circuit of an RF coil Distributed capacitance Cd
between turns
Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Equivalent circuit of capacitance
Cp
Cs Rs
Rp

Parallel equivalent circuit Series equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of Inductance

Lp
Ls Rs

Rp

Series equivalent circuit Parallel equivalent circuit

Rs2 + X s2 Rs2 + X s2 R p X p2 X p R p2
Rp = Xp = Rs = Xs =
Rs Xs R +X
2
p
2
p R p2 + X p2
 Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance (frequency
dependent and circuit configuration)
X s ω Ls
Inductance series circuit: Q= = Typical Q ~ 5 – 1000
Rs Rs
Rp Rp
Inductance parallel circuit: Q = =
Xp ω Lp

Dissipation factor of a capacitor: the ratio of reactance to resistance

(frequency dependent and circuit configuration)
Xp 1
Capacitance parallel circuit: D= = Typical D ~ 10-4 – 0.1
Rp ω C p Rp
Rs
Capacitance series circuit: D= = ω Cs Rs
Xs
 Inductor and Capacitor
I V
RP2 V RS2 + ω 2 L2S
LS = 2 ⋅ LP LP = ⋅ LS
RP + ω 2 L2P LP ω 2 L2S
RS LS
ω 2 L2P I RS2 + ω 2 L2S
RS = 2 ⋅ R RP RP = ⋅ RS
RP + ω 2 L2P
P
RS2

V V/RP
ω LS RP
Q= θ Q=
RS IωLS V/ωLP ω LP
θ
IRS I

I V
1+ ω C R
2 2 2 V
CS = P
⋅ CP
P 1
ω 2CP2 RP2 CP
CP = ⋅ CS
1 + ω 2CS2 RS2
I RS LS
1
RS = ⋅ RP RP 1 + ω 2CS2 RS2
1 + ω CP2 RP2
2 RP = ⋅ RS
IRS I ω 2CS2 RS2
I/ωCS VωCP δ
D = ω CS RS 1
δ D=
ω CP RP
V V/RP
 AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms

Z3 Z4
At balance point: EBA = EBC or I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2
D
V V
I1 = and I 2 =
General Form of the ac Bridge Z1 + Z 3 Z2 + Z4
Complex Form: Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Polar Form: Z1Z4 =Z2 Z3

Magnitude balance:
Z1Z4 ( ∠θ1 + ∠θ 4 ) =Z2 Z3 ( ∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 )
Phase balance: ∠θ1 + ∠θ 4 =∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3
 Example The impedance of the basic ac bridge are given as follows:

Z1 = 100 Ω ∠80o (inductive impedance) Z3 = 400 ∠30o Ω (inductive impedance)

Z 2 = 250 Ω (pure resistance) Z 4 = unknown
Determine the constants of the unknown arm.

SOLUTION The first condition for bridge balance requires that

Z 2 Z 3 250 × 400
Z4 = = = 1, 000 Ω
Z1 100

The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase angles of
opposite arms be equal, therefore

∠θ 4 =∠θ 2 + ∠θ 3 − ∠θ1 = 0 + 30 − 80 = −50o

Hence the unknown impedance Z4 can be written in polar form as

Z 4 = 1, 000 Ω ∠ − 50o
Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly consisting of a
series combination of at resistor and a capacitor.
 Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200 Ω
in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 Ω in series with C = 0.265 µF; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 Ω. The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the constants of
arm CD. B
SOLUTION
Z1 Z2

I1 I2 Z1 = R + jω L = 200 + j100 Ω
V
D C Z 2 = R + 1/ jω C = 300 − j 600 Ω
A
Z3 = R = 450 Ω
Z 4 = unknown
Z3 Z4
D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Z 2 Z 3 450 × (200 + j100)

Z4 = = = j150 Ω
Z1 (300 − j 600)

This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reactance of 150 Ω
at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL = 2πfL, we solve for L and
obtain L = 23.9 mH
 Comparison Bridge: Capacitance

Measure an unknown inductance or

R1 capacitance by comparing with it with a known
R2
inductance or capacitance.

Vs D At balance point: Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3
C3 Rx 1
1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z 3 = R3 +
where Z
R3 jω C3
Cx Unknown
capacitance  1   1 
R1  Rx +  = R2  R3 + 
Diagram of Capacitance  jω C x   jω C 3 
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and C x = C3
R1 R2

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
 Comparison Bridge: Inductance

Measure an unknown inductance or

R1 R2 capacitance by comparing with it with a known
inductance or capacitance.

Vs D At balance point: Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3
L3 Lx where Z1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z3 = R3 + jω L3
R3 Rx Unknown
inductance
R1 ( Rx + jω Lx ) = R2 ( RS + jω LS )
Diagram of Inductance
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R2
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and Lx = L3
R1 R1

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
 Maxwell Bridge

Measure an unknown inductance in terms of

R1
R2 a known capacitance
C1
V D At balance point: Z x = Z 2 Z3 Y1

Lx 1
where Z 2 = R2 ; Z3 = R3 ; and Y1 = + jω C1
R3 Unknown
R1
Rx inductance 1 
Z x = Rx + jω Lx = R2 R3  + jω C1 
Diagram of Maxwell Bridge  R1 
R2 R3
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = and Lx = R2 R3C1
R1

Frequency independent
Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: since R1 will be very
large.
 Hay Bridge

R1 Similar to Maxwell bridge: but R1 series with C1

R2 At balance point: Z1Z x = Z 2 Z3
C1
V D j
where Z1 = R1 − ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z3 = R3
Lx
ω C1
R3 Unknown  1 
Rx inductance R
 1 +  ( Rx + jω Lx ) = R2 R3
 jω C1 
Diagram of Hay Bridge L
R1 Rx + x = R2 R3 (1)
Lx jRx C1
which expands to R1 Rx + − + jω Lx R1 = R2 R3
C1 ω C1 Rx
= ω Lx R1 (2)
ω C1
Solve the above equations simultaneously
Hay Bridge: continues

ω 2C12 R1 R2 R3 R2 R3C1
Rx = and Lx =
1 + ω 2C12 R12 1 + ω 2C12 R12

ωLx Z R1 X L ω Lx
θC tan θ L = = =Q
R Rx
X 1
tan θ C = C =
R ω C1 R1
θL 1 1
Rx Z tan θ L = tan θ C or Q =
ωC1 ω C1 R1
Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1
R2 R3C1
Lx =
Thus, Lx can be rewritten as 1 + (1/ Q 2 )

For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q)2 can be neglected Lx ≈ R2 R3C1
 Schering Bridge

C1 Used extensively for the measurement of capacitance

R2 and the quality of capacitor in term of D
R1 At balance point: Z x = Z 2 Z3 Y1
V
where Z = R ; Z = 1 ; and Y = 1 + jω C
D

jω C3
2 2 3 1
R1
Cx
C3
Rx Unknown j  − j  1 
capacitance Rx − = R2   + jω C1
ω Cx  ω C R
x  1 
Diagram of Schering Bridge
j R2C1 jR2
which expands to Rx − = −
ω Cx C3 ω C3 R1
C1 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx = R2 and C x = C3
C3 R2
Schering Bridge: continues

Rx
Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit: D= = ω Rx C x
Xx
Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the
phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90o

For Schering Bridge: D = ω Rx Cx = ω R1C1

For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibrated directly in D
at one particular frequency
 Wien Bridge

Unknown R1 Measure frequency of the voltage source using series

Freq. R2 RC in one arm and parallel RC in the adjoining arm
C1
At balance point: Z 2 = Z1Z 4 Y3
Vs D 1 1
Z1 = R1 + ; Z 2 = R2 ; Y3 = + jωC3 ; and Z 4 = R4
R3 jωC1 R3
R4
C3  j   1 
R2 =  R1 − R
 4 + jω C3
 ω C1  R
 3 
Diagram of Wien Bridge
R2 R1 C3 (1)
= +
R1 R4 jR4 RC R4 R3 C1
which expands to R2 = + jω C3 R1 R4 − + 4 3
R3 ω C1 R3 C1 1 (2)
ω C3 R1 =
ω C1 R3
1 In most, Wien Bridge, R1 = R3 and C1 = C3
Rearrange Eq. (2) gives f =
2π C1C3 R1 R3 1
(1) R2 = 2 R4 (2) f =
2π RC
 Wagner Ground Connection
One way to control stray capacitances is by
C
C6 Shielding the arms, reduce the effect of stray
C5 R1 capacitances but cannot eliminate them
Rw R2 completely.

1 Stray across arm

A D B Cannot eliminate
2 C1 C2

Cw C3 Rx
Wagner ground connection eliminates some
R3 Cx effects of stray capacitances in a bridge circuit
D Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the
Wagner ground C4 point 1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1
and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from
detector circuit)
Diagram of Wagner ground The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C6
cannot be eliminated by Wagner ground.
Capacitor Values
Ceramic Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Film Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Tantalum Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor