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MANGUERA OUTLINE
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
COMPREHENSIVE VERSION

organs of the state and defines the relations of the

PRELIMINARIES
I. Political Law
A. Definition of Political Law
B. Subdivisions of Political Law
C. Basis of Philippine Political Law
II. Constitution
A. Definition of Constitution
B. Philosophical View of the Constitution
C. Purpose of Constitution
D. Classifications of Constitutions
E. Qualities of a Good Written Constitution
F. Essential Parts of a Good Written
Constitution
G. Permanency and Generality
constitutions
H. Interpretation/Construction of Constitution
I. Brief Constitutional History
J. The 1987 Constitution
state with the inhabitants of its territory.2
B. Subdivisions of Political Law
1. Law of public administration
2. Constitutional law
3. Administrative law
4. Law of public corporations3
C. Basis of Philippine Political Law
The principles of government and political law of
the Philippines are fundamentally derived from
American jurisprudence. This conditions was the
inevitable outcome of the establishment of the
American rule in the Philippines. When Spain
ceded the Phils. to the US, the Spanish Political
laws were automatically displaced by those of the
US.4
of
II. CONSTITUTION
A. Definition of Constitution

III. Constitutional Law Comprehensive Definition: That body of rules

A. Concept of Constitutional Law and maxims in accordance with which the powers
B. Types of Constitutional Law of sovereignty are habitually exercised.5 (Cooley)

IV. Basic Concepts American sense: A constitution is a written

A. Constitutionalism instrument by which the fundamental powers of
B. Philippine Constitutionalism government are established, limited, and defined
C. Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy and by which these powers are distributed among
D. Republicanism several departments, for their more safe and useful
E. Principle of Separation of Powers exercise, for the benefit of the body politic. (Justice
F. System of Checks and Balances Miller quoted by Bernas)
G. Judicial Review
H. Due Process With particular reference to the Philippine
Constitution: That written instrument enacted by
I. POLITICAL LAW direct action of the people by which the
fundamental powers of the government are
established, limited and defined, and by which
A. Definition of Political Law
those powers are distributed among several
departments for their safe and useful exercise for
Branch of public law1 which deals with the the benefit of the body politic. (Malcolm, Philippine
organization and operation of the governmental Constitutional Law, p. 6)

1
Public law is understood as dealing with matters affecting the state,
the act of state agencies, the protection of state interests. Private law
deals with the regulation of the conduct of private individuals in their
relation with one another.
As thus conceived public law consists of political law, criminal law
and public international law. Private law includes civil and
commercial law.
2
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10th ed., 1954.
3
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 1, 10th ed., 1954.
4
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 2, 10th ed., 1954.
5
This definition is comprehensive enough to cover written and
unwritten constitutions. (Cruz, Constitutional Law)

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In other words: It is the supreme written law of
the land.6
B. Philosophical View of the Constitution
The Constitution is a social contract. (Marcos v.
Manglapus)
Viewed in the light of the Social Contract Theories,
the Constitution may be considered as the Social
Contract itself in the sense that it is the very basis
of the decision to constitute a civil society or State,
breathing life to its juridical existence, laying down
the framework by which it is to be governed,
enumerating and limiting its powers and declaring
certain fundamental rights and principles to be
inviolable.
The Constitution as a political document may be
considered as the concrete manifestation or
expression of the Social Contract or the decision to
abandon the ‘state of nature’ and organize and
found a civil society or State.
According to Dean Baustista, “the Constitution is a
social contract between the government and the
people, the governing and the governed.”7 (ASM: I
don’t necessarily agree with this statement. As a
social contract, the Constitution, I think is a
contract between and among the people
themselves and not between the government and
the people. The government is only an “effect” or
consequence of the social contract of the people.
In other words, the government is only a creature
of the Constitution. Hence, the government cannot
be a party to a contract that creates it. In the 1987
Philippine Constitution, it reads, “We the sovereign
Filipino people…in order to build a …society and
establish a government… ordain and promulgate
this Constitution.”)
According to Dean Bautista, “the Constitution
reflects majoritarian values but defends
minoritarian rights.”8
C. Purpose of the Constitution
To prescribe the permanent framework of a system
of government, to assign to the several
departments their respective powers and duties,
and to establish certain first principles on which the
6 formally struck off at a definitive time and place following a
See People v. Pomar, 46 Phil 440. Bernas Commentary xxxvii (2003
ed).
7
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide 3
June 16, 2007.
8 Constitutional Law p 5)
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide 3
June 16, 2007.; Majoritarianism is a traditional political philosophy
which asserts that a majority of the population is entitled to a certain
degree of primacy in the society, and has the right to make decisions
that affect the society.
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government is founded.9 (11 Am. Jur. 606 cited in
Cruz)
Why would a society generally committed to
majority rule choose to be governed by a
document that is difficult to change?
a) To prevent tyranny of the majority
b) Society’s attempt to protect itself from
itself.
c) Protecting long term values form short
term passions.10
D. Constitution as a Municipal Law
A constitution is a municipal law. As such, it is
binding only within the territorial limits of the
sovereignty promulgating the constitution.11
E. Classification
A. (1) Rigid12
(2) Flexible
B. (1) Written13
(2) Unwritten
C. (1) Evolved14
(2) Enacted
D. (1) Normative- adjusts to norms
(2) Nominal –not yet fully operational
(3) Semantic-perpetuation of power
The Constitution of the Philippines is written,
conventional and rigid.
F. Qualities of good written constitution
1. Broad15
9
10
Andres D. Bautista, Introduction to Constitutional Law 1, Slide 4
June 16, 2007.
11
Bernas Commentary, p 5(2003 ed).
12
Rigid constitution is one that can be amended only by a
formal and usually difficult process; while a flexible
constitution is one that can be changed by ordinary
legislation. (Cruz, Constitutional Law p 5)
13
A written constitution is one whose precepts are embodied
in one document or set of documents; while an unwritten
constitution consists of rules which have not been integrated
into a single, concrete form but are scattered in various
sources, such as statues of a fundamental character, judicial
decisions, commentaries of publicists, customs and traditions,
and certain common law principles. (Cruz, Constitutional Law
pp 4-5)
14
An enacted or conventional constitution is enacted,
conscious or deliberate effort taken by a constituent body or
ruler; while a cumulative or evolved is the result of political
evolution, not inaugurated at any specific time but changing by
accretion rather than by systematic method. (Cruz,
15
Broad. Because it provides for the organization of the entire
government and covers all persons and things within the territory of
the State and also because it must be comprehensive enough to
provide for every contingency. (Cruz, Constitutional Law pp 5-6)
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2. Brief16 6. The 1987 Constitution

3. Definite 17
K. The 1987 Constitution
G. Essential parts of a good written constitution
The 1987 Constitution is the 4th fundamental law to
1. Constitution of government 18
govern the Philippines since it became
2. Constitution of liberty19 independent on July 4, 1946.
3. Constitution of sovereignty20 Background of the 1987 Constitution
[Social and economic rights]
1. Proclamation of the Freedom Constitution
a. Procalamation No. 1, February 25, 1986,
H. Interpretation/Construction of the Constitution21
announcing that she (Corazon Aquino) and
VP Laurel were assuming power.
In Fransisco v HR, the SC made reference to the b. Executive Order No.1, (Febrauary 28, 1986)
use of well-settled principles of constitutional c. Procalamation No.3, March 25, 1986,
construction, namely: announced the promulgation of the
1. Verba Legis22 Provisional (Freedom) Constitution, pending
2. Ratio legis et anima23 the drafting and ratification of a new
Constitution. It adopted certain provisions in
3. Ut magis valeat quam pereat24 the 1973 Constitution, contained additional
articles on the executive department, on
I. Permanence and Generality of constitutions government reorganization, and on existing
laws. It also provided of the calling of a
A constitution differs from a statute, it is intended Constitutional Commission to be composed
not merely to meet existing conditions, but to of 30-50 members to draft a new
govern the future. Constitution.
2. Adoption of the Constitution
It has been said that the term ‘constitution’ implies a. Proclamation No. 9, creating the
an instrument of a permanent nature.25 Constitutional Commission of 50
members.
J. Brief Constitutional History b. Approval of the draft Constitution by the
1. Malolos Constitution Constitutional Commission on October 15,
2. The American Regime and the Organic Acts 1986
3. The 1935 Constitution c. Plebiscite held on February 2, 1987
4. The Japanese (Belligerent) Occupation d. Proclamation No. 58, proclaiming the
5. The 1973 Constitution ratification of the Constitution.
3. Effectivity of the 1987 Constitution: February 2,
16
Brief. It must confine itself to basic principles to be implemented 1987
with legislative details more adjustable to change and easier to
amend. (Cruz, Constitutional Law pp 4-5) Features of 1987 Constitution26
17
Definite. To prevent ambiguity in its provisions which could result 1. The new Constitution consists of 18 articles
in confusion and divisiveness among the people. (Cruz, and is excessively long compared to the
Constitutional Law pp 4-5) 1935 and 1973 constitutions.
18
Constitution of Government. The series of provisions outlining 2. The independence of the judiciary has been
the organization of the government, enumerating its powers, laying strengthened with new provisions for
down certain rules relative to its administration and defining the appointment thereto and an increase in its
electorate. (ex. Art VI, VII, VIII and IX)
19 authority, which now covers even political
Constitution of Liberty. The series of proscriptions setting forth
questions formerly beyond its jurisdiction.
the fundamental civil and political rights of the citizens and imposing
3. The Bill of Rights of the Commonwealth and
limitations on the powers of government as a means of securing the
enjoyment of those rights. (Ex. Article III) Marcos constitutions has been considerably
20
Constitution of Sovereignty. The provisions pointing out the
improved in the 1987 Constitution and even
mode or procedure in accordance with which formal changes in the bolstered with the creation of a Commission
fundamental law may be brought about. (Ex. Art XVII) of Human Rights.
21
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law (2006 ed.)
22
Plain meaning rule. Whenever possible the words used in the III. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Constitution must be given their ordinary meaning except when
technical terms are employed.
23 A. Concept of Constitutional Law
Interpretation according to spirit. The words of the Constitution
should be interpreted in accordance with the intent of the framers.
24
The constitution has to be interpreted as a whole.
25 26
Ruling Case Law, vol.6, p16) Cruz, Political Law.

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Constitutional law is a body of rules resulting from
the interpretation by a high court of cases in which
the validity, in relation to the constitutional
instrument, of some act of government…has been
challenged. (Bernas Commentary xxxviii)
Constitutional law is a term used to designate the
law embodied in the constitution and the legal
principles growing out of the interpretation and
application made by courts of the constitution in
specific cases. (Sinco, Phil. Political Law)
Constitutional law is the study of the maintenance
of the proper balance between authority
represented by the three inherent powers of the
State and liberty as guaranteed by the Bill of
Rights. (Cruz, Constitutional Law)
Constitutional law consist not only of the
constitution, but also of the cases decided by the
Supreme Court on constitutional grounds, i.e.,
every case where the ratio decidendi is based on a
constitutional provision. (Defensor-Santiago,
Constitutional Law)
B. Types of Constitutional law27
1. English type28
2. European continental type29
3. American type30
C. Weight of American Jurisprudence
In the case of Francisco v. HR, (2003) The Supreme
Court speaking through Justice Carpio Morales opined:
“American jurisprudence and authorities, much
less the American Constitution, are of dubious
application for these are no longer controlling
within our jurisdiction and have only limited
persuasive merit insofar as Philippine
constitutional law is concerned. As held in
the case of Garcia vs. COMELEC, "[i]n
resolving constitutional disputes, [this Court]
should not be beguiled by foreign
jurisprudence some of which are hardly
applicable because they have been dictated by
different constitutional settings and needs."
Indeed, although the Philippine Constitution
can trace its origins to that of the United
States, their paths of development have long
since diverged. In the colorful words of Father
Bernas, "[w]e have cut the umbilical cord."”
27
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 67, 10th ed., 1954.
28
Characterized by the absence of a written constitution.
29
There is a written constitution which gives the court no power to
declare ineffective statutes repugnant to it.
30
Legal provisions of the written constitution are given effect
through the power of the courts to declare ineffective or void
ordinary statutes repugnant to it.
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(But see the case of Neri v. Senate Committees
where the Court cited many American cases)
IV. BASIC CONCEPTS
Constitutionalism
Philippine Constitutionalism
Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy
Republicanism
Principle of Separation of Powers
System of Checks and Balances
Judicial Review
Due Process
A. Constitutionalism
Constitutionalism refers to the position or practice
that government be limited by a constitution.
The doctrine or system of government in which the
governing power is limited by enforceable rules of
law, and concentration of power is limited by
various checks and balances so that the basic
rights of individuals and groups are protected.
B. Philippine Constitutionalism
Constitutionalism in the Philippines, understood in
the American sense, dates back to the ratification
of Treaty of Paris. Then it grew from a series of
organic documents. These are:
(1) Pres. Mc Kinleys’ Instruction to the Second
Phil. Commission,
(2) Phil. Bill of 1902,
(3) Phil. Autonomy Act of 1916. (Bernas,
Commentary xxxviii)
C. Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy (2004 Bar
Exam Question)
If a law violates any norm of the constitution, that
law is null and void; it has no effect. (This is an
overstatement, for a law held unconstitutional is
not always wholly a nullity)
The American case of Marbury v. Madison laid
down the classic statement on constitutional
supremacy” “It is a proposition too plain to be
contested, that the Constitution controls any
legislative act repugnant to it.”
Constitutional supremacy produced judicial
review.31
D. Republicanism
The essence of republicanism is representation
and renovation, the selection by the citizenry of a
corps of public functionaries who derive their
31
Defensor Santiago, Constitutional Law 7.
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mandate from the people and act on their behalf,
serving for a limited period only, after which they
are replaced or retained at the option of their
principal.32
(More discussion of Republicanism under Article II)
E. Principle of Separation of Powers
Essence. In essence, separation of powers means
that legislation belongs to Congress, execution to
the executive, settlement of legal controversies to
the judiciary. Each is prevented from invading the
domain of others. (Bernas, Commentary 656, 2003
ed.)
Division and Assignment. Its starting point is the
assumption of the division of the functions of the
government into three distinct classes—the
executive, the legislative and the judicial. Its
essence consists in the assignment of each class
of functions to one of the three organs of
government.33
Theory. The theory is that “a power definitely
assigned by the Constitution to one department
can neither be surrendered nor delegated by
that department, nor vested by statute in another
department or agency.”34
Reason. The underlying reason of this principle is
the assumption that arbitrary rule and abuse of
authority would inevitably result from the
concentration of the three powers of government in
the same person, body of persons or organ.35
More specifically, according to Justice Laurel, the
doctrine of separation of powers is intended to:
1. Secure action
2. To forestall overaction
3. To prevent despotism
4. To obtain efficiency36
History. Separation of powers became the pith and
core of the American system of government largely
through the influence of the French political writer
Montesquieu. By the establishment of the
American sovereignty in the Philippines, the
principle was introduced as an inseparable feature
of the governmental system organized by the
United States in this country.37
Limitations on the Principle
1. System of Checks and Balances
32
Cruz, Political Law.
33
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 131, 10th ed., 1954.
34
Williams v. US, 289 US 553 (1933).
35
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 131, 10th ed., 1954.
36
Pangasinan Transportaion Co. v. PSC, 40 O.G., 8th Supp. 57.
37
US v. Bull, 15 Phil 7, 27.
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2. Existence of overlapping powers38
F. Checks and Balances
The Constitution fixes certain limits on the
independence of each department. In order that
these limits may be observed, the Constitution
gives each department certain powers by which it
may definitely restrain the other from exceeding
their authority. A system of checks and balances is
thus formed.39
To carry out the system of checks and balances,
the Constitution provides:
1. The acts of the legislative department
have to be presented to the executive for
approval or disapproval.
2. The executive department may veto the
acts of the legislature if in its judgment
they are not in conformity with the
Constitution or are detrimental to the
interests of the people.
3. The courts are authorized to determine
the validity of legislative measures or
executive acts.
4. Through its pardoning power, the
executive may modify or set aside the
judgments of the courts.
5. The legislature may pass laws that in
effect amend or completely revoke
decisions of the courts if in its judgment
they are not in harmony with its intention
or policy which is not contrary to the
Constitution.40
6. President must obtain the concurrence of
Congress to complete certain significant
acts.
7. Money can be released from the treasury
only by authority of Congress.41
G. Judicial Review
Definition. Judicial review refers to the power of
the courts to test the validity of governmental acts
in light of their conformity with a higher norm (e.g.
the constitution).
Expression of Constitutional Supremacy.
Judicial review is not an assertion of superiority by
the courts over the other departments, but merely
38
The power of appointment is one of these. Although this is
executive in nature, it may however be validly exercised by any of
the three departments in selecting its own subordinates precisely to
protect its independence. (Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law
136, 10th ed., 1954).
39
Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law 135, 10th ed., 1954.
40
Tarlac v. Gale, 26 Phil. 338 cited in Vicente Sinco, Philippine
Political Law 135, 10th ed., 1954.
41
Bernas, Commentary 656, 2003 ed.
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an expression of the supremacy of the

Constitution.42 Constitutional supremacy produced
judicial review, which in turn led to the accepted
role of the Court as “the ultimate interpreter of the
Constitution.”43

Judicial Review in Philippine Constitution.

Unlike the US Constitution44 which does not
provide for the exercise of judicial review by their
Supreme Court, the Philippine Constitution
expressly recognizes judicial review in Section 5
(2) (a) and (b) of Article VIII of the Constitution.
(More discussion of Judicial Review under Article
VIII)

H. Due Process

Origin: By the 39th chapter of the Magna Carta

wrung by the barons from King John, the despot
promised that “no man shall be taken, imprisoned
or disseized or outlawed, or in any manner
destroyed; nor shall we go upon him, nor send him,
but by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the
law of the land.”
In 1335, King Edward III’s Statute 28 declared that
“no man, of what state or condition whoever be,
shall be put out of his lands, or tenements, nor
taken, nor imprisoned, nor indicted, nor put to
death, without he be brought in to answer by due
process of law.” It is this immortal phrase that has
resounded through the centuries as the formidable
champion of life, liberty and property in all-freedom
loving lands. (Cruz)

Definition45: Embodiment of the sporting idea of

fair play.46 It is the responsiveness to the
supremacy of reason, obedience, to the dictates of
justice.47 Due process is a guaranty against
arbitrariness on the part of the government.
Observance of both substantive and procedural
rights is equally guaranteed by due process.48
(More discussion of Due Process under Article III)

42
Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil 139.
43
See Cooper v. Aaron, 358 US 1 (1956)
44
The case of Marbury v. Madison established the doctrine of
judicial review as a core legal principle in American constitutional
system: “So if a law be in opposition to the constitution; of both the
law and the constitution apply to a particular case, so that the court
must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the
constitution; or conformably to the constitution, disregarding the law;
the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the
case. This is the very essence of judicial duty.”
45
The idea that laws and legal proceedings must be fair. Due process
is best defined in one word- fairness.
46
Frankfurter, Mr. Justice Holmes and the Supreme Court pp
32-33
47
Ermita-Malate Hotel & Motors Association v. City of Manila
48
(Tupas v. CA)

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independence and democracy under the rule of law

and the regime of truth, justice, freedom, love,
PREAMBLE equality and peace.”

I. Meaning III. Social Contract Theory

II. Function
III. Social Contract Theory ASM: I submit that the Preamble is somehow a
manifestation of the Social Contract Theory as it
I. Meaning states: “We the sovereign Filipino people…in
order to build a…society and establish a
government… do ordain and promulgate this
Preamble means “to walk before.” (Praeambulus:
constitution.”
Walking in front)

II. Function
Function
Origin/Authorship
Scope and Purpose

A. Functions
1. It sets down the origin, scope and purpose of
the Constitution.49
2. It enumerates the primary aims and expresses
the aspirations of the framers in drafting the
Constitution.50
3. Useful as an aid in the construction and
interpretation of the text of the Constitution.51

Thus, Preamble is a source of light.52 It is not a

source of rights or obligations. (Jacobson v.
Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11, 22 (1905).

B. Origin/Authorship

Its origin, or authorship, is the will of the “sovereign

Filipino people.”

The identification of the Filipino people as the

author of the constitution also calls attention to an
important principle: that the document is not just
the work of representatives of the people but of the
people themselves who put their mark of approval
by ratifying it in a plebiscite.53

C. Scope and Purpose

“To build a just and humane society as to establish

a government that shall embody our ideals and
aspirations, promote the common good, conserve
and develop our patrimony, and secure to
ourselves and our posterity the blessings of

49
Bernas Primer at 1 (2006 ed.)
50
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 49 (1995 ed).
51
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 49 (1995 ed).
52
Bernas Primer at 1 (2006 ed.)
53
Bernas Commentary, p 4(2003 ed).

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1. State’s sovereignty is over its:

o Land territory (and airspace above it)
ARTICLE I: NATIONAL TERRITORY o Internal Waters (and airspace above it and
seabed under it)
I. Territory o Archipelagic Waters( and airspace above it
II. Archipelago and seabed under it)
III. Archipelagic Principle o Territorial Sea (and airspace above it and
seabed under it)
I. Territory 2. The coastal state has a right against innocent
passage57 in its internal waters.
3. The coastal state exercises authority over the
A. What is Territory area (contiguous zone) to the extent necessary to
prevent infringement of customs, fiscal,
Territory is the fixed portion of the surface of the immigration or sanitation authority over its territorial
earth inhabited by the people of the state.54 waters or territory and to punish such infringement.
4. The coastal state has rights over the economic
Territory as an element of a state means an area resources of the sea, seabed and subsoil.
over which a state has effective control.55
D. Scope of Philippine National Territory Defined in
B. What does territory include? Article I, Section 1.
It includes:
Territory includes land, maritime areas, airspace (1) The Philippine archipelago;
and outer space.56 (2) All other territories over which the Philippines
has sovereignty or jurisdiction;
Airspace (3) The territorial sea, seabed, subsoil, insular
o Each state has exclusive jurisdiction over shelves and other submarine areas
the air above its territory. corresponding to (1) and (2). Moreover, (1)
o The consent for transit must be obtained and (2) consist of terrestrial, fluvial and aerial
from the subject nation. domains.58
o Aircrafts not engaged in international air
service, shall have the right to make flights E. Territories Covered under the Definition of Article
into or in transit non-stop across its territory 1
and to make steps for non-traffic purposes 1. Those ceded to the US by virtue of the Treaty
without the necessity of obtaining prior of Paris on December 10, 1898.
permission and subject to the right of the
State flown over to require landing. (Chicago 2. Those defined in the treaty concluded between
Convention on International Civil Action) the US and Spain (Treaty of Washington) on
November 7, 1990, which were not defined in
Outerspace the Treaty of Paris, specifically the islands of
o Sovereignty over airspace extends only until Cagayan, Sulu and Sibuto.
where outerspace begins. (50-100 miles 3. Those defined in the treaty concluded on
from earth) January 2, 1930, between the US and Great
Britain (Treaty with Great Britain), specifically
Different areas beyond the land territory the Turtle and Mangsee islands.
o Territorial Seas (12 N.mi from baseline) 4. The island of Batanes, which was covered
o Contiguous Zone (24 N.mi from baseline) under a general statement in the 1935
o Exclusive Economic Zone/Patrimonial Sea Constitution.
(200 N.mi from baseline) 5. Those contemplated in the phrase “belonging
o High seas (Waters beyond territorial sea) to the Philippines by historic right or legal title”
in the 1973 Constitution.59
C. Significance of Territory
E. “All other territories which the Philippines has
Control over territory is of the essence of a state sovereignty and jurisdiction.”
(Las Palmas case). Certain rights and authority are
exercised within the state’s territory. 57
Passage that is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or
54 security of the coastal state.
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 16 (1995 ed).
58
55
Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002 ed). Bernas Primer at 4 (2006 ed.)
56 59
Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002 ed). Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 18 (1995 ed).

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This includes any territory which presently belongs
or might in the future belong to the Philippines
through any of the internationally modes of
acquiring territory.
o Batanes islands
o Those belonging to the Philippines by historic
right or legal title (Sabah, the Marianas,
Freedomland)
II. Archipelago
Archipelago
Archipelagic State
Archipelagic Waters
Philippine Archipelago
A. Archipelago
Archipelago is a body of water studded with
islands.60
B. Archipelagic State
Archipelagic state means a state constituted wholly
by one or more archipelagos and may include
other islands. (Article 46 (a) of UNCLOS)
C. Archipelagic Waters
According to UNCLOS, Archipelagic waters refers
to areas enclosed as internal waters by using the
baseline method which had not been previously
considered as internal waters. (See Article 53 of
UNCLOS)
Article 8(2) of UNCLOS: Where the
establishment of a straight baseline in
accordance with the method set forth in Article
7 has the effect of enclosing as internal waters
areas which had not previously been
considered as such, a right of innocent passage
as provided in this Convention shall exist in
those waters.
According to UNCLOS, in “archipelagic waters”, a
right of innocent passage shall exist in these
waters. But, the Philippines made a reservation,
thus, “ The concept of archipelagic waters is similar
to the concept of internal waters under the
Constitution of the Philippines, and removes straits
connecting these waters with the economic zone or
high sea from the rights of foreign vessel to transit
passage for international navigation.”
Bernas: The reservation is ad cautelam. The claim
made in the Constitution took effect in 1973 before
the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention was
formulated. Article 8(2) of the Convention itself
says that the new rule on archipelagic waters
60
Bernas Primer at 4 (2006 ed.)
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applies only to “areas which had not previously
been considered as” internal waters.61
D. Philippine Archipelago
The Philippine archipelago is that body of water
studded with islands which is delineated in the
Treaty of Paris, modified by the Treaty of
Washington and the Treaty of Great Britain.
III. Archipelagic Principle
Archipelagic Doctrine
Archipelago Doctrine of Article I
Elements of Archipelagic Doctrine
Purpose of Archipelagic Doctrine
A. Archipelagic Doctrine
(1989 Bar Question)
It is the principle whereby the body of water
studded with islands, or the islands surrounded
with water, is viewed as a unity of islands and
waters together forming one integrated unit. For
this purpose, it requires that baselines be drawn by
connecting the appropriate points of the “outermost
islands to encircle the islands within the
archipelago. We consider all the waters enclosed
by the straight baselines as internal waters.62
B. Elements of Archipelagic Doctrine
1. Definition of internal waters63
2. The straight line method of delineating the
territorial sea.
Straight Baseline Method- drawn connecting
selected points on the coast without departing to
any appreciable extent from the general direction
of the coast. RA 3046 and RA 5446 have drawn
straight baselines around the Philippines.
(The problem with the straight baseline method is
that it conflicts with the Law of the Sea because it
recognizes the right of innocent passage in
archipelagic waters. That is why we made a
reservation. However, as Bernas pointed out, the
reservation is ad cautelam)
C. Purposes of Archipelagic Doctrine
1. Territorial Integrity
2. National Security
3. Economic reasons
61
Bernas Commentary, p 28(2003 ed).
62
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 17 (1995 ed).
63
Internal waters refer to “all waters landwards from the
baseline of the territory.”
Note: The Philippines considers all waters connecting the
islands as internal waters.
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It is said that the purpose of archipelagic doctrine is
to protect the territorial integrity of the archipelago.
Without it, there would be “pockets of high seas”
between some of our islands and islets, thus
foreign vessels would be able to pass through
these “pockets of seas” and would have no
jurisdiction over them.
D. Archipelago Doctrine in Article I, Section 1
(1989 Bar Question)
“The waters around, between and connecting the
islands of the archipelago, regardless of their
breadth and dimensions, form part of internal
waters of the Philippines”
Q: Differentiate archipelagic waters, territorial
sea and internal waters. (2004 Bar Question)
A:
According to UNCLOS, Archipelagic waters refers
to areas enclosed as internal waters by using the
baseline method which had not been previously
considered as internal waters. (See Article 53 of
UNCLOS)
not part of the national territory, exclusive economic
benefit is reserved for the country within the zone.
By virtue of PD 1599, the Philippine declares that it
has sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve
and manage the natural resources of the seabed,
subsoil, and superjacent waters. Other states are
prohibited from using the zone except for
navigation and overflight, laying of submarine
cables and pipeline, and other lawful uses related
to navigation and communication.
Q: Distinguish the flag state and the flag of
convenience. (2004 Bar Question)
Flag state means a ship has the nationality of the
flag of the state it flies, but there must be a genuine
link between the state and the ship. (Article 91 of
the Convention on the Law of the Sea)
Flag of convenience refers to a state with which a
vessel is registered for various reasons such as
low or non-existent taxation or low operating costs
although the ship has no genuine link with the
state. (Harris, Cases and Materials on International
Law, 5th ed., 1998, p. 425.)

Territorial sea is an adjacent belt of sea with a

breadth of 12 nautical miles measured from the
baselines of a state and over which the state has
sovereignty. (Article 2, 3 of UNCLOS)

Internal waters refer to “all waters landwards from

the baseline of the territory.” Is from which the
breadth of territorial sea is calculated. (Brownlie,
Principles of PIL) No right of innocent passage for
foreign vessels exist in the case of internal waters.
(Harris, Cases and Material on International Law,
5th ed., 1998, p.407)

Under Section 1, Article I of the 1987 Constitution,

the internal waters of the Philippines consist of the
waters around between and connecting the islands
of the Philippine archipelago regardless of their
breadth and dimensions including the waters in
bays, rivers, and lakes.

Q: Distinguish briefly but clearly between the

contiguous zone and the exclusive economic
zone. (2004 Bar Question)

Contiguous zone is a zone contiguous to the

territorial sea and extends up to twelve nautical
miles from the territorial sea and over which the
coastal state may exercise control necessary to
prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal,
immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within
its territory or territorial sea. (Article 33 of the
Convention on the Law of the Sea.)

The EEZ extends 200 nautical miles from the

baseline. The EEZ is recognized in the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea. Although it is

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It is the statement of the basic ideological principles

ARTICLE II and policies that underlie the Constitution. As such,
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND the provisions shed light on the meaning of the
other provisions of the Constitution and they are a
STATE POLICIES guide for all departments of the government in
the implementation of the Constitution.65
I.
Principles and State Policies
II.
State as a Legal Concept C. What are Principles? What are Policies?
PRINCIPLES
Principles are binding rules which must be
III. Republicanism (§ 1) observed in the conduct of the government.66
IV. Incorporation Clause (§2)
V. Supremacy of Civilian Authority(§3) Policies are guidelines for the orientation of the
state.67
VI. Defense of State (§4)
VII. Peace and Order(§5) Note: The distinction between principles and
VIII. Separation of Church and State (§6) polices is of little significance because not all of the
STATE POLICIES six “principles” are self-executory and some of the
“policies” already anchor justiciable rights.68
IX. Independent Foreign Policy(§7) o Section 5 (maintenance of peace and order…
X. Freedom from Nuclear Weapons(§8) promotion of general werlfare…) is a mere
XI. Just and Dynamic Social Order (§9) guideline. (Section 16 (right of the people to a
XII. Promotion of Social Justice (§10) balanced and healthful ecology is right-
conferring provisions. (Oposa vs. Factoran)
XIII. Respect for Human Dignity(§11)
XIV. Family, Rearing the Youth (§§ 12-13) Section 1. The Philippines is a
XV. Women(§14) democratic and republican State.
XVI. Health Sovereignty resides in the people
and all government authority
XVII. Balanced and healthful Ecology(§§15-16)
emanates from them.
XVIII. Education, Science and Technology(§17)
XIX. Labor(§18) II. State as a Legal Concept
XX. Economy(§19) Definition of a State
XXI. Private Sector and Private Enterprise (§20) Elements of a State
XXII. Comprehensive Rural Development (§21) Government
Acts of State
XXIII. Indigenous Cultural Communities (§22) State Immunity
XXIV. Sectoral Organizations (§23)
XXV. Communication and Information (§24) A. Definition of a State
XXVI. Local Autonomy (§25)
A state refers to a community of persons, more or
XXVII. Equal Access to Opportunities (§26) less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
XXVIII. Public Service (§27) portion of territory, independent of external control,
and possessing an organized government to which
XXIX. Full Public Disclosure (§28)
the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience.69
I. Principles and State Policies
B. Elements of a State
A. Description 1. People
2. Territory
This portion of the Constitution (Article II) might be 65
called the basic political creed of the nation.64 Bernas Primer at 7(2006 ed.)
66
See IV RECORD OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION
B. Function of the “Declaration of Principles and 768 and 580.
67
State Policies” in the Constitution See IV RECORD OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION
768 and 580.
68
64
See Tanada v. Angara. See Vicente Sinco, Philippine Political Law Bernas Commentary, p 37(2003 ed).
69
116 (11th ed., 1962). Bernas Commentary, p 39 (2003 ed).

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3. Sovereignty 4. External
4. Government
Legal Sovereignty.
1. People Cruz: Legal sovereignty is the authority which
A community of persons sufficient in number and has the power to issue final commands. In our
capable of maintaining the continued existence of country, the Congress is the legal sovereign.78
the community and held together by a common
bond of law.70 Bernas: Legal sovereignty is the supreme
power to affect legal interests either by
Different Meanings of “People” as used in the legislative, executive or judicial action. This is
Constitution: lodged in the people but is normally exercised
1. Inhabitants71 by state agencies79

2. Electors72 (Bernas: Political writers distinguish between

3. Citizens73 legal sovereignty and political sovereignty. The
4. Sovereign. The people organized former is described as the supreme power to
make laws and the latter as the sum total of all
collectively as a legal association is the
influences in a state, legal or non-legal, which
state which sovereignty resides.74
determine the course of law. Sinco prefers not
to make the distinction and places legal
2. Territory
sovereignty in the state itself considered as a
Territory is the fixed portion of the surface of the juridical person.)
earth inhabited by the people of the state.75
Political Sovereignty
Territory as an element of a state means an area Sum total of all the influences of a State, legal
over which a state has effective control.76 and non-legal which determine the course of
law.
3. Sovereignty
Definition Internal Sovereignty
Kinds It refers to the power of the State to control its
Characteristics domestic affairs. It is the supreme power over
Effects of Belligerent Occupation everything within its territory.
Effects of Change in Sovereignty
Dominium v. Imperium External Sovereignty
Jurisdiction Also known as Independence, which is
“Sovereignty resides in the people” freedom from external control. It is the power
of State to direct its relations with other
a. Sovereignty States.80

The supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in c. Characteristics of Sovereignty

a State by which that State is governed.77
It is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive,
In auto-limitation terms: It is the property of a State- absolute, indivisible, inalienable, and
force due to which it has the exclusive capacity of imprescriptible.81
legal determination and restriction.
But wait, in the case of Tanada v. Angara, it was
b. Kinds: held that sovereignty of a state cannot be
1. Legal absolute. It is subject to limitations imposed by
2. Political
3. Internal 78
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 26 (1995 ed).
79
70
Bernas Commentary, p 40 (2003 ed). Bernas Primer at 8 (2006 ed.); Section 1 of Article II says:
71 “Sovereignty resides in the people an all government authority
Article II, Section 15, 16; Article III, Section 2; Article XIII,
emanates from them.” Sovereignty in this sentence therefore can be
Section 1.
72 understood as the source of ultimate legal authority. Since the
Article VII, Section 4; Article XVI, Section 2; Article XVIII, ultimate law in the Philippine system is the constitution, sovereignty,
Section 25) understood as legal sovereignty, means the power to adapt or alter a
73
Article II, Section 4; Article III, Section 7. constitution. This power resides in the “people” understood as those
74 who have a direct hand in the formulation, adoption, and amendment
Preamble; Article II, Section 1.
75 or alteration of the Constitution. (Bernas Commentary, p 55 (2003
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 16 (1995 ed). ed).
76
Bernas, An Introduction to Public International Law, 97 (2002 ed). 80
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 26 (1995 ed).
77 81
Garner cited in Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 26 (1995 ed). Laurel v. Misa, 77 Phil 856.

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membership in the family of nations and limitations
imposed by treaties. The Constitution did not
envision a hermit-type isolation of the country from
the rest of the world. (2000 Bar Question)
d. Effects of Belligerent Occupation
As to political laws. No change of sovereignty
during a belligerent occupation, the political laws of
the occupied territory are merely suspended,
subject to revival under the jus postliminium upon
the end of the occupation.
Note that the rule suspending political laws affects
only the civilian inhabitants of the occupied
territory and is not intended to bind the enemies in
arms. Also, the rule does not apply to the law on
treason although decidedly political in character.
As to non-political laws. The non-political laws
are deemed continued unless changed by the
belligerent occupant since they are intended to
govern the relations of individuals as among
themselves and are not generally affected by
changes in regimes of rulers.
As for judicial decisions. As for judicial decisions
the same are valid during the occupation and even
beyond except those of a political complexion,
which are automatically annulled upon the
restoration of the legitimate authority.82
e. Effects of Change in Sovereignty
As to political laws. Where there is a change in
sovereignty, the political laws of the former
sovereign are not merely suspended but
abrogated unless they are retained or re-enacted
by positive act of the new sovereign.
As to non-political laws. Non-political laws,
continue in operation.
f. Imperium v. Dominium
Imperium. State’s authority to govern. Covers such
activities as passing laws, governing territory,
maintaining peace and order over it, and defending
against foreign invasion. This is the authority
83
possessed by the State embraced in the concept of
sovereignty.
Dominium. Capacity of the State to own property.
Covers such rights as title to land, exploitation and
use of it, and disposition or sale of the same.
g. Jurisdiction
82
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 28 (1995 ed
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Jurisdiction is the manifestation of sovereignty. The
jurisdiction of the state is understood as both its
authority and the sphere of the exercise of that
authority.
Kinds of Jurisdiction:
1. Territorial jurisdiction- authority of the
state to have all persons and things within
its territorial limits to be completely subject
to its control and protection.83
2. Personal jurisdiction- authority of the
state over its nationals, their persons,
property, and acts whether within or
outside its territory (e.g. Art. 15,CC)
3. Extra-territorial jurisdiction- authority of
the State over persons, things, or acts,
outside its territorial limits by reason of
their effect to its territory.
Examples:
1. Assertion of its personal jurisdiction over
its nationals abroad; or the exercise of its
rights to punish certain offenses
committed outside its territory against its
national interests even if the offenders are
non-resident aliens;
2. By virtue of its relations with other states
or territories, as when it establishers a
colonial protectorate, or a condominium,
or administers a trust territory, or occupies
enemy territory in the course of war;
3. When the local state waives its jurisdiction
over persons and things within its territory,
as when a foreign army stationed therein
remains under the jurisdiction of the
sending states;
4. by the principle of extra territoriality, as
illustrated by the immunities of the head of
state in a foreign country;
5. Through the enjoyment or easements or
servitudes, such as the easement of
innocent passage or arrival under stress;
6. The exercise of jurisdiction by the state in
the high seas over its vessels; over
pirates; in the exercise of the right to visit
and search; and under the doctrine of hot
pursuit;
7. The exercise of limited jurisdiction over the
contiguous zone and the patrimonial sea,
to prevent infringement of its customs,
fiscal, immigration or sanitary regulations.
Exempt are:
1. Foreign states, heads of state, diplomatic representatives,
and consuls to a certain degree;
2. Foreign state property, including embassies, consulates,
and public vessels engaged in non-commercial activities;
3. Acts of state;
4. Foreign merchant vessels exercising the rights of innocent
passage or involuntary entry, such as the arrival under
stress;
5. Foreign armies passing through or stationed in its territory
with its permission;
6. Such other persons or property, including organizations
like the United Nations, over which it may, by agreement,
waive jurisdiction.
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h. Juristic Theory of Sovereignty
The legalistic and analytical view of sovereignty
considers the state as a corporate entity, a
juridical person.84 It takes the state purely as a
legal organism. It does not have anything to do at
all with its social and historical background.
i. “Sovereignty resides in the PEOPLE”
The “people” in the sense in which it is used here
refers to the entire citizenry considered as a
unit.85
4. Government
Government. That institution or aggregate of
institutions by which an independent society makes
and carries out those rules of action which are
necessary to enable men to live in a social state, or
which are impose upon the people forming that
society by those who possess the power or
authority of prescribing them.86
C Government
1. Government of the Republic of the
Philippines
The Government of the Republic of the Philippines
is a term which refers to the corporate
governmental entity through which the functions
of government are exercised throughout the
Philippine Islands, including, save as the contrary
appears from context, the various arms through
which political authority is made effective in said
Islands, whether pertaining to the central
Government or to the provincial or municipal
branches or other form of local government.
(Section 2 of the Revised Administrative Code
(1917).
On the national scale, the term “government of the
Philippines” refers to the three great departments.
On the local level, it means the regional provincial,
city municipal an barangay governments.
It does not include government entities which are
given a corporate personality separate and distinct
for the government and which are governed by the
corporation law.
2. Government v. Administration
Government is the institution through which the
state exercises power. Administration consists of
the set of people currently running the institution.87
84
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 18 (1954ed).
85
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 19 (1954ed).
86
US v. Dorr, 2 Phil 332 cited in Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil. 468
(1956).
87
Bernas Commentary, p 44(2003 ed).
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3. Functions of Government
(1) Governmental (Constituent)- are the
compulsory functions which constitute the very
bonds of society.
(2) Proprietary (Ministerial)—optional functions of
the government for achieving a better life for
the community. (Bacani v. NACOCO)
Governmental Function
• Implementation of the land reform may not strictly be
“constituent” in the sense of Bacani but the
compelling urgency with which the Constitution
speaks of social justice does not leave any doubt that
land reform is not an optional but a compulsory
function of sovereignty. (ACCFA v. CUGCO)
• The functions of the Veterans Federation of the
Philippines fall within the category of sovereign
functions. (Veterans Federation of the Phils. V. Reyes
483 SCRA 526)
• The Manila International Airport Authority is a
governmental instrumentality vested with corporate
powers to perform its governmental function. It
performs government functions essential to the
operation of an international airport. (MIAA v. CA)
• Housing is a governmental function since housing is
considered an essential service. (PHHC v. CIR)
• The NHA is tasked with implementing the
governmental program of providing mass housing to
meet the needs of Filipinos for decent housing. The
NHA is exempt from paying docket fees in suits in
relation to its governmental functions. (Badillo v.
Tayag)
• The (RCA) Rice and Corn Administration is a
government machinery to carry out declared
government policy to stabilize the price of palay, rice,
and corn and making it within the reach of average
consumers. Its activity of buying and selling corn is
only an incident to its government function. Hence,
it is exempt from posting an appeal bond. (Republic v.
CFI)
• The “AFP Retirement and Benefits System” is a
government entity and its funds are in the nature of
public funds (People v. Sandiganbayan)
Proprietary Function
• Undertaking to supply water for a price is considered
a trade and not a governmental activity. (Spouses
Fontanilla v. Maliaman)
• Civil Aeronautics Administration is in charge of the
administration of MIA, it is performing proprietary
functions, hence it can be sued even when the claim
is based on a quasi-delict. (CAA v. CA)
4. Doctrine of Parens Patriae
Literally, “parent of the people.” One of the
important tasks of the government is to act for the
State as parens patriae, or guardian of the rights of
the people.88
5. Classification of Government on the Basis of
Legitimacy
88
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 23 (1995 ed).
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1. De Jure Government
2. De Facto Government
De Jure Government. One established by
authority of the legitimate sovereign.89
De Facto Government. One established in
defiance of the legitimate sovereign.90 It actually
exercises power or control without legal title.91
3 Kinds of De Facto Government:
1. The government that gets possession
and control or, or usurps, by force or
by the voice of majority, the rightful legal
government and maintains itself against
the will of the latter. (Such as the
government of England under the
Commonwealth, first by Parliament and
later by Cromwell as Protector.)
2. Established and maintained by
invading military forces. That
established as an independent
government by the inhabitants of a
country who rise in insurrection against
the parent state (Such as the government
of the Southern Confederacy in revolt
against the Union during the war of
secession in the United States.)
3. Government of paramount force. That
which is established and maintained by
military forces who invade and occupy a
territory of enemy in the course of war.92
(Such as the cases of Castine in Maine,
89
Bernas Primer at 9 (2006 ed.)
90
Bernas Primer at 9 (2006 ed.)
91
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 23 (1995 ed).
92
It has been held that the Second Republic of the Philippines was a
de facto government of paramount force, having been established by
the Japanese belligerent during the occupation of the Philippines in
World War II.
The characteristics of this kind of de facto government are:
1. Its existence is maintained by active military power
within the territories, and against the rightful authority of
an established and lawful government.
2. During its existence, it must necessarily be obeyed in civil
matters by private citizens who, by acts of obedience
rendered in submission to such force, do not become
responsible, as wrongdoers, for those acts, though not
warranted by the laws of the rightful government. Actual
governments of this sort are established over districts
differing greatly in extent and conditions. They are
usually administered by military authority, supported
more or less directly by military force. (Co Kim Chan v.
Valdez , 75 Phil 113)
By contrast, the Supreme Court unanimously held in Lawyers
League for a Better Philippines v. Corazon Aquino that “the
people have made the judgment; they have accepted the
government of President Corazon Aquino which is in effective
control of the entire country so that it is not merely a de facto
government but in fact and law a de jure government.
Moreover, the community of nations has recognized the
legitimacy of the present government.”
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which was reduced to a British possession
in the war of 1812, and Tampico, Mexico,
occupied during the war with Mexico by
the troops of the US.) (Co Kim Chan v.
Valdez , 75 Phil 113)
Note:
The government under Cory Aquino and the
Freedom Constitution is a de jure government.
It was established by authority of the legitimate
sovereign, the people. It was a revolutionary
government established in defiance of the
1973 Constitution. (In Re Letter of Associate
Justice Puno, 210 SCRA 589 (1992).
The government under President Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo established after the ouster
of President Estrada is de jure government.93
Sinco on Revolution or Direct State Action:
“It sometimes happens that the people rise in
revolt against the existing administration
[government] and through force or threats
succeed in altering the constituted organs of
the government. From the point of view of the
existing constitutional plan, that act is illegal;
but considered from the point of view of the
sate as a distinct entity not necessarily bound
to employ a particular government or
administration to carry out its will, it is the
direct act of the state itself because it is
successful. As such, it is legal, for whatever is
attributable to the state is lawful. This is the
legal and political basis of the doctrine of
revolution.”94
5. Presidential v. Parliamentary form of
government (2006 Bar Exam Question)
The presidential form of government’s identifying
feature is what is called the “separation of
powers.”95
The essential characteristics of a parliamentary
form of government are:
1. The members of the government or
cabinet or the executive arm are, as a
rule, simultaneously members of the
legislature;
2. The government or cabinet consisting of
the political leaders of the majority party or
of a coalition who are also members of the
legislature, is in effect a committee of the
legislature;
3. The government or cabinet has a
pyramidal structure at the apex of which is
the Prime Minister or his equivalent;
93
Bernas Primer at 9 (2006 ed.)
94
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 7 (1954ed).
95
Bernas Primer at 10 (2006 ed.)
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4. The government or cabinet remains in
power only for so long as it enjoys the
support of the majority of the legislature;
5. Both government and legislature are
possessed of control devices which each
can demand of the other immediate
political responsibility. In the hands of the
legislature is the vote of non-confidence
(censure) whereby government may be
ousted. In the hands of the government is
the power to dissolve the legislature and
call for new elections.96
Q: What constitutional forms of government
have been experienced by the Philippines
since 1935?
A: Presidential and presidential only.97
C. Acts of State
An act of State is done by the sovereign power of a
country, or by its delegate, within the limits of the
power vested in him.98
Within particular reference to Political Law, an act
of State is an act done by the political departments
of the government and not subject to judicial
review. An illustration is the decision of the
President, in the exercise of his diplomatic power,
to extend recognition to a newly-established foreign
State or government.99
D. State Immunity
“The State cannot be sued without its consent.”
(Article XVI, Section 3)
(State immunity will be discussed under Article XVI,
Section 3)
PRINCIPLES
III. Republicanism
Section 1. The Philippines is a
democratic and republican State.
Sovereignty resides in the people
and all government authority
emanates from them.
A. Republic
96
Bernas Primer at 11 (2006 ed.)
97
Bernas Primer at 11 (2006 ed.)
98
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 29 (1995 ed).
99
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 29 (1995 ed).
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Republic is a representative government run by
the people and for the people.100
Republican state is a state wherein all
government authority emanates from the people
and is exercised by representatives chosen by the
people.101
B. Essential Features of Republicanism
The essence of republicanism is representation
and renovation. The citizenry selects a corps of
public functionaries who derive their mandate from
the people and act on their behalf, serving for a
limited period only, after which they are replaced or
retained at the option of their principal.102
C. Manifestations of Republicanism
1. Ours is a government of laws and not of men.
(Villavicencio v. Lukban, 39 Phil 778)
2. Rule of Majority (Plurality in elections)
3. Accountability of public officials
4. Bill of Rights
5. Legislature cannot pass irrepealable laws
6. Separation of powers
D. “Democratic State”
In the view of the new Constitution, the Philippines
is not only a representative or republican state but
also shares some aspects of direct democracy
such as “initiative and referendum”. The word
democratic is also a monument to the February
Revolution which re-won freedom through direct
action of the people.
E. Constitutional Authoritarianism
Constitutional authoritarianism as understood and
practiced in the Marcos regime under the 1973
Constitution, was the assumption of extraordinary
powers by the President, including legislative and
judicial and even constituent powers.103
Q: Is constitutional authoritarianism compatible
with a republican state?
A: Yes if the Constitution upon which the Executive
bases his assumption of power is a legitimate
expression of the people’s will and if the Executive
who assumes power received his office through a
valid election by the people.104
100
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 50 (1995 ed).
101
Bernas Primer at 11 (2006 ed.)
102
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 50 (1995 ed).
103
Bernas Primer at 12 (2006 ed.)
104
Bernas Primer at 12 (2006 ed.)
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IV. Renunciation of War/ Incorporation Clause/
Policy of PEJ-FCA with All Nations
Section 2. The Philippines
renounces war as an instrument of
national policy, adopts the
generally accepted principles of
international law as part of law of
the land and adheres to the policy
of peace, equality, justice, freedom,
cooperation, and amity with all
nations.
A. Renunciation of War
“The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of
national policy…”
(Read along Preamble, Article II Secs. 7 &8; Article
XVIII Sec. 25)
1. Aggressive War
The Philippines only renounces AGGRESSIVE war
as an instrument of national policy. It does not
renounce defensive war.
2. Philippines Renounces Not Only War
As member of United Nations, the Philippines does
not merely renounce war but adheres to Article 2(4)
of the UN charter which says: “ All Members shall
refrain in their international relations from the
threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or
in any other manner inconsistent with Purposes of
the Untied Nations.”
3. Historical Development of the Policy
Condemning or Outlawing War in the
International Scene:
1. Covenant of the League of Nations-
provided conditions for the right to go to war.
2. Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928- also known as
the General Treaty for the Renunciation of
War, ratified by 62 states, which forbade war
as “an instrument of national policy.”
3. Charter of the United Nations- Prohibits the
threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of a State.
B. Incorporation Clause
“The Philippines…adopts the generally accepted
principles of international law as part of law of the
land…”
1. Acceptance of Dualist View
Implicit in this provision is the acceptance of the
dualist view of legal systems, namely that
domestic law is distinct from international law.
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
Since dualism holds that international law and
municipal law belong to different spheres,
international law becomes part of municipal law
only if it is incorporated in to municipal law.105
2 Doctrine of Incorporation (1997 Bar Question)
Every state is, by reason of its membership in the
family of nations, bound by the generally
accepted principles of international law, which
are considered to be automatically part of its
own laws. This is the doctrine of incorporation.106
3. International Law
International Law
Traditional definition: It is a body of rules and
principles of action which are binding upon civilized
states in their relation to one another.
Restatement: The law which deals with the conduct
of states and of international organizations and
with their relations inter se, as well as with some
other relations with persons, natural or juridical.
4. To What Elements of International Law does
the principle of incorporation apply?
Since treaties become part of Philippine law only
by ratification, the principle of incorporation applies
only to customary law and to treaties which
have become part of customary law. 107
5. Effect of Incorporation Clause
International law therefore can be used by
Philippine courts to settle domestic disputes in
much the same way that they would use the Civil
Code or the Penal Code and other laws passed by
Congress.108
C. Policy of PEJ-FCA with All Nations
“The Philippines…adheres to the policy of peace,
equality, justice, freedom, cooperation, and amity
with all nations.”
Q: Does the affirmation of amity will all nations
mean automatic diplomatic recognition of all
nations?
A: No. Amity with all nations is an ideal to be aimed
at. Diplomatic recognition, however, remains a
matter of executive discretion.109
V. Supremacy of Civilian Authority
Section 3. Civilian Authority is, at
all times supreme over the military.
The Armed Forces of the
105
Bernas Commentary, p 61 (2003 ed).
106
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 55 (1995 ed).
107
Bernas Commentary, p 61 (2003 ed).
108
Bernas Commentary, p 61 (2003 ed).
109
Bernas Primer at 13 (2006 ed.)
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Philippines is the protector of the
people and the State. Its goal is to
secure the sovereignty of the State
and integrity of the national
territory.
A. Civilian Authority
That civilian authority is at all times supreme over
the military is implicit in a republican system.110 Still,
it was felt advisable to expressly affirm this
principle in the Constitution to allay all fears of a
military take-over of our civilian government.111
It was also fittingly declared that the President, who
is a civilian official, shall be the commander-in-chief
of all the armed forces of the Philippines.112
Q: Does this mean that civilian officials are superior
to military officials?
A: Civilian officials are superior to military official
only when a law makes them so.113
B. Armed Forces of the Philippines
1. Reasons [in the constitution] for the
existence of the armed forces
(1) As protector of the people and the State
(2) To secure the sovereignty of the State and the
integrity of the national territory.114
(3) They may be called to prevent or suppress
lawless violence, invasion or rebellion.115
(4) All Members of the armed forces shall take an
oath or affirmation to uphold and defend the
Constitution.116
2. Composition
The Armed Forces of the Philippines shall be
composed of a citizen armed force which shall
undergo military training and serve as may be
provided by law. (Article XVI, Section 4)
3. On Politics
The armed forces shall be insulated from partisan
politics. No member of the military shall engage
directly or indirectly in any partisan political activity,
except to vote. (Article XVI, Section 5)
110
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 67 (1995 ed).
111
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 67 (1995 ed).
112
Article VII, Section 18.
113
Bernas Primer at 13 (2006 ed.)
114
Article II, Section 3.
115
Article VII, Section 18. See IBP v. Zamora.
116
Article XVI, Seciton 5.
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Q: Is the provision an assertion of the political
role of the military?
A: No. The phrase “protector of the people”
was not meant to be an assertion of the
political role of the military. The intent of the
phrase “protector of the people” was rather to
make it as corrective to military abuses
experienced during martial rule.117
Q: Does this mean that the military has no
military role?
A: Bernas: The military exercise of political
power can be justified as a last resort—when
civilian authority has lost its legitimacy.118
(This is dangerous.)
4 . Bar Question (2003)
Q: Is the PNP covered by the same mandate under
Article II, Section 3?
A: No. This provision is specifically addressed to
the AFP and not to the PNP, because the latter is
separate and distinct from the former. (Record of
the Constitutional Commission, Volume V, p. 296;
Manalo v. Sistoza, 312 SCRA 239)
VI. Defense of State
Section 4. The prime duty of the
government is to serve and protect
the people. The Government may
call upon the people to defend the
state and, in the fulfillment thereof,
all citizens may be required, under
conditions provided by law, to
render personal military or civil
service.
VII. Peace and Order
Section 5. The maintenance of
peace and order, the protection of
life, liberty and property, and the
promotion of general welfare are
essential for the enjoyment by all the
people of the blessings of
democracy.
Section 5 is not a self-executing provision. It is
merely a guideline for legislation. (Kilosbayan v.
Morato)
Right to bear arms. The right to bear arms is a
statutory, not a constitutional right. The license to
carry a firearm is neither a property nor a property
117
Bernas Commentary, p 66 (2003 ed).
118
Bernas Commentary, p 66 (2003 ed).
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right. Neither does it create a vested right. Even if it
were a property right, it cannot be considered
absolute as to be placed beyond the reach of
police power. The maintenance of peace and order,
and the protection of the people against violence
are constitutional duties of the State, and the right
to bear arms is to be construed in connection and
in harmony with these constitutional duties.
(Chavez v. Romulo, 2004)
VIII. Separation of Church and State
Section 6. The separation of
Church and State shall be
inviolable.
A. Rationale
“Strong fences make good neighbors.” The idea is to
delineate boundaries between the two institutions and
thus avoid encroachments by one against the other
because of a misunderstanding of the limits of their
respective exclusive jurisdictions.119
B. Who is Prohibited from Interfering
Doctrine cuts both ways. It is not only the State that is
prohibited from interfering in purely ecclesiastical
affairs; the Church is likewise barred from meddling in
purely secular matters. 120(Cruz)
C. Separation of Church and State is Reinforced by:
1. Freedom of Religion Clause (Article III, Section
5)
2. Religious sect cannot be registered as a
political party (Article IX-C, Section 2(5))
3. No sectoral representatives from the religious
sector. (Article VI, Section 5 (2))
4. Prohibition against appropriation against
sectarian benefit. (Article VI, 29(2)).
D. Exceptions
1. Churches, parsonages, etc. actually, directly
and exclusively used for religious purposes
shall be exempt from taxation. (Article VI,
Section 28(3)).
2. When priest, preacher, minister or dignitary is
assigned to the armed forces, or any penal
institution or government orphanage or
leprosarium, public money may be paid to
them. (Article VI, Section 29(2))
3. Optional religious instruction for public
elementary and high school students. (Article
XIV, Section 3(3)).
4. Filipino ownership requirement for education
institutions, except those established by
119
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 65 (1995 ed).
120
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 65 (1995 ed).
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
religious groups and mission boards. (Article
XIV, Section 4(2)).
STATE POLICIES
IX. Independent Foreign Policy
Section 7. The State shall pursue
an independent foreign policy. In its
relations with other states the
paramount consideration shall be
national sovereignty, territorial
integrity, national interest, and the
right to self-determination.
The word “relations” covers the whole gamut of
treaties and international agreements and other
kinds of intercourse.121
X. Freedom from Nuclear Weapons
Section 8. The Philippines
consistent with the national
interest, adopts and pursues a
policy of freedom from nuclear
weapons in its territory.
A. Scope of Policy
The policy includes the prohibition not only of the
possession, control, and manufacture of nuclear
weapons but also nuclear arms tests.
B. Exception to the Policy
Exception to this policy may be made by the
political department but it must be justified by the
demands of the national interest.122
The policy does not prohibit the peaceful use of
nuclear energy.123
C. Implication of the Policy for the Presence of
American Troops
Any new agreement on bases or the presence of
the troops, if ever there is one, must embody the
basic policy of freedom from nuclear weapons.
Moreover, it would be well within the power of
government to demand ocular inspection and
removal of nuclear arms.124
121
Bernas Commentary, p 72 (2003 ed).
122
Bernas Primer at 15 (2006 ed.)
123
Bernas Primer at 15 (2006 ed.)
124
Bernas Primer at 15 (2006 ed.)
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XI. Just and Dynamic Social Order
Section 9. The State shall
promote a just and dynamic social
order that will ensure the prosperity
and independence of the nation
and free the people from poverty
through policies that provide
adequate social services, promote
full employment, a raising standard
of living, and an improved quality of
life for all.
XII. Social Justice
Section 10. The State shall
promote social justice in all phases
of national development
A. Definition of Social Justice
Social Justice is neither communism, nor
despotism, nor atomism, nor anarchy, but the
humanization of the laws and the equalization
of the social and economic forces by the State
so that justice in its rational and objectively
secular conception may at least be
approximated. (Calalang v. Williams)
Social justice simply means the equalization of
economic, political, and social opportunities with
special emphasis on the duty of the state to tilt the
balance of social forces by favoring the
disadvantaged in life.125
XIII. Respect for Human Dignity
Section 11. The State values the
dignity of every human person and
guarantees full respect for human
rights.
The concretization of this provision is found
principally in the Bill of Rights and in the human
rights provision of Article XIII.126
Facts: Petitioners questioned the constitutionality
of PD 1869, which created the PAGCOR and
authorized it to operate gambling casinos, on the
ground that it violated Sections 11, 12 and 13 of
Article II of the Constitution.
Held: These provisions are merely statements of
policies which are not self-executing. A law has to
125
Bernas Primer at 16 (2006 ed.)
126
Bernas Commentary, p 83 (2003 ed).
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be passed to implement them. (Basco v. PAGCOR,
197 DCRA 52)127
XIV. Family; Rearing the Youth
Section 12. The State recognizes
the sanctity of family life and shall
protect and strengthen the family
as a basic autonomous social
institution. It shall equally protect
the life of the mother and the life of
the unborn from conception. The
natural and primary right and duty
of parents in rearing of the youth
for civic efficiency and the
development of moral character
shall receive the support of the
government.
Section 13. The State recognizes
the vital role of the youth in nation-
building and shall promote and
protect their physical moral,
spiritual, intellectual, and social
well-being. It shall inculcate in the
youth patriotism and nationalism,
and encourage their involvement in
public and civic affairs.
A. Family
Family” means a stable heterosexual relationship.
The family is not a creature of the State.128
B. Effect of the Declaration of Family Autonomy
It accepts the principle that the family is anterior to
the State and not a creature of the State. It protects
the family from instrumentalization by the State.129
C. Purpose of Assertion of Protection of the Unborn
The purpose of the assertion that the protection
begins from the time of conception is to prevent
the State form adopting the doctrine in Roe v.
Wade which liberalized abortion laws up to the
sixth month of pregnancy by allowing abortion any
time during the first six months of pregnancy
provided it can be done without danger to the
mother.
D. Legal Meaning of the Protection Guaranteed for
the Unborn.
127
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 4 (2006 ed.)
128
Bernas Commentary, p 84 (2003 ed).
129
Bernas Primer at 16 (2006 ed.)
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1. This is not an assertion that the unborn is a
legal person.
2. This is not an assertion that the life of the
unborn is placed exactly on the level of the life
of the mother. (When necessary to save the
life of the mother, the life of the unborn may be
sacrificed; but not when the purpose is merely
to save the mother from emotional suffering,
for which other remedies must be sought, or to
spare the child from a life of poverty, which can
be attended to by welfare institutions.)130
E. Education
In the matter of education, the primary and natural
right belongs to the parents. The State has a
secondary and supportive role.
Foreign Language. The State cannot prohibit the
teaching of foreign language to children before
they reach a certain age. Such restriction does
violence both to the letter and the spirit of the
Constitution. (Meyer v. Nebraska)
Public School. The State cannot require children
to attend only public schools before they reach a
certain age. The child is not a mere creature of the
State. Those who nurture him and direct his destiny
have the right to recognize and prepare him.
(Pierce v. Society of Sisters)
Religious Upbringing. The State cannot require
children to continue schooling beyond a certain
age in the honest and sincere claim of parents that
such schooling would be harmful to their religious
upbringing. Only those interests of the State “of the
highest order and those not otherwise served can
overbalance” the primary interest of parents in the
religious upbringing of their children. (Wisconsin v.
Yoder)
Parens Patriae. However, as parens patriae, the
State has the authority and duty to step in where
parents fail to or are unable to cope with their
duties to their children.
XV. Women
Section 14. The State recognizes
the role of women in nation-
building, and shall ensure the
fundamental equality before the law
of women and men.
The provision is so worded as not to automatically
dislocate the Civil Code and the civil law
jurisprudence on the subject. What it does is to
give impetus to the removal, through statutes, of
130
Bernas Primer at 17 (2006 ed.)
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existing inequalities. The general idea is for the law
to ignore sex where sex is not a relevant factor in
determining rights and duties. Nor is the provision
meant to ignore customs and traditions.131
In Philippine Telegraph and Telephone Co. v.
NLRC, 1997, the Supreme Court held that the
petitioner’s policy of not accepting or considering
as disqualified from work any woman worker who
contracts marriage , runs afoul of the test of, and
the right against discrimination, which is
guaranteed all women workers under the
Constitution. While a requirement that a woman
employee must remain unmarried may be justified
as a “bona fide qualification” where the particular
requirements of the job would demand the same,
discrimination against married women cannot be
adopted by the employer as a general principle.
XVI. Health
Section 15. The State shall protect
and promote the right to health of
the people and instill health
consciousness among them.
The provisions which directly or indirectly pertain to
the duty of the State to protect and promote the
people’s right to health and well-being are not self-
executory. They await implementation by Congress.132
XVII. Balanced and Healthful Ecology
Section 16. The State shall protect
and advance the right of the people to
a balanced and healthful ecology in
accord with the rhythm and harmony
of nature.
Section 16 provides for enforceable rights. Hence,
appeal to it has been recognized as conferring
“standing” on minors to challenge logging policies
of the government. (Oposa v. Factoran)
While the right to a balanced and healthful
ecology is to be found under the Declaration of
Principles and State Policies and not under the Bill
of Rights, it does not follow that it is less important
than any of the civil and political rights enumerated
in the latter. Such a right belongs to a different
category of rights for it concerns nothing less than
self-preservation and self-perpetuation. These
basic rights need not even be written in the
Constitution for they are assumed to exist from the
inception of humankind. (Oposa v. Factoran,1993)
131
Bernas Primer at 18 (2006 ed.)
132
Tondo Medical Center Employees v. CA. G.R. No.
167324, July 17, 2007.
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On this basis too, the SC upheld the empowerment
of the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)
to protect the inhabitants of the Laguna Lake Area
from the deleterious effects of pollutants coming
from garbage dumping and the discharge of
wastes in the area as against the local autonomy
claim of local governments in the area. (LLDA v.
CA, 1995)
XVIII. Education, Science and Technology
Section 17. The State shall give
priority to education, science and
technology, arts, culture and sports
to foster patriotism, nationalism,
accelerate social progress, and
promote total human liberation and
development.
(See Article XIV, Section 2)
This does not mean that the government is not free
to balance the demands of education against other
competing and urgent demands. (Guingona v.
Carague)
In Philippine Merchant Marine School Inc. v. CA,
the Court said that the requirement that a school
must first obtain government authorization before
operating is based on the State policy that
educational programs and/or operations shall be of
good quality and, therefore, shall at least satisfy
minimum standards with respect to curricula,
teaching staff, physical plant and facilities and
administrative and management viability.
While it is true that the Court has upheld the
constitutional right of every citizen to select a
profession or course of study subject to fair,
reasonable and equitable admission and academic
requirements, the exercise of this right may be
regulated pursuant to the police power of the State
to safeguard health, morals, peace, education,
order, safety and general welfare.
Thus, persons who desire to engage in the learned
professions requiring scientific or technical
knowledge may be required to take an examination
as a prerequisite to engaging in their chosen
careers. This regulation assumes particular
pertinence in the field of medicine, in order to
protect the public from the potentially deadly effects
of incompetence and ignorance. (PRC v. De
Guzman, 2004)
XIX. Labor
Section 18. The State affirms labor
as a primary social economic force.
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It shall protect the rights of workers
and promote their welfare.
“A primary social economic force” means that the
human factor has primacy over non-human factors
of production.
Protection to labor does not indicate promotion of
employment alone. Under the welfare and social
justice provisions of the Constitution, the promotion
of full employment, while desirable, cannot take a
backseat to the government’s constitutional duty to
provide mechanisms for the protection of our
workforce, local or overseas. (JMM Promotion and
Management v. CA, 260 SCRA 319)
What concerns the Constitution more paramountly
is employment be above all, decent, just and
humane. It is bad enough that the country has to
send its sons and daughters to strange lands,
because it cannot satisfy their employment needs
at home. Under these circumstances, the
Government is duty bound to provide them
adequate protection, personally and economically,
while away from home. (Philippine Association of
Service Exporters v. Drilon, 163 SCRA 386)
XX. Self-Reliant and Independent Economy
Section 19. The State shall
develop a self-reliant and
independent national economy
effectively controlled by Filipinos.
This is a guide for interpreting provisions on
national economy and patrimony. Any doubt must
be resolved in favor of self-reliance and
independence and in favor of Filipinos.
A petrochemical industry is not an ordinary
investment opportunity, it is essential to national
interest. (The approval of the transfer of the plant
from Bataan to Batangas and authorization of the
change of feedstock from naptha only to naptha
and/or LPG do not prove to be advantageous to
the government. This is a repudiation of the
independent policy of the government to run its
own affairs the way it deems best for national
interest.) (Garcia v. BOI)
The WTO agreement does not violate Section 19 of
Article II, nor Sections 10 and 12 of Article XII,
because said sections should be read and
understood in relation to Sections 1 and 3, Article
XII, which requires the pursuit of a trade policy that
“serves the general welfare and utilizes all forms
and arrangements of exchange on the basis of
equality and reciprocity.” (Tanada V. Angara)
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XXI. Private Sector and Private Enterprise
Section 20. The State recognizes
the indispensable role of the private
sector, encourages private
enterprise, and provides incentives
to needed investments.
Section 20 is an acknowledgment of the
importance of private initiative in building the
nation. However, it is not a call for official
abdication of duty to citizenry. (Marine Radio
Communications Association v. Reyes)
Although the Constitution enshrines free enterprise
as a policy, it nevertheless reserves to the
Government the power to intervene whenever
necessary for the promotion of the general welfare,
as reflected in Sections 6 and 19 of Article XII.
XXII. Comprehensive Rural Development
Section 21. The State shall
promote comprehensive rural
development and agrarian
program.
(See Article XIII, Sections 4-10)
Comprehensive rural development includes not
only agrarian reform. It also encompasses a broad
spectrum of social, economic, human, cultural,
political and even industrial development.
XXIII. Indigenous Cultural Communities
Section 22. The State recognizes
and promotes the rights of
indigenous cultural communities
within the framework of national
unity and development.
(See Article VI Section 5(2); Article XII, Section 5;
Article XIV, Section 17)
XXIV. Independent People’s Organizations;
Volunteerism
Section 23. The State shall
encourage non-governmental,
community-bases, or sectoral
organizations that promote the
welfare of the nation.
(See Article XIII, Sections 15-16)
The provision recognizes the principle that
volunteerism and participation of non-governmental
133
Bernas Commentary, p 96(2003 ed).
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organizations in national development should be
encouraged.133
XXV. Communication and Information
Section 24. The State recognizes
the vital role of communication and
information in nation-building.
(See Article XVI, Sections 10-11; Article XVIII,
Section 23)
The NTC is justified to require PLDT to enter
into an interconnection agreement with a
cellular mobile telephone system. The order
was issued in recognition of the vital role of
communications in nation-building and to
ensure that all users of the public
telecommunications service have access to all
other users of service within the Philippines.
(PLDT v. NTC)
XXVI. Local Autonomy
Section 25. The State shall ensure
the autonomy of local
governments.
(See Article X)
Local autonomy under the 1987 Constitution simply
means “decentralization” and does not make the
local governments sovereign within the State or an
imperium in imperio. (Basco v. PAGCOR)
Decentralization of administration is merely a
delegation of administrative powers to the local
government unit in order to broaden the base of
governmental powers. Decentralization of power is
abdication by the national government of
governmental powers.
Even as we recognize that the Constitution
guarantees autonomy to local government units,
the exercise of local autonomy remains subject to
the power of control by Congress and the power of
general supervision by the President. (Judge
Dadole v. Commission on Audit, 2002)
XXVII. Equal Access to Opportunities
Section 26. The State shall
guarantee equal access to
opportunities for public service, and
prohibit political dynasties as may
be defined by law.
(See Article VII, Section 13; Article XIII, Sections 1-
2)
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Philippines because it divided the

Purpose. The thrust of the provision is to impose
on the sate the obligation of guaranteeing equal
access to public office.134
There is no constitutional right to run for or hold
public office. What is recognized is merely a
privilege subject to limitations imposed by law.
Section 26 of the Constitution neither bestows such
right nor elevates the privilege to the level of an
enforceable right. (Pamatong v. COMELEC)
XXVIII. Public Service
Section 27. The State shall
maintain honesty and integrity in
public service and take positive and
effective measures against graft
and corruption.
(See Article IX-D; Article XI, Sections 4-15)
XXIV. Full Public Disclosure
(1989 and 2000 Bar Question)
Section 28. Subject to reasonable
conditions prescribed by law, the
State adopts and implements a
policy of full public disclosure of all
its transactions involving public
interest.
(Article III, Section 7; Article VI Sections 12 and 20;
Article VII, Section 20; Article XI, Section 17; Article XII,
Section 21)
Philippines into three states.
2. It violates Section 1, Article II of the
Constitution which provides for the
establishment of democratic and republic
states by replacing it with three states
organized as a confederation.
3. It violates Section 22, Article II of the
Constitution, which, while recognizing and
promoting the rights of indigenous cultural
communities, provides for national unity
and development.
4. It violates Section 15, Article X of the
Constitution, which, provides for
autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao
and in the cordilleras within the framework
of national sovereignty as well as
territorial integrity of the Republic of the
Philippines.
5. It violates the sovereignty of the Republic
of the Philippines.

It is well established in jurisprudence that neither

the right to information nor the policy of full public
disclosure is absolute, there being matters which,
albeit of public concern or public interest, are
recognized as privileged in nature. (Akbayan v.
Aquino, 2008)

xxx

(1996 Bar Question)

A law was passed dividing the Philippines into
three regions (Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao)
each constituting an independent state except
on matters of foreign relations, national
defense and national taxation, which are vested
in the Central Government. Is the law valid?

The law dividing the Philippines into three regions

each constituting an independent state and vesting
in a central government matters of foreign
relations, national defense and national taxation is
unconstitutional.
1. It violates Article I, which guarantees the
integrity of the national territory of the

134
Bernas Commentary, p 99 (2003 ed).

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B. Where Vested
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT Legislative power is vested in Congress except to
the extent reserved to the people by the provision
on initiative and referendum.
OUTLINE OF ARTICLE VI
C. Classification of legislative power
I. Legislative Power (§1) (1) Original legislative power- possessed by the
II. Powers of Congress sovereign people.
III. Congress (§§ 2-10) (2) Derivative legislative power- that which has been
IV. Privileges of Members (§ 11) delegated by the sovereign people to the legislative
bodies. (Kind of power vested in Congress)
V. Duty to Disclose, Disqualifications and
Prohibitions (§§ 12-14)
(3) Constituent- The power to amend or revise the
constitution
VI. Internal Government of Congress (§§ (4) Ordinary- Power to pass ordinary laws.
15-16)
VII. Electoral Tribunal, CA (§§17-19) Legislative power exercised by the people. The
VIII. Records and Books of Accounts (§ 20) people, through the amendatory process, exercise
constituent power, and through initiative and
IX. Inquiries/ Oversight function (§§ 21-22) referendum, ordinary legislative power.
X. Emergency Powers (§ 23)
XI. Bills/ Legislative Process (§ 24,26,27) D. Scope of Legislative power.
XII. Power of the Purse/Fiscal Powers (§§
Congress may legislate on any subject matter.
28,29,25)
(Vera v. Avelino) In other words, the legislative
XIII. Other Prohibited Measures (§§30-31) power of Congress is plenary.
XIV. Initiative and Referendum (§ 32)
E. Limitations on legislative power:
I. LEGISLATIVE POWER 1. Substantive limitations135
2. Procedural limitations136
Definition of Legislative Power
Where Vested 1. Substantive limitations:
Classification of Legislative Power a. Express Limitations
Scope of Legislative power
Limitations on Legislative Power
i. Bill of Rights137
Non-delegability of Legislative power ii. On Appropriations138
Rationale of the Doctrine of Non-delegability iii. On Taxation139
Valid delegation of legislative powers
Delegation of rule-making power 135
Refer to the subject matter of legislation. These are limitations on
Requisites for a valid delegation of rule-making the content of laws.
power 136
Formal limitations refer to the procedural requirements to be
Sufficient Standards complied with by Congress in the passage of the bills. (Sinco, Phil.
Examples of Invalid of Delegation Political Law)
137
Bill of Rights
Section 1. The Legislative power o No law shall be passed abridging freedom of speech, of
shall be vested in the Congress of expression etc (art. 3 §4)
the Philippines which shall consist o No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion
of a Senate and a House of (art. 3 §5)
o No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
Representatives, except to the
(art 3 §10)
extent reserved to the people by o No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
the provision on initiative and (art. 3 §22)
referendum. 138
On Appropriations
o Congress cannot increase appropriations by the President
A. Definition of Legislative Power (art. 6 §25)
o (art. 6 29(2)
Legislative power is the authority to make laws and
139
to alter or repeal them. On Taxation
o (art. 6 §28 and 29(3))

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iv. On Constitutional Appellate Some commentators include (a) delegation to

jurisdiction of SC140
v. No law granting a title of royalty or
nobility shall be enacted (art. 6 §31)
b. Implied limitations
i. Congress cannot legislate
irrepealable laws
ii. Congress cannot delegate legislative
powers
iii. Non-encroachment on powers of
other departments
2. Procedural limitations:
a. Only one subject
b. Three readings on separate days
c. Printed copies in its final form 3 days before
passage of the bill. (art 6 § 26)
F. Non-delegability of Legislative power
Doctrine of Non-delegation of legislative
powers: The rule is delegata potestas non potest
delagari-what has been delegated cannot be
delegated. The doctrine rests on the ethical
principle that a delegated power constitutes not
only a right but duty to be performed by the
delegate by the instrumentality of his own judgment
and not through the intervening mind of another.
G. Rationale of the Doctrine of Non-delegability:
(1) Based on the separation of powers. (Why go
to the trouble of separating the three powers of
government if they can straightaway remerge
on their own notion?)
(2) Based on due process of law. Such
precludes the transfer of regulatory functions
to private persons.
(3) And, based on the maxim, “degelata potestas
non potest delegari” meaning what has been
delegated already cannot be further delegated.
H. Valid delegation of legislative powers
General Rule: Legislative power cannot be
delegated
Exceptions:
(1) Delegation of tariff power to the President
(2) Delegation of emergency powers to the
President
(3) Delegation to LGU’s
Note:
o (art. 14 §4(3))
140
No law shall be passed increasing the appellate jurisdiction of
the SC without its advice and concurrence (art. 6 §30)
the people at large and (b) delegation to
administrative bodies to the exceptions.(See Cruz,
Philippine Political Law p 87, 1995 ed.) However, I
submit this is not accurate.
I submit that legislative power is not delegated
to the people because in the first place they are the
primary holder of the power; they only delegated
such power to the Congress through the
Constitution. (See Preamble and Article II Section
1) Note that Article VI Section 1 does not delegate
power to the people. It reserves legislative power
to the people. -asm
What is delegated to administrative bodies is
not legislative power but rule-making power or law
execution.
I. Delegation of rule-making powers
What is delegated to administrative bodies is not
legislative power but rule-making power or law
execution. Administrative agencies may be allowed
either to:
 Fill up the details on otherwise complete statue
or
 Ascertain the facts necessary to bring a
“contingent” law or provision into actual
operation.
Power of Subordinate Legislation. It is the
authority of the administrative body tasked by the
legislature to implement laws to promulgate rules
and regulations to properly execute and implement
laws.
Contingent Legislation
The standby authority given to the President to
increase the value added tax rate in the VAT Law,
R.A. 9337 was upheld as an example of contingent
legislation where the effectivity of the law is made
to depend on the verification by the executive of
the existence of certain conditions.141
In Gerochi v. DENR142 the power delegated to the
Energy Regulator Board to fix and impose a
universal charge on electricity end-users was
challenged as an undue delegation of the power to
tax. The Court said that, since the purpose of the
law was not revenue generation but energy
regulation, the power involved was more police
power than the power to tax. Moreover the Court
added that the power to tax can be used for
regulation. As to the validity of the delegation to an
executive agency, the Court was satisfied that the
delegating law was complete in itself and the
amount to be charged was made certain by the
parameters set by the law itself.
141
Abakada Guru Party List Officers v. Executive Secretary, G.R.
168056, September 1, 2005. Reconsidered October 18, 2005.
142
G.R. No. 159796, July 17, 2007

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J. Requisites for a valid delegation of rule-making
power or execution: (2005 Bar Question)
(1) The delegating law must be complete in itself
– it must set therein the policy to be carried out
or implemented by the delegate.
(2) The delegating law must fix a sufficient
standard- the limits of which are sufficiently
determinate or determinable, to which the
delegate must conform in the performance of
his functions.
Importance of Policy. Without a statutory
declaration of policy, the delegate would, in effect,
make or formulate such policy, which is the
essence of every law.
Importance of Standard. Without standard, there
would be no means to determine with reasonable
certainty whether the delegate has acted within or
beyond the scope of his authority. Hence, he could
thereby arrogate upon himself the power, not only
to make law, but also to unmake it, by adopting
measures inconsistent with the end sought to be
attained by the Act of Congress. (Pelaez v. Auditor
General)
K. Standards
1. Need not be explicit
2. May be found in various parts of the statute
3. May be embodied in other statutes of the same
statute
1. A legislative standard need not be explicit or
formulated in precise declaratory language. It can
be drawn from the declared policy of the law and
from the totality of the delegating statute. (Osmena
v. Orbos) It can be implied from the policy and
purpose of the law (Agustin v. Edu)
2. A legislative standard may be found in various
parts of the statute. (Tablarin v. Guttierez)
3. A legislative standard need not be found in the
law challenged and may be embodied in other
statues on the same subject. (Chiongbayan v
Orbos)
L. Examples of invalid delegation
Q: Petitioners questioned the grant of the
powers to mayors to issue permits for public
assemblies in the Public Assembly Act on
the ground that it constituted an undue
delegation of legislative power. There is
however a reference to “imminent and grave
danger of a substantive evil: in Section 6(c).
Decide.
A: The law provides a precise and sufficient
standard, the clear and present danger test
in Section 6(a). The reference to imminent
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and grave danger of a substantive evil in
Section 6(c) substantially means the same.
(Bayan v. Ermita)
4. Examples of sufficient standards
o “Necessary or advisable in the public interest” as a
standard. Public interest in this case is sufficient
standard pertaining to the issuance or cancellation
of certificates or permits. And the term “public
interest’ is not without a settled meaning. (People vs.
Rosenthal)
o “Necessary in the interest of law and order” as a
standard. An exception to the general rule,
sanctioned by immemorial practice, permits the
central legislative body to delegate legislative
powers to local authorities. (Rubi vs. Provincial
Board of Mindoro)
o “To promote simplicity, economy and efficiency” as a
standard. (Cervantes vs. Auditor General)
o “Of a moral, educational, or amusing and harmless
character” as a standard. (Mutual Film Co. vs.
Industrial Commission of Ohio)
o “To maintain monetary stability promote a rising level
of production, employment and real income” as a
standard. (People vs. Jollife)
o “Adequate and efficient instruction” as standard.
(Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities
vs. Sec. of Education.
o “Justice and equity and substantial merits of the
case” as a standard. The discretionary power thus
conferred is judicial in character and does not
infringe upon the principle of separation of powers
the prohibition against the delegation of legislative
function (International Hardwood and Veneer Co. vs.
Pangil Federation of Labor)
o “Fair and equitable employment practices” as a
standard. The power of the POEA in requiring the
model contract is not unlimited as there is a
sufficient standard guiding the delegate in the
exercise of the said authority. (Eastern Shipping
Lines Inc. vs. POEA)
o “As far as practicable”, “decline of crude oil prices in
the world market” and “stability of the peso
exchange rate to the US dollar” as standards. The
dictionary meanings of these words are well settled
and cannot confuse men of reasonable intelligence.
(However, by considering another factor to hasten
full deregulation, the Executive Department rewrote
the standards set forth in the statute. The Executive
is bereft of any right to alter either by subtraction or
addition the standards set in the statute.) (Tatad vs.
Sec of Energy)
o Where there is no standard that the officials must
observe in determining to whom to distribute the
confiscated carabaos and carabeef, there is thus an
invalid delegation of legislative power. (Ynot v. IAC)
o Where a provision provides that the penalty would
be a fine or 100 pesos OR imprisonment in the
discretion of the court without prescribing the
minimum and maximum periods of imprisonment, a
penalty imposed based thereon is unconstitutional. It
is not for the courts to fix the term of imprisonment
where no points of reference have been provided by
the legislature. (People v. Dacuycuy)
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o Where the statute leaves to the sole discretion of the
Governor-General to say what was and what was
not “any cause” for enforcing it, the same is an
invalid delegation of power. The Governor-General
cannot by proclamation, determine what act shall
constitute a crime or not. That is essentially a
legislative task. (US vs. Ang Tang)
o Where a statute requires every public utility “to
furnish annually a detailed report of finances and
operations in such form and containing such matter
as the Board may, from time to time, by order,
prescribe”, it seems that the legislature simply
authorized the Board to require what information the
Board wants. Such constitutes an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power. (Compana General
de Tabacos de Filipinas vs. Board of Public Utility
Commissioners)
o Where the legislature has not made the operation
(execution) of a statute contingent upon specified
facts or conditions to be ascertained by the
provincial board but in reality leaves the entire
matter for the various provincial boards to
determine, such constitute an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power. A law may not be
suspended as to certain individuals only, leaving the
law to be enjoyed by others. (People vs. Vera)
o The authority to CREATE municipal corporations is
essentially legislative in nature.
(7) Power to act as Board of Canvassers in election
of President146 (art 7 §4)
(8) Power to call a special election for President
and Vice-President. (art. 7 §10)
(9) Power to judge President’s physical fitness to
discharge the functions of the Presidency (art.
7§11)
(10) Power to revoke or extend suspension of the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or
declaration of martial law. (art. 7 §18)
(11) Power to concur in Presidential amnesties.
Concurrence of majority of all the members of
Congress. (art.7 §19)
(12) Power to concur in treaties or international
agreements. Concurrence of at least 2/3 of all
the members of the Senate.(art.7 §21)
(13) Power to confirm certain
appointments/nominations made by the
President (art.7 §9, art.7§16)
(14) Power of Impeachment (art.11§2)
(15) Power relative to natural resources147 (art. 12
§2)
(16) Power of internal organization
Election of officers
Promulgate internal rules
Disciplinary powers (art.6 §16)

II. POWERS OF CONGRESS Note: Members of Congress have immunity from

arrest and parliamentary immunity.148 (art 6
§§11&12)
A. Inherent Powers
B. Express Powers
III. Congress
A. INHERENT POWERS
(1) Police power Composition of Congress
(2) Power of eminent domain Bicameralism v. Unicameralism
(3) Power of taxation Composition of Senate
(4)Implied Powers (Contempt Power)143 Qualification of Senators
Senators’ Term of Office / Staggering of Terms
B. EXPRESS POWERS Composition of HR
Qualification of Members of HR
(1) Legislative Power (art 6 sec1) Domicile
(a) Ordinary- power to pass ordinary laws Property Qualification
(b) Constituent144- power to amend and or Term of Office of Representatives
revise the Constitution Party-List System
(2) Power of the Purse145 (art. 6§25) Legislative Districts
(3) Power of Taxation (art. 6 §28(3), art. 14 §4(3), Election
art 6, §29(4)) Salaries
(4) Investigatory Power (art. 6 §21)
(5) Oversight function (art. 6 §22) A. Composition of Congress
(6) Power to declare the existence of state of war
(art. 6 §23(1)) The Congress of the Philippines which shall consist
of a Senate and a House of Representatives. (art 6
§1)
143
Page 12 of 2008 UP Bar Ops Reviewer. 146
This function is non-legislative. (Pimentel v. Joint Committee on
144
Propose amendment to or revision of the Constitution (art 17 Congress. June 22, 2004)
§1)Call for a constitutional convention (art 17 §3) 147
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law (2006
145 ed.)
No money shall be paid out of the Treasury except in pursuance
148
of an appropriation made by law. (art 6 §29(1)) The form, content, Privilege from attest is not given to Congress as a body, but rather
and manner of preparation of budget shall be prescribed by law. one that is granted particularly to each individual member of it.
(art 6 §25) (Coffin v. Coffin, 4 Mass 1)

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B. Bicameralism v. Unicameralism
The Congress of the Philippines is a bicameral
body composed of a Senate and House of
Representatives, the first being considered as the
upper house and the second the lower house.
Advantages of Unicameralism.
1. Simplicity of organization resulting in
economy and efficiency
2. Facility in pinpointing responsibility for
legislation
3. Avoidance of duplication.
Advantages of Bicameralism.
1. Allows for a body with a national
perspective to check the parochial
tendency of representatives elected by
district.
2. Allows for more careful study of legislation
3. Makes the legislature less susceptible to
control by executive
4. Serves as training ground for national
leaders.149
C. Composition of Senate
Section 2. The Senate shall be
composed of twenty-four senators
who shall be elected at large by the
qualified voters of the Philippines,
as may be provided by law.
Elected at large, reason. By providing for a
membership elected at large by the electorate, this
rule intends to make the Senate a training ground
for national leaders and possibly a springboard for
the Presidency. The feeling is that the senator,
having national rather than only a district
constituency, will have a broader outlook of the
problems of the country instead of being restricted
by parochial viewpoints and narrow interests. With
such a perspective, the Senate is likely to be more
circumspect and broad minded than the House of
Representatives.150
D. Qualifications of a Senator
Section 3. No person shall be a
senator unless he is a natural-born
citizen of the Philippines, and, on
the day of the election, is at least
thirty-five years of age, able to read
and write, a registered voter, and a
resident of the Philippines for not
149
Bernas, Primer p 224, 2006 ed.
150
Cruz, Phlippine Political Law.
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less than two years immediately
preceding the day of election.
Qualifications of a senator
(1) Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
(2) At least 35 years of age on the day of the
election
(3) Able to read and write
(4) Registered voter
(5) Resident of the Philippines for not less than
2 years immediately preceding the day of
election.
“On the day of the election” means on the day the
votes are cast. (Bernas Primer)
E. Senators’ Term of Office
Term
Commencement of Term
Limitation
Effect of Voluntary Renunciation
Staggering of Terms
Reason for Staggering
Section 4. The term of office of the
Senators shall be six years and
shall commence, unless otherwise
provided by law, at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following
their election.
No Senator shall serve for more
than two consecutive terms.
Voluntary renunciation of the office
for any length of time shall not be
considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full
term for which he was elected.
1. Term. The term of office of the Senators shall be
6 years.
2. Commencement of term. The term of office of
the Senators shall commence on 12:00 noon of
June 30 next following their election. (unless
otherwise provided by law)
3. Limitation. A Senator may not serve for more
than two consecutive terms. However, they may
serve for more than two terms provided that the
terms are not consecutive.
4. Effect of Voluntary Renunciation. Voluntary
renunciation of office for any length of time shall
not be considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full term for which
he was elected. (art. 6 § 4)
5. Staggering of Terms. The Senate shall not at
any time be completely dissolved. One-half of the
membership is retained as the other half is
replaced or reelected every three years.
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6. Reason for Staggering. The continuity of the
life of the Senate is intended to encourage the
maintenance of Senate policies as well as
guarantee that there will be experienced members
who can help and train newcomers in the
discharge of their duties.151
F. Composition of House of Representatives
Section 5. (1) The House of
Representatives shall be
composed of not more than two
hundred and fifty members, unless
otherwise fixed by law, who shall
be elected from legislative districts
apportioned among the provinces,
cities, and the Metropolitan Manila
area in accordance with the
number of their respective
inhabitants, and on the basis of a
uniform and progressive ratio, and
those who, as provided by law,
shall be elected through a party-list
system of registered national,
regional, and sectoral parties or
organizations.
Composition. The composition of the House of
Representatives shall be composed of not more
than 250 members unless otherwise fixed by law.
Representatives shall be elected from legislative
districts and through party-list system.
a) District representatives
b) Party-list representatives
c) Sectoral representatives (these existed only
until 1998)
G. Qualification of Representatives
Section 6. No person shall be a
member of the House of
Representatives unless he is a
natural born citizen of the
Philippines and, on the day of the
election, is at least twenty-five
years of age, able to read and
write, and except the party-list
representatives, a registered voter
in the district in which he shall be
elected, and a resident thereof for a
period of not less than one year
immediately preceding the day of
the election.
Qualifications of District Representatives:
(1) Natural-born citizen of the Philippines
151
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
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(2) At least 25 years of age on the day of the
election
(3) Able to read and write
(4) A registered voter in the district in which he
shall be elected
(5) A resident of the district in which he shall be
elected for a period not less than 1 year
immediately preceding the day of the
election.
H. Domicile
Domicile
Residence as a qualification means “domicile”.
Normally a person’s domicile is his domicile of
origin.
If a person never loses his or her domicile, the one
year requirement of Section 6 is not of relevance
because he or she is deemed never to have left the
place. (Romualdez-Marcos v. COMELEC)
A person may lose her domicile by voluntary
abandonment for a new one or by marriage to a
husband (who under the Civil Code dictates the
wife’s domicile).
Change of domicile
To successfully effect a change of domicile, there
must be:
o Physical Presence-Residence or bodily
presence in the new locality (The change of
residence must be voluntary)
o Animus manendi -Intention to remain in the
new locality (The purpose to remain in or at
the domicile of choice must be for an
indefinite period of time)
o Animus non revertendi-Intention to
abandon old domicile
A lease contract does not adequately support a
change of domicile. The lease does not constitute a
clear animus manendi. (Domino v. COMELEC)
However a lease contract coupled with affidavit of
the owner where a person lives, his marriage
certificate, birth certificate of his daughter and
various letter may prove that a person has
changed his residence. (Perez v. COMELEC)
I. Property Qualification
Property qualifications are contrary to the social
justice provision of the Constitution. Such will also
be adding qualifications provided by the
Constitution.
J. Term of Office of Representatives
Section 7. The members of the
House of Representatives shall be
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elected for a term of three years
which shall begin, unless otherwise
provided by law, at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following
their election.
No member of the House
Representatives shall serve for
more than three consecutive terms.
Voluntary renunciation of the office
for any length of time shall not be
considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full
term for which he was elected.
Term v. Tenure. Term refers to the period during
which an official is entitled to hold office. Tenure
refers to the period during which the official actually
holds the office.
The term of office of Representatives shall be 3
years. The term of office of Representatives shall
commence on 12:00noon of June 30 next following
their election. (unless otherwise provided by law)
A Representative may not serve for more than 3
consecutive terms. However, he may serve for
more than 3 terms provided that the terms are not
consecutive. (1996 Bar Question)
Why three years? One purpose in reducing the
term for three years is to synchronize elections,
which in the case of the Senate are held at three-
year intervals (to elect one-half of the body) and in
the case of the President and Vice-President every
six years.152
Voluntary renunciation of office for any length of
time shall not be considered as an interruption in
the continuity of his service for the full term for
which he was elected.
Abandonment of Dimaporo. The case of
Dimaporo v. Mitra which held that “filing of COC for
a different position is a voluntary renunciation” has
been abandoned because of the Fair Elections Act.
Farinas case. The ruling case now is Farinas v.
Executive Secretary which held that “filing of COC
is not constitutive of voluntary renunciation for
elected officials.”
K. Party List System
Party-list system
Party-list Representatives
Guidelines
Parties or organizations disqualified
Qualifications of a party-list nominee
Section 5.
152
Cruz, Philippine Political law.
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(2) The party-list representatives
shall constitute twenty per centum
of the total number of
representatives including those
under the party-list. For three
consecutive terms after the
ratification of this Constitution, one-
half of the seats allocated to party-
list representatives shall be filled,
as may be provided by law, by
selection or election from the labor,
peasant, urban poor, indigenous
cultural communities, women,
youth, and such other sectors as
may be provided by law, except the
religious sector.
1. Party-list System. (RA 7941) The party-list
system is a mechanism of proportional
representation in the election of representatives of
the House of Representatives from national,
regional, and sectoral parties or organizations or
coalitions thereof registered with the Commission
on Elections.
Reason for party-list system. It is hoped that the
system will democratize political power by
encouraging the growth of a multi-party system.
2. Party-list representatives
Ceiling. “The party-list representatives shall
constitute 20% of the total number of
representatives.” Section 5(2) of Article VI is not
mandatory. It merely provides a ceiling for party-list
seats in Congress. (Veterans Federation Party v.
COMELEC)
The 2% threshold requirement and the 3 seat-limit
provided in RA 7941 are valid. Congress was
vested with broad power to define and prescribe
the mechanics of the party-list system of
representation. Congress wanted to ensure that
only those parties, organizations and coalitions
having sufficient number of constituents deserving
of representation are actually represented in
Congress. (Veterans Federation Party v.
COMELEC)
Computation
The Court reiterated that “the prevailing formula for the
computation of additional seats for party-list winners is
the formula stated in the landmark case of Veterans.”
CIBAC v COMELEC, G.R. No. 172103 (2007)
No. of votes of
concerned party No. of Additional
additional seats Seats for
____________ allocated to the=concerned
_ xfirst party party
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No. of votes
of first party
3. Guidelines on what organizations may apply
in the party-list system:
(1) The parties or organizations must represent
the marginalized and underrepresented in
Section 5 of RA 7941;
(2) Political parties who wish to participate must
comply with this policy;
(3) The religious sector may not be represented;
(4) The party or organization must not be
disqualified under Section 6 of RA 7941;
(5) The party or organization must not be an
adjunct of or a project organized or an entity
funded or assisted by the government;
(6) Its nominees must likewise comply with the
requirements of the law;
(7) The nominee must likewise be able to
contribute to the formulation and enactment of
legislation that will benefit the nation. (Ang
Bagong Bayani v. COMELEC, June 26, 2001)
4. Parties or organizations disqualified
The COMELEC may motu propio or upon verified
complaint of any interested party, remove or cancel
after due notice and hearing the registration of any
national, regional or sectoral party, organization or
coalition on any of the following grounds:
1. t is a religious sect or denomination,
organization or association organized for
religious purposes;
2. It advocates violence or unlawful means to
seek its goal;
3. It is a foreign party or organization;
4. It is receiving support from any foreign
government, foreign political party, foundation,
organization, whether directly or through any
of its officers or members or indirectly through
third parties for partisan election purposes;
5. It violates or fails to comply with laws, rules or
regulations relating to elections.
6. It declares untruthful statements in its petition;
7. It has ceased to exist for at least one (1) year;
8. It fails to participate in the last two (2)
preceding elections or fails to obtain at least
two per centum (2%) of the votes cast under
the party-list system in the two (2) preceding
elections for the constituency in which it has
registered.
5. Qualifications of a party-list nominee in RA
7941:
(1) Natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
(2) Registered Voter;
(3) Resident of the Philippines for a period of not
less than 1 year immediately preceding the
day of election
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(4) Able to read and write
(5) A bona fide member of the party or organization
which he seeks to represent for at least 90
days preceding the day of election
(6) At least 25 years of age. (Ang Bagong Bayani v.
COMELEC)
Political Parties. Political parties may participate
in the party-list system (as long as they comply with
the guidelines in Section 5 of RA 7941.) (Ang
Bagong Bayani v. COMELEC)
Section 10 of RA 7941 provides that the votes cast
for a party which is not entitled to be voted for the
party-list system should not be counted. The votes
they obtained should be deducted from the
canvass of the total number of votes cast for the
party-list system. (Ang Bagong Bayani v.
COMELEC)
Religious sectors v. Religious leaders. There is
a prohibition of religious sectors. However, there is
no prohibition from being elected or selected as
sectoral representatives.
L. Legislative Districts
Apportionment
Reason for the Rule
Reapportionment
Gerrymandering
Section 5
(3) Each legislative district shall
comprise, as far aspracticable,
contiguous, compact and adjacent
territory. Each city with a population
of at least two hundred fifty
thousand, or each province, shall
have at least one representative.
(4) Within three years following the
return of every census, the
Congress shall make a
reapportionment of legislative
districts based on the standards
provided in this section.
1. Apportionment
Legislative districts are apportioned among the
provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area.
Legislative districts are apportioned in accordance
with the number of their respect inhabitants and on
the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio. (art. 6
§ 5)
Each city with a population of at least 250,000 shall
have at least one representative.
Each province shall have at least one
representative.
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The question of the validity of an apportionment
law is a justiciable question. (Macias v. Comelec)
2. Reason for the rule. The underlying principle
behind the rule for apportionment (that
representative districts are apportioned among
provinces, cities, and municipalities in accordance
with the number of their respective inhabitants, and
on the basis of a uniform and progressive ration.”)
is the concept of equality of representation
which is a basic principle of republicanism. One
man’s vote should carry as much weight as the
vote of every other man.
Section 5 provides that the House shall be
composed of not more than 250 members unless
otherwise provided by law. Thus, Congress itself
may by law increase the composition of the HR.
(Tobias v. Abalos)
When one of the municipalities of a congressional
district is converted to a city large enough to entitle
it to one legislative district, the incidental effect is
the splitting of district into two. The incidental
arising of a new district in this manner need not be
preceded by a census. (Tobias v. Abalos)
3. Reapportionment
Reapportionment can be made thru a special law.
(Mariano v. COMELEC)
Correction of imbalance as a result of the increase
in number of legislative districts must await the
enactment of reapportionment law. (Montejo v.
COMELEC)
4. Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is the formation of one legislative
district out of separate territories for the purpose of
favoring a candidate or a party.
Gerrymandering is not allowed. The Constitution
provides that each district shall comprise, as far as
practicable, contiguous, compact and adjacent
territory.
M. Election
1. Regular Election
2. Special Election
Section 8. Unless otherwise
provided by law, the regular
election of the Senators and the
Members of the House of
Representatives shall be held on
the second Monday of May.
Regular election
A person holding office in the House must yield his
or her seat to the person declared by the
COMELEC to be the winner. The Speaker shall
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
administer the oath to the winner. (Codilla v. De
Venecia)
Disqualified “winner”
The Court has also clarified the rule on who should
assume the position should the candidate who
received the highest number of votes is
disqualified. The second in rank does not take his
place. The reason is simple: “It is of no moment
that there is only a margin of 768 votes between
protestant and protestee. Whether the margin is
ten or ten thousand, it still remains that protestant
did not receive the mandate of the majority during
the elections. Thus, to proclaim him as the duly
elected representative in the stead of protestee
would be anathema to the most basic precepts of
republicanism and democracy as enshrined within
our Constitution.”153
Section 9. In case of vacancy in
the Senate or in the House of
Representatives, a special election
may be called to fill such vacancy
in the manner prescribed by law,
but the Senator or Member of the
House of Representatives thus
elected shall serve only for the
unexpired term.
Special election
A special election to fill in a vacancy is not
mandatory.
In a special election to fill a vacancy, the rule is that
a statute that expressly provides that an election to
fill a vacancy shall be held at the next general
elections, fixes the date at which the special
election is to be held and operates as the call for
that election. Consequently, an election held at the
time thus prescribed is not invalidated by the fact
that the body charged by law with the duty of
calling the election failed to do so. This is because
the right and duty to hold the election emanate
from the statue and not from any call for election by
some authority and the law thus charges voters
with knowledge of the time and place of the
election. (Tolentino v. COMELEC)
Special Election (R.A. 6645)
1. No special election will be called if vacancy
occurs:
a. at least eighteen (18) months before the
next regular election for the members of
the Senate;
b. at least one (1) year before the next
regular election members of Congress
2. The particular House of Congress where
vacancy occurs must pass either a resolution if
Congress is in session or the Senate President
153
Ocampo v. HRET, G.R. No. 158466. June 15, 2004.
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or the Speaker must sign a certification, if
Congress is not in session,
a. declaring the existence of vacancy;
b. calling for a special election to be held
within 45 to 90 days from the date of the
resolution or certification.
3. The Senator or representative elected shall
serve only for the unexpired term.
N. Salaries
When increase may take effect
Reason fro the delayed effect of increased salary
Emoluments
Allowances
Section 10. The salaries of
Senators and Members of the
House of Representatives shall be
determined by law. No increase in
said compensation shall take effect
until after the expiration of the full
term of all the members of the
Senate and the House of
Representatives approving such
increase.
1. When increase may take effect. No increase in
the salaries of Senators and Representatives shall
take effect until after the expiration of the full term
of all the members of the Senate and House of
Representatives.
2. Reason for the delayed effect of increased
salary. Its purpose is to place a “legal bar to the
legislators’ yielding to the natural temptation to
increase their salaries. (PHILCONSA v. Mathay)
3. Emoluments. Bernas submits that, by appealing
to the spirit of the prohibition, the provision may be
read as an absolute ban on any form of direct or
indirect increase of salary (like emoluments).
4. Allowances. A member of the Congress may
receive office and necessary travel allowances
since allowances take effect immediately. Nor is
there a legal limit on the amount that may be
appropriated. The only limit is moral, because,
according to Section 20, the books of Congress are
audited by the Commission on Audit ‘which shall
publish annually an itemized list of amounts paid
and expenses incurred for each Member.154
IV. PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS
A. Privilege from Arrest
B. Parliamentary freedom of speech and debate
Section 11. A Senator or Member
of the House of Representatives
154
Bernas Commentary, p700.
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shall, in all offenses punishable by
not more than six years
imprisonment, be privileged from
arrest while the Congress is in
session. No member shall be
questioned nor be held liable in any
other place for any speech or
debate in the Congress or in any
committee thereof.
A. Privilege from Arrest (Parliamentary Immunity of
Arrest)
Privilege
Purpose
Scope
Limitations
Privilege is Personal
Trillanes Case
1. Privilege. A member of Congress is privileged
from arrest while Congress is in session in all
offenses (criminal or civil) not punishable by more
than 6 years imprisonment.
2. Purpose. Privilege is intended to ensure
representation of the constituents of the member of
Congress by preventing attempts to keep him from
attending sessions.155
3. Scope. Parliamentary immunity only includes
the immunity from arrest, and not of being filed suit.
4. Limitations on Parliamentary Immunity
1. Crime has a maximum penalty of not more
than 6 years;
2. Congress is in session, whether regular or
special;
3. Prosecution will continue independent of
arrest;
4. Will be subject to arrest immediately when
Congress adjourns.
While in session. The privilege is available “while
the Congress is in session,” whether regular or
special and whether or not the legislator is actually
attending a session. “Session” as here used does
not refer to the day-to-day meetings of the
legislature but to the entire period from its initial
convening until its final adjournment.156 Hence the
privilege is not available while Congress is in
recess.
Why not available during recess. Since the
purpose of the privilege is to protect the legislator
against harassment which will keep him away from
legislative sessions, there is no point in extending
the privilege to the period when the Congress is
not in session.
155
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
156
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
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5. Privilege is personal. Privilege is personal to
each member of the legislature, and in order that
its benefits may be availed of, it must be asserted
at the proper time and place; otherwise it will be
considered waived.157
Privilege not granted to Congress but to its
members. Privilege from arrest is not given to
Congress as a body, but rather one that is granted
particularly to each individual member of it. (Coffin
v. Coffin, 4 Mass 1)158
Privilege is reinforced by Article 145 of the Revised
Penal Code-Violation of Parliamentary Immunity.
Note: The provision says privilege from arrest; it
does not say privilege from detention.
Q: Congressman Jalosjos was convicted for
rape and detained in prison, asks that he be
allowed to attend sessions of the House.
A: Members of Congress are not exempt
from detention for crime. They may be
arrested, even when the House in session,
for crimes punishable by a penalty of more
than six months.
Q: Congressman X was convicted for a
crime with a punishment of less than 6
years. He asks that he be allowed to attend
sessions of the House contending that the
punishment for the crime for which he was
convicted is less than 6 years.
A: I submit that Congressman X can be
detained even if the punishment imposed is
less than 6 years. The provision only speaks
of privilege from arrest. It does not speak of
exemption from serving sentence after
conviction. Members of Congress are not
exempt from detention for crime.-asm
Q: Can the Sandiganbayan order the
preventive suspension of a Member of the
House of Representatives being prosecuted
criminally for violation of the Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act?
A: Yes. In Paredes v. Sandiganbayan, the
Court held that the accused cannot validly
argue that only his peers in the House of
Representatives can suspend him because
the court-ordered suspension is a preventive
measure that is different and distinct from
the suspension ordered by his peers for
disorderly behavior which is a penalty.
6. Trillanes Case (June 27, 2008)
157
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p. 187, 10th ed.
158
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p. 187, 10th ed.
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
In a unanimous decision penned by Justice Carpio
Morales, the SC en banc junked Senator Antonio Trillanes’
petition seeking that he be allowed to perform his duties as a
Senator while still under detention. SC barred Trillanes from
attending Senate hearings while has pending cases, affirming
the decision of Makati Judge Oscar Pimentel.
The SC reminded Trillanes that “election to office does
not obliterate a criminal charge”, and that his electoral victory
only signifies that when voters elected him, they were already
fully aware of his limitations.
The SC did not find merit in Trillanes’ position that his
case is different from former representative Romeo Jalosjos,
who also sought similar privileges before when he served as
Zamboanga del Norte congressman even while in detention.
Quoting parts of the decision on Jalosjos, SC said that
“allowing accused-appellant to attend congressional sessions
and committee meetings five days or more a week will virtually
make him a free man… Such an aberrant situation not only
elevates accused appellant’s status to that of a special class, it
would be a mockery of the purposes of the correction system.”
The SC also did not buy Trillanes’ argument that he be
given the same liberal treatment accorded to certain detention
prisoners charged with non-bailable offenses, like former
President Joseph Estrada and former Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) governor Nur Misuari, saying these
emergency or temporary leaves are under the discretion of the
authorities or the courts handling them.
The SC reminded Trillanes that he also benefited from
these “temporary leaves” given by the courts when he was
allowed to file his candidacy and attend his oath-taking as a
senator before.
The SC also believes that there is a “slight risk” that
Trillanes would escape once he is given the privileges he is
asking, citing the Peninsula Manila incident last November.
B. Privilege of Speech and Debate
Requirements
Purpose
Scope
Privilege Not Absolute
1. Isagani Cruz: 2 Requirements for the
privilege to be availed of:
1. That the remarks must be made while the
legislature or the legislative committee is
functioning, that is in session;159 (See Jimenez v.
Cabangbang)
2. That they must be made in connection with the
discharge of official duties.160
But wait! As regards Requirement #1 provided
by Cruz, Bernas Primer provides: to come
under the privilege, it is not essential that the
Congress be in session when the utterance is
made. What is essential is that the utterance
must constitute “legislative action.”161
Libelous remarks not in exercise of legislative
function shall not be under privilege of speech.
159
Cruz, Philippine Political Law p. 116 (1995 ed.); See Jimenez v.
Cabangbang.
160
Cruz, Philippine Political Law p. 116 (1995 ed.).
161
Bernas Primer, p. 245 (2006 ed.)
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To invoke the privilege of speech, the matter must
be oral and must be proven to be indeed
privileged.
2. Purpose. It is intended to leave legislator
unimpeded in the performance of his duties and
free form harassment outside.162
Privilege of speech and debate enables the
legislator to express views bearing upon the public
interest without fear of accountability outside the
halls of the legislature for his inability to support his
statements with the usual evidence required in the
court of justice. In other words, he is given more
leeway than the ordinary citizen in the ventilation of
matters that ought to be divulged for the public
good.163
164
3. Scope:
(1) The privilege is a protection only against
forums other than the Congress itself.
(Osmena v. Pendatun)
(2) “Speech or debate” includes utterances made
in the performance of official functions, such
as speeches delivered, statements made,
votes cast, as well as bills introduced and
other acts done in the performance of official
duties. (Jimenez v. Cabangbang)
(3) To come under the privilege, it is not essential
that the Congress be in session when the
utterance is made. What is essential is that the
utterance must constitute “legislative action”,
that is, it must be part of the deliberative and
communicative process by which legislators
participate in committee or congressional
proceedings in the consideration of proposed
legislation or of other matters which the
Constitution has placed within the jurisdiction
of Congress. (Gravel v. US)
(4) The privilege extends to agents of
assemblymen provided that the “agency”
consists precisely in assisting the legislator in
the performance of “legislative action” (Gravel
v. US)
4. Privilege not absolute. The rule provides that
the legislator may not be questioned “in any other
place,” which means that he may be called to
account for his remarks by his own colleagues in
the Congress itself and, when warranted, punished
for “disorderly behavior.”165
V. DUTY TO DISCLOSE; PROHIBITIONS
A. Duty to Disclose
162
Bernas Primer, p. 245 (2006).
163
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
164
Bernas Primer, p. 245 (2006 ed.)
165
Cruz, Philippine Political Law; See Osmena v. Pendatun.
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B. Prohibitions
A. Duty to disclose
Section 12. All members of the
Senate and the House of
Representative shall, upon
assumption of office, make a full
disclosure of their financial and
business interests. They shall notify
the House concerned of a potential
conflict of interest that may arise
from the filing of a proposed
legislation of which they are
authors.
This provision speaks of duty to disclose the
following:
(1) Financial and business interest upon
assumption of office
(2) Potential conflict of interest that may arise
from filing of a proposed legislation of which
they are authors.
B. Prohibitions (Disqualifications and Inhibitions)
Prohibitions
Disqualifications
Prohibitions on lawyer-legislators
Conflict of interests
Disqualifications
Section 13. No Senator or Member
of the House of Representatives
may hold any other office or
employment in the government, or
any subdivision, agency, or
instrumentality thereof, including
government-owned or controlled
corporation or their subsidiaries,
during his term without forfeiting his
seat. Neither shall he be appointed
to any office which may have been
created or the emoluments thereof
increased during the term for which
he was elected.
Section 14. No Senator or Member
of the House of Representatives
may personally appear as counsel
before any court of justice or before
the Electoral Tribunals, or quasi-
judicial and other administrative
bodies. Neither shall he, directly or
indirectly, be interested financially
in any contract with, or in any
franchise or special privilege
granted by the Government, or any
subdivision, agency or
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instrumentality thereof, including
any government-owned or
controlled corporation, or its
subsidiary, during his term of office.
He shall not intervene in any matter
before any office of the
Government for his pecuniary
benefit or where he may be called
upon to act on account of his office.
1. Prohibitions:
Disqualifications
(1) To hold any other office or employment
in the government, or any subdivision,
agency, or instrumentality thereof,
including government-owned or controlled
corporation or their subsidiaries during
his term without forfeiting his seat.
(Incompatible office)
(2) To be appointed to any office which
may have been created or the
emoluments thereof increased during the
term for which he was elected. (Forbidden
office)
Prohibitions on lawyer-legislators
(3) To personally appear as counsel before
any court of justice or before the Electoral
Tribunals, or quasi-judicial and other
administrative bodies.
Conflict of Interests
(4) To be interested financially, directly or
indirectly, in any contract with, or in any
franchise or special privilege granted by
the Government, or any subdivision,
agency or instrumentality thereof,
including any government-owned or
controlled corporation, or its subsidiary,
during his term of office.
(5) To intervene in any matter before any
office of the Government for his
pecuniary benefit or intervene in any
matter before any office of the
Government where he may be called
upon to act on account of his office.
(6) See Section 10
2. Disqualifications
Incompatible Office
Purpose. The purpose of prohibition of
incompatible offices is to prevent him from owing
loyalty to another branch of the government, to the
detriment of the independence of the legislature
and the doctrine of separation of powers.
2 Kinds of Office under Article 13
1) Incompatible office (1st sentence of article 13)
2) Forbidden office (2nd sentence of article 13)
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Prohibition not absolute. The prohibition against
the holding of an incompatible office is not
absolute; what is not allowed is the simultaneous
holding of that office and the seat in Congress.166
Hence, a member of Congress may resign in order
to accept an appointment in the government before
the expiration of his term.167
When office not incompatible. Not every other
office or employment is to be regarded as
incompatible with the legislative position. For,
example, membership in the Electroral Tribunals is
permitted by the Constitution itself. Moreover, if it
can be shown that the second office is an
extension of the legislative position or is in aid of
legislative duties, the holding thereof will not result
in the loss of the legislator’s seat in the
Congress.168
Forbidden Office.
Purpose. The purpose is to prevent trafficking in
public office.169 The reasons for excluding persons
from office who have been concerned in creating
them or increasing the emoluments are to take
away as far as possible, any improper bias in the
vote of the representative and to secure to the
constituents some solemn pledge of his
disinterestedness.170
Scope of prohibition. The provision does not
apply to elective offices, which are filled by the
voters themselves.
The appointment of the member of the Congress to
the forbidden office is not allowed only during the
term for which he was elected, when such office
was created or its emoluments were increased.
After such term, and even if the legislator is re-
elected, the disqualification no longer applies and
he may therefore be appointed to the office.171
3. Prohibition on lawyer legislators.
Purpose. The purpose is to prevent the legislator
from exerting undue influence, deliberately or not,
upon the body where he is appearing.172
Not a genuine party to a case. A congressman
may not buy a nominal account of shares in a
corporation which is party to a suit before the SEC
and then appear in “intervention”. That which the
166
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
167
Bernas Primer, p.246 (2006).
168
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
169
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
170
Mr. Justice Story quoted in Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p. 163
(1954).
171
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
172
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
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Constitution directly prohibits may not be done by Section 15. The Congress shall
indirection. (Puyat v. De Guzman) convene once every year on the
fourth Monday of July for its regular
Prohibition is personal. It does not apply to law session, unless a different date is
firm where a lawyer-Congressman may be a fixed by law, and shall continue to
member.173 The lawyer-legislator may still engage be in session for such number of
in the practice of his profession except that when it days as it may determine until thirty
come to trials and hearings before the bodies days before the opening of its next
above-mentioned, appearance may be made not regular session, exclusive of
by him but by some member of his law office.174 Saturdays, Sundays, and legal
holidays. The President may call a
Pleadings. A congressman cannot sign pleadings special session at any time.
[as counsel for a client] (Villegas case)
Regular session
4. Conflict of Interests Congress shall convene once every year for its
regular session.
Financial Interest
Purpose. This is because of the influence they can Congress shall convene on the 4th Monday of July
easily exercise in obtaining these concessions. The (unless a different date is fixed by law) until 30
idea is to prevent abuses from being committed by days (exclusive of Saturdays, Sundays and legal
the members of Congress to the prejudice of the holidays) before the opening of the next regular
public welfare and particularly of legitimate session.
contractors with the government who otherwise
might be placed at a disadvantageous position vis- Special session
à-vis the legislator. A special session is one called by the President
while the legislature is in recess.
Contract. The contracts referred to here are those
involving “financial interest,” that is, contracts from Mandatory recess. A mandatory recess is
which the legislator expects to derive some profit at prescribed for the thirty-day period before the
the expense of the government.175 opening of the next regular session, excluding
Saturdays, Sundays and legal holidays. This is the
Pecuniary Benefit. The prohibited pecuniary minimum period of recess and may be lengthened
benefit could be direct or indirect and this would by the Congress in its discretion. It may however,
cover pecuniary benefit for relatives. (Bernas be called in special session at any time by the
Commentary, p. 710, 10th ed.) President.

VI. INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF CONGRESS The President’s call is not necessary in some
instances:
1. When the Congress meets to canvass the
Sessions presidential elections
Adjournment 2. To call a special election when both the
Officers Presidency and Vice-Presidency are vacated
Quorum 3. When it decides to exercise the power of
Internal Rules impeachment where the respondent is the
Disciplinary Powers President himself.176
Legislative Journal and Congressional Record
Enrolled Bill Doctrine Q: May the President limit the subjects which
may be considered during a special election
A. Sessions called by him?
1. Regular A: No. The President is given the power to
2. Special call a session and to specify subjects he
3. Joint Sessions wants considered, but it does not empower
him to prohibit consideration of other
subjects. After all, Congress, if it so wishers,
may stay in regular session almost all year
173
Bernas Primer, p.247 (2006). round.177
174
Cruz. Philippine Political Law.
175 Joint Sessions
Cruz, Philippine Political Law. Legislators cannot be members of
the board of corporations with contract with the government. Such 176
would be at least indirect financial interest. (Bernas Commentary, p. Cruz, Philippine Political Law,
177
710, 10th ed.) Bernas Commentary, p.711, (2003 ed.)

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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
 FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA
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SCHOOL OF LAW
a. Voting Separately
i) Choosing the President (art. 7 §4)
ii) Determine President’s disability (art. 7 §11)
iii) Confirming nomination of the Vice-President
(art. 7 §9)
iv) Declaring the existence of a state of war (art.
6 §23)
v) Proposing constitutional amendments (art. 12
§1)
b. Voting Jointly
To revoke or extend proclamation suspending
the privilege of the writ of habeas corps or
placing the Philippines under martial law. (art 7
§18)
Instances when Congress votes other than
majority.
a. To suspend or expel a member in accordance
with its rules and proceedings: 2/3 of all its
members (Sec. 16, Art. VI).
b. Yeas and nays entered in the Journal: 1/5 of
the members present (Sec. 16(4), Art. VI)
c. Declare the existence of a state of war: 2/3 of
both houses in joint session voting separately
(Sec. 23, Art. VI)
d. Re-passing of a bill after Presidential veto: 2/3
of the Members of the House where it
originated followed by 2/3 of the Members of
the other House.
e. Determining President’s disability after
submissions by both the Cabinet and the
President: 2/3 of both Houses voting
separately (Sec. 11, Art. VII)
B. Adjournment
Section 16
(5) Neither House during the
session of the Congress shall,
without the consent of the other,
adjourn for more than three days,
nor to any other place than that in
which the two Houses shall be
sitting.
Either House may adjourn even without the
consent of the other provided that it will not be
more than three days.
If one House should adjourn for more than three
days, it will need the consent of the other.
Neither house can adjourn to any other place than
that in which the two Houses shall be sitting without
the consent of the other.
Reason. These rules prevent each house from
holding up the work of legislation. 178 This
178
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 170 (1954).
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coordinative rule is necessary because the two
houses form only one legislative body.179
C. Officers
Section 16. (1) The Senate shall
elect its President and the House of
Representatives its Speaker, by a
majority vote of all its respective
Members.
Each House shall choose such
other officers as it may deem
necessary.
Officers of the Congress:
(1) Senate President
(2) House Speaker
(3) Such other officers as each House may deem
necessary.
It is well within the power and jurisdiction of the
Court to inquire whether the Senate or its officials
committed a violation of the Constitution or gravely
abused their discretion in the exercise of their
functions and prerogatives. (Santiago v. Guingona)
The method of choosing who will be the other
officers must be prescribed by Senate itself. In the
absence of constitutional and statutory guidelines
or specific rules, this Court is devoid of any basis
upon which to determine the legality of the acts of
the Senate relative thereto. On grounds of respect
for the basic concept of separation of powers,
courts may not intervene in the internal affairs of
the legislature; it is not within the province of courts
to direct Congress how to do its work. (Santiago v.
Guingona)
D. Quorum
Section 16
(2) A majority of each House shall
constitute a quorum to do business,
but a smaller number may adjourn
from day to day and may compel
the attendance of absent Members
in such manner and under such
penalties, as such House may
provide.
Quorum to do business. A majority of each
House shall constitute a quorum to do business.
Quorum is based on the proportion between those
physically present and the total membership of
the body.
A smaller number may adjourn from day to day.
179
Bernas Commentary, p.723, (2003 ed.)
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 FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA
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A smaller number may compel the attendance of
absent members in such manner and under such
penalties as the House may provide.
The members of the Congress cannot compel
absent members to attend sessions if the reason of
absence is a legitimate one. The confinement of a
Congressman charged with a non-bailable offense
(more than 6 years) is certainly authorized by law
and has constitutional foundations. (People v.
Jalosjos)
The question of quorum cannot be raised
repeatedly, especially when a quorum is obviously
present, for the purpose of delaying the business of
the House. (Arroyo v. De Venecia, June 26, 1998)
E. Internal Rules
Power to determine rules
Nature of the rules
Role of courts
Section 18
(3) Each House may determine the
rules of its proceedings, punish its
Members for disorderly behavior,
and with the concurrence of two-
thirds of all its Members, suspend
or expel a Member. A penalty of
suspension, when imposed, shall
not exceed sixty days.
1. Power to determine internal rules. Each
House may determine the rules of its proceedings.
2. Nature of the Rules. The rules adopted by
deliberative bodies (such as the House) are subject
to revocation, modification, or waiver by the body
adopting them. (Arroyo v. De Venecia)
The power to make rules is not one, once
exercised is exhausted. It is a continuous power,
always subject to be exercised by the House, and
within the limitations suggested and absolutely
beyond the challenge of any other body. (Arroyo v.
De Venecia)
3. Role of Courts. The Court may not intervene in
the implementation of the rules of either House
except if the rule affects private rights. On matters
affecting only internal operation of the legislature,
the legislature’s formulation and implementation of
its rules is beyond the reach of the courts. When,
however, the legislative rule affects private rights,
the courts cannot altogether be excluded. (US v.
Smith)
F. Disciplinary powers (suspension/expulsion)
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
Basis for punishment. Each House may punish
its Members for disorderly behavior.
Preventive Suspension v. Punitive Suspension.
A congressman may be suspended as a preventive
measure by the Sandiganbayan. The order of
suspension prescribed by the Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act is distinct from the power of
congress to police its own ranks under the
Constitution. The suspension contemplated in the
constitutional provisions is a punitive measure that
is imposed upon determination by a House upon
an erring member. The suspension spoken in
AGCPA is not a penalty but a preventive measure.
The doctrine of separation of powers by itself may
not be deemed to have excluded members of
Congress from AGCPA. The law did not exclude
from its coverage the members of the Congress
and therefore the Sandiganbayan may decree a
preventive suspension order. (Santiago v.
Sandiganbayan) (2002 Bar Question)
2/3 Requirement. Each House may with the
concurrence of two-thirds of all its Members,
suspend or expel a Member.
Period of suspension. A penalty of suspension,
when imposed, shall not exceed sixty days.
Not subject to judicial review. Disciplinary action
taken by Congress against a member is not subject
to judicial review because each House is the sole
judge of what disorderly behavior is. (Osmena v.
Pendatun)
G. Legislative Journal and Congressional Record
Requirement
Journal
Purpose of Journal
What may be excluded
Matters to be entered to the journal
Journal v. Extraneous Evidence
Record
Section 18
(4) Each House shall keep a
Journal of its proceedings, and
from time to time publish the same,
excepting such parts as may, in its
judgment, affect national security;
and the yeas and nays on any
question shall, at the request of
one-fifth of the Members present,
be entered in the Journal.
Each House shall also keep a
Record of its Proceedings.
1. Requirement. Each House shall keep a Journal
of its proceedings, and from time to time publish
the same.
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 FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA
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2. What is a journal? The journal is usually an
abbreviated account of the daily proceedings.180 A
legislative journal is defined as “the official record
of what is ‘done and past’ in a legislative [body]. It
is so called because the proceedings are entered
therein, in chronological order as they occur from
day to day.181
3. Purpose of the requirement that a journal be
kept:
(1) To insure publicity to the proceedings of the
legislature, and a correspondent responsibility
of the members of their respective
constituents; and
(2) To provide proof of what actually transpired in
the legislature. (Field v. Clark)
4. What may be excluded. The Constitution
exempts from publication parts which in the
judgment of the House affect national security.
5. Matters which, under the Constitution, are to
be entered in the journal:
1. Yeas and nays on third and final reading of a
bill.
2. Veto message of the President
3. Yeas and nays on the repassing of a bill
vetoed by the President
4. Yeas and nays on any question at the request
of 1/5 of members present
6. Journal vs. Extraneous evidence. The Journal
is conclusive upon the Courts (US v. Pons)
7. What is a Record? The Record contains a word
for word transcript of the deliberation of
Congress.182
H. Enrolled bill doctrine
Enrolled Bill
Enrolled Bill Doctrine
Underlying Principle
Enrolled Bill v. Journal Entry
Enrolled bill v. matters required to be entered in the
journals
Remedy for Mistakes
1. Enrolled Bill. One which has been duly
introduced, finally passed by both houses, signed
by the proper officers of each, approved by the
[president]. (Black Law Dictionary)
2. Enrolled bill doctrine: The signing of a bill by
the Speaker of the House and the Senate
President and the certification by the secretaries of
both Houses of Congress that such bill was passed
180
Bernas Commentary, p.723, (2003 ed.)
181
Sinco, Philippine Political Law 191, (1954).
182
Bernas Commentary, p.723, (2003 ed.)
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
are conclusive of its due enactment. (Arroyo v. De
Venecia)
Where the conference committee report was
approved by the Senate and the HR and the bill is
enrolled, the SC may not inquire beyond the
certification and approval of the bill, and the
enrolled bill is conclusive upon the judiciary (Phil.
Judges Association v. Prado)
3. Underlying Principle of the Doctrine. Court is
bound under the doctrine of separation of
powers by the contents of a duly authenticated
measure of the legislature. (Mabanag v. Lopez
Vito, Arroyo v. De Venecia)
4. Enrolled bill vs. Journal Entry: The enrolled
bill is the official copy of approved legislation and
bears the certification of the presiding officers of
the legislative body. The respect due to a co-equal
department requires the courts to accept the
certification of the presiding officer as conclusive
assurance that the bill so certified is authentic.
(Casco Philippine Chemical Co. v. Gimenez)
However, If the presiding officer should repudiate
his signature in the “enrolled bill”, the enrolled will
not prevail over the Journal. This is because the
enrolled bill theory is based mainly on the respect
due to a co-equal department. When such co-equal
department itself repudiates the enrolled bill, then
the journal must be accepted as conclusive.
5. Enrolled bill v. Matters required to be entered
in the journals. The Supreme Court has explicitly
left this matter an open question in Morales v.
Subido.183
6. Remedy for Mistakes. If a mistake was made in
printing of the bill before it was certified by
Congress and approved by the President, the
remedy is amendment or corrective legislation, not
judicial decree. (Casco (Phil) Chemical Co.
Gimenez)
VII. Electoral Tribunals, CA
Electoral Tribunal
CA
Constitution of ET and CA
A. Electoral Tribunal
Electoral Tribunals
Composition
Rationale
Independence
183
Bernas Primer, p. 251 (2006 ed.); Cruz in his book says: “But
except only where the matters are required to be entered in the
journals, the contents of the enrolled bill shall prevail over those of
the journal in case of conflict. (Page 129 Philippine Political Law
(1995 ed).
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Security of Tenure
Power
Jurisdiction of ET
Jurisdiction of COMELEC
Judicial Review
Section 17. The Senate and the
House of Representatives shall
each have an Electoral Tribunal
which shall be the sole judge of all
contests relating to the election,
returns, and qualifications of their
respective Members. Each
electoral tribunal shall be
composed of nine members, three
of whom shall be Justices of the
Supreme Court to be designated by
the Chief Justice, and the
remaining six shall be members of
the Senate or the House of
Representatives, as the case may
be, who shall be chosen on the
basis of proportional representation
from the political parties and the
parties or organizations registered
under the party-list system
represented therein. The senior
justice in the Electoral tribunal shall
be its Chairman.
1. Two Electoral Tribunals. The Senate and the
House of Representatives shall each have an
Electoral Tribunal
2. Composition of ET
Each electoral tribunal shall be composed of 9
members. 3 from the SC (to be designated by the
CJ) and 6 from the respective House.
3. Why create an electoral tribunal independent
from Congress. It is believed that this system
tends to secure decisions rendered with a greater
degree of impartiality and fairness to all parties. It
also enables Congress to devote its full time to the
performance of its proper function, which is
legislation, rather than spend part of its time acting
as judge of election contests.184
Proportional Representation. The congressmen
who will compose the electoral tribunal shall be
chosen on the basis of proportional representation
from the political and party-list parties.
Reason for Mixed Membership. The presence of
justices of the Supreme Court in the Electoral
Tribunal neutralizes the effects of partisan
influences in its deliberations and invests its action
with that measure of judicial temper which is
184
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.158 (1954).
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greatly responsible for the respect and confidence
people have in courts.185
Chairman. The senior Justice in the electoral
tribunal shall be its Chairman.
SET cannot legally function absent its entire
membership of senators, and no amendment of its
rules can confer on the 3 remaining justice-
members alone, the power of valid adjudication of
senatorial election contest. (Abbas v. SET)
4. Independence. The Congress may not regulate
the actions of the electoral tribunals even in
procedural matters. The tribunal is an independent
constitutional body. (Angara v. Electoral
Commission)
5. Security of Tenure. Members of ET have
security of tenure. Disloyalty to the party is not a
ground for termination. (Bondoc v. Pineda) (2002
Bar Question)
6. Power. The Electoral Tribunal shall be the sole
judge of all contests relating to the election,
returns, and qualifications of their respective
members.
The tribunal has the power to promulgate rules
relating to matters within its jurisdiction, including
period for filing election protests. (Lazatin v. HET)
Electoral Tribunal has incidental power to
promulgate its rules and regulations for the proper
exercise of its function (Angara v. Electoral
Commission)
7. Jurisdiction of Electoral Tribunal
The Electoral Tribunal shall be the sole judge of all
contests relating to the election, returns, and
qualifications of their respective members.
The jurisdiction of HRET is not limited to
constitutional qualifications. The word
“qualifications” cannot be read to be qualified by
the term “constitutional”. Where the law does not
distinguish, the courts should likewise not. The
filing of a certificate of candidacy is a statutory
qualification.(Guerrero v. COMELEC)
Where a person is contesting the proclamation of a
candidate as senator, it is SET which has exclusive
jurisdiction to act. (Rasul v. COMELEC)
Contest after proclamation is the jurisdiction of
HRET (Lazatin v. COMELEC)
When there is an election contest (when a
defeated candidate challenge the qualification and
claims the seat of a proclaimed winner), the
Electoral Tribunal is the sole judge.
185
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.158 (1954).
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 FRATERNAL ORDER OF UTOPIA
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Errors that may be verified only by the opening of
ballot boxes must be recoursed to the electoral
tribunal.
Once a winning candidate has been proclaimed,
taken his oath and assumed office as a member of
the House, COMELEC’s jurisdiction over election
contest relating to his election, returns and
qualifications ends, and the HRET’s own
jurisdiction begins. (Aggabao v. COMELEC)
Nature of election contests. An election is not like
an ordinary action in court. Public interests rather
than purely private ones are involved in its
determination.186 It is therefore not permissible that
such a contest be settled by stipulation between
the parties, nor can judgment be taken by default;
but the case must be decided after thorough
investigation of the evidence.187
Absence of election contest. In the absence of
an election contest, however, the electoral tribunals
are without jurisdiction. Thus, the power of each
House to defer oath-taking of members until final
determination of election contests filed against
them has been retained by each House. (Angara v.
Electoral Commission)
Invalidity of Proclamation. An allegation of
invalidity of a proclamation is a matter that is
addressed to the sound discretion of the Electoral
Tribunal. (Lazatin v. COMELEC)
Motion to Withdraw. The motion to withdraw does
not divest the HRET the jurisdiction on the case.
(Robles v. HRET)
8. Jurisdiction of COMELEC
Pre-proclamation controversies include:
(1) Incomplete returns (omission of name or
votes)
(2) Returns with material defects
(3) Returns which appeared to be tampered with,
falsified or prepared under duress or
containing discrepancies in the votes (with
significant effect on the result of election)
“Where a petitioner has seasonably filed a motion
for reconsideration of the order of the Second
Division suspending his proclamation and
disqualifying him, the COMELEC was not divested
of its jurisdiction to review the validity of the order
of the Second Division. The order of the Second
division is unenforceable as it had not attained
finality. It cannot be used as the basis for the
assumption to office of respondent. The issue of
the validity of the order of second division is still
186
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.161 (1954).
187
Reinsch,, American Legislature, p 216.
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within the exclusive jurisdiction of the COMELEC
en banc. (Codilla v. De Venecia)
It is the COMELEC which decides who the winner
is in an election. A person holding office in the
House must yield his or her seat to the person
declared by the COMELEC to be the winner and
the Speaker is duty bound to administer the oath 188.
The Speaker shall administer the oath on the
winner.
In election contests, however, the jurisdiction of the
COMELEC ends once a candidate has been
proclaimed and has taken his oath of office as a
Member of Congress. Jurisdiction then passes to
the Electoral Tribunal of either the House or the
Senate.189
9. Judicial Review
SC may intervene in the creation of the electoral
tribunal. SC may overturn the decisions of HRET
when there is GADLJ. (Lerias v. HRET)
Judicial review of decisions or final resolutions of
the electoral tribunals is possible only in the
exercise of the Court’s so called extra-ordinary
jurisdiction upon a determination that the tribunal’s
decision or resolution was rendered without or in
excess of jurisdiction or with grave abuse of
discretion constituting denial of due process.
(Robles v. HET)
Q: Are the decisions rendered by the
Electoral Tribunals in the contests of which
they are the sole judge appealable to the
Supreme Court?
A: No. The decisions rendered by the
Electoral Tribunals in the contests of which
they are the sole judge are not appealable to
the Supreme Court except in cases of a
clear showing of a grave abuse of
discretion.
B. Commission on Appointments
Function of CA
Composition
Proportional Representation
Fractional Seats
Voting
Action on Appointments
Ad Interim Appointments not acted upon
Ruling
Section 18. There shall be a
Commission on Appointments
consisting of the President of the
Senate, as ex-officio Chairman,
188
Codilla v. de Venecia, G.R. No. 150605. December 10, 2002.
189
Aggabao v. Comelec, G.R. No. 163756. January 26, 2005;
Vinzons-Chato v. Comelec, GR 172131, April 2, 2007.
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twelve Senators and twelve
Members of the House of
Representatives, elected by each
House on the basis of proportional
representation from the political
parties and parties or organizations
registered under the party-list
system represented therein. The
Chairman of the Commission shall
not vote, except in the case of a tie.
The Commission shall act on all
appointments submitted to it within
thirty session days of the Congress
from the submission. The
Commission shall rule by a majority
vote of all its Members.
1. Function of CA. It acts as a legislative check on
the appointing authority of the President. For the
effectivity of the appointment of certain key
officials, the consent of CA is needed.
2. Composition (25 members)
(1) Senate President as chairman
(2) 12 senators
(3) 12 members of HR
3. Proportional Representation. The members of
the Commission shall be elected by each House on
the basis of proportional representation from the
political party and party list.
The sense of the Constitution is that the
membership in the Commission on Appointment
must always reflect political alignments in
Congress and must therefore adjust to changes. It
is understood that such changes in party affiliation
must be permanent and not merely temporary
alliances (Daza v. Singson)
Endorsement is not sufficient to get a seat in COA.
(Coseteng v. Mitra)
4. Fractional Seats. Fractional seats cannot be
rounded off. The seats should be vacant.
(Coseteng v. Mitra) A full complement of 12
members from the Senate is not mandatory
(Guingona v. Gonzales) Holders of .5 proportion
belonging to distinct parties may not form a unity
for purposes of obtaining a seat in the
Commission. (Guingona v. Gonzales)
5. Voting. The Chairman shall not vote except in
the case of a tie.
6. Action on appointments. The Commission
shall act on all appointments submitted to it within
30 session days of the Congress from the
submission.
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7. Ad interim appointments not acted upon. Ad
interim appointments not acted upon at the time of
the adjournment of the Congress, even if the thirty-
day period has not yet expired, are deemed by-
passed under Article VII, Section 16.
8. Ruling. The Commission shall rule by a majority
vote of all its Members.
C. Constitution of ET and CA
Organization
Reason for early organization of ETs
Reason of provision on CA
CA Meeting
Section 19. The Electoral Tribunals
and the Commission on
Appointments shall be constituted
within thirty days after the Senate
and the House of Representatives
shall have been organized with the
election of the President and the
Speaker. The Commission on
Appointments shall meet only while
the Congress is in session, at the
call of its Chairman or a majority of
all its members, to discharge such
powers and functions as are herein
conferred upon it.
1. Organization. The ET and COA shall be
constituted within 30 days after the Senate and the
House shall have been organized with the election
of the President and the Speaker.
2. Reason for Early organization of ETs. In the
case of Electoral Tribunals, the need for their early
organization is obvious, considering the rash of
election contests already waiting to be filed after,
even before, the proclamation of the winners. This
is also the reason why, unlike the Commission of
Appointments, the Electoral Tribunals are
supposed to continue functioning even during the
recess.190
3. Reason, provision on COA. The provision is
based on the need to enable the President to
exercise his appointing power with dispatch in
coordination with the Commission on
Appointments.
The rule that the Commission on Appointments can
meet only during the session of the Congress is the
reason why ad interim appointments are permitted
under the Constitution. These appointments are
made during the recess, subject to consideration
later by the Commission, for confirmation or
rejection.
But where the Congress in is in session, the
President must first clear his nominations with the
190
Cruz, Philippine Political Law.
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Commission on Appointments, which is why it must Ermita) heads.

be constituted as soon as possible. Unless it is Subject Matter
organized, no appointment can be made by the Any mattes for purpose of Matters related to the
President in the meantime.191 legislation department only
Obligatory force of appearance
4. COA meeting Mandatory Discretionary
The Commission on Appointments shall meet only
while the Congress is in session to discharge its A. Inquiries in Aid of Legislation
powers and functions. Who has the power
Nature
The Commission on Appointments shall meet at Limitation of Power
the call of its Chairman or a majority of all its Reason for Limitation
members Scope of Questions
Who may be summoned
VIII. RECORDS AND BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS Power to Punish
Rights of Persons
Courts and Committee
Section 20. The records and books Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
of accounts of the Congress shall Neri v. Senate Committee
be preserved and be open to the
public in accordance with law, and Section 21. The Senate or the
such books shall be audited by the House of Representatives or any of
Commission on Audit which shall its respective committees may
publish annually an itemized list of conduct inquiries in aid of
amounts paid to and expenses legislation in accordance with its
incurred for by each Member. duly published rules of procedure.
The rights of persons appearing in
Records and books of accounts or affected by such inquiries shall
The records and books of accounts of the be respected.
Congress shall be preserved and be open to the
public in accordance with law. Power of Inquiry

The records and books of accounts of the 1. Who has the power
Congress shall be audited by the Commission on The Senate or the House of Representatives or
Audit. any of its respective committees may conduct
inquiries in aid of legislation.
The Commission on Audit shall publish annually an
itemized list of amounts paid to and expenses 2. Nature
incurred for by each Member. The power of inquiry is an essential and
appropriate auxiliary to the legislative action.
IX. LEGISLATIVE HEARINGS (Arnault v. Nazareno) It has been remarked that the
(INQUIRIES AND OVERSIGHT FUNCTIONS) power of legislative investigation may be implied
from the express power of legislation and does not
itself have to be expressly granted.192
A. Inquiries in Aid of Legislation
B. Oversight Functions 3. Limitations193:

There are two provisions on legislative hearing, 1. It must be in aid of legislation194

Sections 21 and 22. Section 21 is about legislative 2. It must be in accordance with its duly
investigations in aid of legislation. published rules of procedure195

Section 21. Legislative Section 22. Oversight

Investigation Function 192
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 155 (1995 ed).
Who may appear 193
See Concurring Opinion of Justice Corona in Neri v. Senate
Any person Department heads Committee; See also Bernas Commentary, p737 (2003 ed).
Who may be summoned 194
This requirement is an essential element for establishing
Anyone except the No one. Each house may jurisdiction of the legislative body.
President and SC only request the 195
Section 21 may be read as requiring that Congress must have
members (Senate v. appearance of department “duly published rules of procedure” for legislative investigations.
Violation of these rules would be an offense against due process.
191
Cruz, Philippine Political Law. (Bernas Commentary p. 740 (2003 ed).

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3. The rights of persons appearing in or affected
by such inquiries shall be respected.
4. Power of Congress to commit a witness for
contempt terminates when the legislative body
ceases to exist upon its final adjournment.196
(Note: 1-3 are explicit limitations while 4 is an
implicit limitation.)
4. Reason for the limitations
The reason is in the past, this power was much
abused by some legislators who used it for
illegitimate ends to browbeat or intimidate
witnesses usually for grandstanding purposes only.
There were also times when the subject of inquiry
was purely private in nature and therefore outside
the scope of the powers of Congress.197
5. Scope of questions
It is not necessary that every question propounded
to a witness must be material to a proposed
legislation. (Arnault v. Nazareno) This is because
the legislative action is determined by the
information gathered as a whole. (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
6. Who may be summoned under Section 21
Senate v. Ermita198 specified who may and who
may not be summoned to Section 21 hearings.
Thus, under this rule, even a Department Head
who is an alter ego of the President may be
summoned. Thus, too, the Chairman and
members of the Presidential Commission on Good
Government (PCGG) are not except from
summons in spite of the exemption given to them
by President Cory Aquino during her executive
rule.199 The Court ruled that anyone, except the
President and Justices of the Supreme Court
may be summoned.
7. Power to punish
Legislative Contempt. The power of investigation
necessarily includes the power to punish a
contumacious witness for contempt. (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
Acts punished as legislative contempt. The US
Supreme Court in the case of Marshall v. Gordon200
mentions:
1. Physical obstruction of the legislative body in
the discharge of its duties.
196
This must be so inasmuch as the basis of the power to impose
such a penalty is the right which the Legislature has to self-
preservation, and which right is enforceable during the existence of
the legislative body. (CJ Avancena in Lopez v De los Reyes)
197
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 155 (1995 ed).
198
G.R. No. 169777, April 20, 2006.
199
Sabio v. Gordon, G.R. No. 174318, October 17, 2006.
200
243 US 521.
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2. Physical assault upon its members for action
taken or words spoken in the body;
3. Obstruction of its officers in the performance of
their official duties
4. Prevention of members from attending so that
their duties might be performed
5. Contumacy in refusing to obey orders to
produce documents or give testimony
which was a right to compel.201
Power to punish for contempt and local
legislative bodies. The power to punish may not
be claimed by local legislative bodies (Negros
Oriental Electric Cooperative v. Sangguniang
Panglunsod)
Power to punish is sui generis. The exercise of
the legislature of contempt power is a matter of
preservation and independent of the judicial
branch. Such power is sui generis. (Sabio v.
Gordon)
Q: When may a witness in an investigation
be punished for contempt?
A: When a contumacious witness’ testimony
is required in a matter into which the
legislature or any of its committees has
jurisdiction to. (In short, the investigation
must be in aid of legislation.) (Arnault v.
Nazareno)
Q: For how long may a private individual be
imprisoned by the legislature for contempt?
A: For HR: Until final adjournment of the
body. For Senate: Offender could be
imprisoned indefinitely by the body provided
that punishment did not become so long as
to violate due process. (Arnault v. Nazareno)
8. Rights of persons
PhilComStat has no reasonable expectation of
privacy over matters involving their offices in a
corporation where the government has interest.
(Sabio v. Gordon)
9. Courts and the Committee
A court cannot enjoin the appearance of a witness
in a legislative investigation. (Senate Blue Ribbon
Committee v. Judge Majaducon)
Bernas: The general rule of fairness, (which is what
due process is about) could justify exclusion of
persons from appearance before the Committee.
Q: Section 1 of EO 464 provides that “all
heads of departments of the Executive
Branch shall secure the consent of the
President prior to appearing before House
of Congress.” Does this contravene the
201
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 208 (1954ed).
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power of inquiry vested in the Congress?
Is Section 1 valid?
A: Valid. The SC read Section 1 of EO
464 to mean that department heads need
the consent of the president only in
question hour contemplated in Section
22 of Article VI. (The reading is dictated by
the basic rule of construction that
issuances must be interpreted,as much as
possible, in a way that will render it
constitutional.)
Section 1 of EO 464 cannot be applied to
appearances of department heads in
inquiries in aid of legislation. Congress
is not bound in such instances to respect
the refusal of the department head in such
inquiry, unless a valid claim of privilege
is subsequently made, either by the
President or by the Executive Secretary.
(Senate v. Ermita; EO 464 case)
10. Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
Senate v. Ermita: “Congress has undoubtedly has
a right to information from the executive branch
whenever it is sought in aid of legislation. If the
executive branch withholds such information on the
ground that it is privileged, it must so assert it
and state the reason therefore and why it must
be respected.” (Justice Carpio Morales in Senate
v. Ermita)
Neri v. Senate: Was the claim of executive
privilege properly invoked in this case? Yes
according to the Justice Leonardo-De Castro’s
ponencia. For the claim to be properly invoked,
there must be a formal claim by the President
stating the “precise and certain reason” for
preserving confidentiality. The grounds relied upon
by Executive Secretary Ermita are specific enough,
since what is required is only that an allegation be
made “whether the information demanded involves
military or diplomatic secrets, closed-door Cabinet
meetings, etc.” The particular ground must only be
specified, and the following statement of grounds
by Executive Secretary Ermita satisfies the
requirement: “The context in which executive
privilege is being invoked is that the information
sought to be disclosed might impair our diplomatic
as well as economic relations with the People’s
Republic of China.”202
11. Neri v. Senate Committee
Background:
This case is about the Senate investigation of
anomalies concerning the NBN-ZTE project. During
the hearings, former NEDA head Romulo Neri
refused to answer certain questions involving his
conversations with President Arroyo on the ground
they are covered by executive privilege. When the
202
Primer on Neri v. Senate made by Atty. Carlos Medina.
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Senate cited him in contempt and ordered his arrest,
Neri filed a case against the Senate with the
Supreme Court. On March 25, 2008, the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Neri and upheld the claim of
executive privilege.
Issues:
(1) xxx
(2) Did the Senate Committees commit grave
abuse of discretion in citing Neri in contempt and
ordering his arrest?
Ruling:
(1) xxx
(2) Yes. The Supreme Court said that the Senate
Committees committed grave abuse of discretion
in citing Neri in contempt. The following were the
reasons given by the Supreme Court:
a. There was a legitimate claim of executive
privilege.
b. Senate Committees did not comply with
the requirement laid down in Senate v.
Ermita that the invitations should contain
the “possible needed statute which
prompted the need for the inquiry” along
with “usual indication of the subject of
inquiry and the questions relative to and
in furtherance thereof.”
c. A reading of the transcript of the
Committees’ proceeding reveals that only
a minority of the member of the Senate
Blue Ribbon Committee was present
during the deliberations Thus, there is a
cloud of doubt as to the validity of the
contempt order
d. The Senate Rules of Procedure in aid of
legislation were not duly published in
accordance to Section 21 of Article VI.
e. The contempt order is arbitrary and
precipitate because the Senate did not first
rule on the claim of executive privilege and
instead dismissed Neri’s explanation as
unsatisfactory. This is despite the fact that
Neri is not an unwilling witness.
Hence, the Senate order citing Neri in contempt and
ordering his arrest was not valid.
B. Oversight Function
Purpose of Section 22
Oversight Function
Appearance of Heads of Department
Why Permission of President Needed
Exemption from Summons
Appearance at the Request of Congress
Written Questions
Scope of Interpellations
Executive Session
Congress may refuse the initiative
Section 22. The Heads of
Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the consent of the
President, or upon the request of
either House as the rules of each
House shall provide, appear before
and be heard by such House on
any matter pertaining to their
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departments. Written questions It should be noted, that the exemption from

shall be submitted to the President
of Senate or the Speaker of the
House of Representatives at least
three days before their scheduled
appearance. Interpellations shall
not be limited to written questions,
but may cover matters related
thereto. When the security of the
State or the public interest so
requires and the President so
states in writing, the appearance
shall be conducted in executive
session.
1. Purpose of Section 22
The provision formalizes the “oversight function” of
Congress. Section 22 establishes the rule for the
exercise of what is called the “oversight function” of
Congress. Such function is intended to enable
Congress to determine how laws it has passed are
being implemented.
2. Oversight function
“Broadly defined, congressional oversight
embraces all activities undertaken by Congress to
enhance its understanding of and influence over
the implementation of legislation it has enacted.”203
The acts done by Congress in the exercise of its
oversight powers may be divided into three
categories, to wit: scrutiny, investigation, and
supervision.204
3. Appearance of Heads of Departments by
their own initiative
The Heads of Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the consent of the President
appear before and be heard by either House on
any matter pertaining to their departments.
4. Why permission of the President needed
In deference to separation of powers, and because
Department Heads are alter egos of the President,
they may not appear without the permission of the
President.205
5. Exemption from summons applies only to
Department Heads
203
Macalintal v. Commission on Elections, 405 SCRA 614
(2003), at 705.
204
Macalintal v. Commission on Elections, 405 SCRA 614 (2003),
at 3.
205
This was explicitly mentioned in the deliberations of the 1935
Constitutional Convention where some Delegates had doubts about
the propriety or constitutionality of Department Heads appearing in
Congress. Such deference is not found, by the Court’s interpretation,
in Section 21.
summons applies only to Department Heads and
not to everyone who has Cabinet rank.
Q: Does Section 22 provide for a
“question hour”?
A:
Bernas Primer: No. the “question hour” is
proper to parliamentary system where there
is no separation between the legislative and
executive department. Section 22, unlike in
the “question hour” under the 1973
Constitution, has made the appearance of
department heads voluntary.
But wait! The SC in Senate v. Ermita,
adopting the characterization of
constitutional commissioner Hilario Davide,
calls Section 22 as the provision on
“Question Hour”:“[Section 22] pertains to
the power to conduct a question hour, the
objective of which is to obtain information in
pursuit of Congress’ oversight function.”
Reconcile: Although the Court decision calls
this exercise a “question hour,” it does so
only by analogy with its counterpart in
parliamentary practice.
6. Appearance at the request of Congress
The Heads of Departments may upon their own
initiative, with the consent of the President, or
upon the request of either House as the rules of
each House shall provide, appear before and be
heard by such House on any matter pertaining to
their departments.
7. Written Questions
Written questions shall be submitted to the Senate
President or the House Speaker at least 3 days
before their scheduled appearance.
8. Scope of Interpellations
Interpellations shall not be limited to written
questions, but may cover matters related thereto.
9. Executive Session
The appearance shall be conducted in executive
session when:
(1) The public interest so requires
(2) The President so states in writing.
10. Congress may refuse the initiative
Because of separation of powers, department
secretaries may not impose their appearance upon

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either House.206 Hence, the Congress may refuse Section 23

the initiative taken by the department secretary.207 (2) In times of war or other national
emergency, the Congress may by
X. Emergency Powers law authorize the President, for a
limited period and subject to such
restrictions as it may prescribe, to
A. Declaration of the existence of a state of war exercise powers necessary and
B. Delegation of emergency power proper to carry out a declared
national policy. Unless sooner
A. War power withdrawn by resolution of the
1. Power to declare existence of a state of war Congress, such power shall cease
2. Rewording of the provision upon the next adjournment thereof.

Section 23. (1) The Congress, by a 1. Requisites for the delegation: (1997 Bar Q)
vote of two-thirds of both Houses in
joint session assembled, voting (1) There must be a war212 or other national
separately, shall have the sole emergency
power to declare the existence of a (2) Law authorizing the president for a limited
state of war. period and subject to such restrictions as
Congress may prescribe
1. Power to declare existence of a state of (3) Power to be exercised must be necessary and
war208 proper to carry out a declared national policy.
The Congress, by a vote of 2/3 of both Houses in
2. Duration of the delegation:
joint session assembled, voting separately, shall
have the sole power to declare the existence of a (1) Until withdrawn by resolution of Congress
state of war. (2) Until the next adjournment of Congress

2. Rewording of the provision 3. Powers that may be delegated

From 1935 Constitution’s power to declare war209 to
power to declare the existence of a state of war
under 1987.
Bernas: The difference between the two
phraseologies is not substantial but merely in
emphasis. The two phrase were interchangeable,
but the second phrase emphasizes more the fact
that the Philippines, according to Article II, Section
2, renounces aggressive war as an instrument of
national policy.210
Q: May a country engage in war in the
absence of declaration of war?
A: Yes. The actual power to make war is
lodged in the Executive. The executive when
necessary may make war even in the
absence of a declaration of war.211
B. Delegation of emergency powers
1. Requisites for Delegation
2. Duration of delegation
3. Powers that may be delegated
4. Withdrawal of powers
Congress may authorize the President, to exercise
powers necessary and proper to carry out a
declared national policy Note that the nature of
delegable power is not specified. It is submitted
that the President may be given emergency
legislative powers if Congress so desires.213
4. Withdrawal of powers
Congress may do it by a mere resolution.214 And
such resolution does not need presidential
approval.215
XI. BILLS/ LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
Origination Clause
One bill-one subject rule
Passage of a bill
Presidential Approval, Veto or Inaction; Legislative
Reconsideration
Item Veto
Doctrine of inappropriate provisions
Executive Impoundment
Legislative Veto

A. Origination Clause
206
Bernas Primer at 263 (2006 ed.)
207
Bernas Commentary, p 744 (2003 ed). 212
War is defined as “armed hostilities between the two states. (II
208
War is defined as “armed hostilities between the two states. (II RECORD 169)
RECORD 169) 213
Bernas Primer at 265 (2006 ed.)
209
Wording of the 1935 Constitution. 214
See concurring opinion of Justice Padilla in Rodriguez v. Gella,
210
Bernas Commentary, p 745 (2003 ed). 49 Off. Gaz. 465, 472.
211 215
Bernas Primer at 264 (2006 ed.) Bernas Primer at 265 (2006 ed.)

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Exclusive Origination Clause law will be passed. (Tolentino v. Secretary of

Bills that must exclusively originate from HR Finance)
Origination from the House, Meaning
Reason for exclusive origination 4. Reason for exclusive origination
Senate may propose amendments The district representatives are closer to the pulse
Scope of Senate’s power to introduce amendments of the people than senators are and are therefore
in a better position to determine both the extent of
Section 24. All appropriation, the legal burden they are capable of bearing and
revenue or tariff bills, bills the benefits that they need.222 It is more numerous
authorizing increase of the public in membership and therefore also more
debt, bills of local application and representative of the people.223
private bills shall originate
exclusively in the House of 5. Senate may propose amendments
Representatives, but the Senate The addition of the word “exclusively” in the
may propose or concur with Constitution is not intended to limit the power of the
amendments. Senate to propose amendments to revenue bills.
(Tolentino v. Sec. of Finance)
1. Origin of money bills, private bills and bills of
local application 6. Scope of the Senate’s power to introduce
All appropriation216, revenue217 or tariff bills218, bills amendments
authorizing increase of the public debt219, bills of Once the House has approved a revenue bill and
local application220 and private bills221 shall originate passed it on to the Senate, the Senate can
exclusively in the House of Representatives, but completely overhaul it, by amendment of parts or
the Senate may propose or concur with by amendment by substitution, and come out
amendments. with one completely different from what the
House approved. Textually, it is the “bill” which
2. Bills that must exclusively originate from the must exclusively originate from the House; but the
HR: “law” itself which is the product of the total
(1) Appropriation bills bicameral legislative process originates not just
(2) Revenue bills from the House but from both Senate and House.
(3) Tariff bills (Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance)
(4) Bills authorizing increase of the public debt
(5) Bills of local application (Discussion of Section 25 can be found after Section
(6) Private bills 29(3))

3. Origination from the House B. One bill-one subject rule

The exclusivity of the prerogative of the House of Mandatory Nature of the Rule
Representatives means simply that the House Purpose of the Rule
alone can initiate the passage of revenue bill, such Liberal Interpretation of the Rule
that, if the House does not initiate one, no revenue Germane
Not Germane

216
An appropriation bill is one whose purpose is to set aside a sum of Section 26. (1) Every bill passed
money for public use. Only appropriation bills in the strict sense of by the Congress shall embrace
the word are comprehended by the provision; bills for other purposes only one subject shall be
which incidentally set aside money for that purpose are not included. expressed in the title thereof.
Bernas Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed).
217
A revenue bull is one that levies taxes and raises funds for the 1. Mandatory nature of the rule
government. Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed).
218 Every bill passed by the Congress shall embrace
A tariff bill specifies the rates of duties to be imposed on imported
articles. Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed).
only one subject. The subject shall be expressed in
219 the title of the bill. This rule is mandatory.
A bill increasing public debt is illustrated by one floating bonds
for public subscription redeemable after a certain period. Cruz,
Philippine Political Law, p. 144 (1995 ed). The requirement is satisfied when:
220
Bills of local application are those which is limited to specific (1) All parts of the law relate to the subject
localities, such for instance as the creation of a town. Bernas expressed in the title
Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed). (2) It is not necessary that the title be a complete
221
Private bills are those which affect private persons, such for index of the content (PHILCONSA v. Gimenez)
instance as a bill granting citizenship to a specific foreigner. Bernas
Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed). Private bills are illustrated by a bill 222
granting honorary citizenship to a distinguished foreigner. Cruz, . Bernas Commentary, p 748 (2003 ed).
223
Philippine Political Law, p. 155 (1995 ed). Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 145 (1995 ed).

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2. Purpose of the Rule:
(1) To prevent hodge-podge or log-rolling
legislation
(2) To prevent surprise or fraud upon the legislature
(3) To fairly appraise the people. (Central Capiz v.
Ramirez)
3. Liberal interpretation of the rule
The rule should be given a practical rather than a
strict construction. It should be sufficient
compliance with such requirement if the title
expresses the general subject and all the
provisions of the statute are germane to that
general subject. (Sumulong v. COMELEC)
4. Germane
A partial exemption from the increase of tax imposed is
not a deviation from the general subject of the law.
(Insular Lumber Co. v. CTA)
A tax may be germane and reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of the general object of the decree for
regulation. (Tio v. VRB)
A repealing clause does not have to be expressly
included in the title of the law. (Phil. Judges Assoc. v.
Prado)
The creation of a new legislative district is germane to
“the conversion of a municipality to an urbanized city.”
(Tobias v. Abalos)
The reorganization of the remaining administrative
regions is germane to the general subject of “establishing
the ARMM”. (Chiongbayan v. Orbos)
The expansion in the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan
does not have to be expressly stated in the title of the law
(An Act Further Defining the Jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan) because such is the necessary
consequence of the amendment. (Lacson v. Executive
Secretary)
A provision that states that “no election officer shall hold
office for more than four years” is relevant to the title “An
Act Providing for a General Registration of voters,
Adopting a System of Continuing Registration,
Prescribing Procedures Thereof and Authorizing the
Appropriation of Funds Therefor” as it seeks to ensure the
integrity of the registration process by providing
guidelines for the COMELEC to follow in the
reassignment of election officers. (De Guzman v.
COMELEC)
The abolition of 2 municipalities is but a logical
consequence of its merger to create a city.
5. Not Germane
Prohibition of places of amusement should be included
in the title of the law which only provides for the
regulation of places of amusement. (De la Cruz v. Paras)
C. Passage of a bill
Rules
Procedure
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Reason for three readings
Section 26
(2) No bill passed by either House
shall become a law unless it has
passed three readings on separate
days, and printed copies whereof in
its final form have been distributed
to its Members three days before
its passage, except when the
President certifies to the necessity
of its immediate enactment to meet
a public calamity or emergency.
Upon the last reading of a bill, no
amendment thereto shall be
allowed, and the vote thereon shall
be taken immediately thereafter,
and the yeas and the nays entered
in the Journal.
1. Rules
(1) No bill passed by either House shall become a
law unless it has passed three readings on
separate days.
(2) Printed copies of the bill in its final form should
be distributed to the Members 3 days before
its passage (except when the President
certifies to the necessity of its immediate
enactment to meet a public calamity or
emergency).
(3) Upon the last reading of a bill, no amendment
thereto shall be allowed.
(4) The vote on the bill shall be taken immediately
after the last reading of a bill.
(5) The yeas and the nays shall be entered in the
Journal.
Exception. The certification of the President
dispenses with the reading on separate days and
the printing of the bill in the final form before its
final approval. (Tolentino v. Secretary of Fincance)
Operative. All decrees which are not inconsistent
with the Constitution remain operative until they are
amended or repealed. (Guingona v. Carague)
2. Procedure:224
1. A bill is introduced by any member of the
House of Representatives or Senate except for
some measures that must originate only in the
former chamber.
2. The first reading involves only a reading of
the number and title of the measure and its
referral by the Senate President or the
Speaker to the proper committee for study.
3. The bill may be killed in the committee or it
may be recommended for approval, with or
without amendments, sometimes after public
hearings are first held thereon. (If there are
other bills of the same nature or purpose, they
224
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 155 (1995 ed).
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may all be consolidated into one bill under
common authorship or as a committee bill.)
4. Once reported out, the bill shall be calendared
for second reading. It is at this stage that the
bill is read in its entirety, scrutinized, debated
upon and amended when desired. The second
reading is the most important stage in the
passage of the bill.
5. The bill as approved in second reading is
printed in its final form and copies thereof are
distributed at least three days before the third
reading. On third reading, the members
merely register their votes and explain them if
they are allowed by the rules. No further
debate is allowed.
6. Once the bill passes third reading, it is sent to
the other chamber, where it will also undergo
the three readings.
7. If also approved by the second House, it will
then be submitted to the President for his
consideration.
8. The bill is enrolled when printed as finally
approved by the Congress, thereafter
authenticated with the signatures of the
Senate President, the Speaker, and the
Secretaries of their respective chambers, and
approved by the President.
3. Reason for three readings
To address the tendency of legislators, (on the last
day of the legislative year when legislators were
eager to go home), to rush bills through and insert
matters which would not otherwise stand scrutiny in
leisurely debate.225
Q: If the version approved by the Senate
is different from that approved by the
House of Representatives, how are the
differences reconciled?
A: In a bicameral system bills are
independently processed by both Houses
of Congress. It is not unusual that the final
version approved by one House differs
from what has been approved by the
other. The “conference committee,”
consisting of members nominated from
both Houses, is an extra-constitutional
creation of Congress whose function is to
propose to Congress ways of reconciling
conflicting provisions found in the Senate
version and in the House version of a bill.
D. Presidential Approval, Veto or Inaction;
Legislative Reconsideration
Three Methods
Presidential Approval
Presidential Veto
225
See Bernas Commentary, p 760 (2003 ed).
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Legislative Approval of the bill
Presidential Inaction
Section 27. (1)Every bill passed
by the Congress shall, before it
becomes a law, be presented to the
President. If he approves the same,
he shall sign it; otherwise, he shall
veto it and return the same with his
objections to the House where it
originated, which shall enter the
objections at large in its Journal,
and proceed to consider it. If, after
such reconsideration, two-thirds of
all the Members of such House
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall
be sent, together with the
objections to the other House by
which it shall likewise be
reconsidered, and if approved by
two-thirds of all the Members of
that House, it shall become a law.
In all such cases, the votes of each
House shall be determined by yeas
or nays, and the names of the
Members voting for or against shall
be entered in its Journal. The
President shall communicate his
veto of any bill to the House where
it originated within thirty days after
the date of receipt thereof;
otherwise, it shall become a law as
if he had signed it.
1. Three methods by which a bill may become a
law: (1988 Bar Question)
1. When the President signs it;
2. When the President vetoes it but the veto is
overridden by two-thirds vote of all the
members of each House;
3. When the President does not act upon the
measure within 30 days after it shall have
been presented to him.
2. Presidential approval
(1) Passed bill is presented to the President
(2) President signs the bill if he approves the same
(3) The bill becomes a law.
3. Presidential veto
(1) Passed bill is presented to the President
(2) President vetoes the bill if he does not approve
of it.
(3) He returns the passed bill with his objections to
the House where it originated. (Veto Mesasge)
General rule: If the president
disapproves the bill approved by
Congress, he should veto the entire
bill. He is not allowed to veto
separate items of a bill.
Exceptions:
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(1) President may veto an item in

cases of appropriation,
revenue and tariff bills.
(2) President may veto
inappropriate provisions or
riders.

4. Legislative reconsideration of the bill (1993

Bar Question)
(1) The House where the bill originated enters the
objections of the President at large in its Journal.
(2) Said House reconsiders the bill.
(3) 2/3 of all the Members of such House agree to
pass the bill.
(4) The bill together with the objections is sent to
the other House by which it is also reconsidered.
(5) The other House approves the bill by 2/3 of all
the members of that House.
(6) The bill becomes a law.
In all such cases, the votes of each House shall be
determined by yeas or nays.
The names of the Members voting for or against
shall be entered in its Journal.

Q: When does the Constitution require that

the yeas and nays of the Members be taken
every time a House has to vote?
A:
1. Upon the last and third readings of a bill
(art. 6 sec26(2))
2. At the request of 1/5 of the members
present (art 6 sec 16(4))
3. In repassing a bill over the veto of the
President (art 6 sec 27(1))

5. Presidential Inaction
(1) Passed bill is presented to the President
(2) President does not approve nor communicate
his veto to the House where the bill originated
within 30 days.
(3) The bill becomes a law.

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E. Item veto
Section 27
(2) The President shall have the
power to veto any particular item or
items in an appropriation, revenue,
or tariff bill, but the veto shall not
affect the item or items to which he
does not object.
Again, the General rule is: If the president
disapproves the bill approved by Congress, he
should veto the entire bill. He is not allowed to veto
separate items of a bill.
Exceptions:
(1) President may veto an item in cases of
appropriation, revenue and tariff bills.
(2) President may veto inappropriate provisions
or riders.
Item. An item is an indivisible [sum] of money
dedicated to a stated purpose.226 (Item = Purpose,
Amount)
In a tax measure, an item refers to the subject of
the tax and the tax rate. It does not refer to the
entire section imposing a particular kind of tax.
(CIR v. CTA)
The president may not veto the method or manner
of using an appropriated amount. (Bengzon v.
Drillon)
F. Doctrine of inappropriate provisions
Doctrine
Reason for the Doctrine
Inappropriate Provisions
Appropriate Provisions
1. Doctrine
A provision that is constitutionally inappropriate for
an appropriation bill may be singled out for veto
even if it is not an appropriation or revenue “item”.
(Gonzales v. Macaraig)
2. Reason for the Doctrine
The intent behind the doctrine is to prevent the
legislature from forcing the government to veto an
entire appropriation law thereby paralyzing
government.
3. Inappropriate Provisions
Repeal of laws. Repeal of laws should not be
done in appropriation act but in a separate law
(PHILCONSA v. Enriquez) (use this doctrine
carefully)
The requirement of congressional approval for the
release of funds for the modernization of the AFP
226
Bernas Primer, p. 276 (2006 ed.)
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must be incorporated in a separate bill. Being an
inappropriate provision, it was properly vetoed.
(PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
The proviso on “power of augmentation from
savings” can by no means be considered a specific
appropriation of money. (Gonzales v. Macaraig)
4. Appropriate Provisions
The special provision providing that “the maximum
amount of the appropriation for the DPWH to be
contracted for the maintenance of national roads
and bridges should not exceed 30%” is germane to
the appropriation for road maintenance. It specifies
how the item shall be spent. It cannot be vetoed
separately from the item. (PHILCONSA v.
Enriquez)
The special provision that all purchases of
medicines by the AFP should comply with Generics
Act is a mere advertence to an existing law. It is
directly related to the appropriation and cannot be
vetoed separately from the item. (PHILCONSA v.
Enriquez)
G. Executive Impoundment:
Refusal of the President to spend funds already
allocated by Congress for a specific purpose. (See
PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
H. Legislative veto
A Congressional veto is a means whereby the
legislature can block or modify administrative
action taken under a statute. It is a form of
legislative control in the implementation of
particular executive actions.
XII. FISCAL POWERS/ POWER OF THE PURSE
Taxation
A. Nature
B. Limitations
C. Delegation of power to tax
D. Exempted from taxation
Spending Power
A. Spending Power
B. Appropriation
C. Non-establishment provision
D. Special Fund
E. Appropriation
Power of the Purse. Congress is the guardian of
the public treasury. It wields the tremendous power
of the purse. The power of the purse comprehends
both the power to generate money for the
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government by taxation and the power to spend martial rule product, which imposed a ten peso
it.227 capital contribution for the sale of each bag of
fertilizer “until adequate capital is raised to make
TAXATION PPI viable.” PPI was private corporation. Clearly,
therefore, the imposition was for private benefit and
Section 28. (1) The rule of taxation not for a public purpose.
shall be uniform and equitable. The
Congress shall evolve a B. Limitations on Power of Taxation
progressive system of taxation. 1. Rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable.
Congress shall evolve a progressive system
A. Nature of taxation.
Definition 2. Charitable institutions, etc. and all lands, building
Scope and improvements actually, directly and
Purposes exclusively used for religious, charitable or
Tax educational purposes shall be exempt from
Public Purpose taxation. (art. 6 §28(3))
3. All revenues and assets of non-stock, non-profit
1. Definition educational institutions used actually, directly
and exclusively for educational purposes shall
Taxation refers to the inherent power of the state to
be exempt from taxes and duties. (art. 14
demand enforced contributions for public purposes.
§4(3))
4. Law granting tax exemption shall be passed only
2. Scope
with the concurrence of the majority of all the
Taxation is so pervasive that it reaches even the members of Congress. (art. 6 §29(4)
citizen abroad and his income earned from source
outside the State. UNIFORM
General Limit: For a public purpose; Due process
and equal protection clauses (Sison v. Ancheta) Uniformity. Uniformity signifies geographical
Specific Limit: Uniform and equitable (Section 28) uniformity. A tax is uniform when it operates with
(See 29(2)) the same force and effect in every place where the
Exercise of the power: Primarily vested in the subject is found.
national legislature.
Uniformity in taxation v. Equality in taxation.
3. Purposes: Uniformity in taxation means that persons or things
(1) To raise revenue belonging to the same class shall be taxed at the
(2) Instrument of national economic and social same rate. It is distinguished from equality in
policy taxation in that the latter requires the tax imposed
(3) Tool for regulation to be determined on the basis of the value of the
(4) The power to keep alive228 property.231

4. Tax Tan v. del Rosario:

Taxes are enforced proportional contributions from
persons and property levied by the law making
body of the state by virtue of its sovereignty for the
support of the government and all public needs.
Justice Holmes said: “Taxes are what we pay for
civilized society.”
5. Public Purpose
It is fundamental in democratic governments that
taxes may be levied for public purpose only.
Without this element, a tax violates the due
process clause and is invalid.229 In Planters
Products, Inc. (PPI) v. Fertiphil Corp.230 the Court
had occasion to review the validity of LOI 1465, a
Uniformity means:
(1) the standards that are used therefor are
substantial and not arbitrary;
(2) the categorization is germane to achieve the
legislative purpose;
(3) the law applies, all things being equal, to both
present and future conditions; and
(4) the classification applies equally well to all
those belonging to the same class.
There is a difference between the homeless people
and the middle class. The two social classes are
differently situated in life. (Tolentino v. Sec. of
Finance)

EQUITABLE
227
Bernas Commentary, p 785 (2003 ed).
228
Bernas Primer at 278 (2006 ed.)
229
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 579 (1954ed).
230 231
G.R. No. 166006, March 14, 2008. Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 168 (1995 ed).

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The present constitution adds that the rule of
taxation shall also be equitable, which means that
the tax burden must be imposed according to the
taxpayer’s capacity to pay.232
Progressive system of taxation. The Congress
shall evolve a progressive system of taxation. Tax
system is progressive when the rate increases as
the tax base increases.233
Reason for progressive system. The explicit
mention of progressive taxation in the Constitution
reflects the wish of the Commission that the
legislature should use the power of taxation as an
instrument for a more equitable distribution of
wealth.
Directive not a judicially enforceable right. The
directive to evolve a progressive system of taxation
is addressed to Congress and not a judicially
enforceable right. (Tolentino v. Sec. of Finance)
Indirect taxes. The Constitution does not prohibit
the imposition of indirect taxes, which are
regressive. The provision simply means that direct
taxes are to be preferred and indirect taxes should
be minimized as much as possible. It does not
require Congress to avoid entirely indirect taxes.
Otherwise, sales taxes, which are the oldest form
of indirect taxes, will be prohibited. The mandate to
Congress is not to prescribe but to evolve a
progressive system of taxation. (Tolentino v. Sec. of
Finance)
C. Delegation of power to tax
Conditions
Tariffs and Customs Code
Limitation imposed regarding the Flexible Tariff Clause
Section 28
(2) The Congress may by law,
authorize the President to fix within
specified limits, and subject to such
limitations and restrictions at it may
impose, tariff rates, import and
export quotas, tonnage and
wharfage dues, and other duties or
imposts within the framework of the
national development program of
the Government.
1. Conditions in the delegation of the power to
tax:
(1) Delegation must be made by law
(2) The power granted is to fix tariff rates, import
and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues,
and other duties and impost.
232
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 168 (1995 ed).
233
Bernas Commentary, p 779 (2003 ed).
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(3) The said power is to be exercised within
specified limits and subject to such limitations and
restrictions as the Congress may impose.
(4) The authorization of such power must be within
the framework of the national development
program of the Government.
2. Tariff and Customs Code, Flexible Tariff
Clause
The President is given by the Tariff and Customs
Code ample powers to adjust tariff rates.
Flexible Tariff Clause
The President may fix tariff rates, import and export
quotas, etc. under TCC:
1) To increase, reduce or remove existing
protective rates of import duty (including any
necessary change in classification)
 the existing rates may be increased or
decreased to any level on one or several
stages but in no case shall be higher
than a maximum of 100% as valorem
2) To establish import quota or to ban imports of
any commodity, as may be necessary
3) To impose an additional duty on all imports not
exceeding 10% ad valorem whenever
necessary
3. Limitation Imposed Regarding the Flexible
Tariff Clause
1) Conduct by the Tariff Commission of an
investigation in a public hearing
 The Commissioner shall also hear the
views and recommendations of any
government office, agency or
instrumentality concerned
 The NEDA thereafter shall submits its
recommendation to the President
2) The power of the President to increase or
decrease the rates of import duty within the
abovementioned limits fixed in the Code shall
include the modification in the form of duty.
 In such a case the corresponding ad
valorem or specific equivalents of the duty
with respect to the imports from the
principal competing country for the most
recent representative period shall be used
as bases. (Sec 401 TCC)
D. Exempted from taxation
Exempted from taxation
Kind of tax exemption
“Exclusively”, Meaning
Elements in determining a charitable institution
Reason for Requirement of Absolute Majority
Section 28
(3) Charitable institutions, churches
and parsonages or convents
appurtenant thereto, mosques,
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non-profit cemeteries and all lands,
buildings, and improvement
actually, directly, and exclusively
used for religious, charitable, or
educational purposes shall be
exempt from taxation.
1. Exempted:
(1) Charitable institutions
(2) Churches
(3) Parsonages or convents appurtenant to
churches
(4) Mosques
(5) Non-profit cemeteries
(6) All lands, buildings, and improvement actually,
directly and exclusively used for religious,
charitable, or educational purpose shall be exempt
from taxation.
2. Kind of tax exemption under 28(3)
The exemption created by Section 28 is only for
taxes assessed as property taxes and not excise
tax. (CIR v. CA)
3. “Exclusively”
The phrase “exclusively used for educational
purposes” extends to facilities which are incidental
to and reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of the main purpose. (Abra Valley
College v. Aquino)
PCGG has no power to grant tax exemptions
(Chavez v. PCGG)
4. Elements to be considered in determining
whether an enterprise is a charitable
institution/entity:
(1) Statute creating the enterprise
(2) Its corporate purposes
(3) Its constitution and by-laws
(4) Method of administration
(5) Nature of actual work performed
(6) Character of services rendered
(7) Indefiniteness of the beneficiaries
(8) Use and occupation of the properties (Lung
Center v. QC)
Section 28
(4) No law granting any tax
exemption shall be passed without
the concurrence of a majority of all
the Members of the Congress.
5. Reason for absolute majority
Bills ordinarily passed with support of only a simple
majority, or a majority of those present and voting.
The above provision requires an absolute majority
of the entire membership of the Congress because
a tax exemption represents a withholding of the
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power to tax and consequent loss of revenue to the
government.
POWER OF APPROPRIATION/ SPENDING POWER
A. Spending Power
1. Spending Power
2. Reason
3. “By Law”
Section 29. (1) No money shall be
paid out of the Treasury except in
pursuance of an appropriation
made by law.
1. Spending Power
The spending power of Congress is stated in
Section 29(1): “No money shall be paid out of the
Treasury except in pursuance of an appropriation
made by law.” (1988, 1992 Bar Question)
2. Reason
Behind the provision stands the principle that the
people’s treasure that the people’s treasure may be
sent only with their consent. That consent is to be
expressed either in the Constitution itself or in valid
acts of the legislature as the direct representative
of the people.234
3. “By law”
The provision does not say “appropriation by
Congress” but rather “by law”, a term which covers
both statutes and the Constitution.235
B. Appropriation
Appropriation
Classification
CDF
1. Appropriation
An appropriation measure may be defined as a
statute the primary and specific purpose of which is
to authorize the release of public funds from the
treasury.236 A law creating an office and providing
funds therefore is not an appropriation law since
the main purpose is not to appropriate funds but to
create the office.237
2. Classification of Appropriation Measures:
(4) General- The general appropriations law
passed annually is intended to provide for the
financial operations of the entire government
during one fiscal period.
234
See Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 208 (1954ed).
235
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 211 (1954ed).
236
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 158 (1995 ed).
237
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 159 (1995 ed).
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(5) Special- designed for a specific purpose 4. Procedure for approving appropriations for
such as the creation of a fund for the relief of Congress. (art 6 sec 25(3))
typhoon victims. 5. Prohibition against transfer of appropriations. (art
6 sec 25(5))
CDF 6. Rule on automatic reappropriation. (art 6 sec
25(7))
A law creating CDF was upheld by the SC saying
7. Prohibition against appropriations for sectarian
that the Congress itself has specified the uses of
benefit. (art 6 sec 29(2))
the fund and that the power given to Congressmen
and Vice-President was merely recommendatory to
D. Non-establishment provision
the President who could approve or disapprove the
recommendation. (PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
Section 29
C. Limitations on Appropriations (2) No public money or property
Extra-Constitutional Limitations shall be appropriated, applied,
Constitutional Limitations paid, or employed, directly or
indirectly, for the use, benefit, or
1. Extra-Constitutional Limitations support of any sect, church,
denomination, sectarian institution,
or system of religion, or of any
Implied Limitations
priest, preacher, minister, or other
1. Appropriation must be devoted to a public
religious teacher or dignitary as
purpose
such, except when such priest,
2. The sum authorized must be determinate or at
preacher, minister, or dignitary is
least determinable.238
assigned to the armed forces, or to
any penal institution, or
2. Constitutional Limitations
government orphanage or
leprosarium.
Specific Limitations on the power of
appropriation239 [Sec 24, Sec 25(6)]
No public money or property shall be appropriated,
1. Appropriation bills should originate in the House
applied, paid, or employed, directly or indirectly, for
of Representatives. (art. 6 sec 24)
the use, benefit, or support of any sect, church,
2. Discretionary funds appropriated for particular
denomination, sectarian institution, or system of
officials shall be disbursed only for public
religion, or of any priest, preacher, minister, or
purposes to be supported by appropriate
other religious teacher or dignitary as such.
vouchers and subject to such guidelines as
may be prescribed by law. (art. 6 sec 25(6)
Public money may be paid to a priest, preacher,
minister, or dignitary if he is assigned to the armed
Constitutional limitations on special
forces, or to any penal institution, or government
appropriation measures [Sec 25(4), Sec 29(2)]
orphanage or leprosarium.
1. Must specify the public purpose for which the
sum is intended. (art 6 sec 25 (4))
General or specific appropriation. Whether the
2. Must be supported by funds actually available as
appropriation be general or specific, it must
certified to by National Treasurer, or to be
conform to the prohibition against the use of public
raised by a corresponding revenue proposal
funds or property for sectarian purposes.241
included therein. (art 6 sec 25(4))
3. Prohibition against appropriations for sectarian
Purpose of the provision. This provision must be
benefit. (art 6 sec 29(2))240
read with Article III, Section 5 on religious freedom
and Article II, Section 6 on the separation of
Constitutional rules on general appropriations
Church and State. Its purpose is to further bolster
law [Sec 25 (1)(2)(3)(5)(7), Sec 29(2)]
this principle and emphasize the neutrality of the
1. Congress may not increase the appropriations
State in ecclesiastical matters.
recommended by the President. (art 6 sec
25(1))
E. Special Fund
2. The form, content, and manner of preparation for
the budget shall be prescribed by law. (art 6
sec 25(1)) Section 29
3. Rule on riders. (art 6 sec 25(2)) (3) All money collected on any tax
levied for a special purpose shall
be treated as a special fund and
238
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 160 (1995 ed). paid out for such purpose only. If
239
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 160 (1995 ed).
240 241
See Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed). Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed.)

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the purpose for which a special
fund was created has been fulfilled
or abandoned, the balance, if any,
shall be transferred to the general
funds of the Government.
Tax levied for a special purpose. All money
collected on any tax levied for a special purpose
shall be treated as a special fund.
For such purpose only. All money collected on
any tax levied for a special purpose shall be paid
out for such purpose only.
Balance to the general funds. If the purpose for
which a special fund was created has been fulfilled
or abandoned, the balance, if any, shall be
transferred to the general funds of the
Government.
F. General Appropriation
Budget and Appropriation
Rule on Riders
Special Appropriations Bill
No Transfer of Appropriations
Discretionary Funds
Automatic Re-enactment
1. Budget and Appropriation
Section 25. (1) The Congress may
not increase the appropriations
recommended by the President for
the operation of the Government as
specified in the budget. The form,
content, and manner of preparation
of the budget shall be prescribed
by law.
Budget. The budget is only a proposal, a set of
recommendations on the appropriations to be
made for the operations of the government. It is
used as a basis for the enactment of the general
appropriations law.242
The budget as a restriction on appropriations.
The Congress may not increase the appropriations
recommended by the President for the operation of
the Government as specified in the budget.
Reason. The reason for the above provision is the
theory that the President knows more about the
needed appropriations than the legislature.243 Being
responsible for the proper administration of the
executive department, the President is ordinarily
the party best qualified to know the maximum
242
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 161 (1995 ed.)
243
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 161 (1995 ed.)
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amount that the operation of his department
requires.244
Preparation of Budget. The form, content, and
manner of preparation of the budget shall be
prescribed by law.
2. Rule on riders
Section 25
(2) No provision or enactment shall
be embraced in the general
appropriations bill unless it relates
specifically to some particular
appropriation therein. Any such
provision or enactment shall be
limited in its operation to the
appropriation to which it relates.
(2001 Bar Question)
Every provision or enactment in the general
appropriations bill must relate specifically to some
particular appropriation therein.
Every such provision or enactment shall be limited
in its operation to the appropriation to which it
relates
Purpose. To prevent riders or irrelevant provisions
that are included in the general appropriations bill
to ensure their approval.245
Procedure in approving appropriations for the
Congress
(3) The procedure in approving
appropriations for the Congress
shall strictly follow the procedure
for approving appropriations for
other departments and agencies.
Same Procedure. The procedure in approving
appropriations for the Congress shall strictly follow
the procedure for approving appropriations for
other departments and agencies.
Reason. To prevent the adoption of appropriations
sub rosa by the Congress.
3. Special Appropriations bill
(4) A special appropriations bill
shall specify the purpose for which
it is intended, and shall be
supported by funds actually
available as certified by the
National Treasurer, or to be raised
244
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 216 (1954ed).
245
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 162 (1995 ed.)
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by a corresponding revenue
proposal therein.
A special appropriations bill shall:
(1) Specify the purpose for which it is intended;
(2) Be supported by funds actually available as
certified by the National Treasurer; or
(3) Be supported by funds to be raised by a
corresponding revenue proposal therein.
4. No transfer of appropriations
(5) No law shall be passed
authorizing any transfer of
appropriations; however, the
President, the President of the
Senate, the Speaker of the House
of Representatives, the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, and
the heads of Constitutional
Commissions may, by law, be
authorized to augment any item in
the general appropriations law for
their respective offices from
savings in other items of their
respective appropriations.
(1998 Bar Question)
Prohibition of transfer. No law shall be passed
authorizing any transfer of appropriations.
Reason. This provision prohibits one department
from transferring some of its funds to another
department and thereby make it beholden to the
former to the detriment of the doctrine of
separation of powers. Such transfers are also
unsystematic, besides in effect disregarding the will
of the legislature that enacted the appropriation
measure.246
Augmentation of item from savings. The
President, the Senate President, the House
Speaker, the Chief Justice, and the heads of
Constitutional Commission may, by law, be
authorized to augment any item in the general
appropriations law for their respective offices from
savings in other items of their respective
appropriations. In this case, there is no danger to
the doctrine of separation of powers because the
transfer is made within a department and not from
one department to another.247
Exclusive list. The list of those who may be
authorized to transfer funds under this provision is
exclusive. However, members of the Congress may
determine the necessity of realignment of the
savings. (PHILCONSA v. Enriquez)
5. Discretionary funds
246
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed.)
247
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 164 (1995 ed.)
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(6) Discretionary funds
appropriated for particular officials
shall be disbursed only for public
purposes to be supported by
appropriate vouchers and subject
to such guidelines as may be
prescribed by law.
Public Purpose. Discretionary funds appropriated
for particular officials shall be disbursed only for
public purposes to be supported by appropriate
vouchers and subject to such guidelines as may be
prescribed by law.
Reason. This was thought necessary in view of the
many abuses committed in the past in the use of
discretionary funds. In many cases, these funds
were spent for personal purposes, to the prejudice
and often even without the knowledge of the
public.248
6. Automatic Reenactment
(1998 Bar Question)
(7) If, by the end of any fiscal year,
the Congress shall have failed to
pass the general appropriations bill
for the ensuing fiscal year, the
general appropriations law for
preceding fiscal year shall be
deemed reenacted and shall
remain in force and effect until the
general appropriations bill is
passed by the Congress.
Reason. This is to address a situation where
Congress fails to enact a new general
appropriations act for the incoming fiscal year.
XIII. OTHER PROHIBITED MEASURES
Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court
Title of Royalty and Nobility
A. Appellate Jurisdiction of Supreme Court
Section 30. No law shall be
passed increasing the appellate
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
as provided in this Constitution
without its advice and concurrence.
Limitation on power of Congress. No law shall
be passed increasing the appellate jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court as provided in this Constitution
without its advice and concurrence.
248
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 160 (1995 ed.)
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SC’s Advice and Concurrence Needed. The
Congress may increase the appellate jurisdiction of
the SC but only with its advice and concurrence.
Reason. To prevent further additions to the present
tremendous case load of the Supreme Court which
includes the backlog of the past decades.249
B. Titles of Royalty and Nobility
Section 31. No law granting a title
of royalty or nobility shall be
enacted.
Reason. To preserve the republican and
democratic nature of our society by prohibiting the
creation of privileged classes with special
perquisites not available to the rest of the citizenry.
XIV. INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM
Initiative and Referendum
initiative
Referendum
Section 32. The Congress shall as
early as possible, provide for a
system of initiative and referendum,
and the exceptions therefrom,
whereby the people can directly
propose and enact laws or approve
or reject any act or law or part
thereof passed by the Congress or
local legislative body after the
registration of a petition therefor
signed by at least ten per centum
of the total number of registered
voters, of which every legislative
district must be represented by at
least three per centum of the
registered voters thereof.
1. Initiative and referendum
The Congress shall as early as possible, provide
for a system of initiative and referendum, and the
exceptions therefrom.
Petition. A petition must be signed by at least 10%
of the total number of registered voters, of which
every legislative district must be represented by at
least 3% of the registered voters thereof. The
petition must then be registered.
RA 6735. The current implementing law is RA
6735, an Act Providing for System of Initiative and
Referendum.
2. Initiative.
249
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 146 (1995 ed.)
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The power of the people to propose amendments
to the Constitution or to propose and enact
legislation.
Three systems of Initiative:
1. Initiative on the Constitution which refers to a
petition proposing amendments to the
Constitution;
2. Initiative on statutes which refers to a petition
proposing to enact a national legislation.
3. Initiative on local legislation which refers to a
petition proposing to enact a regional,
provincial, city, municipal or barangay law,
resolution or ordinance.
Local Initiative. Not less than 2,000 registered
voters in case of autonomous regions, 1,000 in
case of provinces and cities, 100 in case of
municipalities, and 50 in case of barangays, may
file a petition with the Regional Assembly or local
legislative body, respectively, proposing the
adoption, enactment, repeal, or amendment, of any
law, ordinance or resolution. (Sec. 13 RA 6735)
Limitations on local initiative:
1. The power of local initiative shall not be
exercised more than once a year;
2. Initiative shall extend only to subjects or
matters which are within the legal matters
which are within the legal powers of the local
legislative bodies to enact;
3. If any time before the initiative is held, the local
legislative body shall adopt in toto the
proposition presented, the initiative shall be
cancelled. However, those against such action
may if they so desire, apply for intitiative.
Q: Petitioners filed a petition with COMELEC
to hold a plebiscite on their petition for an
initiative to amend the Constitution by
adopting a unicameral-parliamentary form of
government and by providing for transitory
provisions.
A: An initiative to change the Constitution
applies only to an amendment and not
revision. Revision broadly implies a change
that alters basic principle in the Constitution
like altering the principle of separation of
powers or the system of checks and
balance. The initiative of the petitioners is a
revision and not merely an amendment.
(Lambino v. COMELEC)
3. Referendum
Power of the electorate to approve or reject
legislation through an election called for the
purpose.
Two Classes of Referendum
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1. Referendum on statutes which refers to a

petition to approve or reject an act or la, or part
thereof, passed by Congress;
2. Referendum on local laws which refers to a
petition to approve or reject a law, resolution or
ordinance enacted by regional assemblies and
local legislative bodies. (Sec. 2(c) RA 6735)

Prohibited Measures. The following cannot be

subject of an initiative or referendum:
1. Petition embracing more than one subject
shall be submitted to the electorate.
2. Statutes involving emergency measures, the
enactment of which is specifically vested in
Congress by the Constitution, cannot be
subject to referendum until ninety(90) days
after their effectivity. (Sec. 10 RA 6735)

Q: Is the People Power recognized in the

Constitution? (1987, 2000 and 2003 Bar
Examinations)
A: “People power” is recognized in the
Constitution, Article III, Section 4 of the 1987
Constitution guarantees the right of the people
peaceable to assemble and petition the
government for redress of grievances. Article VI,
Section 32 of the 1987 Constitution requires
Congress to pass a law allowing the people to
directly propose or reject any act or law or part of it
passed by congress or a local legislative body.
Article XIII, Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution
provides that the right of the people and their
organizations to participate in all levels of social,
political, and economic decision-making shall not
be abridged and that the State shall, by law,
facilitate the establishment of adequate
consultation mechanisms. Article XVII, Section 2 of
the 1987 Constitution provides that subject to the
enactment of an implementing law, the people may
directly propose amendments to the Constitution
through initiative.

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B. Executive Power, Scope

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 1. The scope of power is set forth in the

Constitution specifically in Article VII.

I. Executive Power (§ 1) 2. However, Executive power is more than the

II. The President (§ 2-13) sum of specific powers enumerated in the
Constitution. It includes residual powers251
III. The Vice-President not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
IV. Powers of the President (Marcos v. Manglapus (1989)
V. Power of Appointment (§ 14-16)
The prosecution of crimes appertains to
VI. Power of Control (§ 17) the Executive Department, whose
VII. Military Powers (§ 18) responsibility is to see the laws are
VIII. Power of Executive Clemency (§ 19) faithfully executed. (Webb v. De Leon)252
IX. Borrowing Power (§ 20)
3. BUT the President cannot dispose of State
X. Foreign Affairs Power (§ 21) property unless authorized by law.253
XI. Budgetary Power (§ 22) 4. Enforcement and administration of election
XII. Informing Power (§ 23) laws is the authority of the COMELEC.254
XIII. Other Powers
C. Executive Power, Where Vested

I. EXECUTIVE POWER The Executive power shall be vested in the

Executive Power, (Definition)
Scope
Where Vested
Ceremonial Functions
Executive Immunity
Executive Privilege
Cabinet
Section 1. The Executive power
shall be vested in the President of
the Philippines
A. Executive Power (Definition)
The executive power is the power to enforce and
administer the laws.250 (NEA v. CA, 2002)
250
Justice Irene Cortes in the case of Marcos v. Manglapus (1989)
opines: “It would be inaccurate… to state that ‘executive power’ is
the power to enforce laws, for the President is head of State as well
as head of government and whatever power inhere in such positions
pertain to the office unless the Constitution itself withholds it.”
M.T., in his attempt to provide a comprehensive interpretation of
executive power provides:
“Executive power refers to the power of the President:
(a) to execute and administer laws (b) power enumerated in the
Constitution (c) those powers that inhere to the President as head of
state and head of government, and (d) residual powers.”
“Executive power refers to the totality of the President’s power.”
According to Sinco, “Executive power refers to the legal and
political functions of the President involving the exercise of
discretion. (Philippine Political Law, p.242 (1954 ed.)
President of the Philippines.
D. Ceremonial Functions (Head of State)
In a presidential system, the presidency includes
many other functions than just being executive.
The president is the [symbolic and] ceremonial
head of the government of the [Philippines].255
E. Executive Immunity from suit
Rules on Immunity during tenure
1. The President is immune from suit during his
tenure.256
251
Residual Powers are those which are implicit in and correlative to
the paramount duty residing in that office to safeguard and protect
general welfare.
252
See Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium p.306 (2005 ed.)
253
See Laurel v. Garcia (Roponggi Case)
254
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 308 (1995 ed).
255
See Bernas Commentary, p 800 (2003 ed).
256
The incumbent President is immune from suit or from being
brought to court during the period of their incumbency and tenure.
(In re Saturnino Bermudez,1986)
“The President during his tenure of office or actual incumbency, may
not be sued in ANY civil or criminal case. It will degrade the dignity
of the high office of the President, the Head of State, if he can be
dragged into court litigations while serving as such.” (David v.
[Ermita])
Article VII, Section 17 (1st Sentence) of the 1973 Constitution
provides: “The President shall be immune from suit during his
tenure.” The immunity granted by the 1st sentence while the President
was in office was absolute. The intent was to give the President
absolute immunity even for wrongdoing committed during his
tenure. (Bernas, Philippine Political Law, 1984) Although the new

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2. He may be filed impeachment complaint
during his tenure. (Article XI)
3. The President may not be prevented from
instituting suit (Soliven v. Makasiar)
4. There is nothing in our laws that would prevent
the President from waiving the privilege. The
President may shed the protection afforded by
the privilege. (Soliven v. Makasiar)
5. Heads of departments cannot invoke the
presidents’ immunity (Gloria v. CA)
Rules on Immunity after tenure
6. Once out of office, even before the end of the
six year term, immunity for non-official acts is
lost. Such was the case of Joseph Estrada.
(See Bernas Commentary, p 804 (2003 ed.) It
could not be used to shield a non-sitting
President from prosecution for alleged criminal
acts done while sitting in office. (Estrada v.
Disierto; See Romualdez v. Sandiganbayan)
Note: In David v. Arroyo, the Court held that it is
improper to implead President Arroyo as
respondent. However, it is well to note that in
Rubrico v. Arroyo, Min. Res., GR No, 180054,
October 31, 2007, the Supreme Court ordered the
respondents, including President Arroyo, to make a
return of the writ: “You, respondents President
Macapagal Arroyo….are hereby required to make
a return of the writ before the Court of Appeals…”
Reasons for the Privilege:
1. Separation of powers. The separation of
powers principle is viewed as demanding the
executive’s independence from the judiciary, so
that the President should not be subject to the
judiciary’s whim.257
2. Public convenience. By reason of public
convenience, the grant is to assure the exercise of
presidential duties and functions free from any
hindrance or distraction, considering that the Chief
Executive is a job that, aside from requiring all of
the office-holder’s time, also demands undivided
attention (Soliven v. Makasiar)
F. Executive Privilege
Definition
How Invoked
Who may invoke
Privilege Not Absolute
Types of Executive Privilege (Neri v. Senate)
Variety of Executive Privilege (Senate v. Ermita)
Kinds of Executive Privilege (Neri v. Senate)
Elements of Presidential Communications Privilege
Constitution has not reproduced the explicit guarantee of presidential
immunity from suit under the 1973 Constitution, presidential
immunity during tenure remains as part of the law.
(See Bernas Commentary, p 804 (2003 ed.)
257
See Almonte v. Vasquez
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Presidential Communications are Presumptively
Privileged
Executive Privilege v. Public Interest
Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
Case Digest of Neri v. Senate
1) Definition
Briefly and in simplest terms, it is the power of the
President to withhold certain types of information
from the public, from the courts, and from
Congress.
2) How invoked
Invoked in relation to specific categories of
information. Executive privilege is properly
invoked in relation to specific categories of
information and not to categories of persons.
(While executive privilege is a constitutional
concept, a claim thereof may be valid or not
depending on the ground invoked to justify it and
the context in which it is made. Noticeably absent
is any recognition that executive officials are
exempt from the duty to disclose information by the
mere fact of being executive officials. (Senate v.
Ermita)
3) Who can invoke
In light of this highly exceptional nature of the
privilege, the Court finds it essential to limit to the
President the power to invoke the privilege. She
may of course authorize the Executive Secretary
to invoke the privilege on her behalf, in which case
the Executive Secretary must state that the
authority is "By order of the President," which
means that he personally consulted with her. The
privilege being an extraordinary power, it must be
wielded only by the highest official in the executive
hierarchy. In other words, the President may not
authorize her subordinates to exercise such power.
(Senate v. Ermita) (It follows, therefore, that when an
official is being summoned by Congress on a matter
which, in his own judgment, might be covered by
executive privilege, he must be afforded reasonable time
to inform the President or the Executive Secretary of
the possible need for invoking the privilege. This is
necessary in order to provide the President or the
Executive Secretary with fair opportunity to consider
whether the matter indeed calls for a claim of executive
privilege. If, after the lapse of that reasonable time,
neither the President nor the Executive Secretary invokes
the privilege, Congress is no longer bound to respect the
failure of the official to appear before Congress and may
then opt to avail of the necessary legal means to compel
his appearance.) (Senate v. Ermita)
4) Privilege Not Absolute
Claim of executive privilege is subject to balancing
against other interest. In other words,
confidentiality in executive privilege is not
absolutely protected by the Constitution. Neither
the doctrine of separation of powers, nor the need
for confidentiality of high-level communications,
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without more, can sustain an absolute, unqualified Applies to documents in

Presidential privilege of immunity from judicial their entirety and covers
process under all circumstances. (Neri v. Senate) final and post decisional
A claim of executive privilege does not guard materials as well as pre-
against a possible disclosure of a crime or deliberative ones
wrongdoing (Neri v. Senate)
8) Elements of presidential communications
5) Types of Executive Privilege258 privilege (Neri v. Senate)
1. State secrets (regarding military, diplomatic and 1) The protected communication must relate to a
other security matters) “quintessential and non-delegable presidential
2. Identity of government informers power.”
3. Information related to pending investigations 2) The communication must be authored or
4. Presidential communications “solicited and received” by a close advisor of the
5. Deliberative process President or the President himself. The judicial test
is that an advisor must be in “operational proximity”
6) Variety of Executive Privilege according to with the President.
Tribe (Tribe cited in Senate v. Ermita) 3) The presidential communications privilege
1.State Secrets Privilege. that the information is remains a qualified privilege that may be overcome
of such nature that its disclosure would subvert by a showing of adequate need, such that the
crucial military or diplomatic objectives; information sought “likely contains important
(2)Informer’s privilege. Privilege of the evidence” and by the unavailability of the
Government not to disclose the identity of information elsewhere by an appropriate
persons who furnish information of violations of investigating authority.
law to officers charged with the enforcement of
that law. 9) Presidential Communications are
(3) General Privilege. For internal deliberations. Presumptively Privileged
Said to attach to intragovernmental documents The presumption is based on the President’s
reflecting advisory opinions, recommnendations generalized interest in confidentiality. The privilege
and deliberations comprising part of a process is necessary to guarantee the candor of
by which governmental decisions and policies presidential advisors and to provide the President
formulated. and those who assist him with freedom to
explore alternatives in the process of shaping
7) Two Kinds of Privilege under In re: Sealed policies and making decisions and to do so in a
Case (Neri v. Senate) way many would be unwilling to express except
1. Presidential Communications Privilege privately.
2. Deliberative Process Privilege The presumption can be overcome only by
mere showing of public need by the branch
Presidential Deliberative seeking access to conversations. The courts are
Communications Process Privilege enjoined to resolve the competing interests of the
Privilege political branches of the government “in the
Pertains to Includes advisory manner that preserves the essential functions of
communications, opinions, each Branch.”
documents or other recommendations
materials that reflect and deliberations xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
presidential decision comprising part of a
making and process by which 10) Executive Privilege and the Public
deliberations that the governmental The Court held that this jurisdiction recognizes the
President believes decisions and common law holding that there is a “governmental
should remain policies are privilege against public disclosure with respect to
confidential formulated state secrets regarding military, diplomatic and
Applies to decision Applies to decision other national security matters and cabinet closed
making of the President making of executive door meetings.” (Chavez v. PCGG)
officials
Rooted in the Rooted on common 11) Power of Inquiry v. Executive Privilege
constitutional principle law privileges
of separation of powers Requirement in invoking the privilege: formal
and the President’s claim of privilege. “Congress has undoubtedly
unique constitutional has a right to information from the executive
role branch whenever it is sought in aid of legislation. If
the executive branch withholds such information on
258
Primer on Neri v. Senate made by Atty. Carlos Medina. the ground that it is privileged, it must so assert it

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and state the reason therefore and why it must
be respected.” (Justice Carpio Morales in Senate
v. Ermita)
A formal and proper claim of executive privilege
requires a specific designation and description
of the documents within its scope as well as
precise and certain reasons for preserving their
confidentiality. Without this specificity, it is
impossible for a court to analyze the claim short of
disclosure of the very thing sought to be protected.
Upon the other hand, Congress must not require
the executive to state the reasons for the claim with
such particularity as to compel disclosure of the
information which the privilege is meant to protect.
(Senate v. Ermita)
12) Neri v. Senate Committee
Background:
This case is about the Senate investigation of
anomalies concerning the NBN-ZTE project. During
the hearings, former NEDA head Romulo Neri
refused to answer certain questions involving his
conversations with President Arroyo on the ground
they are covered by executive privilege. When the
Senate cited him in contempt and ordered his arrest,
Neri filed a case against the Senate with the
Supreme Court. On March 25, 2008, the Supreme
Court ruled in favor of Neri and upheld the claim of
executive privilege.
Issues:
(1) . Are the communications sought to be elicited by
the three questions covered by executive privilege?
(2) Did the Senate Committees commit grave abuse
of discretion in citing Neri in contempt and ordering
his arrest?
Ruling:
(1) The SC said that the communications sought to
be elicited by the three questions are covered by the
presidential communications privilege, which is one
type of executive privilege.
Using the elements of presidential communications
privilege, the SC is convinced that the communications
elicited by the three (3) questions are covered by the
presidential communications privilege.
First, the communications relate to a “quintessential
and non-delegable power” of the President, i.e. the
power to enter into an executive agreement with other
countries. This authority of the President to enter into
executive agreements without the concurrence of the
Legislature has traditionally been recognized in
Philippine jurisprudence.
Second, the communications are “received” by a close
advisor of the President. Under the “operational
proximity” test, petitioner can be considered a close
advisor, being a member of President Arroyo’s cabinet.
Third, there is no adequate showing of a compelling
need that would justify the limitation of the privilege and
of the unavailability of the information elsewhere by
an appropriate investigating authority. The record is
bereft of any categorical explanation from respondent
Committees to show a compelling or critical need for
the answers to the three (3) questions in the enactment
of a law.
(2) Yes. The Supreme Court said that the Senate
Committees committed grave abuse of discretion in
citing Neri in contempt. The following reason among
others was given by the Supreme Court:
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a. There was a legitimate claim of executive
privilege.
For the claim to be properly invoked, there must be
a formal claim by the President stating the “precise
and certain reason” for preserving confidentiality.
The grounds relied upon by Executive Secretary
Ermita are specific enough, since what is required is
only that an allegation be made “whether the
information demanded involves military or diplomatic
secrets, closed-door Cabinet meetings, etc.” The
particular ground must only be specified, and the
following statement of grounds by Executive
Secretary Ermita satisfies the requirement: “The
context in which executive privilege is being invoked
is that the information sought to be disclosed might
impair our diplomatic as well as economic relations
with the People’s Republic of China.”
Comments on Neri v. Senate
Atty Medina: The ruling expands the area of
information that is not accessible to the public.
Executive privilege can now be invoked in
communications between his close advisors. (See
the second element in the presidential
communications privilege)
Bernas: The problem with the doctrine is, anytime
the President says “That’s covered”, that’s it.
Nobody can ask anymore questions.
ASM: I think when the President says, “It’s
covered,” the Court can still make an inquiry under
the Grave Abuse Clause. This inquiry can be done
in an executive session.
G. Cabinet
Extra-constitutional creation
Composition
Prohibitions
Vice-President
Ex-officio Capacity
Prohibited Employment
Prohibited Compensation
1. Extra-constitutional creation
Although the Constitution mentions the Cabinet a
number of times, the Cabinet itself as an institution
is extra-constitutionally created. 259
2. Composition
It is essentially consist of the heads of departments
who through usage have formed a body of
presidential adviser who meet regularly with the
President.260
3. Prohibitions (1987, 1996 Bar Question)
(Applies to Members of Cabinet, their deputies or
assistants.)
1. Unless otherwise provided in the Constitution,
shall not hold any other employment during
their tenure.
259
Bernas Commentary, p 808 (2003 ed).; See art.7 secs. 3, 11 and
13.
260
Bernas Commentary, p 808 (2003 ed).
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2. Shall not directly or indirectly practice any When an Undersecretary sits for a Secretary in a
other profession, participate in any business, function from which the Secretary may not receive
or be financially interested in any contract with, additional compensation, the prohibition on the
or in any franchise or special privilege granted Secretary also applies t the Undersecretary.263
by the government or any subdivision, agency,
or instrumentality thereof, including
government-owned or controlled corporations II. The President
or their subsidiaries during their tenure.
3. Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the conduct
of their office during their tenure. (Section 13) Who is he?
Qualifications
4. Vice-President Election
Note that the VP may be appointed to the Cabinet, Term of Office
without need of confirmation by the Commission on Oath of Office
Appointments; and the Secretary of Justice is an Privileges
ex officio member of the Judicial and Bar Council. Prohibitions/Inhibitions
Vacancy Situations
5. Ex-officio261 capacity (2002 Bar Question) Rules of Succession
Temporary Disability
The prohibition must not be construed as applying
Serious Illness
to posts occupied by the Executive officials without Removal from Office
additional compensation in an ex-officio capacity
as provided by law and as required by the primary A. Who is the President
functions of the said official’s office. The reason is
that the posts do not comprise “any other office”
within the contemplation of the constitutional The President is the Head of State and the Chief
prohibition, but properly an imposition of additional Executive.264 (He is the executive) He is the
duties and functions on said officials. repository of all executive power.265
To illustrate, the Secretary of Transportation and
Communications is the ex officio Chirman of the B. Qualifications
Board of Philippine Ports Authority. The ex officio Qualifications
position being actually and in legal contemplation Reason for Qualifications
part of the principal office, it follows that the official Qualifications are exclusive
concerned has no right to receive additional Natural Born
compensation for his services in said position. The Registered Voter
reason is that these services are already paid for Age
and covered by the compensation attached to the Registered Qualification
principal office. (National Amnesty Commission v.
COA, 2004) Section 2. No person may be
elected President unless he is a
6. Prohibited Employment natural-born citizen of the
Since the Chief Presidential Legal Counsel has the Philippines, a registered voter, able
duty of giving independent and impartial legal to read and write, at least forty
advice on the actions of the heads of various years of age on the day of the
executive departments and agencies and to review election, and a resident of the
investigations involving other presidential Philippines for at least ten years
appointees, he may not occupy a position in any of immediately preceding such
the offices whose performance he must review. It election.
would involve occupying incompatible positions.
Thus he cannot be Chairman at the same time of 1. Qualifications
the PCGG since the PCGG answers to the 1. Natural born citizen of the Phils.
President.262 2. Registered voter
3. Able to read write
7. Prohibited Compensation 4. At least 40 years of age o the day of the
election
5. A resident of the Philippines for at least 10
261 years immediately preceding the election.
An ex-oficio position is one which an official holds but is
germane to the nature of the original position. It is by virtue of the
original position that he holds the latter, therefore such is 263
constitutional. Bitonio v. COA, G.R. No. 147392, March 12, 2004.
262 264
Public Interest Group v Elma, G. R. No. 138965, June 30, Bernas Primer at 289 (2006 ed.)
265
2006. Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p.240 (1954 ed.)

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2. Reason for Qualifications
Qualifications are prescribed for public office to
ensure the proper performance of powers and
duties.266
3. Qualifications are exclusive
The above qualifications are exclusive and may not
be reduced or increased by Congress. The
applicable rule of interpretation is expression unius
est exclusio alterius.267
4. Natural Born
One who is a citizen of the Philippines from birth
without having to perform any act to acquire or
perfect his Philippine citizenship. (Article IV,
Section 2)
An illegitimate child of an American mother and a
Filipino father is a natural born Filipino citizen if
paternity is clearly proved. Hence such person
would be qualified to run for President. This was
the case of Fernando Poe, Jr. (Tecson v. COMELEC)
5. Registered Voter
Possession of the qualifications for suffrage as
enumerated in Article V, Section 1.
6. Age
The age qualification must be possessed “on the
day of the election for President” that is, on the day
set by law on which the votes are cast.268
7. Residence Qualification
The object being to ensure close touch by the
President with the country of which he is to be the
highest official and familiarity with its conditions
and problems, the better for him to discharge his
duties effectively.269
C. Election
Regular Election
Special Election
Congress as Canvassing Board
Who will be Proclaimed
Presidential Electoral Tribunal
Section 4. The President and the Vice-
President shall be elected by direct vote of
the people for a term of six years which shall
begin at noon on the thirtieth day of June
next following the day of the election and
shall end at noon of the same date six years
thereafter. The President shall not be eligible
for any reelection. No person who has
succeeded as President and has served as
266
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 174 (1995 ed).
267
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 174 (1995 ed).
268
Bernas Commentary, p 809 (2003 ed).
269
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 175 (1995 ed).
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such for more than four years shall be
qualified for election to the same office at
any time.
No Vice-President shall serve for more than two
successive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the
office for any length of time shall not be
considered as an interruption in the continuity of
the service for the full term for which he was
elected.
Unless otherwise provided by law, the
regular election for President and Vice-
President shall be held on the second
Monday of May.
The returns of every election for President
and Vice-President, duly certified by the
board of canvassers of each province or city,
shall be transmitted to the Congress,
directed to the President of the Senate.
Upon receipt of the certificates of canvass,
the President of the Senate shall, not later
than thirty days after the day of the election,
open all the certificates in the presence of
the Senate and the House of
Representatives in joint public session, and
the Congress, upon determination of the
authenticity and due execution thereof in the
manner provided by law, canvass the votes.
The person having the highest number of
votes shall be proclaimed elected, but in
case two or more shall have an equal and
highest number of votes, one of them shall
forthwith be chosen by the vote of a majority
of all the Members of both Houses of the
Congress, voting separately.
The Congress shall promulgate its rules for
the canvassing of the certificates.
The Supreme Court, sitting en banc, shall be
the sole judge of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of the
President or Vice-President, and may
promulgate its rules for the purpose.
1. Regular Election
The President (and Vice-President) shall be
elected by direct vote of the people. Unless
otherwise provided by law, the regular election for
President (and Vice-President) shall be held on the
second Monday of May.
2. Special Election (Discussed under Section 10)
3. Congress as Canvassing Board
The returns of every election for President and
Vice-President, duly certified by the board of
canvassers of each province or city, shall be
transmitted to the Congress, directed to the
President of the Senate. Upon receipt of the
certificates of canvass, the President of the Senate
shall, not later than thirty days after the day of the
election, open all the certificates in the presence of
the Senate and the House of Representatives in
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joint public session, and the Congress, upon
determination of the authenticity and due
execution thereof in the manner provided by
law, canvass the votes. The Congress shall
promulgate its rules for the canvassing of the
certificates.
Is the function of Congress merely
ministerial?
Bernas: The function of Congress is not merely
ministerial. It has authority to examine the
certificates of canvass for authenticity and due
execution. For this purpose, Congress must pass
a law governing their canvassing of votes.270
Cruz: As the canvass is regarded merely as a
ministerial function, the Congress shall not have
the power to inquire into or decide questions of
alleged irregularities in the conduct of the
election contest. Normally, as long as the
election returns are duly certified and appear to
be authentic, the Congress shall have no duty
but to canvass the same and to proclaim as
elected the person receiving the highest number
of votes.271
Justice Carpio Morales: This duty has been
characterized as being ministerial and
executive.272
Validity of Joint Congressional Committee.
Congress may validly delegate the initial
determination of the authenticity and due
execution of the certificates of canvass to a Joint
Congressional Committee so long as the
decisions and final report of the said Committee
shall be subject to the approval of the joint
session of Both Houses of Congress voting
separately. (Lopez v. Senate, 2004)
COMELEC. There is no constitutional or
statutory basis for COMELEC to undertake a
separate and “unofficial” tabulation of result
whether manually or electronically. If Comelec is
proscribed from conducting an official canvass of
the votes cast for the President and Vice-
President, the Comelec is, with more reason,
prohibited from making an “unofficial” canvass of
said votes. (Brilantes v. Comelec, 2004)
The proclamation of presidential and vice-
presidential winners is a function of Congress
and not of Comelec (Macalintal v. COMELEC)
Congress may continue the canvass even after
the final adjournment of its session. The final
adjournment of Congress does not terminate an
270
Bernas Primer at 293 (2006 ed.)
271
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 176 (1995 ed).
272
Separate Opinion of Justice Carpio Morales in Pimentel v. Joint
Committee (June 22, 2004) citing Lopez v. Roxas, 17 SCRA 756,
769 (1966)
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unfinished presidential canvass. Adjournment
terminates legislation but not the non-legislative
functions of Congress such as canvassing of
votes. (Pimentel v. Joint Committee of
Congress, 2004)
4. Who will be proclaimed
The person having the highest number of votes
shall be proclaimed elected, but in case two or
more shall have an equal and highest number of
votes, one of them shall forthwith be chosen by the
vote of a majority of all the Members of both
Houses of the Congress, voting separately.
5. Presidential Electoral Tribunal
The Supreme Court, sitting en banc, shall be
the sole judge of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of the
President or Vice-President, and may
promulgate its rules for the purpose.
Q: Can Susan Roces, widow of Fernando Poe.
Jr, intervene and/or substitute for him, assuming
arguendo that the protest could survive his
death?
A: No. The fundamental rule applicable in a
presidential election protest is Rule 14 of the
PET Rules. It provides that only the 2nd and 3rd
placer may contest the election. The Rule
effectively excludes the widow of a losing
candidate.273 (Fernando Poe v. Arroyo)
The validity, authenticity and correctness of the
SOVs and COCs are under the Tribunal’s
jurisdiction. The constitutional function as well as
the power and the duty to be the sole judge of all
contests relating to election, returns and
qualification of President and Vice-President is
expressly vested in the PET in Section 4 Article
VII of the Constitution. Included therein is the
duty to correct manifest errors in the SOVs and
COCs. (Legarda v. De Castro, 2005)
Q: After Fidel Ramos was declared President,
defeated candidate Miriam Defensor Santiago
filed an election protest with the SC.
Subsequently, while the case is pending, she ran
for the office of Senator and, having been
declared elected, assumed office as Senator.
What happens to her election protest?
A: Her protest is deemed abandoned with her
election and assumption of office as Senator.
(Defensor Santiago v. Ramos)
D. Term of Office
273
Fernando Poe, Jr. v. Arroyo, P.E.T. CASE No. 002.
March 29, 2005.
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6 years. The President (and the Vice-President)
shall be elected by direct vote of the people for a
term of six years.
Noon of June 30.Term hall begin at noon on the
thirtieth day of June next following the day of the
election and shall end at noon of the same date six
years thereafter.
No re-election. The President shall not be eligible
for any reelection. No person who has succeeded
as President and has served as such for more than
four years shall be qualified for election to the
same office at any time.
Reason for prohibition on any reelection for
Presidency. It was thought that the elimination of
the prospect of reelection would make for a more
independent President capable of making correct
even unpopular decisions.274 He is expected to
devote his attention during his lone term to the
proper discharge of his office instead of using its
perquisites to ensure his remaining therein for
another term.275
E. Oath of Office
Section 5. Before they enter on the
execution of their office, the
President, the Vice-President, or
the Acting President shall take the
following oath or affirmation:
“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that
I will faithfully and conscientiously
fulfill my duties as President (or
Vice-President or Acting President)
of the Philippines, preserve and
defend its Constitution, execute its
laws, do justice to every man, and
consecrate myself to the service of
the Nation. So help me God.”
(In case of affirmation, last
sentence will be omitted.)
Oath. The oath is not a source of substantive
power but is merely intended to deepen the sense
of responsibility of the President and ensure a
more conscientious discharge of his office.276
F. Privileges
1. Official Residence
2. Salary
3. Immunity from suit
Section 6. The President shall have
an official residence. The salaries of
274
Bernas Commentary, p 812 (2003 ed).
275
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 177 (1995 ed).
276
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 183 (1995 ed).
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the President and Vice-President
shall be determined by law and
shall not be decreased during their
tenure. No increase in said
compensation shall take effect until
after the expiration of the term of
the incumbent during which such
increase was approved. They shall
not receive during their tenure any
other emolument from the
Government or any other source.
1. Official Residence
The President shall have an official residence.
2. Salary
The salaries of the President and Vice-President
shall be determined by law and shall not be
decreased during their tenure.
The initial salary of the President is 300,00 per
year. (Article XVIII Section 17)
No increase during their term. No increase in
said compensation shall take effect until after the
expiration of the term of the incumbent during
which such increase was approved.
No additional emolument during their tenure.
They shall not receive during their tenure any other
emolument from the Government or any other
source.
3. Immunity from Suit
(Discussed under Section 1 [I(E)])
G. Prohibitions/Inhibitions
Section 13. The President, Vice-President, the
Members of the Cabinet, and their deputies or
assistants shall not, unless otherwise provided in this
Constitution, hold any other office or employment
during their tenure. They shall not, during said
tenure, directly or indirectly, practice any other
profession, participate in any business, or be
financially interested in any contract with, or in any
franchise, or special privilege granted by the
Government or any subdivision, agency, or
instrumentality thereof, including government-owned
or controlled corporations or their subsidiaries. They
shall strictly avoid conflict of interest in the conduct of
their office.
The spouse and relatives by consanguinity or affinity
within the fourth civil degree of the President shall
not during his tenure be appointed as Members of
the Constitutional Commissions, or the Office of the
Ombudsman, or a Secretaries, Undersecretaries,
chairmen or heads of bureaus or offices, including
government-owned or controlled corporations and
their subsidiaries.
Prohibitions:
1. Shall not receive increase compensation
during the term of the incumbent during which
such increase was approved. (sec 6)
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2. Shall not receive any other emoluments from
the government or any other source during
their tenure. (sec 6)
3. Unless otherwise provided in the Constitution,
shall not hold any other employment during
their tenure.
4. Shall not directly or indirectly practice any
other profession, participate in any business,
or be financially interested in any contract with,
or in any franchise or special privilege granted
by the government or any subdivision, agency,
or instrumentality thereof, including
government-owned or controlled corporations
or their subsidiaries during their tenure.
5. Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the conduct
of their office during their tenure.
6. May not appoint spouse or relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the fourth civil
degree as Member of Constitutional
Commissions or the Office of the Ombudsman,
or as Secretaries, Under Secretaries,
chairmen or heads of bureaus or offices,
including government-owned or controlled
corporations and their subsidiaries.
Note: Nos. 1-6 above applies to the President. 1-5
applies to the Vice-President. 3-5 applies to
Members of Cabinet, their deputies or assistants.
Prohibition against increase of compensation
during tenure. The prohibition against the change
of their salary either by reduction or increase
during their term is meant to prevent the legislature
from “weakening the fortitude by appealing to their
avarice or corrupting their integrity by operating on
their necessities. 277
Emoluments. The emoluments which they may
not receive during their tenure from the
government or any other source (that is, private)
refers to any compensation received for services
rendered or form possession of an office. This
means that the President cannot accept other
employment elsewhere, whether in the government
or in the private sector, and must confine himself to
the duties of his office.278
Reason for Inhibitions under Section 13. The
inhibitions are in line with the principle that a public
office is a public trust and should not be abused for
personal advantage. Officers mention under
Section 13 (except the VP who may be appointed
to the Cabinet) are inhibited from holding any other
office or employment in the government during
their tenure. This will discontinue the lucrative
practice of Cabinet members occupying seats in
the boards of directors of affluent corporations
owned or controlled by the government from which
they derived substantial income in addition to their
277
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 183 (1995 ed).
278
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 183 (1995 ed).
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regular salaries. The second paragraph of Section
13 is intended as a guarantee against nepotism.279
H. Vacancy
Section 7. The President-elect and the Vice-
President-elect shall assume office at the beginning
of their terms.
If the President-elect fails to qualify, the Vice-
President-elect shall act as President until the
President-elect shall have qualified.
If a President shall not have been chosen, the Vice-
President-elect shall act as President until a
President shall have been chosen and qualified.
If at the beginning of the term of the President, the
President-elect shall have died or shall have
become permanently disabled, the Vice-President-
elect shall become President.
Where no President and Vice-President shall have
been chosen or shall have qualified, or where both
shall have died or become permanently disabled,
the President of the Senate or, in case of his
inability, the Speaker of the House of
Representatives shall act as President until a
President or a Vice-President shall have been
chosen and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide for the manner
in which one who is to act as President shall be
selected until a President or a Vice-President shall
have qualified, in case of death, permanent
disability, or inability of the officials mentioned in the
next preceding paragraph.
Section 8. In case of death, permanent disability,
removal from office, or resignation of the President,
the Vice-President shall become the President to
serve the unexpired term. In case of death,
permanent disability, removal from office, or
resignation of both the President and Vice-President,
the President of the Senate or, in case of his
inability, the Speaker of the House of
Representatives, shall then act as President until the
President or Vice-President shall have been elected
and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide who shall serve
as President in case of death, permanent disability,
or resignation of the Acting President. He shall serve
until the President or the Vice-President shall have
been elected and qualified, and be subject to the
same restrictions of powers and disqualifications as
the Acting President.
Section 10. The Congress shall, at ten o’clock in the
morning of the third day after the vacancy in the
offices of the President and Vice-President occurs,
convene in accordance with its rules without need of
a call and within seven days enact a law calling for a
special election to elect a President and a Vice-
President to be held not earlier than forty-five days
nor later than sixty days from the time of such call.
The bill calling such special election shall be
deemed certified under paragraph 2, Section 26,
Article VI of this Constitution and shall become law
upon its approval on third reading by the Congress.
Appropriations for the special election shall be
279
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 185 (1995 ed).
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charged against any current appropriations and shall 3. When the President-elect
be exempt from the requirements of paragraph 4, dies or is permanently
Section 25, Article VI of this Constitution. The incapacitated before the
convening of the Congress cannot be suspended beginning of his term
nor the special election postponed. No special 4. When both the President
election shall be called if the vacancy occurs within and Vice-President have not
eighteen months before the date of the next yet been chosen or have
presidential election. failed to qualify
5. When both shall have died
Vacancy Situations:
or become permanently
1. Vacancy that occurs at the start of the term incapacitated at the start of
(Sec 7) the term.
2. Vacancy that occurs in mid-term (Sec 8) 6. When the Senate
3. Vacancy in both the presidency and vice- President and the Speaker of
presidency. (Section 10) the House shall have died or
shall have become
Vacancy Situations under Section 7: permanently incapacitated, or
are unable to assume office.
(The vacancy situations here occur after the office
has been initially filled.)
1. When a President has been chosen but fails Section 8
to qualify at the beginning of his term Reason for Vacancy
2. When no President has yet been chosen at 1. When the incumbent
the time he is supposed to assume office. President dies or is
3. When the President-elect dies or is permanently disabled, is
permanently incapacitated before the removed or resigns.
beginning of his term 2. When both the President
4. When both the President and Vice-President and the Vice-President die, or
have not yet been chosen or have failed to are permanently disabled, are
qualify removed, or resign.
5. When both shall have died or become
permanently incapacitated at the start of the
term.
3. When the Acting President
6. When the Senate President and the dies, or is permanently
Speaker of the House shall have died or incapacitated, is removed or
shall have become permanently resigns.
incapacitated, or are unable to assume
office.
Vice-President elect
becomes President
The Senate President or
the Speaker- in that order-
acts as President until a
President or Vice-
President qualifies.
Congress will decide by
law who will act as
President until a President
or Vice-President shall
have been elected and
qualified.
Succession
The vacancy created is
thus permanent. The Vice-
President becomes
President.
The Senate President or
the Speaker-in that order-
shall act as President until
a President of Vice-
President shall have been
qualified.
Congress will determine
by law who will act as
President until a new
President or Vice-
President shall have
qualified.

Vacancy Situation under Section 8 Resignation. In Estrada v. Macapagal-Arroyo, the

(Vacancy that occurs in mid-term) SC through Justice Puno (main opinion) declared
1. When the incumbent President dies or is that the resignation of President Estrada could not
permanently disabled, is removed or be doubted as confirmed by his leaving
resigns. Malacanang. The SC declared that the elements of
2. When both the President and the Vice- a valid resignation are (1) intent to resign; and (2)
President die, or are permanently disabled, act of relinquishment. Both were present when
are removed, or resign. President Estrada left the Palace. Justice Puno
3. When the Acting President dies, or is anchored his opinion mainly on the letter of
permanently incapacitated, is removed or Estrada and on the diary of ES Edgardo Angara.
resigns.
Permanent Disability. In Estrada v. Macapagal-
I. Rules of Succession Arroyo, Justice Bellosillo anchored his concurrence
on permanent disability. He opined that permanent
Section 7 disability as contemplated by the Constitution does
Reason for Vacancy Succession not refer only to physical or mental incapacity, but
1. When a President has The Vice-President must likewise cover other forms of incapacities of a
been chosen but fails to becomes acting President permanent nature, e.g. functional disability.
qualify at the beginning of his until a President qualifies He views Estrada’s disability in (a) objective and
term
(b) subjective perspectives.
2. When no President has yet Objective Approach. “Without people, an effectively
been chosen at the time he is functioning cabinet, the military and the police, with
supposed to assume office. no recognition from Congress and the international

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community, [Estrada] had absolutely no support
from and control of the bureaucracy from within
and from without. In fact he had no more
functioning government to speak of. It is in this
context that [Estrada] was deemed absolutely
unable to exercise or discharge the powers, duties
and prerogatives of the Presidency.
Subjective Approach. [Estrada’s] contemporaneous
acts and statements during and after the critical
episode are eloquent proofs of his implied-but
nevertheless unequivocal-acknowledgment of the
permanence of his disability.
Comment on Estrada v. Macapagal-Arroyo
Bernas: In sum, 3 justices (Puno, Vitug and Pardo)
accepted some form of resignation; 2 jsutices
(Mendoza and Bellosillo) saw permanent disability;
3 justices (Kapuna, Yners Santiago and Sandoval-
Gutierrez) accepted the presidency of Arroyo as an
irreversible fact. 5 justices (Quisumbing, Melo,
Buena, De Leon and gonzaga-Reyes) signed the
decision without expressing any opinion. Davide
and Panganiban abstained. In the light of all this, it
is not clear what doctrine was established by
the decision.280
When the Senate President or Speaker becomes
Acting President, he does not lose the Senate
presidency or the speakership.281
Section 10
Call not needed. The Congress shall, at ten
o’clock in the morning of the third day after the
vacancy in the offices of the President and Vice-
President occurs, convene in accordance with its
rules without need of a call and within seven days
enact a law calling for a special election to elect a
President and a Vice-President to be held not
earlier than forty-five days nor later than sixty days
from the time of such call.
Bill deemed certified. The bill calling such special
election shall be deemed certified under paragraph
2, Section 26, Article V1 of this Constitution and
shall become law upon its approval on third
reading by the Congress.
Appropriations. Appropriations for the special
election shall be charged against any current
appropriations and shall be exempt from the
requirements of paragraph 4, Section 25, Article V1
of this Constitution.
No suspension or postponement. The convening
of the Congress cannot be suspended nor the
special election postponed.
280
Bernas Commentary, p 827 (2003 ed).
281
Bernas Primer at 298 (2006 ed.)
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No special elections. No special election shall be
called if the vacancy occurs within eighteen months
before the date of the next presidential election.
J. Temporary Disability
Section 11. Whenever the President transmits to the
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the
House of Representatives his written declaration
that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties
of his office, and until he transmits to them a written
declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties
shall be discharged by the Vice-President as Acting
President.
Whenever a majority of all the Members of the
Cabinet transmit to the President of the Senate and
to the Speaker of the House of Representatives their
written declaration that the President is unable to
discharge the powers and duties of his office, the
Vice-President shall immediately assume the powers
and duties of the office as Acting President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the
President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the
House of Representatives his written declaration
that no inability exists, he shall reassume the powers
and duties of his office. Meanwhile, should a majority
of all the Members of the Cabinet transmit within five
days to the President of the Senate and to the
Speaker of the House of Representatives their
written declaration that the President is unable to
discharge the powers and duties of his office, the
Congress shall decide the issue. For that purpose,
the Congress shall convene, if it is not in session,
within forty-eight hours, in accordance with its rules
and without need of call.
If the Congress, within ten days after receipt of the
last written declaration, or, if not in session, within
twelve days after it is required to assemble,
determines by a two-thirds vote of both Houses,
voting separately, that the President is unable to
discharge the powers and duties of his office, the
Vice- President shall act as President; otherwise, the
President shall continue exercising the powers and
duties of his office.
K. Serious Illness
Section 12. In case of serious illness of the
President, the public shall be informed of the state of
his health. The members of the Cabinet in charge of
national security and foreign relations and the Chief
of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, shall
not be denied access to the President during such
illness.
Section 12 envisions not just illness which
incapacitates but also any serious illness which can
be a matter of national concern.282
Reason for informing the public. To guarantee
the people’s right to know about the state of
President’s health, contrary to secretive practice in
totalitarian regimes.283
282
Bernas Primer at 300 (2006 ed.)
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Who has the duty to inform? The section does
not specify the officer on whom the duty devolves.
It is understood that the Office of the President
would be responsible for making the disclosure.
Reason of the access. To allow the President to
make the important decisions in those areas of
government.284
L. Removal from Office
Ways of removal from office:
1. By Impeachment
2. By People Power
3. By Killing the President (e.g. Assassination)285
(Number 2 is extra constitutional and Number 3 is illegal. –asm).
(But for purposes of examinations, answer number 1 only)
(Impeachment will be discussed under Article XI)
III. The Vice- President
Who is the Vice-President
Qualifications, Election, Term of Office
Oath of Office
Prohibitions/Inhibitions
Vacancy
Removal from Office
Appointment to Cabinet
A. Who is the Vice-President
His function is to be on hand to act as President
when needed or to succeed to the presidency in
case of a permanent vacancy in the office. The
President may also appoint him as a Member of
the Cabinet. Such appointment does not need the
consent of the Commission on Appointments.286
B. Qualifications, Election, Term of Office
Section 3. There shall be a Vice-President
who shall have the same qualifications and
term of office and be elected with and in the
same manner as the President. xxx
No Vice-President shall serve for more than two
successive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the
office for any length of time shall not be considered
as an interruption in the continuity of the service for
the full term for which he was elected. (Section 4)
C. Oath of Office
283
Bernas Commentary, p 832 (2003 ed).
284
Bernas Commentary, p 832 (2003 ed).
285
Number 2 is extra constitutional and Number 3 is illegal. -asm
286
Bernas Primer at 291 (2006 ed.)
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Same as the President. See Section 5.
D. Prohibitions and Inhibitions
1. Shall not receive increase compensation
during the term of the incumbent during which
such increase was approved. (sec 6)
2. Shall not receive any other emoluments from
the government or any other source during
their tenure. (sec 6)
3. Unless otherwise provided in the Constitution,
shall not hold any other employment during
their tenure.
4. Shall not directly or indirectly practice any
other profession, participate in any business,
or be financially interested in any contract with,
or in any franchise or special privilege granted
by the government or any subdivision, agency,
or instrumentality thereof, including
government-owned or controlled corporations
or their subsidiaries during their tenure.
5. Strictly avoid conflict of interest in the conduct
of their office during their tenure. (Section 13)
E. Vacancy in the Vice-Presidency
Section 9. Whenever there is a vacancy in the
Office of the Vice-President during the term for
which he was elected, the President shall nominate
a Vice-President from among the Members of the
Senate and the House of Representatives who shall
assume office upon confirmation by a majority vote
of all the Members of both Houses of the Congress,
voting separately.
F. Removal from Office
He may be removed from office in the same
manner as the President. (Section 3)
F. Appointment to Cabinet
The Vice-President may be appointed as a
Member of the Cabinet. Such appointment requires
no confirmation. (Section 3)
Justice Cruz submits that the Vice-President may
not receive additional compensation as member of
Cabinet because of the absolute prohibition in
Section 3 of Article VII.287
IV. POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
Constitutional Powers of the President
1. Executive Power
2. Power of Appointment
3. Power of Control
287
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 183 (1995 ed).
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4. Military Powers
5. Pardoning Power
6. Borrowing Power
7. Diplomatic Power
8. Budgetary Power
9. Informing Power
10. Other Powers
a. Call Congress to a Special Session (art 6,
sec 15)
b. Power to approve or veto bills (art 6 sec
27)
c. To consent to deputation of government
personnel by the Commission on
Elections (art 19-C sec 2(4))
d. To discipline such deputies (art 19-C sec
2(8))
e. Emergency powers by delegation from
Congress (art 6 sec 23(2))
f. Tariff Powers by delegation from
Congress (art 6 sec 28(2))
g. General Supervision over local
governments and autonomous regional
governments (art 10)
V. Power of Appointment
Definition of Appointment
Nature of Power of Appointment
Classification of Appointment
Kinds of Presidential Appointment
Scope of Appointing Power
Appointments needing Confirmation of CA
Officials Who are to be Appointed by the President
Steps in the Appointing Process
Appointment of Officers Lower in Rank
Limitations on the President’s Appointing power
Power of Removal
Section 16. The President shall nominate and, with
the consent of the Commission on Appointments,
appoint the heads of the executive departments,
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, or
officers of the armed forces from the rank of colonel
or naval captain, and other officers whose
appointments are vested in him in this Constitution.
He shall also appoint all other officers of the
Government whose appointments are not otherwise
provided for by law, and those whom he may be
authorized by law to appoint. The Congress may, by
law, vest the appointment of other officers lower in
rank in the President alone, in the courts, or in the
heads of departments, agencies, commissions, or
boards.
The President shall have the power to make
appointments during the recess of the Congress,
whether voluntary or compulsory, but such
appointments shall be effective only until disapproval
by the Commission on Appointments or until the next
adjournment of the Congress.
A. Definition of Appointment
Definition of Appointment. Appointment is the
selection, by the authority vested with the power, of
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an individual who is to exercise the functions of a
given office.288
It is distinguished from designation in that the
latter simply means the imposition of additional
duties, usually by law, on a person already in the
public service.
It is also different from the commission in that the
latter is the written evidence of the appointment.
B. Nature of Power of Appointment
1. Executive in Nature
2. Non-delegability
3. Necessity of Discretion
1. Executive in Nature
Appointing power is executive in nature.
(Government v. Springer) Indeed, the filling up of
an office created by law is the implementation or
execution of law.289
Although, intrinsically executive and therefore
pertaining mainly to the President, the appointing
power may be exercised by the legislature and by
the judiciary, as well as the Constitutional
Commissions, over their own respective personnel
(See art 6 sec 16 (last sentence), Article VIII etc.)
Implication. Since appointment to office is an
executive function, the clear implication is that the
legislature may not usurp such function.
The legislature may create an office and prescribe
the qualifications of the person who may hold the
office, but it may neither specify who shall be
appointed to such office nor actually appoint him.290
2. Non-delegability.
Facts: The Minister of Tourism designate petitioner as
general manager of the Philippine Tourism Authority.
When a new Secretary of Tourism was appointed, the
President designated [him] as a general manager of
the PTA on the ground that the designation of petitioner
was invalid since it is not made by the President as
provided for in PD 564. Petitioner claimed that his
removal was without just cause.
Held: The appointment or designation of petitioner by
the Minister of Tourism is invalid. It involves the
exercise of discretion, which cannot be delegated.
Even if it be assumed that the power could be
exercised by the Minister of Tourism, it could be
recalled by the President, for the designation was
provisional.291 (Binamira v. Garrucho)
3. Necessity of Discretion
Discretion is an indispensable part in the exercise
of power of appointment. Congress may not,
therefore, enact a statute which would deprive the
President of the full use of his discretion in the
nomination and appointment of persons to any
public office. Thus it has been held that a statute
288
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 189 (1995 ed).
289
Bernas Commentary, p 839 (2003 ed).
290
Bernas Primer at 305 (2006 ed.)
291
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, p.313 (2006 ed.)
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unlawfully limits executive discretion in
appointments when it provides for the drawing of
lots as a means to determine the districts to which
judges of first instance should be assigned by the
Chief Executive.292 Congress may not limit the
President’s choice to one because it will be an
encroachment on the Prerogative of the
President.293
Appointment is essentially a discretionary power
and must be performed by the officer in which it is
vested according to his best lights, the only
condition being that the appointee, if issued a
permanent appointment, should possess the
minimum qualification requirements, including the
Civil Service eligibility prescribed by law for the
position. This discretion also includes the
determination of the nature or character of the
appointment, i.e., whether the appointment is
temporary or permanent.294
The power to appoint includes the power to decide
who among various choices is best qualified
provided that the person chosen has the
qualification provided by law.295 Even the next-in-
rank rule of the Civil Service Code cannot be read
as binding the appointing authority to choose the
first in the order of rank when two or more possess
the requisite qualifications.296
Q: The Revised Administrative Code of 1987
provides, “All provincial and city prosecutors
and their assistants shall be appointed by the
President upon the recommendation of the
Secretary.” Is the absence of recommendation
of the Secretary of Justice to the President
fatal to the appointment of a prosecutor?
A: Appointment calls for discretion on the part
of the appointing authority. The power to
appoint prosecutors is given to the President.
The Secretary of Justice is under the control of
the President. Hence, the law must be read
simply as allowing the Secretary of Justice to
advice the President. (Bermudez v. Secretary,
1999)
C. Classification of Appointment (1994 Bar Question)
1. Permanent
2. Temporary
3. Regular
4. Ad Interim
1. Permanent (2003 Bar Question)
292
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 272 (1954ed).
293
Flores v. Drilon, 223 SCRA 568.
294
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 274
(2006 ed.)
295
Bernas Primer at 305 (2006 ed.)
296
Bernas Commentary, p 840 (2003 ed).
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Permanent appointments are those extended to
persons possessing eligibility and are thus
protected by the constitutional guarantee of
security of tenure. 297
2. Temporary (2003 Bar Question)
Temporary appointments are given to persons
without such eligibility, revocable at will and without
the necessity of just cause or a valid
investigation298; made on the understanding that
the appointing power has not yet decided on a
permanent appointee and that the temporary
appointee may be replaced at any time a
permanent choice is made.
Not subject to CA confirmation. A temporary
appointment and a designation are not subject
to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments. Such confirmation, if given
erroneously, will not make the incumbent a
permanent appointee. (Valencia v. Peralta)
3. Regular
A regular appointment is one made by the
President while Congress is in session; takes effect
only after confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, and once approved, continues until
the end of the term of the appointee.
4. Ad Interim (1991, 1994 Bar Question)
An ad interim appointment is one made by the
President while Congress is not in session; takes
effect immediately, but ceases to be valid if
disapproved by the Commission on Appointments
or upon the next adjournment of Congress. In the
latter case, the ad interim appointment is deemed
“by-passed” through inaction.
The ad interim appointment is intended to prevent
interruptions in vital government services that
would otherwise result form prolonged vacancies in
government offices.
Ad interim appointment is a permanent
appointment. It is a permanent
appointment because it takes effect
immediately and can no longer be withdrawn
by the President once the appointee
qualified into office. The fact that it is subject
to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments does not alter its permanent
character. (Matibag v. Benipayo, 2002)
Ad interim appointed, how terminated.
1. Disapproval of the appointment by
the Commission on Appointments;
2. Adjournment by Congress without the
CA acting on the appointment.
297
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 190 (1995 ed).
298
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 190 (1995 ed).
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There is no dispute that when the
Commission on Appointments
disapproves an ad interim appointment,
the appointee can no longer be extended
a new appointment, inasmuch as the
approval is a final decision of the
Commission in the exercise of its
checking power on the appointing
authority of the President. Such
disapproval is final and binding on both
the appointee and appointing power.
But when an ad interim appointment is by-
passed because of lack of time or failure
of the Commission on Appointments to
organize, there is no final decision by the
Commission to give or withhold its
consent to the appointment. Absent such
decision, the President is free to renew
the ad interim appointment. (Matibag v.
Benipayo)
Q: What happens if a special session is called
and that session continues until the day before
the start of the regular session? Do
appointments given prior to the start of the
special session lapse upon the end of the
special session or may they continue into the
regular session?
A: Guevara v. Inocente again says that there
must be a “constructive recess” between the
sessions and thus appointments not acted
upon during the special session lapse before
the start of the regular session.299
Difference between an ad interim appointment
and an appointment in an acting capacity.
1. The former refers only to positions which need
confirmation by the CA while the latter is also
given to those which do not need confirmation.
2. The former may be given only when Congress
is not in session whereas the latter may be
given even when Congress is in session.
Acting Capacity. The essence of an appointment
in an acting capacity is its temporary nature. In
case of a vacancy in an office occupied by an alter
ego of the President, such as the Office of
Department Secretary, the President must
necessarily appoint the alter ego of her choice as
Acting Secretary before the permanent appointee
of her choice could assume office.
Congress, through law, cannot impose on the
President the obligation to appoint automatically
the undersecretary as her temporary alter ego. “An
alter ego, whether temporary or permanent, holds
a position of great trust and confidence. Congress,
in the guise of prescribing qualifications to an
office, cannot impose on the President who her
alter ego should be.”Acting appointments are a
way of temporarily filling important offices, but if
299
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abused, they can also be a way of circumventing
the need for confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments.
However, we find no abuse in the present case.
The absence of abuse is apparent from President
Arroyo’s issuance of ad interim appointments to
respondents immediately upon the recess of
Congress, way before the lapse of one year.
(Pimentel v. Ermita, 2005)
D. Kinds of Presidential Appointment
1. Appointments made by an Acting President
(Section 14)
2. Appointments made by the President within
two months before the next presidential
elections and up to the end of his term.
(Section 15)
3. Regular Appointments (Section 16)
4. Recess or Ad interim Appointments (Section
13)
E. Scope of the Power to Appoint
Officials to be Appointed by the President
1. Those officials whose appointments are vested
in him by the Constitution. (See Section 16, 1st
sentence)
• Heads of executive departments
• Ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls
• Officers of the armed forces from
rank of colonel or naval captain
• Article VIII, Section 9 provides that
the President appoints member of the
SC and judges of lower courts
• The President also appoints
members of JBC, chairmen and
members of the constitutional
commissions (art 9,B, Sec 1(2); C,
Section 1(2)), the Ombudsman and
his deputies (art 11, sec 9).
• Appointment of Sectoral
Representatives (art 18 sec 7)
(Quintos-Deles v. Commission on
Appointments)
2. Those whom he may be authorized by law
(Section 16, 2nd sentence)
3. Any other officers of the government whose
appointments are not otherwise provided by
law (Constitution or statutes). (Section 16, 2nd
sentence)
Significance of enumeration in Section 16, 1st
sentence. The enumeration means that Congress
may not give to any other officer the power to
appoint the above enumerated officers.300
300
Bernas Primer at 306 (2006 ed.)
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F. Appointments needing the Confirmation of CA
CA Confirmation
Exclusive List
1. What appointments need confirmation by the
Commission on Appointments? (1999 Bar Q)
Those enumerated in the 1st sentence of Section
16:
1. Heads of executive departments
2. Ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls
3. Officers of the armed forces from rank of
colonel or naval captain
4. Those other officers whose appointments
are vested in him in the Constitution.
(Sarmiento v. Mison) (Note: Although the
power to appoint Justices, judges,
Ombudsman and his deputies is vested in
the President, such appointments do not
need confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments)
Why from rank of colonel. The provision
hopefully will have the effect of strengthening
civilian supremacy over the military301 To some
extent, the decision of the Commission was
influenced by the observation that coups are
generally led by colonels.302
Military officers. The clause “officers of the
armed forces from the rank of colonel or naval
captain” refers to military officers alone.
Hence, promotion and appointment of officers
of Philippine Coast Guard which is under the
DOTC (and not under the AFP), do not need
the confirmation of Commission on
Appointments. (Soriano v. Lista, 2003) Also,
promotion of senior officers of the PNP is not
subject to confirmation of CA. PNP are not
members of the AFP. (Manalo v. Sistoza,
1999)
Chairman of CHR. The appointment of the
Chairman of the Commission on Human
Rights is not provided for in the Constitution or
in the law. Thus, there is no necessity for such
appointment to be passed upon by the
Commission on Appointments. (Bautista v.
Salonga)
2. Exclusive list
The Congress cannot by law require the
confirmation of appointments of government
officials other than those enumerated in the first
sentence of Section 16 of Article VII. (Calderon v.
Carale)
301
Bernas Commentary, p 844 (2003 ed).
302
II RECORD 394-395.
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G. Steps in the Appointing Process (where COA
confirmation is needed)
1. Nomination by the President
2. Confirmation of the Commission on Appointments
3. Issuance of the Commission
Acceptance. An appointment is deemed complete
only upon its acceptance. Pending such
acceptance, the appointment may still be
withdrawn. (Lacson v. Romero)
Appointment to a public office cannot be forced
upon any citizen except for purposes of defense of
the State under Article II Section 4.
H. Appointment of Officers Lower in Rank
Section 16 (3rd sentence of first paragraph)
The Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of
other officers lower in rank in the President alone,
in the courts, or in the heads of departments,
agencies, commissions, or boards.
Significance of the phrase “the President
alone”. Alone means to the exclusion of the courts,
the heads of departments, agencies, commissions
or boards. 303
Appointing authority may also be given to other
officials. Thus Section 16 says: “The Congress
may, by law, vest the appointment of other officers
lower in rank in the President alone, in the courts,
or in the heads of departments, agencies,
commissions, or boards.” In Rufino v Endriga304
interpreted this to mean that, when the authority is
given to collegial bodies, it is to the chairman that
the authority is given. But he can appoint only
officers “lower in rank,” and not officers equal in
rank to him. Thus a Chairman may not appoint a
fellow member of a Board.
I. Limitations on the President’s Appointing Power
Section 14. Appointments extended by an Acting
President shall remain effective, unless revoked by
the elected President within ninety days from his
assumption or reassumption of office.
Section 15. Two months immediately before the
next presidential elections and up to the end of his
term, a President or Acting President shall not make
appointments, except temporary appointments to
executive positions when continued vacancies
therein will prejudice public service or endanger
public safety.
Special Limitations
303
Bernas Commentary, p 847 (2003 ed).; The earlier view of Fr.
Bernas confirmed by Sarmiento v. Mison, was that the retention of
the phrase “President alone” was an oversight.
304
G.R. No. 139554, July 21, 2006.
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1. (Anti-Nepotism Provision) The President
may not appoint his spouse and relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the fourth civil
degree as Members of the Constitutional
Commission, as Ombudsman, or as
Secretaries, Undersecretaries, chairmen or
heads of Bureaus or offices, including
government owned-or-controlled corporations.
(Section 13)
2. Appointments extended by an acting President
shall remain effective unless revoked by the
elected President within 90 days form his
assumption of office. (Section 14)
3. (Midnight Appointments)Two months
immediately before the next presidential
elections and up to the end of his term, a
President or acting President shall not make
appointments except for temporary
appointments to executive positions when
continued vacancies therein will prejudice
public service or endanger public safety.
(Section 15)
4. The President shall have the power to make
appointments during the recess of the
Congress, whether voluntary or compulsory,
but such appointments shall be effective only
until disapproval by the CA or until the next
adjournment of Congress. (Section 16 par. 2)
Rule [Section 15] applies in the
appointments in the Judiciary. Two
months immediately before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of
his term, a President or Acting President
shall not make appointments, except
temporary appointments to executive
positions when continued vacancies therein
will prejudice public service or endanger
public safety. Since the exception applies
only to executive positions, the prohibition
covers appointments to the judiciary.305
During this period [2 months immediately
before the next presidential elections…], the
President is neither required to make
appointments to the courts nor allowed to do
so.
Section 4(1) and 9 of Article VIII simply
mean that the President is required by law to
fill up vacancies in the courts within the
same time frames provided therein unless
prohibited by Section 15 of Article VII.
While the filing up of vacancies in the
judiciary is undoubtedly in the public
interest, there is no showing in this case of
any compelling reason to justify the making
of the appointments during the period of the
305
In re: Appointment of Valenzuela, AM 98-0501 SC, November 9,
1998.
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ban. (In Re Appointment of Mateo
Valenzuela, 1998)
Provision applies only to presidential
appointments. The provision applies only to
presidential appointments. There is no law
that prohibits local executive officials from
making appointments during the last days of
their tenure. (De Rama v. CA)
Other Limitations:
1. The presidential power of appointment may
also be limited by Congress through its power
to prescribe qualifications for public office.
2. The judiciary may annul an appointment made
by the President if the appointee is not
qualified or has not been validly confirmed.306
J. Power of Removal
The President possesses the power of removal by
implication from other powers expressly vested in
him.
1. It is implied from his power to appoint
2. Being executive in nature, it is implied
from the constitutional provision vesting
the executive power in the President.
3. It may be implied from his function to take
care that laws be properly executed; for
without it, his orders for law enforcement
might not be effectively carried out.
4. The power may be implied fro the
President’s control over the administrative
departments, bureaus, and offices of the
government. Without the power to
remove, it would not be always possible
for the President to exercise his power of
control.307
As a general rule, the power of removal may be
implied from the power of appointment. 308 However,
the President cannot remove officials appointed by
him where the Constitution prescribes certain
methods for separation of such officers from public
service, e.g., Chairmen and Commissioners of
Constitutional Commissions who can be removed
only by impeachment, or judges who are subject to
the disciplinary authority of the Supreme Court. In
the cases where the power of removal is lodged in
the President, the same may be exercised only for
cause as may be provided by law, and in
306
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 195 (1995 ed).
307
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 275 (1954ed).; But See Ang-
Angco v. Castillo, “The power of control is not the source of the
Executive’s disciplinary power over the person of his
subordinates. Rather, his disciplinary power flows from his
power to appoint.” Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed).
308
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 196 (1995 ed).
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accordance with the prescribed administrative may take such action or steps as prescribed by law
procedure. to make them perform these duties.314

Members of the career service. Members of the
career service of the Civil Service who are
appointed by the President may be directly
disciplined by him. (Villaluz v. Zaldivar) provided
that the same is for cause and in accordance with
the procedure prescribed by law.
Bernas Primer: Power of Supervision is the power
of a superior officer to “ensure that the laws are
faithfully executed” by inferiors. The power of
supervision does not include the power of control;
but the power of control necessarily includes the
power of supervision.315

Members of the Cabinet. Members of the Cabinet Control Supervision

and such officers whose continuity in office An officer in control Supervision does not
depends upon the President may be replaced at lays down the rules in cover the authority to
any time. (Legally speaking, their separation is the doing of an act. lay down the rules.
effected not by removal but by expiration of Supervisor or
term.309) (See Alajar v. CA) superintendent merely
sees to it that the rules
VI. Power of Control are followed.
If rules are not If the rules are not
Control followed, he may, in observed, he may order
Control v. Supervision his discretion, order the work done or re-
The President and Power of Control the act undone, re- done but only to
Alter ego Principle; Doctrine of Qualified Political done by his conform to the
Agency subordinate or he prescribed rules. He
Supervision over LGUs may decide to do it may not prescribe his
The Take-Care Clause himself. own manner for the
doing of the act. He has
Section 17. The President shall have control of all no judgment on this
the executive departments, bureaus, and offices. He
shall ensure that the laws be faithfully executed.
matter except to see to
it that the rules are
followed. (Drilon v. Lim)
A. Control
C. The President and Power of Control
Control is the power of an officer to alter or modify Power of Control of the President
or nullify or set aside what a subordinate officer Scope
had done in the performance of his duties and to Section 17 is self-executing
substitute the judgment of the former for that of the Not a Source of Disciplinary Powers
latter.310
1. Power of Control of the President
It includes the authority to order the doing of an act [Power of Control] has been given to the President
by a subordinate or to undo such act or to assume over all executive officers from Cabinet members to
a power directly vested in him by law. 311 The power the lowliest clerk. This is an element of the
of control necessarily includes the power of presidential system where the President is “the
supervision.312 Executive of the government.”316
B. Control v. Supervision The power of control vested in the President by the
Constitution makes for a strongly centralized
Control is a stronger power than mere administrative system. It reinforces further his
supervision.313 position as the executive of the government,
enabling him to comply more effectively with his
Supervision. Supervision means overseeing or constitutional duty to enforce laws. The power to
the power or authority of an officer to see that prepare the budget of the government strengthens
subordinate officer performs their duties. If the the President’s position as administrative head.317
latter fail or neglect to fulfill them, then the former
2. Scope
309
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 197 (1995 ed).
310
Mondano v. Silvosa 314
Mondano v. Silvosa
311 315
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 198 (1995 ed). Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed.)
312 316
Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed.) Bernas Primer at 310 (2006 ed.)
313 317
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 198 (1995 ed). Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 243 (1954ed).

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a. The President shall have control of all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices.
(Section 17)
b. The President has control over officers of
GOCCs. (NAMARCO v. Arca) (Bernas: It is
submitted that such power over government-
owned corporation comes not from the
Constitution but from statute. Hence, it may also
be taken away by statute.)
c. Control over what? The power of control is
exercisable by the President over the acts of his
subordinates and not necessarily over the
subordinate himself. (Ang-angco v. Castillo) It
can be said that the while the Executive has
control over the “judgment” or “discretion” of his
subordinates, it is the legislature which has
control over their “person.”318
d. Theoretically, the President has full control of
all the members of the Cabinet. He may appoint
them as he sees fit, shuffle them at pleasure,
and replace them in his discretion without any
legal inhibition whatever.319
e. The President may exercise powers conferred
by law upon Cabinet members or other
subordinate executive officers. (City of Iligan v.
Director of Lands) Even where the law provides
that the decision of the Director of Lands on
questions of fact shall be conclusive when
affirmed by the Sec of DENR, the same may, on
appeal to the President, be reviewed and
reversed by the Executive Secretary. (Lacson-
Magallanes v. Pano)
f. It has been held, moreover, that the express
grant of the power of control to the President
justifies an executive action to carry out the
reorganization of an executive office under a
broad authority of law.320 A reorganization can
involve the reduction of personnel, consolidation
of offices, or even abolition of positions by
reason of economy or redundancy of functions.
While the power to abolish an office is generally
lodged with the legislature, the authority of the
President to reorganize the executive branch,
which may include such abolition, is permissible
under present laws.321
3. Section 17 is a self-executing provision
318
Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed.)
319
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 199 (1995 ed).
320
Anak Mindanao v. Executive Sec, G.R. No. 166052 , August 29,
2007; Tondo Medical Center Employees v. CA. G.R. No. 167324,
July 17, 2007;
321
Malaria Employees v. Executive Secretary, G.R. No.
160093, July 31, 2007.
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The President derives power of control directly
from the Constitution and not from any
implementing legislation. Such a law is in fact
unnecessary and will even be invalid if it limits the
exercise of his power or withdraws it altogether
from the President.322
4. Power of Control is not the source of the
Executive’s disciplinary power
The power of control is not the source of the
Executive’s disciplinary power over the person of
his subordinates. Rather, his disciplinary power
flows from his power to appoint. (Ang-Angco v.
Castillo)323
D. Alter Ego Principle; Doctrine of Qualified Political
Agency
Doctrine
When Doctrine not Applicable
Reason for the Doctrine
Power of Control exercised by Department Heads
Power of Control exercised by ES
Abakada Case
1. Doctrine
The doctrine recognizes the establishment of a
single executive. The doctrine postulates that, “All
executive and administrative organizations are
adjuncts of the Executive Department, the heads of
the various executive departments are assistants
and agents of the Chief Executive, and, (except in
cases where the Chief Executive is required by the
Constitution or law to act in person or the
exigencies of the situation demand that he act
personally,) the multifarious executive and
administrative functions of the Chief Executive are
performed by and through the executive
departments, and the acts of the secretaries of
such departments, performed and promulgated
in the regular course of business, are, unless
disapproved or reprobated by the Chief
Executive presumptively, the acts of the Chief
Executive” (Villena v. Sec. of Interior)
Put simply, when a department secretary makes a
decision in the course of performing his or her
official duties, the decision, whether honorable or
disgraceful, is presumptively the decision of the
President, unless he quickly and clearly disowns
it.324
2. When Doctrine not Applicable
Qualified political agency does NOT apply if the
President is required to act in person by law or by
322
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 199 (1995 ed).
323
Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed.)
324
Fr. Bernas in his Inquirer column, “A Golden Opportunity for
GMA”.
http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view_article.php?
article_id=107245
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the Constitution. Example: The power to grant
pardons must be exercised personally by the
President.
3. Reason for the Doctrine
Since the executive is a busy man, he is not
expected to exercise the totality of his power of
control all the time. He is not expected to exercise
all his powers in person. He is expected to
delegate some of them to men of his confidence,
particularly to members of his Cabinet. Thus, out of
this practical necessity has risen what has come
to be referred to as “doctrine of qualified political
agency.”325
4. Power of Control exercised by Department
Heads in the President’s Behalf
The President’s power of control means his power
to reverse the judgment of an inferior officer. It
may also be exercised in his behalf by Department
Heads. Thus the Secretary of Justice may reverse
the judgment of a prosecutor and direct him to
withdraw an information already filed. Such action
is not directly reviewable by a court. One who
disagrees, however, may should appeal to the
Office of the President in order to exhaust
administrative remedies prior to bring it to court.326
5. Power of Control exercised by the ES
The Executive Secretary when acting “by authority
of the President” may reverse the decision of
another department secretary. (Lacson-Magallanes
v. Pano) 327
6. Abakada Case
Petitioners argue that the EVAT law is
unconstitutional, as it constitutes abandonment by
Congress of its exclusive authority to fix the rate of
taxes and nullififed the President’s power of control
by mandating the fixing of the tax rate by the
President upon the recommendation of the
Secretary of Finance. The SC ruled that the
Secretary of Finance can act as agent of the
Legislative Department to determine and declare
the event upon which its expressed will is to take
effect. His personality in such instance is in reality
but a projection of that of Congress. Thus, being
the agent of Congress and not of the President, the
President cannot alter or modify or nullify, or set
aside the findings of the Secretary of Finance and
to substitute the judgment of the former to the
latter.328 (Abakada Guro v. ES, 2005)
325
Bernas Commentary, p 857 (2003 ed).
326
Orosa v. Roa, GR 14047, July 14, 2006; DENR v. DENR
Employees, G.R. No. 149724. August 19, 2003
327
See the case of Neri v. Senate Committee on the authority of ES
to invoke Executive Immunity. -asm
328
San Beda College of Law, 2008 Centralized Bar Operations,
Political Law Reviewer, p. 29.
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E. Power of Supervision over LGUs
The power of the President over local governments
is only one of general supervision.329 (See Article X,
Sections 4 and 16)
The President can only interfere in the affairs and
activities of a local government unit if he finds that
the latter had acted contrary to law. (Judge Dadole
v. COA)
A law (RA 7160 Sec 187) which authorizes the
Secretary of Justice to review the constitutionality
of legality of a tax ordinance—and if warranted, to
revoke it on either or both grounds—is valid, and
does not confer the power of control over local
government units in the Secretary of Justice, as
even if the latter can set aside a tax ordinance, he
cannot substitute his own judgment for that of the
local government unit. (Drilon v. Lim)
F. Faithful Execution Clause; Take Care Clause
The power to take care that the laws be faithfully
executed makes the President a dominant figure in
the administration of the government.330
The President shall ensure that the laws be
faithfully executed. (Section 17 2nd sentence) The
law he is supposed to enforce includes the
Constitution, statutes, judicial decisions,
administrative rules and regulations and municipal
ordinances, as well as treaties entered into by
government.331
This power of the President is not limited to the
enforcement of acts of Congress according to their
express terms. The President’s power includes “the
rights and obligations growing out of the
Constitution itself, international relations, and all
the protection implied by the nature of the
government under the Constitution.332
The reverse side of the power to execute the law is
the duty to carry it out. The President cannot refuse
to carry out a law for the simple reason that in his
judgment it will not be beneficial to the people. 333
As the Supreme Court pointed out, “after all we still
live under a rule of law.”
It has been suggested that the President is not
under obligation to enforce a law which in his belief
is unconstitutional because it would create no
329
Bernas Primer at 313 (2006 ed.)
330
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 203 (1995 ed).
331
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 203 (1995 ed).
332
In Re Neagle, 135 US 1 (1890). Bernas Commentary, p 863
(2003 ed).
333
Bernas Commentary, p 863 (2003 ed)
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rights and confer no duties being totally null and
void. The better view is that it is not for him to
determine the validity of a law since this is a
question exclusively addressed to the judiciary.
Hence, until and unless a law is declared
unconstitutional, the President has a duty to
execute it regardless of his doubts on its validity. A
contrary opinion would allow him not only to negate
the will of legislature but also to encroach upon the
prerogatives of the judiciary.334
VII. Military Power/Emergency Powers
The Military Power
Limitations on Military Power
Commander-in-Chief Clause/ Calling Out Power
Suspension of the Privilege
Martial Law
Section 18. The President shall be the Commander-
in-Chief of all armed forces of the Philippines and
whenever it becomes necessary, he may call out
such armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless
violence, invasion or rebellion. In case of invasion or
rebellion, when the public safety requires it, he may,
for a period not exceeding sixty days, suspend the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or place the
Philippines or any part thereof under martial law.
Within forty-eight hours from the proclamation of
martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus, the President shall submit a
report in person or in writing to the Congress. The
Congress, voting jointly, by a vote of at least a
majority of all its Members in regular or special
session, may revoke such proclamation or
suspension, which revocation shall not be set aside
by the President. Upon the initiative of the President,
the Congress may, in the same manner, extend such
proclamation or suspension for a period to be
determined by the Congress, if the invasion or
rebellion shall persist and public safety requires it.
The Congress, if not in session, shall, within twenty-
four hours following such proclamation or
suspension, convene in accordance with its rules
without need of a call.
The Supreme Court may review, in an appropriate
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiency of the
factual basis of the proclamation of martial law or the
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
extension thereof, and must promulgate its decision
thereon within thirty days from its filing.
A state of martial law does not suspend the
operation of the Constitution, nor supplant the
functioning of the civil courts or legislative
assemblies, nor authorize the conferment of
jurisdiction on military courts and agencies over
where civil courts are able to function, nor
automatically suspend the privilege of the writ.
The suspension of the privilege of the writ shall
apply only to persons judicially charged for rebellion
or offenses inherent in or directly connected with
invasion.
During the suspension of the privilege of the writ,
any person thus arrested or detained shall be
334
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 203 (1995 ed).
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
judicially charged within three days, otherwise he
shall be released.
A. The Military Power (1987 Bar Question)
Section 18 bolsters the principle announced in
Article II, Section 3 that “civilian authority is at all
times, supreme over the military.” By making the
President the commander-in-chief of all the armed
forces, the Constitution lessens the danger of a
military take-over of the government in violation of
its republican nature.335
Section 18 grants the President, as Commander-
in-Chief, a sequence of graduated powers. From
the most to the least benign, these are: the calling
out power, the power to suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus, and the power to declare
martial law. (Sanlakas v. Executive Secretary)
The power of the sword makes the President the
most important figure in the country in times of war
or other similar emergency.336 It is because the
sword must be wielded with courage and resolution
that the President is given vast powers in the
making and carrying out of military decisions.337
The military power enables the President to:
1. Command all the armed forces of the
Philippines;
2. Suspend the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus
3. Declare martial law
B. Limitations on Military Power338 (1987, 2000 Bar
Question)
1. He may call out the armed forces to prevent or
suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion
only.
2. The grounds for the suspension of the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus and the proclamation of
martial law are now limited only to invasion or
rebellion.
3. The duration of such suspension or proclamation
shall not exceed sixty days, following which it shall
be automatically lifted.
4. Within forty-eight hours after such suspension or
proclamation, the President shall personally or in
writing report his action to the Congress. If not in
session, Congress must convene within 24 hours.
5. The Congress may then, by majority votes of all its
members voting jointly, revoke his action. The
revocation may not set aside by the President.
335
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 204 (1995 ed).
336
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 205 (1995 ed).
337
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 205 (1995 ed).
338
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 213 (1995 ed).
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6. By the same vote and in the same manner, the
Congress may, upon initiative of the President,
extend his suspension or proclamation for a period
to be determined by the Congress if the invasion or
rebellion shall continue and the public safety
requires extension.
7. The action of the President and the Congress shall
be subject to review by the Supreme Court which
shall have the authority to determine the sufficiency
of the factual basis of such action. This matter is no
longer considered a political question and may be
raised in an appropriate proceeding by any citizen.
Moreover, the Supreme Court must decide the
challenge within thirty days from the time it is filed.
8. Martial law does not automatically suspend the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or the
operation of the Constitution. The civil courts and
the legislative bodies shall remain open. Military
courts and agencies are not conferred jurisdiction
over civilians where the civil courts are functioning.
9. The suspension of the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus shall apply only to persons facing
charges of rebellion or offenses inherent in or
directly connected with invasion.
10. Any person arrested for such offenses must be
judicially charged therewith within three days.
Otherwise shall be released.
C. Commander-in-Chief Clause; Calling Out Power
Power over the military
Civilian Supremacy
Calling-out Power
The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of all
armed forces of the Philippines and whenever it
becomes necessary, he may call out such armed
forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence,
invasion or rebellion. (Section 18, 1st sentence)
1. Power over the Military.
The President has absolute authority over all
members of the armed forces. (Gudani v. Senga,
2006) He has control and direction over them. As
Commander-in-chief, he is authorized to direct the
movements of the naval and the military forces
placed by law at his command, and to employ them
in manner he may deem most effectual to harass
and conquer and subdue the enemy.339
Since the President is commander-in-chief of the
Armed Forces she can demand obedience from
military officers. Military officers who disobey or
ignore her command can be subjected to court
martial proceeding. Thus, for instance, the
President as Commander in Chief may prevent a
member of the armed forces from testifying before
a legislative inquiry. A military officer who disobeys
the President’s directive may be made to answer
before a court martial. Since, however, Congress
339
Bernas Commentary, p 866 (2003 ed) citing Fleming v. Page.
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has the power to conduct legislative hearings,
Congress may make use of remedies under the
law to compel attendance. Any military official
whom Congress summons to testify before it may
be compelled to do so by the President. If the
President is not so inclined, the President may be
commanded by judicial order to compel the
attendance of the military officer. Final judicial
orders have the force of the law of the land which
the President has the duty to faithfully execute.340
2. Civilian Supremacy (Bernasian view)
Is the President a member of the armed
forces?
Dichotomy of views:
Sinco: The President is not only a civil official.
As commander-in-chief of all armed forces, the
President is also a military officer. This dual role
given by the Constitution to the President is
intended to insure that the civilian controls the
military.341
Bernas: The weight of authority favors the
position that the President is not a member of
the armed forces but remains a civilian.
The President’s duties as Commander-in-Chief
represent only a part of the organic duties
imposed upon him. All his other functions are
clearly civil in nature.
• He is elected as the highest civilian officer
• His compensation is received for his
services rendered as President of the
nation, not for the individual part of his
duties; no portion of its is paid from sums
appropriated for the military or naval
forces.
• He is not subject to court martial or other
military discipline
• The Constitution does not require that the
President must be possessed of military
training and talents.
This position in fact, is the only one compatible
with Article II, Section 3, which says” “Civilian
authority is at all times, supreme over the
military.” The net effect thus of Article II, Section3
when read with Article VII, Section 18 is that a
civilian President holds supreme military
authority and is the ceremonial, legal, and
administrative head of the armed forces.342
3. Calling Out Power under Section 18 (2006 Bar
Question)
Most Benign power of Section 18
Use of Calling Out Power Vests No Constitutional
or Statutory Powers
Declaration of State of Rebellion
Declaration of State of National Emergency
340
Gudani v. Senga, G.R. No. 170165, April 15. 2006.
341
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 261 (1954ed).
342
Bernas Commentary, p 865 (2003 ed).
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Calling out Power and Judicial Review
a. Most Benign power of Section 18. The
diminution of any constitutional rights through the
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
declaration of martial law is deemed as “strong
medicine” to be used sparingly and only as a last
resort, and for as long as only truly necessary.
Thus, the invocation of the “calling out” power
stands as a balanced means of enabling a
heightened alertness in dealing with the armed
threat, but without having to suspend any
constitutional or statutory rights or cause the
creation of any new obligations.
b. Vests no new constitutional or statutory
powers. For the utilization of the “calling out”
power alone cannot vest unto the President any
new constitutional or statutory powers, such as the
enactment of new laws. At most, it can only renew
emphasis on the duty of the President to execute
already existing laws without extending a
corresponding mandate to proceed extra-
constitutionally or extra-legally. Indeed, the “calling
out” power does not authorize the President or the
members of the Armed Forces to break the law.
c. Declaration of State of Rebellion. Declaration
of the state of rebellion is within the calling-out
power of the President. When the President
declares a state of emergency or a state of
rebellion her action is merely a description of the
situation as she sees it but it does not give her new
powers. The declaration cannot diminish or violate
constitutionally protected rights. (Sanlakas v.
Executive Secretary, G.R. No. 159085, February
3, 2004.)
d. Declaration of a “state of national
emergency”. The President can validly declare a
state of national emergency even in the absence of
congressional enactment. (David v. Ermita) (2006
Bar Question)
PP 1017 case
Facts: On February 24, 2006, President Arroyo
issued Presidential Proclamation 1017 declaring a
state of national emergency. The Solicitor General
enumerated the following events that lead to the
issuance of PP1017:
1. Escape of Magdalo group and their
audacious threat of the Magdalo D-day
2. The defecations in the Military, particularly
in the Phil. Marines
3. Reproving statements of the communist
leaders
4. Minutes of the Intelligence Report and
Security Group of the Philippine Army
showing the growing alliance between the
NPA and the military.
Did PGMA gravely abuse her discretion in
calling out the AFP?
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
NO. Section 18 grants the President the calling
out power. The only criterion for the exercise is
that “whenever it becomes necessary”, the
President may call the armed forces “to prevent or
suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion”
These conditions are present in this case.
Considering the circumstances then prevailing
PGMA found it necessary to issue PP1017. Owing
to her Office’s vast intelligence network, she is in
the best position to determine the actual condition
in her country. PP1017 is constitutional insofar
as it constitutes a call by PGMA on the AFP to
prevent or suppress lawless violence.
e. President’s action in calling out the armed
forces, and judicial review. It may be gathered
from the broad grant of power that the actual use to
which the President puts the armed forces, is
unlike the suspension of the privilege of writ of
habeas corpus, not subject to judicial review.343
But, wait! While the Court considered the
President’s “calling-out” power as a discretionary
power solely vested in his wisdom and that it
cannot be called upon to overrule the President’s
wisdom or substitute its own, it stressed that “this
does not prevent an examination of whether such
power was exercised within permissible
constitutional limits or whether it was exercised in a
manner constituting grave abuse of discretion. (IBP
v. Zamora) Judicial inquiry can go no further than to
satisfy the Court not that the President’s decision is
correct, but that “the President did not act
arbitrarily.” Thus, the standard is not correctness,
but arbitrariness. It is incumbent upon the petitioner
to show that the President’s decision is totally
bereft of factual basis” and that if he fails, by way of
proof, to support his assertion, then “this Court
cannot undertake an independent investigation
beyond the pleadings. (IBP v. Zamora cited in
David v. Arroyo)
D. Suspension of the Privilege
Writ of Habeas Corpus
Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus
Suspension of the Privilege, Meaning
General Limitations on the power to Suspend
To whom Applicable
Effect on Applicable Persons
Grounds
Duration
Four Ways to Lift the Suspension
Duty of the President
Role of Congress
Role of the Supreme Court
1. Writ of HC
The writ. The writ of habeas corpus is a writ
directed to the person detaining another,
commanding him to produce the body of the
343
Bernas Commentary, p 866 (2003 ed)
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prisoner at a designated time and place, with the
day and cause of his caption and detention, to do,
to submit to, and receive whatever the court or
judge awarding the writ shall consider in his behalf.
(Bouvier’s Law Dictionary) (Hence, an essential
requisite for the availability of the writ is actual
deprivation of personal liberty) (Simply put, a writ
of habeas corpus is a writ of liberty)
Purpose. The great object of which is the liberation
of those who may be in prison without sufficient
cause.344
To what Habeas Corpus extends. Except as
otherwise provided by law, the writ of habeas
corpus shall extend to all cases of illegal
confinement or detention by which any person is
deprived of his liberty, or by which the rightful
custody of any person is withheld from the person
entitled thereto. (Rule 102, Section 1 or Rules of
COurtt)
2. Privilege of the writ of HC
Privilege. It is the right to have an immediate
determination of the legality of the deprivation of
physical liberty.
3. Suspension of the privilege.
In case of invasion or rebellion, when the public
safety requires it, [the President] may, for a period
not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus.
Suspension of the Privilege, Meaning.
Suspension of the privilege does not suspend the
writ itself, but only it’s privilege. This means that
when the court receives an application for the writ,
and it finds the petition in proper form, it will issue
the writ as a matter of course, i.e., the court will
issue an order commanding the production before
the court of the person allegedly detained, at a time
and place stated in the order, and requiring the true
cause of his detention to be shown to the court. If
the return to the writ shows that the person in
custody was apprehended and detained in areas
where the privilege of the writ has been suspended
or for crimes mentioned in the executive
proclamation, the court will suspend further
proceedings in the action.345 (1997 Bar Question)
Facts: Claiming they were illegally arrested without
any warrant of arrest, petitioners sued several
officers of the AFP for damages. The officers of the
AFP argued that the action was barred since the
suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus precluded judicial inquiry into the legality of
their detention.
344
Moran, Rules of Court, Vol. II, 499.
345
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 210 (1995 ed).
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
Held: The contention of AFP officers has not merit.
The suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus does not render valid an otherwise illegal
arrest or detention. What is suspended is merely
the right of individual to seek release from
detention through the writ of habeas corpus.346
(Aberca v. Ver, 160 SCRA 590)
4. General Limitations on the power to suspend
the privilege
1. Time limit of 60 days
2. Review and possible revocation by Congress
3. Review and possible nullification by SC347
5. To whom Applicable
The suspension of the privilege of the writ shall
apply only to persons judicially charged for
rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly
connected with invasion.
6. Effect on Applicable Persons
During the suspension of the privilege of the writ,
any person thus arrested or detained shall be
judicially charged within three days, otherwise he
shall be released. (Article VI Section 18)
The suspension of the privilege of the writ does not
impair the right to bail. (Article III Section 13)
7. (Grounds) Factual Bases for Suspending the
Privilege (1997 Bar Question)
1. In case of invasion or rebellion
2. When the public safety requires it
8. Duration.
Not to exceed sixty days, following which it shall be
lifted, unless extended by Congress.
9. Four Ways to Lift the Suspension
1. Lifting by the President himself
2. Revocation by Congress
3. Nullification by the Supreme Court
4. By operation of law after 60 days
10. Duty of the President
Within forty-eight hours from the proclamation of
martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus, the President shall submit a
report in person or in writing to the Congress.
11. Role of Congress
a. Congress convenes
b. Congress may either revoke or (with President’s
initiative) extend
346
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 322 (2006 ed.)
347
Bernas Primer at 318 (2006 ed.)
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Congress convenes. The Congress, if not in
session, shall, within twenty-four hours following
such proclamation or suspension, convene in
accordance with its rules without need of a call.
Congress may revoke. The Congress, voting
jointly, by a vote of at least a majority of all its
Members in regular or special session, may revoke
such proclamation or suspension, which revocation
shall not be set aside by the President.
Congress may extend. Upon the initiative of the
President, the Congress may, in the same manner,
extend such proclamation or suspension for a
period to be determined by the Congress, if the
invasion or rebellion shall persist and public safety
requires it.
12. Role of Supreme Court
The Supreme Court may review, in an appropriate
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiency of
the factual basis of the proclamation of martial law
or the suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
extension thereof, and must promulgate its
decision thereon within thirty days from its filing.
E. Martial Law
Martial Law, Definition (Under the 1987 Constitution)
Martial Law, Nature
Proclamation of Martial Law
General Limits on the Power to Proclaim…
Effects of Proclamation of Martial Law
Grounds
Duration
Four Ways to Lift the Suspension
Duty of the President
Role of Congress
Role of the Supreme Court (Open Court Doctrine)
1. Martial Law, Definition.
Martial law in its strict sense refers to that law
which has application when civil authority calls
upon the military arm to aid it in its civil function.
Military arm does not supersede civil authority.
Martial law in the Philippines is imposed by the
Executive as specifically authorized and within the
limits set by the Constitution.348
2. Martial Law, Nature
a. Essentially police power
b. Scope of Martial Law: Flexible Concept
Martial law is essentially police power. This is
borne out of the constitutional text which sets down
348
Bernas Commentary, p 870 (2003 ed).
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
“public safety” as the object of the exercise of
martial law. Public safety is the concern of police
power.
What is peculiar, however, about martial law as
police power is that, whereas police power is
normally a function of the legislature executed by
the civilian executive arm, under martial law, police
power is exercised by the executive with the aid of
the military.
Martial law is a flexible concept. Martial law
depends on two factual bases: (1) the existence of
invasion or rebellion; and (2) the requirements of
public safety.
Necessity creates the conditions for martial law
and at the same time limits the scope of martial
law. Certainly, the necessities created by a state of
invasion would be different from those created by
rebellion. Necessarily, therefore the degree and
kind of vigorous executive action needed to meet
the varying kinds and degrees of emergency could
not be identical under all conditions. (The common
denominator of all exercise by an executive officer
of the discretion and judgment normally exercised
by a legislative or judicial body.)
3. Proclamation of Martial Law
In case of invasion or rebellion, when the public
safety requires it, [the President] may, for a period
not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus or place the Philippines
or any part thereof under martial law.
Q: Is PP 1017 actually a declaration of Martial
law?
A: No. It is merely an exercise of PGMA’s
calling-out power for the armed forces to assist
her in preventing or suppressing lawless
violence. It cannot be used to justify act that
only under a valid of declaration of Martial Law
can be done. (David v. [Ermita])
4. General Limitations on the power to proclaim
1. Time limit of 60 days
2. Review and possible revocation by Congress
3. Review and possible nullification by SC349
5. Effects of Proclamation of Martial Law
A State of martial law does not:
1. Suspend the operation of the Constitution
2. Supplant the functioning of the civil courts or
legislative assemblies
3. Authorize the conferment of jurisdiction on
military courts and agencies over where civil
courts are able to function
349
Bernas Primer at 318 (2006 ed.)
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4. Automatically suspend the privilege of the writ.
(Section 18)
Open Court Doctrine. Civilians cannot be
tried by military courts if the civil courts are
open and functioning. (Olaguer v. Military
Commission)
The President can: (This is based on UP and Beda
2008 Bar Reviewers; But see excerpt from Bernas
Commentary)
1. Legislate
2. Order the arrest of people who obstruct the
war effort.
Bernas Commentary: The statement that martial law does
not “supplant the functioning of …legislative assemblies”
means that ordinary legislation continues to belong to the
legislative bodies even during martial law. Does this
mean that the martial law administrator is without
power to legislate?
A: In actual theater of war, the martial law administrator’s
word is law, within the limits of the Bill of Rights. But
outside the theater of war, the operative law is ordinary
law.
6. Grounds; Factual Bases for the Proclamation
1. In case of invasion or rebellion
2. When the public safety requires it
7. Duration
Not to exceed sixty days, following which it shall be
lifted, unless extended by Congress.
8. Four Ways to Lift the Proclamation
1. Lifting by the President himself
2. Revocation by Congress
3. Nullification by the Supreme Court
4. By operation of law after 60 days
9. Duty of the President
Within forty-eight hours from the proclamation of
martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus, the President shall submit a
report in person or in writing to the Congress.
10. Role of Congress
a. Congress convenes
b. Congress may either revoke or (with President’s
initiative) extend
Congress convenes. The Congress, if not in
session, shall, within twenty-four hours following
such proclamation or suspension, convene in
accordance with its rules without need of a call.
Congress may revoke. The Congress, voting
jointly, by a vote of at least a majority of all its
Members in regular or special session, may revoke
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such proclamation or suspension, which revocation
shall not be set aside by the President.
Congress may extend. Upon the initiative of the
President, the Congress may, in the same manner,
extend such proclamation or suspension for a
period to be determined by the Congress, if the
invasion or rebellion shall persist and public safety
requires it.
11. Role of Supreme Court (2006 Bar Question)
The Supreme Court may review, in an appropriate
proceeding filed by any citizen, the sufficiency of
the factual basis of the proclamation of martial law
or the suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
extension thereof, and must promulgate its
decision thereon within thirty days from its filing.
VIII. Power of Executive Clemency
Power of Executive Clemency
Purpose for the Grant of Power
Forms of Executive Clemency
Constitutional Limits on Executive Clemency
Pardon
Amnesty
Administrative Penalties
Other forms of Executive Clemency
Section 19. Except in cases of impeachment, or as
otherwise provided in this Constitution, the President
may grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons,
and remit fines and forfeitures, after conviction by
final judgment.
He shall also have the power to grant amnesty with
the concurrence of a majority of all the Members of
the Congress.
A. Power of Executive Clemency
Non-delegable. The power of executive clemency is a
non-delegable power and must be exercised by the
President personally.350
Clemency is not a function of the judiciary; it is an
executive function.351 The exercise of the pardoning
power is discretionary in the President and may not be
controlled by the legislature or reversed by the courts,
save only when it contravenes its limitations.352
B. Purpose for the Grant of Power of Executive
Clemency
Ratio: Human fallibility
350
Bernas Commentary, p 893 (2003 ed).
351
Bernas Commentary, p 892 (2003 ed).
352
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 215 (1995 ed).
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Purpose. That Section 19 gives to the President
the power of executive clemency is a tacit
admission that human institutions are imperfect
and that there are infirmities in the administration of
justice. The power therefore exists as an
instrument for correcting these infirmities and for
mitigating whatever harshness might be
generated by a too strict application of the law.353 In
recent years, it has also been used as a bargaining
chip in efforts to unify various political forces.
C. Forms of Executive Clemency (1988 Bar Question)
1. Reprieves- a postponement of a sentence to a
date certain, or a stay in the execution.
2. Commutations- reduction or mitigation of the
penalty.
3. Pardons- act of grace which exempts the
individual on whom it is bestowed form the
punishment which the law inflicts for the crime he
has committed.
4. Remission of fines
5. Forfeitures
6. Amnesty- commonly denotes the ‘general pardon
to rebels for their treason and other high political
offenses’.
D. Limits on Executive Clemency
Constitutional Limits on Executive Clemency:
1. It cannot be exercised in cases of
impeachment
2. Reprieves, commutations, and pardons, and
remission of fines and forfeitures can be given
only “after conviction by final judgment;
3. A grant of amnesty must be with the
concurrence of a “majority of all the Members
of Congress”
4. No pardon, amnesty, parole, or suspension of
sentence for violation of election laws, rules,
and regulations shall be granted by the
President without the favorable
recommendation of COMELEC.354
Other Limitations:
1. A pardon cannot be extended to a person
convicted of legislative contempt or civil
contempt.
2. Pardon cannot also be extended for the
purpose of absolving the pardonee of civil
liability, including judicial costs.
3. Pardon will not restore offices forfeited.355
E. Pardon
Definition of Pardon
353
Bernas Primer at 320 (2006 ed.) Cruz, Philippine Political Law,
p. 215 (1995 ed).
Bernas Primer at 320 (2006 ed.)
354
Bernas Commentary, p 893 (2003 ed).
355
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 216 (1995 ed).
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Classification of Pardon
Scope of Pardon
Limitations on Exercise
When Completed
Effect of Pardon
Pardon v. Parole
1. Pardon
a. What is Pardon?
b. Pardon as an act of grace
c. What does pardon imply?
a. Act of grace which exempts the individual on
whom it is bestowed form the punishment which
the law inflicts for the crime he has committed.
b. Because pardon is an act of grace, no legal
power can compel the executive to give it. It is an
act of pure generosity of the executive and it is his
to give or to withdraw before it is completed.356
Congress has no authority to limit the effects of the
President’s pardon, or to exclude from its scope
any class of offenders. Courts may not inquire in to
the wisdom or reasonableness of any pardon
granted by the President.357
c. Pardon implies guilt. A pardon looks to the
future.
2. Classification of Pardon
1. Plenary- Extinguishes all the penalties
imposed upon the offender, including
accessory disabilities.
2. Partial-Does not extinguish all the penalties.
3. Absolute- One extended without any strings
attached.
4. Conditional- One under which the convict is
required to comply with certain requirements.
a. Pardonee may reject conditional
pardon. Where the pardon is conditional,
the offender has the right to reject the
same since he may feel that the condition
imposed is more onerous than the penalty
sought to be remitted358
b. Condition, lawful. It is necessary that the
condition should not be contrary to any
provision of law.359
c. Condition, co-extensive. The condition
of the pardon shall be co-extensive with
the penalty remitted. Hence, if the
condition is violated after the expiration of
the remitted penalty, there can no longer
be violation of the conditional pardon.
356
Bernas Commentary, p 894 (2003 ed).
357
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 281 (1954ed).
358
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 217 (1995 ed).
359
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 281 (1954ed).
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d. When the condition is that the recipient of
the pardon should not violate any of the
penal laws, who determines whether
penal laws have been violated? Must the
recipient of pardon undergo trial and be
convicted for the new offenses? The rule
that is followed is that the acceptance of
the conditions of the pardon imports the
acceptance of the condition that the
President will also determine whether the
condition has been violated. (Torres v.
Gonzales, 152 SCRA 272 (1987)) (1997,
2005 Bar Question)
3. Scope of Pardon360
In granting the President the power of executive
clemency, the Constitution does not distinguish
between criminal and administrative cases.
(Llamas v. Orbos)
Pardon is only granted after conviction of final
judgment.
A convict who has already served his prison term
may still be extended a pardon for the purpose of
relieving him of whatever accessory liabilities have
attached to his offense.361
4. Limitations on Exercise of Pardon
Constitutional Limitations
1. It cannot be exercised in cases of
impeachment
2. Reprieves, commutations, and pardons,
and remission of fines and forfeitures can
be given only “after conviction by final
judgment;
3. No pardon, amnesty, parole, or
suspension of sentence for violation of
election laws, rules, and regulations shall
be granted by the President without the
favorable recommendation of
COMELEC.362
Other Limitations:
1. A pardon cannot be extended to a person
convicted of legislative contempt or civil
contempt.
2. Pardon cannot also be extended for the
purpose of absolving the pardonee of civil
liability, including judicial costs.
3. Pardon will not restore offices forfeited363
or property or interests vested in others in
360
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium 323 (2006 ed.)
361
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 218 (1995 ed).
362
Bernas Commentary, p 893 (2003 ed).
363
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 216 (1995 ed).
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consequence of the conviction and
judgment.364
5. When Act of Pardon Completed
Conditional: A pardon must be delivered to and
accepted by the offender before it takes effect.
Reason: The reason for requiring
acceptance of a pardon is the need for
protecting the welfare of its recipient.
The condition may be less acceptable to
him than the original punishment, and
may in fact be more onerous.365
Absolute: Bernas submits that acceptance by the
condemned is required only when the offer of
clemency is not without encumbrance.366 (1995
Bar Question)
Note: A pardon obtained by fraud upon the
pardoning power, whether by misrepresentation or
by suppression of the truth or by any other
imposition, is absolutely void.367
6. Effects of Pardon
a. Relieves criminal liability368
b. Does not absolve civil liabilities
c. Does not restore public offices already forfeited,
although eligibility for the same may be restored.
a. As to punitive consequences and fines in
favor of government. Pardon relieves a party
from all punitive consequences of his criminal act.
Pardon will have the effect of remitting fines and
forfeitures which otherwise will inure to the
interests of the government itself.
b. As to civil liabilities pertaining to private
litigants. Pardon will not relieve the pardonee of
the civil liability and such other claims, as may
pertain to private litigants.
c. As Regards Reinstatement:
i. One who is given pardon has no demandable
right to reinstatement. He may however be
reappointed. (Monsanto v. Factoran, 1989)
(Once reinstated, he may be given his former
rank. See Sabello v. Dept. of Education, 1989,
Bernas Primer at 322)
ii. However, if a pardon is given because he was
acquitted on the ground that he did not commit
the crime, then reinstatement and backwages
would be due. (Garcia v. COA, 1993)
364
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 283 (1954ed).
365
Bernas Commentary, p 894 (2003 ed).
366
Bernas Commentary, p 895 (2003 ed).
367
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 283 (1954ed).
368
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 286 (1954ed).
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4. Effect of Application
In order that a pardon may be utilized as a defense
in subsequent judicial proceedings, it is necessary By applying for amnesty, the accused must be
that it must be pleaded.369 deemed to have admitted the accusation against
him. (People v. Salig, 133 SCRA 59)
7. Pardon v. Parole
5. Effects of the Grant of Amnesty
Parole involves only a release of the convict from
imprisonment but not a restoration of his liberty. Criminal liability is totally extinguished by amnesty;
The parolee is still in the custody of the law the penalty and all its effects are thus extinguished.
although no longer under confinement, unlike the (See Article 89 of RPC)
pardonee whose sentence is condoned, subject
only to reinstatement in case of violation of the It has also been held that when a detained convict
condition that may have been attached to the claims to be covered by a general amnesty, his
pardon.370 proper remedy is not habeas corpus petition.
Instead, he should submit his case to the proper
F. Amnesty amnesty board.375
Definition
Nature 6. Requisites (1993 Bar Question)
Time of Application 1. Concurrence of a majority of all the members of
Effect of Application Congress (Section 19)
Effects of Grant of Amnesty 2. There must be a previous admission of guilt.
Requirements (Vera v. People)
Pardon v. Amnesty
Tax Amnesty 7. Pardon v. Amnesty

1. Definition of Amnesty Pardon Amnesty

Addressed to ODINARY Addressed to POLITICAL
Grant of general pardon to a class of political offenses offenses
offenders either after conviction or even before the Granted to INDIVIDUALS Granted to a CLASS of
charges are filed. It is the form of executive persons
clemency which under the Constitution may be Conditional pardon must Need not be Accepted
granted by the executive only with the concurrence be accepted
of the legislature.371 No need for congressional Requires congressional
concurrence concurrence
2. Nature Private act of the A public act, subject to
President judicial notice
It is essentially an executive act and not a Pardon looks forward. Amnesty looks backward
legislative act.372 (Though concurrence of Congress
is needed) Only penalties are Extinguishes the offense
extinguished. itself376
(According to Sinco citing Brown v. Walker, 161 US Civil indemnity is not
591, Congress is not prohibited from passing acts extinguished.
of general amnesty to be extended to persons Only granted after Maybe granted before or
before conviction.)373 conviction of final after conviction
judgment
3. Time of Application374 (1995 Bar Question)
7. Tax Amnesty
Amnesty may be granted before or after the a. Legal Nature
institution of criminal prosecution and sometimes b. Needs Concurrence of Congress
even after conviction. (People v. Casido, 268 SCRA
360) a. Legal Nature. Tax amnesty is a general pardon
or intentional overlooking of its authority to impose
369
penalties on persons otherwise guilty of evasion or
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 283 (1954ed). violation of revenue or tax law, [and as such]
370
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 220 (1995 ed). partakes of an absolute forgiveness or waiver by
371
Bernas Commentary, p 897 (2003 ed). the Government of its right to collect what
372
Bernas Commentary, p 898 (2003 ed).
373
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 285 (1954ed). 375
Bernas Commentary, p 901 (2003 ed).
374 376
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium 325 (2006 ed.) See Bernas Commentary, p 899 (2003 ed).

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otherwise would be due it. (Republic v. IAC,
1991)377
b. Needs Concurrence of Congress. Bernas
submits that the President cannot grant tax
amnesty without the concurrence of Congress.378
G. Other Forms of Executive Clemency
Grant of reprieves, commutations and remission of
fines and forfeitures are explicit in the Constitution.
1. Reprieve
A reprieve is a postponement of a sentence to a
date certain, or a stay in the execution.
2. Commutation
Commutation is a remission of a part of the
punishment; a substitution of a less penalty for the
one originally imposed. Commutation does not
have to be in any form. Thus, the fact that a convict
was released after six years and placed under
house arrest, which is not a penalty, already leads
to the conclusion that the penalty have been
shortened. (Drilon v. CA)
Commutation is a pardon in form but not in
substance, because it does not affect his guilt; it
merely reduces the penalty for reasons of public
interest rather than for the sole benefit of the
offender. In short, while a pardon reaches “both
punishment prescribed for the offense and guilt of
the offender,” a commutation merely reduces the
punishment.379
3. Remission
Remission of fines and forfeitures merely prevents
the collection of fines or the confiscation of forfeited
property; it cannot have the effect of returning
property which has been vested in third parties or
money already in the public treasury.380
The power of the Chief Executive to remit fines and
forfeitures may not be limited by any act of
Congress.381 But a statute may validly authorize
other officers, such as department heads or bureau
chiefs, to remit administrative fines and
forfeitures.382
IX. Borrowing Power
377
Bernas Primer at 323 (2006 ed.)
378
Bernas Primer at 323 (2006 ed.)
379
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 284 (1954ed).
380
Bernas Commentary, p 901 (2003 ed).
381
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 285 (1954ed).
382
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 284 (1954ed).
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Power to contract or guarantee foreign loans
Duty of the Monetary Board
Section 20. The President may contract or
guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the Republic of
the Philippines with the prior concurrence of the
Monetary Board, and subject to such limitations as
may be provided by law. The Monetary Board shall,
within thirty days from the end of every quarter of the
calendar year, submit to the Congress a complete
report of its decision on applications for loans to be
contracted or guaranteed by the Government or
government-owned and controlled corporations
which would have the effect of increasing the foreign
debt, and containing other matters as may be
provided by law.
A. Power to contract or guarantee foreign loans
Requirements
Reason for Concurrence
Why the Monetary Board
Spouses Constantino v. Cuisia
1. Requirements (1994 Bar Question)
The President may contract or guarantee foreign
loans on behalf of the Republic of the Philippines:
1. With the prior concurrence of the
Monetary Board, and
2. Subject to such limitations as may be
provided by law
2. Reason for Concurrence
A President may be tempted to contract or
guarantee loans to subsidize his program of
government and leave it to succeeding
administration to pay. Also, it will enable foreign
lending institutions to impose conditions on loans
that might impair our economic and even political
independence.383
3. Why the Monetary Board.
Because the Monetary Board has expertise and
consistency to perform the mandate since such
expertise or consistency may be absent among the
Members of Congress.384
4. Spouses Constantino v. Cuisia (2005)
Q: The financing program for foreign loans
instituted by the President extinguished portions of
the country’s pre-existing loans through either debt
buyback or bond-conversion. The buy-back
approach essentially pre-terminated portions of
public debts while the bond conversion scheme
extinguished public debts through the obtention of
a new loan by virtue of a sovereign bond issuance,
the proceeds of which in turn were used for
terminating the original loan. Petitioners contend
383
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 223 (1995 ed).
384
Bernas Primer at 325 (2006 ed.)
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that buyback or bond conversion are not
authorized by Article VII, Section 20.
A: The language of the Constitution is simple and
clear as it is broad. It allows the President to
contract and guarantee foreign loans. It makes no
prohibition on the issuance of certain kinds of loans
or distinctions as to which kinds of debt instruments
are more onerous than others. This Court may not
ascribe to the Constitution the meanings and
restrictions that would unduly burden the powers of
the President. The plain, clear and unambiguous
language of the Constitution should be
construed in a sense that will allow the full
exercise of the power provided therein. It would
be the worst kind of judicial legislation if the courts
were to construe and change the meaning of the
organic act.385
B. Duty of the Monetary Board
Duty of MB
Reason for Reporting
1. Duty
The Monetary Board shall, within thirty days from
the end of every quarter of the calendar year,
submit to the Congress a complete report of its
decision on applications for loans to be contracted
or guaranteed by the Government or government-
owned and controlled corporations which would
have the effect of increasing the foreign debt, and
containing other matters as may be provided by
law.
2. Reason for Reporting
In order to allow Congress to act on whatever
legislation may be needed to protect public
interest.386
X. Foreign Affairs Power/Diplomatic Power
The President and Foreign Affairs Power
Foreign Relations Powers of the President
Source of Power
Concurrence by the Senate
Treaties v. Executive Agreements
Power to Deport
Judicial Review
A. The President and Foreign Affairs Powers
As head of State, the President is supposed to the
spokesman of the nation on external affairs.387 The
385
Spouses Constantino v. Cuisia, G.R. 106064, October 13, 2005;
See Bernas Primer at 326 (2006 ed.)
386
Bernas Primer at 325 (2006 ed.)
387
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 323 (1995 ed).
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conduct of external affairs is executive
altogether.388 He is the sole organ authorized “to
speak or listen” for the nation in the broad field of
external affairs.389
B. Foreign Relations Powers of the President
1. The power to negotiate treaties and
international agreements;
2. The power to appoint ambassadors and other
public ministers, and consuls;
3. The power to receive ambassadors and other
public ministers accredited to the Philippines;
4. The power to contract and guarantee foreign
loans on behalf of the Republic;
5. The power to deport aliens.390
6. The power to decide that a diplomatic officer
who has become persona non grata be
recalled.391
7. The power to recognize governments and
withdraw recognition392
C. Source of Power
The extensive authority of the President in foreign
relations in a government patterned after that of the
US proceeds from two general sources:
1. The Constitution
2. The status of sovereignty and
independence of a state.
In other words, the President derives his powers
over the foreign affairs of the country not only from
specific provisions of the Constitution but also from
customs and positive rules followed by
independent states in accordance with international
law and practice.393
D. Concurrence of Senate
When Concurrence of Senate Needed
When Concurrence of Senate Not Needed
Scope of Power to Concur
Treaty
Section 21. No treaty or international agreement
shall be valid and effective unless concurred in by at
least two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate.
1. When Concurrence of Senate Needed
Concurrence of at leas 2/3 of all the members of
Senate is need for the validity and effectivity of:
388
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 323 (1995 ed).
389
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 298 (1954ed).
390
Bernas Primer at 326 (2006 ed.)
391
Bernas Commentary, p 910 (2003 ed).
392
Bernas Commentary, p 910 (2003 ed); Sinco, Philippine Political
Law, p 306 (1954ed).
393
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 243 (1954ed).
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1. Treaties of whatever kind, whether
bilateral or multilateral.394
2. International Agreements (that which are
permanent and original)
2. When Concurrence of Senate Not Needed
(2003 Bar Question)
Less formal types of international agreements;
Agreements which are temporary or are mere
implementations of treaties or statutes do not need
concurrence.395
3. Scope of Power to Concur
The power to ratify is vested in the President
subject to the concurrence of Senate. The role of
the Senate, however, is limited only to giving or
withholding its consent or concurrence, to the
ratification. Hence, it is within the authority of the
President to refuse to submit a treaty to the
Senate. Although the refusal of a state to ratify a
treaty which has been signed in his behalf is a
serious step that should not be taken lightly, such
decision is within the competence of the President
alone, which cannot be encroached by the Court
via a writ of mandamus. (Pimentel v. Executive
Secretary, 2005)
The power of the Senate to give its concurrence
carries with it the right to introduce amendments to
a treaty. 396 If the President does not agree to any
amendments or reservations added to a treaty by
the Senate, his only recourse is to drop the treaty
entirely. But if he agrees to the changes, he may
persuade the other nation to accept and adopt the
modifications.
4. Treaty
Definition
Two General Steps
Effects of Treaties
Termination of Treaties
a. Definition. Treaty is an international agreement
concluded between States in written form and
governed by international law, whether embodied
in a single instrument or in two or more related
instruments and whatever designation. (1969
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties)
b. Two General Steps
1. Negotiation- Here the President alone has
authority
394
Bernas Commentary, p 894 (2003 ed).
Note that a treaty which has become customary law may become
part of Philippine law by incorporation through Article 2 Section.
-asm
395
Bernas Primer at 326 (2006 ed.)
396
. Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 299 (1954ed).
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2. Treaty Approval397
c. Effect of Treaties
1. Contract between states as parties
2. It is a law for the people of each state to
observe (municipal law)398
E. Treaties v. Executive Agreements
1. International agreements which involve
political issues or changes of national policy
and those involving international arrangements
of a permanent character take the form or a
treaty; while international agreements
involving adjustment of details carrying out
well established national policies and traditions
and involving arrangements of a more or less
temporary nature take the form of executive
agreements
2. In treaties, formal documents require
ratification, while executive agreements
become binding through executive action.
(Commissioner of Customs v. Eastern Sea
Trading 3 SCRA 351)
F. Power to Deport
The power to deport aliens is lodged in the
President. It is subject to the regulations prescribed
in Section 69 of the Administrative Code or to such
future legislation as may be promulgated. (In re
McClloch Dick, 38 Phil. 41)
The adjudication of facts upon which the
deportation is predicated also devolves on the
Chief Executive whose decisions is final and
executory. (Tan Tong v. Deportation Board, 96 Phil
934, 936 (1955))
G. Judicial Review
Treaties and other international agreements
concluded by the President are also subject to
check by the Supreme Court, which has the power
to declare them unconstitutional. (Art. VIII, Section
4)
XI. Budgetary Power
Budgetary Power
The Budget
Government Budgetary Process
Congress May Not Increase Appropriations
Section 22. The President shall submit to the
Congress within thirty days from the opening of
every regular session, as the basis of the general
appropriations bill, a budget of expenditures and
sources of financing, including receipts from existing
and proposed revenue measures.
397
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 299 (1954ed).
398
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 300 (1954ed).
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B. State of the Nation Address

A. Budgetary Power
The President usually discharges the informing
This power is properly entrusted to the executive power through the state-of-the-nation address,
department, as it is the President who, as chief which is delivered at the opening of the regular
administrator and enforcer of laws, is in best session of the legislature.404
position to determine the needs of the government
and propose the corresponding appropriations
therefor on the basis of existing or expected
sources of revenue.399

B. The Budget

The budget of receipts and expenditures

prepared by the President is the basis for the
general appropriation bill passed by the
Congress.400

The phrase “sources of financing” has reference to

sources other than taxation.401

C. Government Budgetary Process

The complete government budgetary process has

been graphically described as consisting of four
major phases:
1. Budget Preparation
2. Legislative Authorization
3. Budget Execution
4. Budget Accountability402
D. Congress May Not Increase Appropriations

The Congress may not increase the appropriations

recommended by the President for the operation of
the Government as specified in the budget. (Article
VI Section 25(1))

XII. Informing Powers

Not Mandatory
State of the Nation Address

Section 23. The President shall address the

Congress at the opening of its regular session. He
may also appear before it at any other time.

A. Not Mandatory

Although couched in mandatory language, the first

sentence of this provision does not as a rule
impose a compellable duty on the President.403

399
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 224 (1995 ed).
400
Bernas Primer at 329 (2006 ed.)
401
Bernas Commentary, p 912 (2003 ed).
402
Guingona v. Carague, 196 SCRA 221 (1991); Bernas
Commentary, p 912 (2003 ed).
403 404
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 225 (1995 ed). Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 226 (1995 ed).

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SCHOOL OF LAW
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
I. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
II. JUDICIAL POWER(Section 1)
III. JURISDICTION (Section 2)
IV. THE SUPREME COURT(Sections 4, 7-12)
V. POWERS OF THE SUPREME COURT
(Sections 5,6, 11, 16)
VI. JUDICIAL REVIEW
VII. DECIDING A CASE (Sections 4,13-15)
VIII. OTHER COURTS
I. Judicial Department
Composition
Common Provisions
Independence of Judiciary
A. Composition
The Supreme Court and all lower courts make up the
judicial department of our government.405
B. Common Provisions
1. Independence of Judiciary (See Section 3)
2. Congressional Oversight (Section 2)
3. Separation of Powers (Section 12)
4. General Rules (Section 14)
5. Period to Decide Case (Section 15)
C. Independence of Judiciary (2000 Bar Question)
To maintain the independence of the judiciary, the
following safeguards have been embodied in the
Constitution:406
1. The Supreme Court is a constitutional body. It
cannot be abolished nor may its membership
or the manner of its meeting be changed by
mere legislation. (art 8 §2)
2. The members of the Supreme Court may not
be removed except by impeachment. (art. 9
§2)
3. The SC may not be deprived of its minimum
original and appellate jurisdiction as prescribed
in Article X, Section 5. (art. 8 §2)
4. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court may not be increased by law without its
advice or concurrence. (art. 6 §30)
5. Appointees to the judiciary are now nominated
by the Judicial and Bar Council and no longer
405
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 231 (1995 ed).
406
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 229 (1995 ed).
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subject to confirmation by Commission on
Appointments. (art. 8 §9)
6. The Supreme Court now has administrative
supervision over all lower courts and their
personnel. (art. 8 §6)
7. The Supreme Court has exclusive power to
discipline judges of lower courts. (art 8 §11)
8. The members of the Supreme Court and all
lower courts have security of tenure, which
cannot be undermined by a law reorganizing
the judiciary. (art. 8 §11)
9. They shall not be designated to any agency
performing quasi-judicial or administrative
functions. (art. 8 §12)
10. The salaries of judges may not be reduced
during their continuance in office. (art. 8 §10)
11. The judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy (art
8§3)
12. Only the Supreme Court may order the
temporary detail of judges (art 8 §5(3))
13. The Supreme Court can appoint all officials
and employees of the judiciary. (art. 8 §5(6))
Section 3. The Judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy.
Appropriations for the Judiciary may not be reduced
by the legislature below the amount appropriated for
the previous year and, after approval, shall be
automatically and regularly released.
(1999 Bar Question)
Fiscal autonomy means freedom from outside
control.As envisioned in the Constitution, fiscal
autonomy enjoyed by the Judiciary…contemplates
a guarantee of full flexibility to allocate and
utilize their resources with the wisdom and
dispatch that their needs, require.
Fiscal autonomy recognizes the power and
authority to (a) levy, assess and collect fees, (b) fix
rates of compensation not exceeding the highest
rates authorized by law for compensation, and (c)
pay plans of the government and allocate or
disburse such sums as may be provided by law or
prescribed by them in the course of the discharge
of their functions.
The imposition of restrictions and constraints on
the manner the [Supreme Court] allocate and
utilize the funds appropriated for their operations is
anathema to fiscal autonomy and violative of the
express mandate of the Constitution and of the
independence and separation of powers. (Bengzon
v. Drilon)
Reason. Fiscal autonomy is granted to the
Supreme Court to strengthen its autonomy.407 The
provision is intended to remove courts from the
mercy and caprice, not to say vindictiveness, of the
407
Bernas Primer at 336 (2006 ed.)
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legislature when it considers the general the same- the temporary suspension of the
appropriations bill.408 execution of the death convict.” (Echegaray v. Sec.
of Justice, 1999)
II. Judicial Power
D. Limit on Judicial Power
Where Vested (1) Courts may not assume to perform non-judicial
Definition functions.
Scope (2) It is not the function of the judiciary to give
Intrinsic Limit on Judicial Power advisory opinion
Grave Abuse of Discretion (3) Judicial power must sometimes yield to
Role of Legislature in Judicial Process separation of powers, political questions and
enrolled bill rule.
Section 1. The judicial power shall be vested in one
Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law.
1. By the principle of separation of powers, courts
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to may neither attempt to assume nor be
settle actual controversies involving rights which are compelled to perform non-judicial functions.411
legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine Thus, a court may not be required to act as a board
whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion of arbitrators (Manila Electric Co. v. Pasay
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of Transportation (1932). Nor may it be charged with
any branch or instrumentality of the Government. administrative functions except when reasonably
incidental to the fulfillment of official duties.
A. Judicial Power Where Vested (1989 Bar Question) (Noblejas v. Tehankee) Neither is it’s the function of
the judiciary to give advisory opinions.
Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme
Court and in such lower courts as may be 2. Advisory Opinions.
established by law. (Section 1 par. 1) An advisory opinion is an opinion issued by a
court that does not have the effect of resolving a
B. Definition of Judicial Power (1994 Bar Question) specific legal case, but merely advises on the
constitutionality or interpretation of a law.
Traditional Concept: Judicial power includes the
duty of the courts of justice to settle actual The nature of judicial power is also the foundation
controversies involving rights which are legally of the principle that it is not the function of the
demandable and enforceable. (Section 1, 2nd judiciary to give advisory opinion.412 If the courts
sentence) will concern itself with the making of advisory
opinions, there will be loss of judicial prestige.
Broadened Concept: Duty to determine whether There may be less than full respect for court
[or not] there has been a grave abuse of discretion decisions.
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the
party of any branch or instrumentality of the Declaratory Judgment v. Advisory
Government. (Section 1, 2nd sentence) Opinions.
Declaratory Advisory
C. Scope of Judicial Power (1989 Bar Question) Judgment Opinions
Involves real parties Response to a legal
with real conflicting issue posed in the
Judicial power is the measure of the allowable interests abstract in advance of
scope of judicial action.409 The use of the word any actual case in
“includes” in Section 1 connotes that the provision which it may be
is not intended to be an exhaustive list of what presented
judicial power is.410 Judgment is a final Binds no one
one forever binding
An accused who has been convicted by final on the parties.
judgment still possesses collateral rights and these A judicial act Not a judicial act413
rights can be claimed in the appropriate courts [e.g.
death convict who becomes insane after his final 3. The ‘broadened concept’ of judicial power is not
conviction cannot be executed while in a state of meant to do away with the political questions
insanity] The suspension of death sentence is an doctrine itself. The concept must sometimes yield
exercise of judicial power. It is not usurpation of the to separation of powers, to the doctrine on
presidential power of reprieve though the effect is
408
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 237 (1995 ed). 411
Bernas Commentary, p 916 (2003 ed).
409 412
Bernas Commentary, p 914 (2003 ed). Bernas Commentary, p 921 (2003 ed).
410 413
Bernas Commentary, p 919 (2003 ed). Bernas Commentary, p 924 (2003 ed).

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“political questions” or to the “enrolled bill”
rule.414
E. Grave Abuse Clause
“To determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the
part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government”
Not every abuse of discretion can be the occasion
for the Court to come in by virtue of the second
sentence of Section 1. It must be “grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of
jurisdiction.”415
There is grave abuse of discretion:
(1) when an act done contrary to the
Constitution, the law, or jurisprudence, or
(2) it is executed whimsically, capriciously,
arbitrarily out of malice, ill will or personal
bias. (Infotech v. COMELEC, 2004)
Again, the ‘broadened concept’ of judicial power is
not meant to do away with the political questions
doctrine itself. The concept must sometimes yield
to separation of powers, to the doctrine on “political
questions” or to the “enrolled bill” rule.416 (1995 Bar
Question)
Rule 65 embodies the Grave Abuse Clause.417
F. Role of Legislature in Judicial Process
Although judicial power is vested in the judiciary,
the proper exercise of such power requires prior
legislative action:
1. Defining such enforceable and
demandable rights; and
2. Determining the court with jurisdiction to
hear and decide controversies or disputes
arising from legal rights.418
Courts cannot exercise judicial power when there is
no applicable law. The Court has no authority to
entertain an action for judicial declaration of
citizenship because there was no law authorizing
such proceeding. (Channie Tan v. Republic, 107
Phil 632 (1960)) An award of honors to a student
by a board of teachers may not be reversed by a
court where the awards are governed by no
applicable law. (Santiago Jr. v. Bautista) Nor may
courts reverse the award of a board of judges in an
oratorical contest. (Felipe v. Leuterio, 91 Phil 482
(1952)).419
414
See Bernas Commentary, p 919-920 (2003 ed).
415
Bernas Commentary, p 920 (2003 ed).
416
See Bernas Commentary, p 919-920 (2003 ed).
417
Annotation to the Writ of Amparo.
418
Bernas Primer at 335 (2006 ed.)
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
III. Jurisdiction
Definition
Scope
Role of Congress
Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to define,
prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of the various
courts but may not deprive the Supreme Court of its
jurisdiction over cases enumerated in Section 5 hereof.
No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary when it
under-mines the security of tenure of its Members.
A. Definition
Jurisdiction is the power and authority of the court
to hear, try and decide a case. (De La Cruz v. CA,
2006)
B. Scope
It is not only the (1) power to determine, but the
(2) power to enforce its determination.
The (3) power to control the execution of its
decision is an essential aspect of jurisdiction
(Echegaray . Sec. of Justice, 301 SCRA 96)
C. Role of Congress
Power. The Congress shall have the power to
define, prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of
the various courts. (Section 2)
Limitations:
1. Congress may not deprive the Supreme
Court of its jurisdiction over cases
enumerated in Section 5. ( art. 8 §2)
2. No law shall be passed reorganizing the
Judiciary when it under-mines the security
of tenure of its Members. ( art. 8 §2)
3. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court may not be increased by law except
upon its advice and concurrence. (art. 6 §
30)
* Jurisdiction in Section 2 refers to jurisdiction over
cases [jurisdiction over the subject matter].420
IV. The Supreme Court
Composition
Qualifications
Judicial and Bar Council
Appointment
Salaries
Tenure
Removal
Prohibition
419
Bernas Primer at 335 (2006 ed.)
420
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 2333 (1995 ed).
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A. Composition
Section 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be composed
of a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices. It
may sit en banc or in its discretion, in division of three,
five, or seven Members. Any vacancy shall be filled
within ninety days from the occurrence thereof.
Composition of the Supreme Court: Fifteen (15).
1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices.
By so fixing the number of members of the
Supreme Court at [fifteen], it seems logical to infer
that no statute may validly increase or decrease
it.421
Collegiate Court. The primary purpose of a
collegiate court is precisely to provide for the most
exhaustive deliberation before a conclusion is
reached.422
B. Qualifications
Section 7. (1) No person shall be appointed Member
of the Supreme Court or any lower collegiate court
unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines. A
Member of the Supreme Court must be at least forty
years of age, and must have been for fifteen years or
more a judge of a lower court or engaged in the
practice of law in the Philippines.
(2) The Congress shall prescribe the qualifications of
judges of lower courts, but no person may be
appointed judge thereof unless he is a citizen of the
Philippines and a member of the Philippine Bar.
(3) A Member of the Judiciary must be a person of
proven competence, integrity, probity, and
independence.
Qualifications of a Member of the Supreme
Court:
1. Must be a natural born citizen of the
Philippines
2. Must at least be 40 years of age;
3. Must have been for 15 years or more a judge
of a lower court or engaged in the practice of
law in the Philippines; and
4. A person of proven competence, integrity,
probity, and independence.
Congress may not alter the qualifications of
Members of the Supreme Court and the
constitutional qualifications of other members of
the Judiciary. But Congress may alter the statutory
qualifications of judges and justices of lower
courts.423
421
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 318 (1954ed).
422
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 268 (1995 ed).
423
Bernas Primer at 356 (2006 ed.)
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
It behooves every prospective appointee to the
Judiciary to apprise the appointing authority of
every matter bearing on his fitness for judicial
office, including such circumstances as may reflect
on his integrity and probity. Thus the fact that a
prospective judge failed to disclose that he had
been administratively charged and dismissed from
the service for grave misconduct by a former
President of the Philippines was used against him.
It did not matter that he had resigned from office
and that the administrative case against him had
become moot and academic.424
Similary, before one who is offered an appointment
to the Supreme Court can accept it, he must
correct the entry in his birth certificate that he is an
alien.425
“A Member of the Judiciary must be a person of proven
competence, integrity, probity, and independence.”
Competence. In determining the competence of the
applicant or recommendee for appointment, the Judicial
and Bar Council shall consider his educational
preparation, experience, performance and other
accomplishments of the applicant. (Rule 3 Section 1 of
JBC Rules)
Integrity. The Judicial and Bar Council shall take every
possible step to verify the applicant’s record of and
reputation for honesty, integrity, incorruptibility,
irreproachable conduct and fidelity to sound moral and
ethical standards. (Rule 4, Section 1 of JBC Rules)
Probity and Independence. Any evidence relevant to
the candidate’s probity and independence such as, but
not limited to, decision he has rendered if he is an
incumbent member of the judiciary or reflective of the
soundness of his judgment, courage, rectitude, cold
neutrality and strength of character shall be considered.
(Rule 5 Section of JBC Rules)
C. Judicial and Bar Council (1988, 1999 Bar
Question)
Composition
Function
Reason for Creation
Section 8.
(1) A Judicial and Bar Council is hereby created under
the supervision of the Supreme Court composed of the
Chief Justice as ex officio Chairman, the Secretary of
Justice, and a representative of the Congress as ex
officio Members, a representative of the Integrated Bar,
a professor of law, a retired Member of the Supreme
Court, and a representative of the private sector.
(2) The regular members of the Council shall be
appointed by the President for a term of four years with
the consent of the Commission on Appointments. Of
the Members first appointed, the representative of the
424
In re JBC v. Judge Quitain, JBC No. 013, August 22, 2007.
425
Kilosbayan v. Ermita, G.R. No. 177721, July 3, 2007. This was
the case of Justice Gregory Ong of the Sandiganbayanwho was being
promoted to the Supreme court. Ong, however, remains in the
Sandiganbayan.
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Integrated Bar shall serve for four years, the professor
of law for three years, the retired Justice for two years,
and the representative of the private sector for one
year.
(3) The Clerk of the Supreme Court shall be the
Secretary ex officio of the Council and shall keep a
record of its proceedings.
(4) The regular Members of the Council shall receive
such emoluments as may be determined by the
Supreme Court. The Supreme Court shall provide in its
annual budget the appropriations for the Council.
(5) The Council shall have the principal function of
recommending appointees to the Judiciary. It may
exercise such other functions and duties as the
Supreme Court may assign to it.
Composition of JBC:
1. SC Chief Justice (ex officio Chairman)
Ex officio Members
2. Secretary of Justice
3. Representative of Congress
Regular Members (Term of 4 years appointed
by President with the consent of CA)
4. Representative of IBP
5. Professor of Law
6. Retired Member of SC
7. Representative of private sector
The Clerk of the Supreme Court shall be the
Secretary ex officio of the JBC.
Representative from Congress. Such
representative may come from either House.
In practice, the two houses now work out a
way of sharing representation.426 A member
from each comes from both Houses but each
have only half a vote.427
Function of JBC. JBC’s principal function is to
recommend to the President appointees to the
Judiciary. It may exercise such other functions and
duties as the Supreme Court may assign to it.
Rationale for Creation of JBC. The Council was
principally designed to eliminate politics from the
appointment and judges and justices. Thus,
appointments to the Judiciary do not have to go
through a political Commission on Appointments.428
D. Appointment
Section 9. The Members of the Supreme Court and
judges of lower courts shall be appointed by the
President from a list of at least three nominees
prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council for every
vacancy. Such appointments need no confirmation.
For the lower courts, the President shall issue the
appointments within ninety days from the submission of
the list.
426
Bernas Primer at 356 (2006 ed.)
427
Bernas Commentary, p 984 (2003 ed).
428
Bernas Primer at 357 (2006 ed.)
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
For every vacancy, the Judicial and Bar Council
submits to the President a list of at least three
names. The President may not appoint anybody
who is not in the list. If the President is not satisfied
with the list, he may ask for another list.429
Why at least 3? The reason for requiring at least
three nominees for every vacancy is to give the
President enough leeway in the exercise of his
discretion when he makes his appointment. If the
nominee were limited to only one, the appointment
would in effect be made by the Judicial and Bar
Council, with the President performing only the
mathematical act of formalizing the commission.430
Judges may not be appointed in an acting capacity
or temporary capacity.431 It should be noted that
what the Constitution authorizes the President to
do is to appoint Justices and judges and not the
authority merely to designate a non-member of
the Supreme Court temporarily to sit as Justice of
Supreme Court.432
ASM: Do you know that when there is a vacancy in
the Supreme Court, the remaining members of the
Tribunal vote and make a recommendation to the
Judicial and Bar Council.
E. Salaries
Section 10. The salary of the Chief Justice and of the
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and of
judges of lower courts shall be fixed by law. During
their continuance in office, their salary shall not be
decreased.
The prohibition of the diminution of the salary of
Justices and judges during their continuance in
office is intended as a protection for the
independence of the judiciary.433
The clear intent of the Constitutional Commission
was to subject the salary of the judges and justices
to income tax. (Nitafan v. CIR, 1987)
F. Tenure
Section 11. The Members of the Supreme Court and
judges of lower courts shall hold office during good
behavior until they reach the age of seventy years or
become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their
office. The Supreme Court en banc shall have the
power of discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members who
429
Bernas Commentary, p 985 (2003 ed).
430
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 234 (1995 ed).
431
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 237 (1995 ed).
432
Bernas Commentary, p 985 (2003 ed).
433
Bernas Commentary, p 986 (2003 ed).
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actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in
the case and voted thereon.
Security of Tenure is essential to an independent
judiciary.
G. Removal
By Impeachment. The Members of the Supreme
Court are removable only by impeachment. They
can be said to have failed to satisfy the
requirement of “good behavior” only if they are
guilty of the offenses which are constitutional
grounds of impeachment.
The members of the Supreme Court may be
removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of:
1. Culpable violation of the Constitution;
2. Treason;
3. Bribery;
4. Graft and Corruption;
5. Other High Crimes
6. Betrayal of Public Trust(Article XI, Section
2)
A Supreme Court Justice cannot be charged in a
criminal case or a disbarment proceeding, because
the ultimate effect of either is to remove him from
office, and thus circumvent the provision on
removal by impeachment thus violating his security
of tenure (In Re: First Indorsement from Hon. Raul
Gonzalez, A.M. No. 88-4-5433)
H. Prohibition
Section 12. The Members of the Supreme Court and
of other courts established by law shall not be
designated to any agency performing quasi-judicial or
administrative functions.
The provision merely makes explicit an application
of the principles of separate of powers.434
Take note of the other tasks given to SC or the
Members of SC by the Constitution:
1. SC en banc as Presidential Electoral
Tribunal (art 7 §4)
2. Chief Justice as presiding officer of the
impeachment Court when the President is
in trial (art. 11 §3(6)).
3. Chief Justice as ex officio chairman of the
JBC. (art. 8 §8(1)).
4. Justices as members of Electoral
Tribunals (art. 6 §17).
V. Powers of Supreme Court
434
Bernas Commentary, p 991 (2003 ed).
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
General Power
Specific Powers
Original Jurisdiction
Appellate Jurisdiction
Temporary Assignment of Judges
Change of Venue or Place of Trial
Rule-Making Power
Appointment of Court Personnel
Administrative Supervision of Courts
Disciplinary/Dismissal Powers
Contempt Powers
Annual Report
Section 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following
powers:
1. Exercise original jurisdiction over cases affecting
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and
over petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo
warranto, and habeas corpus.
2. Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal
or certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may
provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
(a) All cases in which the constitutionality or
validity of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation,
order, instruction, ordinance, or regulation is in
question.
(b) All cases involving the legality of any tax,
impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed in
relation thereto.
(c) All cases in which the jurisdiction of any
lower court is in issue.
(d) All criminal cases in which the penalty
imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher.
(e) All cases in which only an error or question
of law is involved.
3. Assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other
stations as public interest may require. Such temporary
assignment shall not exceed six months without the
consent of the judge concerned.
4. Order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a
miscarriage of justice.
5. Promulgate rules concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading, practice,
and procedure in all courts, the admission to the
practice of law, the Integrated Bar, and legal assistance
to the underprivileged. Such rules shall provide a
simplified and inexpensive procedure for the speedy
disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all courts of
the same grade, and shall not diminish, increase,
modify substantive rights. Rules of procedure of special
courts and quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective
unless disapproved by the Supreme Court.
6. Appoint all officials and employees of the Judiciary in
accordance with the Civil Service Law.
Section 6. The Supreme Court shall have
administrative supervision over all courts and the
personnel thereof.
Section 11
xxxThe Supreme Court en banc shall have the power
of discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members who
actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in
the case and voted thereon.
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A. General Power
Judicial Power (§1)
B. Specific Powers
Specific Powers of the Supreme Court under
Article VIII:
1. Original Jurisdiction
2. Appellate Jurisdiction
3. Temporary Assignment of Judges
4. Change of Venue or Place of Trial
5. Rule-Making Power
6. Appointment of Court Personnel (§5)
7. Administrative Supervision of Courts (§6)
8. Dismissal/ Removal Powers (§11)
(Section 5(1) and (2) refer to the irreducible
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court while Section 5
(3 -6) and Section 6 provide of auxiliary
administrative powers.)
Other Powers of SC:
1. Jurisdiction over proclamation of Martial law or
suspension of the writ of habeas corpus; (art. 7
§18)
2. Jurisdiction over Presidential and Vice-
Presidential election contests; (art. 7 §4)
3. Jurisdiction over decision, order, or ruling of
the Constitutional Commissions. (art. 9 §7)
4. Supervision over JBC (art. 8 §8(1))
5. Power to Punish Contempt
C. Original Jurisdiction
Section 5(1). The Supreme Court has original
jurisdiction over:
1. Cases affecting ambassadors, other
public ministers and consuls.
2. Petitions for certiorari, prohibition,
mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas
corpus.435
Note that under international law, diplomats and
even consuls to a lesser extent, are not subject to
jurisdiction of the courts of the receiving State,
save in certain cases, as when immunity is waived
either expressly or impliedly. In such instances, the
Supreme Court can and probably should take
cognizance of the litigation in view of possible
international repercussions.436
The petitions for certiorari, mandamus, prohibition,
and quo warranto are special civil actions. The
questions raised in the first three petitions are
questions of jurisdiction or grave abuse of
435
See Rule 65, 66 and 102, Rules of Court.
436
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 252 (1995 ed).
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
discretion and, in fourth, the title of the respondent.
The petition for habeas corpus is a special
proceeding.437
Concurrent Jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court has concurrent original
jurisdiction with Regional Trial Courts in cases
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls. (BP 129 § 21(2))
The Supreme Court has concurrent original
jurisdiction with the Court of Appeals in petitions for
certiorari, prohibition and mandamus against the
Regional Trial Courts. (BP 129 § 9(1))
The Supreme Court has concurrent original
jurisdiction with the Court of Appeals and the
Regional Trial Courts in petitions for certiorari,
prohibition and mandamus against lower courts
and bodies and in petitions for quo warranto and
habeas corpus. (BP 129 §9(1), §21(2))
Principle of Judicial Hierarchy
Under a judicial policy recognizing hierarchy of
courts, a higher court will not entertain direct resort
to it unless the redress cannot be obtained in the
appropriate courts. (Santiago v. Vasquez, 217
SCRA 167) Thus, while it is true that the issuance
of a writ of prohibition under Rule 65 is within the
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, a petitioner
cannot seek relief from the Supreme Court where
the issuance of such writ is also within the
competence of the Regional Trial Court or the
Court of Appeals.
A direct recourse of the Supreme Court’s original
jurisdiction to issue writs should be allowed only
when there are special and important reasons
therefore, clearly and specifically set out in the
petition. (Mangahas v. Paredes, 2007)
Q: What cases may be filed originally in the
Supreme Court?
A: Only petitions for certiorari, prohibition,
mandamus, quo warranto, habeas corpus,
disciplinary proceedings against members of the
judiciary and attorneys, and affecting
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls
may be filed originally in the Supreme Court. (Rule
56, Section 1, Rules of Court)
D. Appellate Jurisdiction
Section 5(2). The Supreme Court has the power to
review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal
or certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may
provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts
in:
a. All cases in which the constitutionality or
validity of any treaty, international or
executive agreement, law, presidential
decree, proclamation, order, instruction,
ordinance, or regulation is in question.
437
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 252 (1995 ed).
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b. All cases involving the legality of any tax,
impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty
imposed in relation thereto.
c. All cases in which the jurisdiction of any
lower court is in issue.
d. All criminal cases in which the penalty
imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher.
e. All cases in which only an error or
question of law is involved.
Irreducible. This appellate jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court is irreducible and may not be
withdrawn from it by Congress.438
Final Judgments of lower courts. It should be
noted that the appeals allowed in this section are
from final judgments and decrees only of “lower
courts” or judicial tribunals. Administrative
decisions are not included.439
The lower courts have competence to decide
constitutional questions. Section 5(2)(a) provides
that Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over
“final judgments and orders all cases in which the
constitutionality or validity of any treaty,
international or executive agreement, law,
presidential decree, proclamation, order,
instruction, ordinance or regulation is in question.”
Review of Death Penalty. Section 5 requires a
mandatory review by the Supreme Court of cases
where the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua,
life imprisonment, or death. However, the
Constitution has not proscribed an intermediate
review. To ensure utmost circumspection before
the penalty of death, reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment is imposed, the Rule now is that
such cases must be reviewed by the Court of
Appeals before they are elevated to the Supreme
Court.440
Note, however, that the rule for the review of
decisions of lower courts imposing death or
reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment are not the
same. In case the sentence is death, there is
automatic review by the Court of Appeals and
ultimately by the Supreme Court. This is
mandatory and neither the accused nor the courts
may waive the right of appeal. In the case of the
sentence of reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment, however, although the Supreme
Court has jurisdiction to review them, the review is
not mandatory. Therefore review in this later cases
may be waived and appeal may be withdrawn.441
438
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 255 (1995 ed).
439
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 256 (1995 ed).
440
People v. Mateo, G.R. No. 147678-87. July 7, 2004; People v.
Lagua, G.R. No. 170565, January 31, 2006.
441
People v. Rocha and Ramos, G.R. No. 173797, August 31, 2007.
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In Republic v. Sandiganbayan, 2002, it was held
that the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
over decisions and final orders of the
Sandiganbayan is limited to questions of law. A
question of law exists when the doubt or
controversy concerns the correct application of law
or jurisprudence to a certain set of facts; or when
the issue does not call for an examination of the
probative value of the evidence presented, the
truth or falsehood of facts being admitted.
Section 5(2), (a) and (b) explicitly grants judicial
review in the Supreme Court. (Judicial Review will
be discussed in the next chapter)
E. Temporary Assignment of Judges
Section 5(3). The Supreme Court has the power to
assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other
stations as public interest may require. Such
temporary assignment shall not exceed six months
without the consent of the judge concerned.
Rationale of the Provision. The present rule
bolsters the independence of the judiciary in so far
as it vests the power to temporarily assign judges
of inferior courts directly in the Supreme Court and
no longer in the executive authorities and
conditions the validity of any such assignment in
excess of six months upon the consent of the
transferred judge. This will minimize if not
altogether eliminate the pernicious practice of the
rigodon de jeuces, or the transfer of judges at will
to suit the motivations of the chief executive.442
Purpose of Transfer. Temporary assignments may
be justified to arrange for judges with clogged
dockets to be assisted by their less busy
colleagues, or to provide for the replacement of the
regular judge who may not be expected to be
impartial in the decision of particular cases.443
Permanent Transfer. Since transfer imports
removal from one office and since a judge enjoys
security of tenure, it cannot be effected without the
consent of the judge concerned.444
F. Change of Venue or Place of Trial
Section 5(4). The Supreme Court has the power to
order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a
miscarriage of justice.
This power is deemed to be an incidental and
inherent power of the Court. (See People v.
Gutierrez, 36 SCRA 172 (1970))
442
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 259 (1995 ed).
443
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 259 (1995 ed).
444
Bernas Commentary, p 967(2003 ed).
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G. Rule Making Power
Power to Promulgate Rules
Limits on the Rule Making Power
Nature and Function of Rule Making Power
Test to Determin Whether Rules are Substantive
Rules Concerning Protection of Constitutional Rights
Admission to the Practice of Law
Integration of the Bar
Congress and the Rules of Court
1. Power to Promulgate Rules
The Supreme Court has the power to promulgate
rules concerning:
1. The protection and enforcement of
constitutional rights;
2. Pleading, practice, and procedure in all
courts;
3. The admission to the practice of law,
4. The Integrated Bar;
5. Legal assistance to the underprivileged.
(Section 5(5))
2. Limits on SC’s Rule Making Power
1. Such rules shall provide a simplified and
inexpensive procedure for the speedy
disposition of cases.
2. They shall be uniform for all courts of the
same grade.
3. They shall not diminish, increase, modify
substantive rights.
Rules of procedure of special courts and
quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective
unless disapproved by the Supreme Court.
3. Nature and Function of Rule Making Power
For a more independent judiciary. The authority
to promulgate rules concerning pleading, practice
and admission to the practice of law is a traditional
power of the Supreme Court. The grant of this
authority, coupled with its authority to integrate the
Bar, to have administrative supervision over all
courts, in effect places in the hands of Supreme
Court the totality of the administration of justice and
thus makes for a more independent judiciary.
Enhances the capacity to render justice. It also
enhances the Court’s capacity to render justice,
especially since, as the Supreme Court has had
occasion to say, it includes the inherent authority to
suspend rules when the requirement of justice
demand.
Moreover, since it is to the Supreme Court that rule
making authority has been given, rules
promulgated by special courts and quasi-judicial
bodies are effective unless disapproved by the
Supreme Court.
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4. Test to Determine whether the rules diminish,
increase or modify substantive rights
1. If the rule takes away a vested right, it is a
substantive matter.
2. If the rule creates a right, it may be a
substantive matter.
3. If it operates as a means of implementing an
existing right, then the rule deals merely with
procedure. (Fabian v. Disierto)
Illustrative cases where the rule merely deals
with procedure:
Maniago v. CA, 1996
The rule that unless a reservation to file a
separate civil action is reserved, the civil case is
deemed filed with the criminal case is not about
substantive rights. Whether the two actions must
be tried in a single proceeding is a matter of
procedure.
Fabian v. Desierto, 1998
The transfer by the Supreme Court of pending
cases involving a review of decision of the Office
of the Ombudsman in administrative actions to
the Court of Appeals is merely procedural. This is
because, it is not the right to appeal of an
aggrieved party which is affected by law. The
right has been preserved. Only the procedure by
which the appeal is to be made or decided has
been changed.
People v. Lacson, 400 SCRA 267
(This is quite confusing because of the dates)
Facts: Respondent was charged with multiple
murder. He filed a motion with the trial court for
judicial determination of probable cause. On
March 29, 1999, the trial court dismissed the
cases provisionally. On December 1, 2000, the
Revised Rules on Criminal Procedure took
effect. Section 8 of Rule 117 allowed the revival
of the case which was provisionally dismissed
only within two years. On June 6, 2001, the
criminal cases against respondent were refilled.
Respondent argued that the refilling of the cases
was barred. The prosecution argued that under
Article 90 of the Revised Penal Code, it had
twenty years to prosecute respondent.
Held:
Is the rule merely procedural? Yes, the rule is
merely procedural. Section 8, Rule 117 is not a
statute of limitations. The two-year bar under the
rule does not reduce the periods under Article 90
of the Revised Penal Code. It is but a limitation
of the right of the State to revive a criminal case
against the accused after the case had been
filed but subsequently provisionally dismissed
with the express consent of the accused. Upon
the lapse of the period under the new rule, the
State is presumed to have abandoned or waived
its right to revive the case. The prescription
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periods under the Revised Penal Code are not
diminished.
Is the refilling of cases barred in this case?
No. A procedural law may not be applied
retroactively if to do so would work injustice or
would involve intricate problems of due process.
The time-bar of two years under the new rule
should not be applied retroactively against the
State. If the time-bar were to be applied
retroactively so as to commence to run on March
31, 1999, when the prosecutor received his copy
of the resolution dismissing the cases, instead of
giving the State two years to revive the
provisionally dismissed cases, the State would
have considerably less than two years to do so.
The period before December 1, 2000 should be
excluded in the computation of the two-year
period, because the rule prescribing it was not
yet in effect at that time and the State could not
be expected to comply with it. 445
Illustrative cases where the rule deals with
substantive matter:
PNB v. Asuncion, 80 SCRA 321
Facts: Petitioner filed a collection case against
several solidary debtors. One of them died
during the pendency of the case. The court
dismissed the case against all the defendants on
the ground that the petitioner should file a claim
in the estate proceedings. Petitioner argued that
the dismissal should be confined to the
defendant who died.
Held: Article 1216 of the Civil Code gives the
creditor the right to proceed against anyone of
the solidary debtors or some or all of them
simultaneously. Hence, in case of the death of
one of them, the creditor may proceed against
the surviving debtors. The Rules of Court cannot
be interpreted to mean that the creditor has no
choice but to file a claim in the estate of the
deceased. Such construction will result in the
diminution of the substantive rights granted by
the Civil Code.446
Santero v. CFI, 153 SCRA 728
Facts: During the pendency of the proceeding
for the settlement of the estate of the deceased,
respondents, who were children of the deceased,
filed a motion asking for an allowance for their
support. Petitioners, who were children of the
deceased with another woman, opposed on the
grounds that petitioners were already of majority
age and under Section 3 of Rule 83, the
allowance could be granted only to minor
children.
Held: Article 188 of the Civil Code grants
children the right to support even beyond the age
of majority. Hence, the respondent were entitled
445
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium 344 (2006 ed.)
446
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 342 (2006 ed.)
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to the allowance. Since, the right to support
granted by the Civil Code is substantive, it
cannot be impaired by Section 3, Rule 83 of the
Rules of Court.447
Damasco v. Laqui, 166 SCRA 214
Facts: Petitioner was charged with grave
threats. The trial court convicted him of light
threats. Petitioner moved for reconsideration
because the crime of which he was convicted
had already prescribed when the information was
filed.
Held: While an accused who fails to move to
quash is deemed to waive all objection which are
grounds to quash, this rule cannot apply to
prescription. Prescription extinguishes criminal
liability. To apply the said rule will contravene
Article 89 of the Revised Penal Code which is
substantive. The rules promulgated by the
Supreme Court must not diminish, increase or
modify substantive rights.448
Zaldivia v. Reyes, 211 SCRA 277
Facts:
On May 30, 1990, a complaint was filed with the
provincial prosecutor against petitioner for
violating an ordinance by quarrying without a
mayor’s permit. The information was filed in court
on October 2, 1990. Petitioner moved to quash
on the ground that under Act 3326, violations of
municipal ordinances prescribe in two months
and the prescriptive period is suspended only
upon the institution of judicial proceedings. The
prosecution argued that under Section 1, Rule
110 of the Rules on Criminal Procedure, the filing
of a case for preliminary investigation interrupts
the prescriptive period.
Held: If there is a conflict between Act No. 3326
and Rule 110 of the Rules on Criminal
Procedure, the former must prevail. Prescription
in criminal cases is a substantive right.449
Illustrative case where retroactive application
of a ruling will affect substantive right:
LBP v. De Leon, 399 SCRA 376
Facts: The Supreme Court ruled that in
accordance with Section 60 of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, appeals
from the Special Agrarian Courts should be
made by filing a petition for review instead of
merely filing a notice of appeal. Petitioner filed a
motion for reconsideration, in which it prayed that
the ruling be applied prospectively.
Held: Before the case reached the Supreme
Court, petitioner had no authoritative guideline
on how to appeal decision of Special Agrarian
447
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 343 (2006 ed.)
448
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 343 (2006 ed.)
449
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 343 (2006 ed.)
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Courts in the light of seemingly conflicting
provisions of Section 60 and 61 of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, because
Section 61 provided that review shall be
governed by the Rules of Court. The Court of
Appeals had rendered conflicting decisions on
this precise issue. Hence, the decision of the
Supreme Court should be applied prospectively
because it affects substantive right. If the ruling
is given retroactive application, it will prejudice
the right of appeal of petitioner because its
pending appeals in the Court of Appeals will be
dismissed on a mere technicality thereby,
sacrificing their substantial merits.450
5. Rules Concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights; Rules
Concerning pleading, practice and procedure in
courts
Power to Make Rules; Writ of Amparo.
The Rules on the Writ of Amparo is promulgated by
the Court based on its power to promulgate rules
for the protection and enforcement of constitutional
rights. In light of the prevalence of extra legal killing
and enforced disappearances, the Supreme Court
resolved to exercise for the first time its power to
promulgate rules to protect our people’s
constitutional rights.
Writ of Amparo (1991 Bar Question)
a. Etymology. “Amparo” comes from
Spanish verb “amparar” meaning “to protect.
b. Nature: A writ to protect right to life, liberty
and security of persons.
c. Section 1 of The Rule on the Writ of
Amparo: “The petition for a writ of amparo is a
remedy available to any person whose right to
life, liberty and security is violated or
threatened with violation by unlawful act or
omission of a public official or employee, or of
a private individual or entity. The writ shall
cover extralegal killings and enforced
disappearances or threats thereof.” (Note that
not all constitutional rights are covered by this
Rule; only right to life, liberty and security)
Writ of Habeas Data. The writ of habeas data is a
remedy available to any person whose right to
privacy in life, liberty or security is violated or
threatened by an unlawful act or omission of a
public official or employee, or of a private individual
or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or
storing of data or information regarding the person,
family, home and correspondence of the aggrieved
party. (Section 1, The Rule on the Habeas Data)
450
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 345 (2006 ed.)
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In Re: Request for Creation of Special Division,
A.M. No. 02-1-07-SC (2002): It was held that it is
within the competence of the Supreme Court, in
the exercise of its power to promulgate rules
governing the enforcement and protection of
constitutional rights and rules governing pleading,
practice and procedure in all courts, to create a
Special Division in the Sandiganbayan which will
hear and decide the plunder case of Joseph
Estrada.
Regulation of Demonstrations
Facts: Petitioner applied for a permit to hold a rally
in from of the Justice Hall to protest the delay in the
disposition of the cases of his clients. The mayor
refused to issue the permit on the ground that it
was prohibited by the Resolution of the Supreme
Court dated July 7, 1998, which prohibited rallies
within two hundred meters of any court building.
Petitioners argued that the Resolution amended
the Public Assembly Act in violation of the
separation of powers.
Held: The existence of the Public Assembly Act
does not preclude the Supreme Court from
promulgating rules regulating the conduct of
demonstration in the vicinity of courts to assure the
people of an impartial and orderly administration of
justice as mandate by the Constitution. (In re
Valmonte, 296 SCRA xi)
Requirement of International Agreement
Facts: The Philippines signed the Agreement
establishing the World Trade Organization. The
Senate passed a resolution concurring in its
ratification by the President.
Petitioners argued that Article 34 of the General
Provisions and Basic Principles of the Agreement
on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights is unconstitutional. Article 34 requires
members to create a disputable presumption in
civil proceedings that a product shown to be
identical to one produced with the use of a
patented process shall be deemed to have been
obtained by illegal use of the patented process if
the product obtained by the patented process is
new or there is a substantial likelihood that the
identical product was made with the use of the
patented process but the owner of the patent could
not determine the exact process used in obtaining
the identical product. Petitioners argued that this
impaired the rule-making power of the Supreme
Court.
Held: Article 34 should present no problem.
Section 60 of the Patent Law provides a similar
presumption in cases of infringement of a patented
design or utility model. Article 34 does not contain
an unreasonable burden as it is consistent with due
process and the adversarial system. Since the
Philippines is signatory to most international
conventions on patents, trademarks and
copyrights, the adjustment in the rules of
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procedure will not be substantial. (Tanada v.
Angara, 272 SCRA 18)451
Power to Suspend Its Own Rules. Section 5(5) of
the Constitution gives this Court the power to
"[p]romulgate rules concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading,
practice and procedure in all courts." This includes
an inherent power to suspend its own rules in
particular cases in order to do justice.452
6. Admission to the Practice of Law
Rule on Conduct of Officials. Section 90 of the
Local Government Code which prohibits lawyers
who are members of a local legislative body to
practice law is not an infringement on the power of
the Court to provide for rules for the practice of law.
The law must be seen not as a rule on practice of
law but as a rule on the conduct of officials
intended to prevent conflict of interest. (Javellana v.
DILG, 1992)
Bar Flunkers Act. After the Supreme Court has
declared candidates for the bar as having flunked
the examinations, Congress may not pass a law
lowering the passing mark and declaring the same
candidates as having passed. This would amount
to not just amending the rules but reversing the
Court’s application of an existing rule. (In re
Cunanan , 94 phil 534 (1954))
Nullification of Bar Results. In 2003, the Court
nullified the results of the exams on Commercial
Law when it was discovered that the Bar questions
had been leaked. (Bar matter No. 1222, 2004)
7. Integration of the Bar
a. Bar - refers to the collectivity of all persons
whose names appear in the Roll of Attorneys.
b. Integration of the Philippine Bar - means the
official unification of the entire lawyer population of
the Philippines. This requires membership and
financial support (in reasonable amount) of every
attorney as conditions sine qua non to the practice
of law and the retention of his name in the Roll of
Attorneys of the Supreme Court. (In re Integration
of the Bar of the Philippines)
c. Purpose of an integrated Bar, in general are:
1. Assist in the administration of justice;
2. Foster and maintain, on the part of its
members, high ideals of integrity, learning,
professional competence, public service and
conduct;
3. Safeguard the professional interests of its
members;
451
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 347 (2006 ed.)
452
Lim et al v CA, G.R. No. 149748, November 16,
2006.
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4. Cultivate among its members a spirit of
cordiality and brotherhood;
5. Provide a forum for the discussion of law,
jurisprudence, law reform, pleading, practice,
and procedure, and the relation of the Bar to
the Bench and to the public, and public relation
relating thereto;
6. Encourage and foster legal education;
7. Promote a continuing program of legal research
in substantive and adjective law, and make
reports and recommendations thereon; and
8. Enable the Bar to discharge its public
responsibility effectively (In re Integration of the
Bar of the Philippines)
d. In re: Atty. Marcial Edillon. In this case, Atty.
Edillon objects to the requirement of membership
in the integrated bar as a pre-condition to the
practice of law. This gave the Court the opportunity
to ventilate some basic notions underlying bar
integration.
1. The practice of law is a privilege that is
subject to reasonable regulation by the
State;
2. Bar integration is mandated by the
Constitution;
3. The lawyer is not being compelled to join
the association. Passing the bar
examination already made him a member
of the bar. The only compulsion to which
he is subjected is the payment of annual
dues, and this is justified by the need for
elevating the quality of legal profession;
4. The Constitution vests in the SC plenary
powers regarding admission to the bar.
e. Letter of Atty Arevalo, 2005. Payment of dues
is a necessary consequence of membership in the
Integrated Bar of the Philippines, of which no one is
exempt. This means that the compulsory nature of
payment of dues subsists as long as one’s
membership in the IBP remains regardless of the
lack of practice of, or the type of practice, the
member is engaged in.453
8. Congress and the Rules of Court
Bernas Primer: Rules issued by the Supreme
Court may be repealed, altered, or supplemented
by Congress because Congress has plenary
legislative power. The silence of the Constitution on
the subject can only be interpreted as meaning that
there is no intention to diminish that plenary power.
In fact, RA 8974 which requires full payment before
the sate may exercise proprietary rights, contrary to
Rule 67 which requires a deposit, was recognized
by Court in Republic v. Gingoyon, 2005. (An earlier
obiter dictum in Echegaray v. Sec. of Justice, 1999,
said that Congress has no power to amend Rules.
453
Letter of Atty. Cecilio Y. Arevalo, Requesting Exemptions from
Payment of IBP Dues, May 9, 2005.
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This was repeated by Puno and Carpio in dissent
in Republic v. Gingoyon)454
Nachura (2006): Congress cannot amend the
Rules of Court. “The 1987 Constitution took away
the power of Congress to repeal, alter or
supplement rules concerning pleading and
procedure. In fine, the power to promulgate rules of
pleading, practice and procedure is no longer
shared by this Court with Congress, more so with
the Executive.” Echagaray v. Secretary of Justice
(1999)
ASM: Follow Bernas’ view. Article XVIII, Section 10
provides: “The provisions of the existing Rules of
Court, judiciary acts, and procedural laws not
inconsistent with this Constitution shall remain
operative unless amended or repealed by the
Supreme Court or the Congress”
H. Appointment of Court Personnel
The authority of the Supreme Court to appoint its
own official and employees is another measure
intended to safeguard the independence of the
Judiciary. However, the Court’s appointing authority
must be exercised “in accordance with the Civil
Service Law.”455
Note that Section 5(6) empowers the Supreme
Court not only to appoint its own officials and
employees but of the Judiciary itself.
It should also be recalled that courts may be given
authority by Congress “to appoint officers lower in
rank.” (art. 7 §16)
I. Administrative Supervision of Courts
Strengthens Independence. Section 6 provides
that the Supreme Court shall have administrative
supervision by the Supreme Court over all lower
courts and the personnel thereof. It is a significant
innovation towards strengthening the
independence of the judiciary. Before 1973
Constitution, there was no constitutional provision
on the subject and administrative supervision over
the lower courts and their personnel was exercised
by the Secretary of Justice.456 The previous set-up
impaired the independence of judges who tended
to defer to the pressures and suggestions of the
executive department in exchange for favorable
action on their requests and administrative
problems.457
454
Bernas Primer at 352 (2006 ed.)
455
Bernas Commentary, p 979 (2003 ed).
456
Bernas Commentary, p 979 (2003 ed).
457
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 264 (1995 ed).
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Exclusive Supervision. Article VIII, Section 6
exclusively vests in the Supreme Court
administrative supervision over all courts and court
personnel, from the Presiding Justice of the Court
of Appeals down to the lowest municipal trial court
clerk. By virtue of this power, it is only the Supreme
Court that can oversee the judges’ and court
personnel’s compliance with all laws, and take
proper administrative action against them if they
commit any violation thereof. No other branch of
government may intrude into this power, without
running afoul to the doctrine of separation of
powers. (Maceda v. Vasquez)
Ombudsman and SC’s Power of Supervision.
The Ombudsman may not initiate or investigate a
criminal or administrative complaint before his
office against a judge; the Ombudsman must first
indorse the case to the Supreme Court for
appropriate action. (Fuentes v. Office of
Ombudsman, 2001)
Administrative Proceeding, Confidential.
Administrative proceedings before the Supreme
Court are confidential in nature in order to protect
the respondent therein who may turn out to be
innocent of the charges. (Godinez v. Alano, 1999)
According to Bernas, the power of administrative
supervision of the Supreme Court, includes the
power [sitting en banc] to discipline judges of lower
courts, or order their dismissal.458
J. Disciplinary Powers
Section 11
The Members of the Supreme Court and judges of
lower courts shall hold office during good behavior until
they reach the age of seventy years or become
incapacitated to discharge the duties of their office. The
Supreme Court en banc shall have the power of
discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members who
actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in
the case and voted thereon.
1. Power to Discipline
The power of the Supreme Court to discipline
judges of inferior courts or to order their dismissal
is exclusive. It may not be vested in any other
body. Nor may Congress pass a law that judges of
lower courts are removable by impeachment.459
2. Disciplinary Actions
Besides removal, such other disciplinary measures
as suspension, fine and reprimand can be meted
out by the Supreme Court on erring judges.460
458
Bernas Commentary, p 979 (2003 ed).
459
Bernas Commentary, p 988 (2003 ed).
460
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 267 (1995 ed).
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3. Requirement for Disciplinary Actions
Disciplinary Action Decision
Dismissal of judges, Decision en banc (by
Disbarment of a a vote of a majority of
lawyer, suspension the members who
of either for more actually took part in
than 1 year or a fine the deliberations on
exceeding 10,000 the issues in the case
pesos (People v. and voted thereon)
Gacott)]
Other disciplinary Decision of a division
actions is sufficient (People v.
Gacott)
4. SC Determines what “good behavior” is.
Judges of lower courts shall hold office during good
behavior until they reach the age of seventy years or
become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their
office.
It is submitted that the Supreme Court alone can
determine what good behavior is, since the SC
alone can order their dismissal.461
5. SC Determines whether a judge has become
incapacitated
The power to determine incapacity is part of the
overall administrative power which the Supreme
Court has over its members and over all the
members of the judiciary.462
K. Contempt Powers
One of the essential powers of every court under
our system of government is that of punishing for
contempt persons who are guilty of disobedience
to its orders or for disrespect to its authority. The
punishment is either imprisonment or fine.463
“While it is sparingly to be used, yet the power of
courts to punish for contempts is a necessary and
integral part of the independence of judiciary, and
is absolutely essential to the performance of the
duties imposed on them by law. Without it they are
mere boards of arbitration, whose judgments and
decrees would only be advisory.”464
L. Annual Report
Section 16. The Supreme Court shall, within thirty
days from the opening of each regular session of the
Congress, submit to the President and the Congress
an annual report on the operations and activities of the
Judiciary
461
Bernas Commentary, p 987(2003 ed).
462
Bernas Commentary, p 988(2003 ed).
463
Sinco, Philippine Political Law, p 372 (1954ed).
464
Gompers v. Buck’s Stove and Range co., 221 US 418.
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
The purpose of this provision is not to subject the
Court to the President and to the Congress but
simply to enable the judiciary to inform government
about its needs. (I RECORD 510-512)465
The annual report required under this provision can
be the basis of appropriate legislation and
government policies intended to improve the
administration of justice and strengthen the
independence of judiciary.466
VI. Judicial Review
Definition of Judicial Review
Constitutional Supremacy
Functions of Judicial Review
Who May Exercise
Requisites of Judicial Review
Political Questions
Effect of Declaration of Unconstitutionality
Partial Unconstitutionality
Judicial Review by Lower Courts
Modalities of Constitutional Interpretation
A. Definition
Judicial review is the power of the courts to test the
validity of governmental acts in light of their
conformity to a higher norm (e.g. the constitution.)
–asm
The power of judicial review is the Supreme Court’s
power to declare a law, treaty, international or
executive agreement, presidential decree,
proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation unconstitutional. This power is explicitly
granted by Section 5(2), (a) and (b).467 Judicial
Review is an aspect of Judicial Power.468
Theory of Judicial Review. The Constitution is the
supreme law. It was ordained by the people, the
ultimate source of all political authority. It confers
limited powers on the national government. x x x If
the government consciously or unconsciously
oversteps these limitations there must be some
authority competent to hold it in control, to thwart
its unconstitutional attempt, and thus to vindicate
and preserve inviolate the will of the people as
expressed in the Constitution. This power the
courts exercise. This is the beginning and the end
of the theory of judicial review.469
465
Bernas Commentary, p 1000 (2003 ed).
466
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 277 (1995 ed).
467
Bernas Primer at 341 (2006 ed.)
468
Bernas Commentary, p 937(2003 ed).
469
Howard L. MacBain, "Some Aspects of Judicial Review," Bacon
Lectures on the Constitution of the United States (Boston: Boston
University Heffernan Press, 1939), pp. 376-77 cited in David v.
Arroyo.
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Judicial Review in Philippine Constitution.
Unlike the US Constitution470 which does not
provide for the exercise of judicial review by their
Supreme Court, the Philippine Constitution
expressly recognizes judicial review in Section
5(2) (a) and (b) of Article VIII of the Constitution.
B. Principle of Constitutional Supremacy
Judicial review is not an assertion of superiority by
the courts over the other departments, but merely
an expression of the supremacy of the
Constitution.471 Constitutional supremacy produced
judicial review, which in turn led to the accepted
role of the Court as “the ultimate interpreter of the
Constitution.”472
C. Functions of Judicial Review
1. Checking- invalidating a law or executive act
that is found to be contrary to the Constitution.
2. Legitimating- upholding the validity of the law.
Rule on the Double Negative- Uses the
term “not unconstitutional”; the court
cannot declare a law constitutional
because it already enjoys a presumption of
constitutionality
3. Symbolic473- to educate the bench and the bar
as the controlling principles and concepts on
matters of great public importance.
In a Separate Opinion in Francisco v. HR, Mr.
Justice Adolf Azcuna remarked:
“The function of the Court is a necessary element
not only of the system of checks and balances, but
also of a workable and living Constitution. For
absent an agency, or organ that can rule, with
finality, as to what the terms of the Constitution
mean, there will be uncertainty if not chaos in
governance... This is what… Hart calls the need
for a Rule of Recognition in any legal system…”
D. Who May Exercise
1. Supreme Court
2. Inferior Courts
470
The case of Marbury v. Madison established the doctrine of
judicial review as a core legal principle in American constitutional
system: “So if a law be in opposition to the constitution; of both the
law and the constitution apply to a particular case, so that the court
must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the
constitution; or conformably to the constitution, disregarding the law;
the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the
case. This is the very essence of judicial duty.”
471
Angara v. Electoral Commission, 63 Phil 139.
472
See Cooper v. Aaron, 358 US 1 (1956)
473
“The Court also has the duty to formulate guiding and
controlling constitutional principles, precepts, doctrines, or
rules. It has the symbolic function of educating bench and bar
on the extent of protection given by constitutional guarantees.”
(Salonga v. Pano, 134 SCRA 438, 1985)
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E. Requisites of Judicial Inquiry/Judicial Review
(1994 Bar Question)
Essential Requisites
1. There must be an actual case or controversy;
The question involved must be ripe for
adjudication.
2. The question of constitutionality must be
raised by the proper party;
Auxiliary Rules
3. The constitutional question must be raised at
the earliest possible opportunity;
4. The decision of the constitutional question
must be necessary to the determination of the
case itself.
(Read the case of Francisco v. HR and David v.
Arroyo in the original)
1. Actual Case
Actual Case or controversy involves a conflict
of legal rights, an assertion of opposite legal
claims susceptible of judicial determination.474
The case must not be:
1. Moot or academic or
2. Based on extra-legal or other similar
consideration not cognizable by
courts of justice.475
3. A request for advisory opinion.476
4. Hypothetical or feigned constitutional
problems
5. Friendly suits collusively arranged
between parties without real adverse
interests477
Moot Case. A moot case is one that ceases to
present a justiciable controversy by virtue of
supervening events, so that a declaration
thereon would be of no practical use or value.
Generally, courts decline jurisdiction over such
case or dismiss it on ground of mootness.
However, Courts will decide cases, otherwise
moot and academic, if:
1. There is a grave violation of the
Constitution;
2. The exceptional character of the situation
and the paramount public interest is
involved
3. When the constitutional issue raised
requires formulation of controlling
474
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 241 (1995 ed).
475
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 241 (1995 ed); See Cawaling v.
COMELEC, 368 SCRA 453)
476
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 242 (1995 ed).
477
Bernas Commentary, p 938(2003 ed).
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principles to guide the bench, the bar, and
the public; and
4. The case is capable of repetition yet
evading review. (Province of Batangas vs.
Romulo, 429 SCRA 736; David v. Arroyo
(2006) Quizon v. Comelec, G.R. No.
177927, February 15, 2008.)
The requirement of actual controversy
encompasses concepts such as ripeness,
standing, and the prohibition against advisory
judicial rulings (BP Chemicals v. UCC, 4 F.3d
975)
Ripeness Doctrine. The requirement that a
case be ripe for judgment before a court will
decide the controversy. Ripeness refers to
readiness for adjudication,
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Rationale. To prevent the courts, through
premature adjudication, from entangling
themselves in abstract disagreements.
When Not Ripe. A claim is not ripe for
adjudication if it rests upon contingent future
events that may not occur as anticipated, or
indeed may not occur at all.478
Ripeness and Standing.
A simple description of the requirements of
standing and ripeness is found in the words of
Justice Stone in Nashville v. Wallace. In that
opinion he referred to: “valuable legal rights…
threatened with imminent invasion.” The
valuable legal rights constitute the standing
and the threat of imminent invasion
constitute the ripeness.479
2. Standing/Proper Party (1992, 1995 Bar
Question)
Proper Party- A proper party is one who has
sustained or is in immediate danger of
sustaining an injury in result of the act
complained of.480
Locus Standi refers to the right of
appearance in a court of justice on a given
question.
General Rule:
Direct Interest Test: The persons who
impugn the validity of a statute must have a
”personal and substantial interest in the case
such that he has sustained or will sustain,
direct injury as a result.
Exceptions:
478
Texas v. United States, 523 U.S. 296, 300 (1998).
479
Jerre S. Williams, Constitutional Analysis 16, (1979).
480
Ex Parte Levitt, 303 US 633; People v. Vera 65 Phil 58, 89
(1937).
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
1. Cases of transcendental importance
or of paramount public interest or
involving an issue of overarching
significance.
2. Cases of Proclamation of martial law
and suspension of the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus where any
citizen may challenge the
proclamation of suspension. (art.7
§18)
3. The right to information on matters of
public concern and the right to access
to public documents has been
recognized as accruing to mere
citizenship. (Legaspi v. CSC, 150
SCRA 530 (1987)
4. Facial Challenge (?)
REQUISITES of standing:
A citizen can raise a constitutional question
only when:
1. Injury: He can show that he has
personally suffered some actual or
threatened injury because of the
allegedly illegal conduct of the
government;
2. Causation: The injury is fairly
traceable to the challenged action;
and
3. Redressability: A favorable action
will likely redress the injury.
(Francisco v. Fernando GR 166501,
2006)
In a public suit, where the plaintiff asserts a
public right in assailing an allegedly illegal
official action, our Court adopted the “direct
injury test” in our jurisdiction. (David v. Arroyo)
Direct Injury Test: The persons who impugn
the validity of a statute must have a ”personal
and substantial interest in the case such
that he has sustained or will sustain, direct
injury as a result. (David v. Arroyo) (See
People v. Vera, 65 Phil 58, 89 (1937)).
By way of summary, the following rules may be
culled from the cases decided by the Supreme
Court. Taxpayers, voters, concerned citizens,
and legislators may be accorded standing to
sue, provided that the following requirements
are met:
1. the cases involve constitutional issues
2. for taxpayers, there must be a claim of
illegal disbursement of public funds or that
the tax measure is unconstitutional;
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3. for voters, there must be a showing of
obvious interest in the validity of the
election law in question;
4. for concerned citizens, there must be a
showing that the issues raised are of
transcendental importance which must be
settled early;
5. for legislators, there must be a claim that
the official action complained of infringes
upon their prerogatives as legislators
[David v. Arroyo G.R. No. 171396 (2006)]
Illustrative Cases showing existence of
standing:
Facts: Petitioners filed a case as taxpayers
questioning the validity of the contract between
DOTC and respondent by virtue of which respondent
agreed to build and lease to the DOTC a light
railway transit system. Respondent claimed that
petitioners had no standing to file the action.
Held: Taxpayers may file action questioning
contracts entered into by government on the ground
that the contract is in contravention of the law. (Tatad
v. Garcia, 243 SCRA 436)481
Facts: Petitioners who were Filipino citizens and
taxpayers, questioned the constitutionality of the
IPRA on the ground that it deprived the State of
ownership over lands of the public domain and the
natural resources in them in violation of Section 2,
Article XII of the Constitution.
Held: As, citizens, petitioners possess the public
right to ensure that the national patrimony is not
alienated and diminished in violation of the
Constitution. Since the government holds it for the
benefit of the Filipinos, a citizen had sufficient
interest to maintain a suit to ensure that any grant of
concession covering the national patrimony strictly
complies with the constitutional requirements.
In addition, the IPRA appropriate funds. Thus, it is a
valid subject of a taxpayer’s suit. (Cruz v. Secretary
of Environment and Natural Resources, 347 SCRA
128)482
Facts: Petitioner, a senator, questioned the
constitutionality of Administrative Order No. 308
which provided for the establishment of a national
computerized identification reference system.
Petitioner contends that the AO usurps legislative
power. The government questioned his standing to
file the case.
Held: As a senator, petitioner is possessed of the
requisite standing to bring suit raisin the issue that
the issuance of AO 308 is a usurpation of legislative
power. (Ople v. Torres, 293 SCRA 141)483
Facts: Petitioners, who are minors, filed a case to
compel the Secretary of Environment and Natural
Resources to cancel the timber license agreements
and to desist from issuing new ones on the ground
481
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 333 (2006 ed.)
482
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 334 (2006 ed.)
483
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 336 (2006 ed.)
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that deforestation has resulted in damage to the
environment. The Secretary of argued that
petitioners has no cause of action.
Held: SC said that Petitioners have a right to a
sound environment, this is incorporated in Section
16 of Article II.
SC also said that Petitioners have personality to sue
based on the concept of intergenerational
responsibility insofar as the right to a balanced and
healthful ecology is concerned. “We find no difficulty
in ruling that they can, for themselves, for others of
their generation and for the succeeding generation.
Their personality to sue in behalf of the succeeding
generations can only be based on the concept of
intergenerational responsibility insofar as the right to
a balanced ecology is concerned.” (Oposa v.
Factoran, 1993)
Illustrative Cases showing absence of
standing:
Facts: Upon authorization of the President, the
PCGG ordered the sale at public auction of paintings
by old masters and silverware alleged to be illgotten
wealth of former President Marcos, his relatives, and
friends. Petitioners, who were Filipino citizens,
taxpayers, and artist, filed a petition to restrain the
auction.
Held: Petitioners have no standing to restrain the
public auction. The paintings were donated by
private persons to the MMA who owns them. The
pieces of silverware were given to the Marcos
couple as gifts on their silver wedding anniversary.
Since the petitioners are not the owners of the
paintings and the silverware, they do not possess
any right to question their dispositions. (Joya v.
PCGG, 225 SCRA 586)484
Facts: Petitioner filed a petition in his capacity as a
taxpayer questioning the constitutionality of the
creation of 70 positions for presidential advisers on
the ground that the President did not have the power
to create these positions.
Held: Petitioner has not proven that he has
sustained any injury as a result of the appointment
of the presidential advisers. (Gonzales v. Narvasa,
337 SCRA 437)485
Facts: In view of the increase in violent crimes in
Metropolitan Manila, the President ordered the PNP
and the Philippine Marines to conduct joint visibility
patrols for the purpose of crime prevention and
suppression. Invoking its responsibility to uphold the
rule of law, the Integrated Bar of the Philippines
questioned the validity of the order.
Held: the mere invocation of the IBP of the
Philippines of its duty to preserve the rule of law is
not sufficient to clothe it with standing in this case.
This is too general an interest which is shared by the
whole citizenry. The IBP has not shown any specific
injury it has suffered or may suffer by virtue of the
questioned order. The IBP projects as injurious the
militarization of law enforcement which might
threaten democratic institutions. The presumed
484
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 337 (2006 ed.)
485
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 338 (2006 ed.)
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injury is highly speculative. (IBP v. Zamora, 338
SCRA 81)486
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Transcendental Importance Being a mere
procedural technicality, the requirement of
locus standi may be waived by the Court in the
exercise of its discretion. Thus, the Court has
adopted a rule that even where the petitioners
have failed to show direct injury, they have
been allowed to sue under the principle of
"transcendental importance." [David v.
Arroyo G.R. No. 171396 (2006)]
When an Issue Considered of
Transcendental Importance:
An issue is of transcendental importance
because of the following:
(1) the character of the funds or other assets
involved in the case;
(2) the presence of a clear disregard of a
constitutional or statutory prohibition by an
instrumentality of the government; and
(3) the lack of any other party with a more
direct and specific interest in raising the
question. (Francisco vs. House of
Representatives, 415 SCRA 44; Senate v.
Ermita G.R. No. 169777 (2006))
Facial Challenge487.
The established rule is that a party can
question the validity of a statute only if, as
applied to him, it is unconstitutional. The
exception is the so-called “facial challenge.”
But the only time a facial challenge to a statute
is allowed is when it operates in the area of
freedom of expression. In such instance, the
“overbreadth doctrine” permits a party to
challenge to a statute even though, as applied
to him, it is not unconstitutional, but it might be
if applied to others not before the Court whose
activities are constitutionally protected.
Invalidation of the statute “on its face”, rather
than “as applied”, is permitted in the interest of
preventing a “chilling effect” on freedom of
expression (Justice Mendoza’s concurring
opinion in Cruz v. DENR, G.R. No. 135395,
December 06, 2000) A facial challenge to a
legislative act is the most difficult challenge to
mount successfully since the challenge must
establish that no set of circumstances exists
under which the act would be valid. (Estrada v.
Sandiganbayan, G.R. No. 148560, November
19, 2001)488
486
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 339 (2006 ed.)
487
Facial Challenge is a manner of challenging a statute in court, in
which the plaintiff alleges that the statute is always, and under all
circumstances, unconstitutional, and therefore void.
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
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Bernas: In sum, it may be said that the
concept of locus standi as it exists in Philippine
jurisprudence now has departed from the
rigorous American concept.489
3. Earliest Opportunity
General Rule: Constitutional question must be
raised at the earliest possible opportunity, such
that if it is not raised in the pleadings, it cannot
be considered at the trial, and, if not
considered in trial, cannot be considered on
appeal.
Exceptions:
1. In criminal cases, the constitutional
question can be raised at any time in
the discretion of the court.
2. In civil cases, the constitutional
question can be raised at any stage if
it is necessary to the determination of
the case itself.
3. In every case, except where there is
estoppel, the constitutional question
may be raised at any stage if it
involves jurisdiction of the court.490
4. Necessity/ Lis Mota
Rule: The Court will not touch the issue of
unconstitutionality unless it really is
unavoidable or is the very lis mota.491
Reason: The reason why courts will as much
as possible avoid the decision of a
constitutional question can be traced to the
doctrine of separation of powers which enjoins
upon each department a proper respect for the
acts of the other departments. The theory is
that, as the joint act of the legislative and
executive authorities, a law is supposed to
have been carefully studied and determined to
be constitutional before it was finally enacted.
Hence, as long as there is some other basis
that can be used by the courts for its decision,
the constitutionality of the challenged law will
not be touched and the case will be decided
on other available grounds.492
Motu Propio Exercise of Judicial Review.
While courts will not ordinarily pass upon
488
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 23 (2006
ed.)
489
Bernas Commentary, p 949(2003 ed).
490
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 247 (1995 ed).
491
Bernas Commentary, p 952(2003 ed).
492
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 247 (1995 ed).
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constitutional questions which are not raised in
the pleadings, a court is not precluded from
inquiring into its own jurisdiction or be
compelled to enter a judgment that it lacks
jurisdiction to enter. Since a court may
determine whether or not it has jurisdiction, it
necessarily follows that it can inquire into the
constitutionality of a statute on which its
jurisdiction depends. (Fabian v. Desierto, 295
SCRA 470)493
F. Political Questions (1995 Bar Question)
Justiciable v. Political Question
Definition of Political Question
Guidelines (Baker v. Carr)
Justiciable v. Political
Suspension of Writ and Proclamation of ML
Calling Our Power of the President
Impeachment of a Supreme Court Justice
1. Justiciable v. Political Questions
The distinction between justiciable and political
questions can perhaps best be illustrated by the
suspension or expulsion of a member of Congress,
which must be based upon the ground of
“disorderly behavior” and concurred in by at least
2/3 of all his colleagues. The determination of what
constitutes disorderly behavior is a political
question and therefore not cognizable by the court;
but the disciplinary measure may nonetheless be
disauthorized if it was supported by less than the
required vote. The latter issue, dealing as it does
with a procedural rule the interpretation of which
calls only for mathematical computation, is a
justiciable question.494
2. Political Questions, Definition
Political questions are those questions which under
the Constitution are:
1. To be decided by the people in their
sovereign capacity, or
2. In regard to which full discretionary
authority has been delegated to the
legislative or executive branch of the
government.495 (Tanada v. Cuenco, 1965)
Political questions connotes “questions of policy.”
It is concerned with issues dependent upon the
493
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 330 (2006 ed.)
494
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 78(1995 ed).
495
Cruz: Where the matter falls under the discretion of another
department or especially the people themselves, the decision reached
is in the category of a political question and consequently may not be
the subject of judicial review.
Accordingly, considerations affecting the wisdom, efficacy or
practicability of a law should come under the exclusive jurisdiction
of Congress. So too, is the interpretation of certain provisions of the
Constitution, such as the phrase “other high crimes” as ground for
impeachment.
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
wisdom, not legality, of a particular measure.
(Tanada v. Cuenco)
3. Guidelines for determining whether a
question is political.
Textual Kind
1. A textually demonstrable constitutional
commitment of the issue to a political
department;
Functional Kind
2. Lack of judicially discoverable and
manageable standards for resolving it;
3. Impossibility of deciding a case
without an initial determination of a
kind clearly for non-judicial discretion;
(Baker v. Carr, 369 US 186 (1962))496
Prudential Type
4. Impossibility of a court’s undertaking
independent resolution without expressing
lack of the respect due coordinate
branches of the government;
5. An unusual need for unquestioning
adherence to a political decision already
made;
6. Potentiality of embarrassment from
multifarious pronouncements by various
departments. (Baker v. Carr, 369 US 186
(1962)
(Bernas submits that the Grave Abuse Clause
has eliminated the prudential type of political
questions from Philippine jurisprudence.497
Hence, the question is not political even there
is an “unusual need for questioning adherence
to a political decision already made; or the
potentiality of embarrassment from
multifarious pronouncements by various
departments on one question.”498)
Examples of Textual Kind499:
1. Alejandrino v. Quezon 26 Phil 83 (1924) :
The SC through Justice Malcolm held,
“Mandamus will not lie agasint the legislative
body, its members, or its officers, to compel
the performance of duties purely legislative in
their character which therefore pertain to their
legislative functions and over which they have
exclusive control.”
2. Osmena v. Pendatun 109 Phil 863 (1960):
The SC refused to interpose itself in the matter
of suspension of Osmena Jr., for a speech
delivered on the floor of Congress. Whether he
committed “disorderly behavior” was
something in regard to which full discretionary
authority had been given to the legislature.
496
Bernas Commentary, p 959(2003 ed); Bernas Primer at 348 (2006
ed.)
497
See Bernas Commentary, p 959 (2003 ed)
498
Bernas Primer at 348 (2006 ed.)
499
Bernas Commentary, p 954(2003 ed).
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3. Arroyo v. De Venecia, 1997: The issue in this
case was whether the Court could intervene in
a case where the House of Representatives
was said to have disregarded its own rule. The
Court said it could not because the matter of
formulating rules have been textually conferred
by the Constitution on Congress itself. Hence,
provided that no violation of a constitutional
provisions or injury to private rights was
involved, the Court was without authority to
intervene.
4. Santiago v. Guingona, 1998: Disspute
involved is the selection of a Senate Minority
leader whose position is not created by the
Constitution but by Congressional rules.
Examples of Functional Kind500:
1. Tobias v. Abalos, 1994; Mariano v.
COMELEC, 1995” Apportionment of
representative districts is not a political
question because there acre constitutional
rules governing apportionment.
2. Daza v. Singson, 1989; Coseteng v. Mitra,
1990; Guingona v. Gonzales, 1992: The
Court intervened in the manner of forming the
Commission on Appointments.
3. Bondoc v. Pineda: The Court invalidated the
expulsion of a member of the House Electoral
Tribunal.
(All these were done by the Court because it found
applicable legal standards.)
4. Grave Abuse Clause and Political Questions
Again, the ‘broadened concept’ of judicial power is
not meant to do away with the political questions
doctrine itself. The concept must sometimes yield
to separation of powers, to the doctrine on “political
questions” or to the “enrolled bill” rule.501 (1995 Bar
Question)
5. Suspension of the Writ of HC and
Proclamation of Martial Law
The action of the President and the Congress shall
be subject to review by the Supreme Court which
shall have the authority to determine the sufficiency
of the factual basis of such action. This matter is no
longer considered a political question.502
6. President’s action in calling out the armed
forces
It may be gathered from the broad grant of power
that the actual use to which the President puts the
armed forces, is unlike the suspension of the
500
Bernas Commentary, p 957(2003 ed).
501
See Bernas Commentary, p 919-920 (2003 ed).
502
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 214 (1995 ed).
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privilege of writ of habeas corpus, not subject to
judicial review.503
But, while the Court considered the President’s
“calling-out” power as a discretionary power solely
vested in his wisdom and that it cannot be called
upon to overrule the President’s wisdom or
substitute its own, it stressed that “this does not
prevent an examination of whether such power
was exercised within permissible constitutional
limits or whether it was exercised in a manner
constituting grave abuse of discretion. (IBP v.
Zamora) Judicial inquiry can go no further than to
satisfy the Court not that the President’s decision is
correct, but that “the President did not act
arbitrarily.” Thus, the standard is not
correctness, but arbitrariness. It is incumbent
upon the petitioner to show that the President’s
decision is totally bereft of factual basis” and that if
he fails, by way of proof, to support his assertion,
then “this Court cannot undertake an independent
investigation beyond the pleadings. (IBP v.
Zamora cited in David v. Arroyo)
6. Impeachment Case against a Supreme Court
Justice.
Facts: On June 2, 2003, former President Joseph
Estrada filed an impeachment cases against the Chief
Justice and seven Associate Justices of the Supreme
Court . The complaint was endorsed by three
congressmen and referred to the Committee on Justice of
the House of Representatives. On October 22, 2003, the
Committee on Justice voted to dismiss the complaint for
being insufficient in substance. The Committee on Justice
had not yet submitted its report to the House of
Representatives.
On October 23, 2003, two congressmen filed a complaint
a complaint for impeachment against the Chief Justice in
connection with the disbursement against the Chief
Justice in connection with the disbursement of the
Judiciary Development Fund. The complaint was
accompanied by a resolution of
endorsement/impeachment was accompanied by a
resolution of endorsement/impeachment signed by at
least one-third of the congressmen.
Several petitions were filed to prevent further proceedings
tin the impeachment case on the ground that the
Constitution prohibits the initiation of an impeachment
proceeding against the same official more than once the
same period of one year. Petitioners plead for the SC
to exercise the power of judicial review to determine
the validity of the second impeachment complaint.
The House of Representatives contend that
impeachment is a political action and is beyond the
reach of judicial review. Respondents Speaker De
Venecia, et. al. and intervenor Senator Pimentel raise the
novel argument that the Constitution has excluded
impeachment proceedings from the coverage of judicial
review. Briefly stated, it is the position of respondents
Speaker De Venecia et. al. that impeachment is a political
action which cannot assume a judicial character. Hence,
any question, issue or incident arising at any stage of the
impeachment proceeding is beyond the reach of judicial
503
Bernas Commentary, p 866 (2003 ed)
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review. For his part, intervenor Senator Pimentel
contends that the Senate's "sole power to try"
impeachment cases (1) entirely excludes the application
of judicial review over it; and (2) necessarily includes the
Senate's power to determine constitutional questions
relative to impeachment proceedings. They contend that
the exercise of judicial review over impeachment
proceedings is inappropriate since it runs counter to the
framers' decision to allocate to different fora the powers to
try impeachments and to try crimes; it disturbs the system
of checks and balances, under which impeachment is the
only legislative check on the judiciary; and it would create
a lack of finality and difficulty in fashioning relief
Held: That granted to the Philippine Supreme Court and
lower courts, as expressly provided for in the Constitution,
is not just a power but also a duty, and it was given an
expanded definition to include the power to correct any
grave abuse of discretion on the part of any government
branch or instrumentality. that granted to the Philippine
Supreme Court and lower courts, as expressly provided
for in the Constitution, is not just a power but also a duty,
and it was given an expanded definition to include the
power to correct any grave abuse of discretion on the part
of any government branch or instrumentality.
The Constitution provides for several limitations to the
exercise of the power of the House of Representatives
over impeachment proceedings. These limitations include
the one-year bar on the impeachment of the same official.
It is well within the power of the Supreme Court to inquire
whether Congress committed a violation of the
Constitution in the exercise of its functions. (Francisco v.
House of Representatives, 415 SCRA 44)
x-----x
Respondents are also of the view that judicial review of
impeachments undermines their finality and may also
lead to conflicts between Congress and the judiciary.
Thus, they call upon this Court to exercise judicial
statesmanship on the principle that "whenever possible,
the Court should defer to the judgment of the people
expressed legislatively, recognizing full well the perils of
judicial willfulness and pride
Held: “Did not the people also express their will when
they instituted the safeguards in the Constitution? This
shows that the Constitution did not intend to leave the
matter of impeachment to the sole discretion of Congress.
Instead, it provided for certain well-defined limits, or in the
language of Baker v. Carr,57 "judicially discoverable
standards" for determining the validity of the exercise of
such discretion, through the power of judicial review.”
G. Effect of Declaration of Unconstitutionality
Orthodox View: An unconstitutional act is not a
law; it confers no rights; it imposes no duties; it
affords no protection; it creates no office; it is
inoperative, as if it had not been passed at all.504
“When courts declare a law to inconsistent with the
Constitution, the former shall be void and the latter
shall govern.” (Article 7 of the New Civil Code)
Modern View: Certain legal effects of the statute
prior to its declaration of unconstitutionality may be
recognized. “The actual existence of a statute prior
to such a determination of constitutionality is an
504
See Norton v. Shelby County, 118 US 425.
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operative fact and may have consequences which
cannot always be erased by a new judicial
declaration.”505
H. Partial Unconstitutionality
Also in deference to the doctrine of separation of
powers, courts hesitate to declare a law totally
unconstitutional and as long as it is possible, will
salvage the valid portions thereof in order to give
effect to the legislative will.506
Requisites of Partial Unconstitutionality:
1. The Legislature must be willing to retain the
valid portion(s).507
2. The valid portion can stand independently as
law.
I. Judicial Review by Lower Courts
Legal Bases of lower courts’ power of judicial
review:
1. Article VIII, Section 1. Since the power of
judicial review flows from judicial power
and since inferior courts are possessed of
judicial power, it may be fairly inferred that
the power of judicial review is not an
exclusive power of the Supreme Court.
2. Article VII, Section 5(2). This same
conclusion may be inferred from Article
VIII, Section 5(2), which confers on the
Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction over
judgments and decrees of lower courts in
certain cases.
Note: While a declaration of unconstitutionality
made by the Supreme Court constitutes a
precedent binding on all, a similar decision of an
inferior court binds only the parties in the case.508
J. Modalities of Constitutional Interpretation
1. Historical- Analyzing the intention of the
framers and the Constitution and the
circumstances of its ratification.
2. Textual- Reading the language of the
Constitution as the man on the street would.
3. Structural- Drawing inferences from the
architecture of the three-cornered power
relationships.
505
Chicot County Drainage Dist. V. Baxter States Bank 308 US 371.
506
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 251 (1995 ed); See Senate v.
Ermita.
507
Usually shown by the presence of separability clause. But even
without such separability clause, it has been held that if the valid
portion is so far independent of the invalid portion, it may be fair to
presume that the legislature would have enacted it by itself if they
had supposed that they could constitutionally do so.
508
Bernas Commentary, p 964 (2003 ed).
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4. Doctrinal- Rely on established precedents
5. Ethical- Seeks to interpret the Filipino moral
commitments that are embedded in the
constitutional document.
6. Prudential- Weighing and comparing the
costs and benefits that might be found in
conflicting rules.509
VII. Deciding a Case
Process of Decision Making
Cases Decided En Banc
Cases Decided in Division
A. Process of Decision Making
In Consulta
Certification of Consultation
Explanation on Abstention etc.
Statement of Facts and the Law
Denial of MR or Petition for Review
Decisions of the Court
Period for Decision
Certification and Explanation
Section 13. The conclusions of the Supreme Court in
any case submitted to it for decision en banc or in
division shall be reached in consultation before the
case is assigned to a Member for the writing of the
opinion of the Court. A certification to this effect signed
by the Chief Justice shall be issued and a copy thereof
attached to the record of the case and served upon the
parties. Any Members who took no part, or dissented,
or abstained from a decision or resolution must state
the reason therefor. The same requirements shall be
observed by all lower collegiate courts.
Section 14. No decision shall be rendered by any court
without expressing therein clearly and distinctly the
facts and the law on which it is based. No petition for
review or motion for reconsideration of a decision of
the court shall be refused due course or denied without
stating the legal basis therefor.
Section 15. (1) All cases or matters filed after the
effectivity of this Constitution must be decided or
resolved within twenty-four months from date of
submission for the Supreme Court, and, unless
reduced by the Supreme Court, twelve months for all
lower collegiate courts, and three months for all other
lower courts.
(2) A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for
decision or resolution upon the filing of the last
pleading, brief, or memorandum required by the Rules
of Court or by the court itself.
(3) Upon the expiration of the corresponding period, a
certification to this effect signed by the Chief Justice or
the presiding judge shall forthwith be issued and a
copy thereof attached to the record of the case or
matter, and served upon the parties. The certification
shall state why a decision or resolution has not been
rendered or issued within said period.
509
Bernas Commentary, p 964 (2003 ed).
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(4) Despite the expiration of the applicable mandatory
period, the court, without prejudice to such
responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the case
or matter submitted thereto for determination, without
further delay.
1. “In Consulta”510
The conclusions of the Supreme Court in any case
submitted to it for decision en banc or in division
shall be reached in consultation before the case is
assigned to a Member for the writing of the opinion
of the Court. (Section 13)
2. Certification of Consultation and Assignment
A certification as regards consultation and
assignment signed by the Chief Justice shall be
issued and a copy thereof attached to the record of
the case and served upon the parties. (Section 13)
Purpose. The purpose of certification is to ensure
the implementation of the constitutional
requirement that decisions of the Supreme Court
are reached after consultation with members of the
court sitting en banc or in division before the case
is assigned to a member thereof for decision-
writing. (Consing v. CA, 1989)
The certification by the Chief Justice that he has
assigned the case to a Justice for writing the
opinion will not expose such Justice to pressure
since the certification will not identify the Justice.511
Effect of Absence of Certification. The absence
of the certification would not necessarily mean that
the case submitted for decision had not been
reached in consultation before being assigned to
one member for writing of the opinion of the Court
since the regular performance of duty is presumed.
The lack of certification at the end of the decision
would only serve as evidence of failure to observe
certification requirement and may be basis for
holding the official responsible for the omission to
account therefore. Such absence of certification
would not have the effect of invalidating the
decision.512
Minute Resolution. Minute resolutions need not
be signed by the members of the Court who took
part in the deliberations of a case nor do they
require the certification of the Chief Justice.
(Borromeo v. CA, 1990)
3. Explanation on Abstention etc.
Any Member who:
1. Took no part, or
2. Dissented, or
510
After deliberations by the group.
511
Bernas Primer at 361 (2006 ed.)
512
Bernas Primer at 362 (2006 ed.)
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3. Abstained
from a decision or resolution must state the reason
therefore (Section 13)
The reason for the required explanation is to
encourage participation.513
4. Statement of Facts and the Law
Rule
Purpose of Requirement
Where Applicable
Where Not Applicable
Illustration of Sufficient Compliance
Illustration of Insufficient Compliance
Rule
No decision shall be rendered by any court
without expressing therein clearly and
distinctly the facts and the law on which it is
based. (Section 14)
A decision need not be a complete recital of
the evidence presented. So long as the factual
and legal basis are clearly and distinctly set
forth supporting the conclusions drawn
therefrom, the decision arrived at is valid.
However, it is imperative that the decision not
simply be limited to the dispositive portion but
must state the nature of the case, summarize
the facts with reference to the record, and
contain a statement of applicable laws and
jurisprudence and the tribunal’s statement and
conclusions on the case.514
Requirement, not jurisdictional. Although
the 1st paragraph of Section 14 is worded in
mandatory language, it is nonetheless merely
directory. It has been held that the
“requirement does not go to the jurisdiction of
the court”515 (1989 Bar Question)
Purpose
To inform the person reading the decision, and
especially the parties, of how it was reached
by the court after consideration of the pertinent
facts and examination of applicable laws.
There are various reasons for this:
1. To assure the parties that the judge
studied the case;
2. To give the losing party opportunity to
analyze the decision and possibly
appeal or, alternatively, convince the
losing party to accept the decision in
good grace;
3. To enrich the body of case law,
especially if the decision is from the
513
Bernas Primer at 361 (2006 ed.)
514
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 295
(2006 ed.)
515
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 269 (1995 ed).
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Supreme Court. (Fransisco v. Permskul,
1989)
Where Applicable
The constitutional requirement (Section 14, 1st
paragraph) that a decision must express
clearly and distinctly the facts and law on
which it is based as referring only to
decisions516.
Resolutions disposing of petitions fall under
the constitutional provision (Section 14, 2nd
paragraph) which states that “no petition for
review…shall be refused due course… without
stating the legal basis therefore.” (Borromeo v.
CA) 517
Where not Applicable
It has been held that the provision is not
applicable to:
1. Decision of the COMELEC518;
2. Decision of military tribunals which are
not courts of justice.519
3. Mere orders are not covered since they
dispose of only incidents of the case,
such as postponements of the trial. The
only exception is an order of dismissal on
the merits520
4. This requirement does not apply to a
minute resolution dismissing a petition for
habeas corpus, certiorari and mandamus,
provided a legal basis is given therein.
(Mendoza v. CFI 66 SCRA 96)
5. Neither will it apply to administrative
cases. (Prudential Bank v. Castro, 158
SCRA 646)
Illustrative Cases of Sufficient Compliance:
Facts: The Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction
of petitioner for estafa. Petitioner argued that the
decision did not comply with the Constitution
because instead of making its own finding of facts,
the Court of Appeals adopted the statement of facts
in the brief filed by the Solicitor General.
Held: There is no prohibition against court’s
adoption of the narration of facts made in the brief
instead of rewriting them in its own words.
(Hernandez v. CA, 228 SCRA 429)521
Memorandum Decisions.
The rule remains that the constitutional mandate
saying that “no decision shall be rendered by any
court without expressing therein clearly and distinctly
the facts and the law on which it is based,” does not
516
Decision is described as a judgment rendered after the
presentation of proof or on the basis of stipulation of facts. (Cruz,
Philippine Political Law, p. 269 (1995 ed))
517
Bernas Primer at 362 (2006 ed.)
518
Nagca v. COMELEC, 112 SCRA 270 (1982).
519
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 273 (1995 ed).
520
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 269 (1995 ed).
521
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 350 (2006 ed.)
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preclude the validity of “memorandum decisions,”
which adopt by reference the findings of fact and
conclusions of law contained in the decisions of
inferior tribunals. This rule has been justified on the
grounds of expediency, practicality, convenience and
docket status of our courts.522 (Solid Homes v.
Laserna, 2008)
Memorandum decisions can also speed up the
judicial process, a desirable thing and a concern of
the Constitution itself. Where a memorandum
decision is used, the decision adopted by reference
must be attached to the Memorandum for easy
reference. Nonetheless, the Memorandum decision
should be used sparingly and used only where the
facts as in the main are accepted by both parties
and in simple litigations only. (Fransisco v. Permskul,
1989)
Illustrative Cases of Insufficient Compliance
In Dizon v. Judge Lopez, 1997, the decision, which
consisted only of the dispositve portion
(denominated a sin perjuicio523 judgment) was held
invalid.
Facts: Respondents sold the same property to two
different buyers. Petitioners, the first buyers, filed a
case to annul the title of the second buyer. The lower
court rendered a decision dismissing the complaint.
The decision stated that the plaintiffs failed to prove
their case and there was no sufficient proof of bad
faith on the part of the second buyer.
Held: The decision does not comply with the
requirement under the Constitution that it should
contain a clear and distinct statement of facts. It
contained conclusions without stating the facts
which served as their basis. (Valdez v. CA, 194
SCRA 360)
Facts: Petitioners filed an action to annul the
foreclosure sale of the property mortgaged in favor
of respondent. After petitioners had rested their
case, respondent filed a demurrer to the evidence.
The trial court issued an order dismissing the case
on the ground that the evidence showed that the
sale was in complete accord with the requirements
of Section 3 of Act No. 3135.
Held: The order violates the constitutional
requirement. The order did not discuss what the
evidence was or why the legal requirements had
been observed. (Nicos Industrial Corporation v. CA,
206 SCRA 122)
Facts: The RTC convicted the accused of murder.
The decision contained no findings of fact in regard
to the commission of the crime and simply contained
the conclusion that the prosecution had sufficiently
established the guilt of the accused of the crime
charged beyond reasonable doubt and that the
witnesses for the protection were more credible.
Held: The decision did not contain any findings of
fact which are essential in decision-making. (People
v. Viernes, 262 SCRA 641)
522
G.R. No. 166051, April 8, 2008.
523
Sin Perjuicio judgment is a judgment without a
statement of facts in support of its conclusions.
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Facts: Petitioners sued respondents for damages
on the ground that they were not able to take their
flight although the travel agent who sold them the
plane tickets confirmed their reservations. The
decision of the trial court summarized the evidence
for the parties and then held that respondent, the
travel agent, and the sub-agent should be held
jointly and severally liable for damages on the basis
of the facts.
Held: The decision did not distinctly and clearly set
forth the factual and legal bases for holding
respondents jointly and severally liable. (Yee Eng
Chong v. Pan American World Airways Inc., 328
SCRA 717)
Facts: The MTC convicted petitioner of unfair
competition. Petitioner appealed to the RTC. The
RTC affirmed his conviction. The RTC stated in this
decision that it found no cogent reason to disturb the
findings of fact of MTC.
Held: The decision of the RTC fell short of the
constitutional requirement. The decision in question
should be struck down as a nullity. (Yao v. CA, 344
SCRA 202)
4. Statement of Legal Basis for Denial of MR or
Petition for Review
No petition for review or motion for reconsideration
of a decision of the court shall be refused due
course or denied without stating the legal basis
therefor. (Section 14)
Resolutions disposing of petitions fall under the
constitutional provision (Section 14, 2nd paragraph)
which states that “no petition for review…shall be
refused due course… without stating the legal
basis therefore.”
When the Court, after deliberating on a petition and
any subsequent pleadings, manifestations,
comments, or motion decides to deny due course
to the petition and states that the questions raised
are factual or no reversible error or if the
respondent court’s decision is shown or for some
other legal basis stated in the resolution, there is
sufficient compliance with the constitutional
requirement. (Borromeo v. CA)
Illustrative Cases:
The Court of Appeals denied the petitioner’s motion for
reconsideration in this wise: “Evidently, the motion poses
nothing new. The points and arguments raised by the
movants have been considered an passed upon in the
decision sought to be reconsidered. Thus, we find no
reason to disturb the same.” The Supreme Court held that
there was adequate compliance with the constitutional
provision. (Martinez v. CA, 2001)
The Supreme Court ruled that “lack of merit” is sufficient
declaration of the legal basis for denial of petition for
review or motion for reconsideration. (Prudential Bank v.
Castro)
5. Period for Decision
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All cases or matters filed after the effectivity of
1987 Constitution must be decided or resolved
within twenty-four months from date of
submission for the Supreme Court. (Section 15).
Exception: When the Supreme Court review the
factual basis of the proclamation of martial law or
suspension of the privilege of the writ or the
extension thereof, it must promulgate its decision
thereon within 30 days from its filing. (Article VII,
Section 18).
Mandatory. Decision within the maximum period is
mandatory. Failure to comply can subject a
Supreme Court Justice to impeachment for
culpable violation of the Constitution.524
The court, under the 1987 Constitution, is now
mandated to decide or resolve the case or matter
submitted to it for determination within specified
periods. Even when there is delay and no decision
or resolution is made within the prescribed period,
there is no automatic affirmance of the appealed
decision. This is different from the rule under
Article X, Section 11(2) of the 1973 Constitution
which said that, in case of delay, the decision
appealed from was deemed affirmed. (Sesbreño v.
CA, 2008) 525
6. When a Case Deemed Submitted
A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for
decision or resolution upon the filing of the last
pleading, brief, or memorandum required by the
Rules of Court or by the court itself. (Section 15)
7. Certification of Period’s Expiration and
Explanation for Failure to Render Decision or
Resolution
Upon the expiration of the corresponding period, a
certification to this effect signed by the Chief
Justice or the presiding judge shall forthwith be
issued and a copy thereof attached to the record of
the case or matter, and served upon the parties.
The certification shall state why a decision or
resolution has not been rendered or issued within
said period. (Section 15)
Despite the expiration of the applicable mandatory
period, the court, without prejudice to such
responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the
case or matter submitted thereto for determination,
without further delay. (Section 15)
B. Cases Decided En Banc
Section 4
524
Bernas Commentary, p 997(2003 ed).
525
G.R. No. 161390, April 16, 2008.
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(2) All cases involving the constitutionality of a treaty,
international or executive agreement, or law, which
shall be heard by the Supreme Court en banc, and all
other cases which under the Rules of Court are
required to be heard en banc, including those involving
the constitutionality, application, or operation of
presidential decrees, proclamations, orders,
instructions, ordinances, and other regulations, shall be
decided with the concurrence of a majority of the
Members who actually took part in the deliberations on
the issues in the case and voted thereon.
(1999 Bar Question)
Cases that must be heard en banc:
1. All cases involving the constitutionality of
a treaty, international or executive
agreement, or law.
2. All cases which under the Rules of Court
are required to be heard en banc
3. All cases involving the constitutionality,
application, or operation of presidential
decrees, proclamations, orders,
instructions, ordinances, and other
regulations
4. Cases heard by a division when the
required majority in the division is not
obtained;
5. Cases where the Supreme Court modifies
or reverses a doctrine or principle of law
previously laid down either en banc or in
division.
6. Administrative cases involving the
discipline or dismissal of judges of lower
courts (Section 11) [Dismissal of judges,
Disbarment of a lawyer, suspension of
either for more than 1 year or a fine
exceeding 10,000 pesos (People v.
Gacott)]
7. Election contests for President or Vice-
President.
8. Appeals from Sandiganbayan or
Constitutional Commissions. (Legal
Basis?)
Number of Votes Needed to Decide a Case
Heard En Banc:
When the Supreme Court sits en banc cases are
decided by the concurrence of “majority if the
members who actually took part in the
deliberations on the issues in the cases and voted
thereon.” Thus, since a quorum of the Supreme
Court is eight, the votes of at least five are needed
and are enough, even if it is a question of
constitutionality. (Those who did not take part in the
deliberation do not have the right to vote)526 (1996
Bar Question)
ASM: In reality, when the decision says that a
particular Justice “did not take part”, it does not
necessarily mean that he was not there during the
deliberations.
526
Bernas Primer at 338 (2006 ed.)
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Q: How many justices are needed to constitute a
quorum when the Court sits en banc and there are
only fourteen justices in office?
A: In People v. Ebio, 2004, since it was a capital
criminal cases, the Court said that there should be
eight.527
Procedure if opinion is equally divided.
When the Court en banc is equally divided in
opinion, or the necessary majority cannot be had,
the case shall again be deliberated on, and if after
such deliberation no decision is reached, the
original action commenced in the court shall be
dismissed; in appealed cases, the judgment or
order appealed from shall stand affirmed; and on
all incidental matters, the petition or motion shall be
denied.(Rule 56, Section 7, Rules of Court)
C. Cases Decided in Division
Section 4
(3) Cases or matters heard by a division shall be
decided or resolved with the concurrence of a majority
of the Members who actually took part in the
deliberations on the issues in the case and voted
thereon, and in no case, without the concurrence of at
least three of such Members. When the required
number is not obtained, the case shall be decided en
banc: Provided, that no doctrine or principle of law laid
down by the court in a decision rendered en banc or in
division may be modified or reversed except by the
court sitting en banc.
Divisions are not separate and distinct courts.
Actions considered in any of the divisions and
decisions rendered therein are, in effect by the
same Tribunal. Decisions or resolutions of a
division of the court are not inferior to an en banc
decision. (People v. Dy, 2003)
Decisions of a division, not appealable to en
banc. Decisions or resolutions of a division of the
court, when concurred in by majority of its
members who actually took part in the
deliberations on the issues in a case and voted
thereon is a decision or resolution of the Supreme
Court. (Firestone Ceramics v. CA, 2000)
Where the required number cannot be obtained
in a division of three in deciding a case. Where
the required number of votes is not obtained, there
is no decision. The only way to dispose of the case
then is to refer it to the Court en banc. (Section
4(3))
“Cases” v. “Matters”.
“Cases or matters heard by a division shall be decided
or resolved with the concurrence of a majority of the
Members who actually took part in the deliberations on
the issues in the case and voted thereon, and in no case,
527
Bernas Primer at 337 (2006 ed.)
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without the concurrence of at least three of such
Members.”
When the required number is not obtained, the case shall
be decided en banc.”
A careful reading of the above constitutional
provision reveals the intention of the framers to
draw a distinction between cases on one hand and,
and matters on the other hand, such that cases are
‘decided’ while matters, including motions, are
‘resolved’. Otherwise put, the word “decided” must
refer to ‘cases; while the word ‘resolved’ must refer
to ‘matters’.
Where the required number cannot be obtained
in a division of three in motion for
reconsideration. If a case has already been
decided by the division and the losing party files a
motion for reconsideration, the failure of the
division to resolve the motion because of a tie in
the voting does not leave the case undecided.
Quite plainly, if the voting results in a tie, the motion
for reconsideration is lost. The assailed decision is
not reconsidered and must therefore be deemed
affirmed. (Fortich v. Corona, 1999)
VIII. Other Courts
Composition
Judicial Power; Judicial Review
Jurisdiction
Qualifications
Appointment
Salaries
Tenure
Removal
Prohibition
Deciding a Case
A. Composition
The composition of lower courts shall be provided
by law. The laws are Judiciary Act of 1948 and BP
129.
The different lower courts under the Judiciary
Reorganization Law are the:
1. Court of Appeals
2. regional trial courts
3. metropolitan trial courts
4. municipal trial courts
5. municipal circuit trial courts
Other Courts:
1. Court of Tax Appeals
2. Sandignabayan
3. Sharia Court
(Together with the Supreme Court , the
aforementioned tribunals make up the judicial
department of our government)528
528
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 231 (1995 ed).
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Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals is
composed of 68 Associate Justices and 1 Presiding
Justice. (RA 52; RA 8246)
B. Judicial Power; Judicial Review in Lower Courts
Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme
Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of
justice to settle actual controversies involving rights
which are legally demandable and enforceable,
and to determine whether or not there has been a
grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or
instrumentality of the Government. (Section 1)
Legal Bases of lower courts’ power of judicial
review:
1. Article VIII, Section 1. Since the power of
judicial review flows from judicial power
and since inferior courts are possessed of
judicial power, it may be fairly inferred that
the power of judicial review is not an
exclusive power of the Supreme Court.
2. Article VII, Section 5(2). This same
conclusion may be inferred from Article
VIII, Section 5(2), which confers on the
Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction over
judgments and decrees of lower courts in
certain cases.
Note: While a declaration of unconstitutionality
made by the Supreme Court constitutes a
precedent binding on all, a similar decision of an
inferior court binds only the parties in the case.529
C. Jurisdiction of Lower Courts
1 Statutory Conferment of Jurisdiction
The Congress shall have the power to define,
prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of the
various courts. (Section 2)
2. Constitutional Conferment of Jurisdiction
J.M. Tuason & Co. v. CA; Ynot v. IAC: There is in
effect a constitutional conferment of original
jurisdiction on the lower courts in those five cases
for which the Supreme Court is granted appellate
jurisdiction in Section 5(2).
Section 5(2). The Supreme Court has the power to
review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal or
certiorari as the law or the Rules of Court may provide,
final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
529
Bernas Commentary, p 964 (2003 ed).
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a. All cases in which the constitutionality or
validity of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, presidential decree,
proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation is in question.
b. All cases involving the legality of any tax,
impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty
imposed in relation thereto.
c. All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower
court is in issue.
d. All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed
is reclusion perpetua or higher.
e. All cases in which only an error or question of
law is involved.
D. Contempt Powers
(See Rule 71)
The power to punish for contempt is inherent in al
courts; its existence is essential to the preservation
of order in judicial proceedings and to the
enforcement of judgment, orders, and mandates of
the courts, and consequently, to the due
administration of justice.530
1996 Bar Question
On the first day of the trial of a rape-murder case
where the victim was a popular TV star, over a
hundred of her fans rallied at his entrance of the
courthouse, each carrying a placard demanding
the conviction of the accused and the imposition of
the death penalty on him. The rally was peaceful
and did not disturb the proceedings of the case.
Q: Can the trial court order the dispersal of the
rallyists under the pain of being punished for
contempt of court?
Suggested Answer: Yes, the trial court can order
the dispersal of the rally under the pain of being
cited for contempt. The purpose of the rally is to
attempt to influence the administration of justice.
As stated in People v. Flores, 239 SCRA 83, any
conduct by any party which tends to directly or
indirectly impede or obstruct or degrade the
administration of justice is subject to the contempt
powers of the court.
Q: If instead of a rally, the fans of the victim wrote
letters to the newspaper editors demanding the
conviction of the accused, can the trial court punish
them for contempt?
Suggested Answer: No, the trial court cannot
punish for contempt the fans of the victim who
wrote letters to the newspaper editors. Since the
letters were not addressed to the judge and the
publication of the letters occurred outside the court,
the fans cannot be punished in the absence of a
clear and present danger to the administration of
justice.
E. Qualifications
530
Slade Perkins v. Director of Prisions, 58 Phil 271.
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1. Qualifications of Members of Court of
Appeals
1. Must be a natural-born citizen of the
Philippines (Section 7(1))
2. Must be a member of the Philippine Bar
(Section 7(2))
3. Must be a person of proven competence,
integrity, probity, and independence.
(Section 7(3))
4. Possessing other qualifications prescribed
by Congress (Section 7(2))
Section 7 of BP 129 provides that, ”The
Presiding Justice and the Associate Justice
shall have the same qualifications as those
provided in Constitution for Justice of the
Supreme Court”. Hence, the members of the
CA must also be:
a. Must at least be 40 years of age;
b. Must have been for 15 years or more
a judge of a lower court or engaged in
the practice of law in the Philippines
2. Constitutional Qualifications for Non-
collegiate courts
1. Citizens of the Philippines (Section 7(2))
2. Members of the Philippine Bar (Section
7(2))
3. Possessing the other qualifications
prescribed by Congress (Section 7(2))
4. Must be a person of proven competence,
integrity, probity and independence.
(Section 7(3))
Qualifications of RTC Judges:
1. Citizen of the Philippines; (Section 7(2))
2. Member of the Philippine Bar (Section
7(2))
3. A person of proven competence, integrity,
probity and independence.
4. Possessing the other qualifications
prescribed by Congress (Section 7(2))
a) At least 35 years old (BP 129,
Section 15)
b) Has been engaged for at least
[10] years in the practice of law
in the Philippines or has held
public office in the Philippines
requiring admission to the
practice of law as an
indispensable requisite. (BP 129,
Section 15)
Qualifications of MTC, MeTC, MCTC Judges:
1. Citizen of the Philippines; (Section 7(2))
2. Member of the Philippine Bar (Section
7(2))
3. A person of proven competence, integrity,
probity and independence.
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4. Possessing the other qualifications
prescribed by Congress (Section 7(2))
a) At least 35 years old (BP 129,
Section 26)
b) Has been engaged for at least 5
years in the practice of law in the
Philippines or has held public
office in the Philippines requiring
admission to the practice of law
as an indispensable requisite.
(BP 129, Section 26)
Qualifications of CTA Judges:
Judges of the CTA shall gave the same
qualifications as Members of the Supreme Court.
(RA No. 1125, Section 1 in relation to CA No. 102,
Section 1)
Qualifications of Members of Sandiganbayan:
No person shall be appointed as Member of the
Sandiganbayan unless he is at least forty years of
age and for at least 10 years has been a judge of a
court of record or has been engaged in the practice
of law in the Philippines or has held office requiring
admission to the bar as a prerequisite for a like
period. (PD No. 1606 as amended, Section 1)
Qualifications of judges of Shari’a Courts:
In addition to the qualifications for Members of
Regional Trial Courts, a judge of the Sharia’s
district court must be learned in the Islamic Law
and Jurisprudence. (PD No. 1083, Article 140)
No person shall be appointed judge of the Shari’a
Circuit Court unless he is at least 25 years of age,
and has passed an examination in the Shari’a and
Islamic jurisprudence to be given by the Supreme
Court for admission to special membership in the
Philippine Bar to practice in the Shari’a courts. (PD
No. 1083, Article 152)
Note: Congress may not alter the constitutional
qualifications of members of the Judiciary. But
Congress may alter the statutory qualifications of
judges and justices of lower courts.531
It behooves every prospective appointee to the
Judiciary to apprise the appointing authority of
every matter bearing on his fitness for judicial
office, including such circumstances as may reflect
on his integrity and probity. Thus the fact that a
prospective judge failed to disclose that he had
been administratively charged and dismissed from
the service for grave misconduct by a former
President of the Philippines was used against him.
It did not matter that he had resigned from office
and that the administrative case against him had
become moot and academic.532
531
Bernas Primer at 356 (2006 ed.)
532
In re JBC v. Judge Quitain, JBC No. 013, August 22, 2007.
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D. Appointment
The judges of lower courts shall be appointed by
the President from a list of at least three nominees
prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council for every
vacancy. Such appointments need no confirmation.
For the lower courts, the President shall issue the
appointments within ninety days from the
submission of the list. (Section 9)
Two months immediately before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of his term,
a President or acting President shall not make
appointments… (Article VII, Section 15). In In Re:
Mateo Valenzuela, 1998, it was held that during
this period (when appointments are prohibited), the
President is not required to make appointments to
the courts nor allowed to do so. While the filling up
of vacancies in the Judiciary is in the public
interest, there is no showing in this case of any
compelling reason to justify the making of the
appointments during the period of the ban.
E. Salaries
The salary of judges of lower courts shall be fixed
by law. During their continuance in office, their
salary shall not be decreased. (Section 10)
Imposition of income tax on salaries of judges
does not violate the constitutional prohibition
against decrease in salaries.(Nitafan v. Tan, 152
SCRA 284)
F. Tenure
The judges of lower courts shall hold office during
good behavior until they reach the age of seventy
years or become incapacitated to discharge the
duties of their office. (Section 11)
No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary
when it undermines the security of tenure of
members. (Section 2)
In Vargas v. Villaroza, (80 Phil 297 (1982), the
Supreme Court held that the guarantee of security
of tenure is a guarantee not just against “actual
removal” but also of “uninterrupted continuity in
tenure.”
G. Discipline/ Removal
The Supreme Court en banc shall have the power
of discipline judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal by a vote of a majority of the Members
who actually took part in the deliberations on the
issues in the case and voted thereon.
According to People v. Gacott, (1995), only
dismissal of judges, disbarment of a lawyer,
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suspension of either for more than 1 year or a fine
exceeding 10,000 pesos requires en banc
decision.
The grounds for the removal of a judicial officer
should be established beyond reasonable doubt,
particularly where the charges on which the
removal is sought are misconduct in office, willful
neglect, corruption and incompetence. (Office of
the Judicial Administrator v. Pascual, 1996)
H. Prohibition
The members of courts established by law shall not
be designated to any agency performing quasi-
judicial or administrative functions. (Section 12)
Thus, where a judge was designated member of
the Ilocos Norte Provincial Committee on Justice
by the Provincial Governor where the function of
the Committee was to receive complaints and
make recommendations towards the speedy
disposition of cases of detainees, the designation
was invalidated. (In re Manzano, 166 SCRA 246
(1988).
I. Deciding a Case
1. Consultation
The conclusions of the [lower collegiate courts] in
any case submitted to it for decision en banc or in
division shall be reached in consultation before the
case is assigned to a Member for the writing of the
opinion of the court.
A certification to this effect signed by the [Chief
Justice] shall be issued and a copy thereof
attached to the record of the case and served upon
the parties.
Any Members who took no part, or dissented, or
abstained from a decision or resolution must state
the reason therefor. (Section 13)
Note: CA sits in divisions when it hears cases; the
only time to convenes as one body is to take up
matters of administration.
2. Statement of Facts and Law
No decision shall be rendered by any court without
expressing therein clearly and distinctly the facts
and the law on which it is based.
No petition for review or motion for reconsideration
of a decision of the court shall be refused due
course or denied without stating the legal basis
therefor. (Section 14)
3. Period in Deciding Case
Court Period
Supreme Court 24 months (Section 15)
Court of Appeals 12 months (Section 15)
Sandiganbayan 3 months (Re Problem
of Delays in
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Sandiganbayan)
All other lower courts 3 months (Section 15)

(1) All cases or matters filed after the effectivity of

1987 Constitution must be decided or resolved
within, unless reduced by the Supreme Court,
twelve months for all lower collegiate courts,
and three months for all other lower courts.
(2) A case or matter shall be deemed submitted for
decision or resolution upon the filing of the last
pleading, brief, or memorandum required by the
Rules of Court or by the court itself.
(4) Despite the expiration of the applicable
mandatory period, the court, without prejudice to
such responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the
case or matter submitted thereto for determination,
without further delay. (Section 15)

RE Problem of Delays in the Sandiganbayan

The provision in Article VIII, Section 15 of the 1987
Constitution which says that cases or matters filed
must be decided by “lower collegiate courts” within
12 months, does not apply to the Sandiganbayan.
The provision refers to regular courts of lower
collegiate level, which is the Court of Appeals.
The Sandiganbayan is a special court on the same
level as the Court of Appeals, possessing all
inherent powers of a court of justice with the same
functions of a trial court. The Sandiganbayan,
being a special court, shall have the power to
promulgate its own rules. In fact, it promulgated its
own rules regarding the reglementary period of
undecided cases under its jurisdiction. In its own
rules it says that judgments on pending cases shall
be rendered within 3 months. Also, the law creating
the Sandiganbayan is also clear with the 3 month
reglementary period. The Sandiganbayan, in a
sense, acts like a trial court, therefore a 3 month
and not a 12 month reglementary period.

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Article IX
CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS
I. COMMON PROVISIONS (Article IX-A)
II. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION (Article IX-B)
III. COMMISSION ON ELECTIONS (Article IX-C)
IV. COMMISSION ON AUDIT(Article IX-D)
I. Common Provisions
Independent Constitutional Commissions
Safeguards Insuring Independence
Inhibitions on the Members of the Commissions
Rotational Scheme
Reappointment
Proceedings
Enforcement of Decisions
Section 1. The Constitutional Commissions,
which shall be independent, are the Civil
Service Commission, the Commission on
Elections, and the Commission on Audit.
Section 2. No member of a Constitutional
Commission shall, during his tenure, hold any
other office or employment. Neither shall he
engage in the practice of any profession or in the
active management or control of any business
which, in any way, may be affected by the
functions of his office, nor shall he be financially
interested, directly or indirectly, in any contract
with, or in any franchise or privilege granted by the
Government, any of its subdivisions, agencies, or
instrumentalities, including government-owned or
controlled corporations or their subsidiaries.
Section. 3. The salary of the Chairman and the
Commissioners shall be fixed by law and shall not
be decreased during their tenure.
Section 4. The Constitutional Commissions shall
appoint their officials and employees in
accordance with law.
Section 5. The Commission shall enjoy fiscal
autonomy. Their approved annual appropriations
shall be automatically and regularly released.
Section 6. Each Commission en banc may
promulgate its own rules concerning pleadings
and practice before it or before any of its offices.
Such rules, however, shall not diminish, increase,
or modify substantive rights.
Section 7. Each Commission shall decide by a
majority vote of all its Members, any case or
matter brought before it within sixty days from the
date of its submission for decision or resolution. A
case or matter is deemed submitted for decision or
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resolution upon the filing of the last pleading, brief,
or memorandum required by the rules of the
Commission or by the Commission itself. Unless
otherwise provided by this Constitution or by law,
any decision, order, or ruling of each Commission
may be brought to the Supreme Court on certiorari
by the aggrieved party within thirty days from
receipt of a copy thereof.
Section 8. Each Commission shall perform such
other functions as may be provided by law.
A. Independent Constitutional Commissions
The independent constitutional commissions are
the:
1. Civil Service Commission
2. Commission on Elections
3. Commission on Audit
Q: Why have these commissions been made
constitutional commissions?
A: The CSC, COA and COMELEC perform key
functions in the government. In order to protect
their integrity, they have been made constitutional
bodies.533
B. Safeguards Insuring the Independence of the
Commissions534
1. They are constitutionally created; they may not
be abolished by statute. (Art. IX-A, §1)
2. Each is expressly described as “independent.”
(Art. IX-A, §1)
3. Each is conferred certain powers and functions
which cannot be reduced by statute. (Art. IX-B,
C and D)
4. The Chairmen and members cannot be
removed except by impeachment. (Art. XI, §2)
5. The Chairmen and members are given fairly
long term of office of 7 years. (Art. IX-B, C and
§1(2))
6. The terms of office of the chairmen and
members of all the commissioners are
staggered in such a way as to lessen the
opportunity for appointment of the majority of
the body by the same President. (Art. IX-B, C
and §1(2))
7. The chairmen and members may not be
reappointed or appointed in an acting
capacity.535 (Art. IX-B, C and §1(2))
533
Bernas Primer at 367 (2006 ed.)
534
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 278 (1995 ed).
535
In Matibag v. Benipayo, the SC said that when an ad interim
appointment (of the Chairman of COMELEC) is not confirmed (as it
was by-passed, or that there was no ample time for the Commission
on Appointments to pass upon the same), another ad interim
appointment may be extended to the appointee without violating the
Constitution.
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8. The salaries of the chairman and members are
relatively high and may not be decreased
during continuance in office. (Art. IX-A, §3; Art.
XVIII, §17 )
9. The Commissions enjoy fiscal autonomy.
(Art. IX-A, §5)
10. Each Commission may promulgate its own
procedural rules, provided they do not
diminish, increase or modify substantive rights.
(Art. IX-A, §4)
11. The chairmen and members are subject to
certain disqualifications calculated to
strengthen their integrity. (Art. IX-A, §4)
12. The Commissions may appoint their own
officials and employees in accordance with
Civil Service Law. (Art. IX-A, §4)
Q: There are independent offices specifically
authorized by the Constitution to appoint their
officials. Does this imply that their appointment will
not be subject to Civil Service Law and Rules?
A: No. if this were the case, these independent
bodies would arrogate upon themselves a power
that properly belongs to the Civil Service
Commission. Had the intention of the framers of
the Constitution been to isolate and grant full
independence to Constitutional Commission in the
matter of appointments, it would have been so
provided. But that is not the case. And since all
matters pertaining to appointments are within the
realm of expertise of the CSC, all laws, rules and
regulations it issues on appointments must be
complied with. (Ombudsman v. CSC, February 16,
2005)
C. Inhibitions/Disqualifications (Section 2)
Members of constitutional commissions:
1. Shall not, during tenure, hold any other office
or employment;
2. Shall not engage in the practice of any
profession;
3. Shall not engage in the active management
or control of any business which in any way
may be affected by the functions of his office.
4. Shall not be financially interested, directly or
indirectly, in any contract with, or in any
franchise or privilege granted by the
Government, any of its subdivisions, agencies
or instrumentalities, including government-
owned or controlled corporation or their
subsidiaries.
Purpose of Disqualifications. To compel the
chairmen and members of the Constitutional
Commissions to devote their full attention to the
discharge of their duties and, as well, to remove
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from them any temptation to take advantage of
their official positions for selfish purposes.536
“Practice of profession” for the purpose of
Section 3, does not include teaching. Thus, a
lawyer who teaches law does not thereby, for the
purpose of Section 2, violate the prohibition of
practice of a profession. (I RECORD 544-555, 558-
559)
Prohibition of “active management” does not
prohibit a Commissioner from owning business but
it prohibits him from being the managing officer or a
member of the governing board of a business,
“which in any way may be affected by the functions
of his office,” a qualifying phrase which does not
apply to the prohibition of a practice of a
profession. (I RECORD 552-559)
D. Rotational Scheme of Appointments (1999 Bar Q)
(Section 1(2) of Article IX-B, C and D.)
The first appointees shall serve 7, 5 and 3 years
respectively.
Reason for Staggering of Terms:
1. To lessen the opportunity of the President
to appoint a majority of the body during
his term;
2. To ensure continuance of the body, which
always retains 2/3 of its membership.
3. The system is expected to stabilize the
policies of the body as maintained by the
remaining members.537
Gaminde v. COA, December 13, 2000. It was held
that in order to preserve the periodic succession
mandated by the Constitution, the rotational plan
requires two conditions:
1. The terms of the first commissioners
should start on a common date (Feb 2,
1987); and
2. Any vacancy due to death, resignation or
disability before the expiration of the term
should only be filled for the unexpired
balance of the term.
E. Proceedings
1. Decision
There is no decision until the draft is signed and
promulgated. Hence, if a commissioner signs a
decision but retires before the decision is
promulgated, his vote does not count even if it was
he who penned the decision. (Ambil v. COMELEC,
October 25, 2005)
536
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 280 (1995 ed).
537
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 289 (1995 ed).
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2. Who makes the decision
The decisions are made by the body and not by
individual members. No individual member may
make a decision for the Commission. Much less
may cases be decided by subordinates of the
Commission. Not even the Commission’s legal
counsel may make a decision fro the Commission.
3. Each Commission shall decide by a majority
vote of all its Members any case or matter
brought before it within sixty days from the date of
its submission for decision. (Article IX-A Section 7)
The provision is clear that what is required is
the majority vote of all the members, not only
of those who participated in the deliberations
and voted thereon. (Estrella v. COMELEC,
May 27, 2004)
(Article IX-B, Section 2 allows the COMELEC
to make decisions in divisions) In the
COMELEC, there is full Commission to form a
banc if there are four Commissioners left.
Q: Two commissioners who participated in the
consideration of the case retired before the
promulgation of the COMELEC decision but
after they cast their vote. Four commissioners
were left. Should the votes of the retirees be
counted?
A: No. Their vote should be automatically
withdrawn. There is no decision until it is
promulgated.
Q: Is the 3-1 vote of the remaining
commissioners a valid decision en banc.
A: The vote of 3 is a majority vote of all.
(Dumayas v. COMELEC, April 20, 2001)
4. Unless otherwise provided by this
Constitution or by law, any decision, order, or
ruling of each Commission may be brought to the
Supreme Court on certiorari by the aggrieved
party within 30 days fro the receipt thereof. (Article
IX-A Section 7)
The certiorari referred to is a special civil
action for certiorari under Rule 65. (Dario v.
Mison)
The certiorari jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
is limited to decision rendered in actions or
proceedings taken cognizance of by the
Commissions in the exercise of their
adjudicatory or quasi-judicial powers.
(It does not refer to purely executive powers
such as those which relate to the COMELEC’s
appointing power. Hence, questions arising
from the award of a contract for the
construction of voting booths can be brought
before a trial court. Similarly, actions taken by
the COMELEC as prosecutor come under the
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jurisdiction of the trial court which has acquired
jurisdiction over the criminal case.)
Q: How are decisions of the commissions
reviewed by the SC?
Commission on Audit: Judgments or final
orders of the Commission on Audit may be
brought by an aggrieved party to the Supreme
Court on certiorari under Rule 65.
Only when COA acts without or excess in
jurisdiction, or with grave abuse of discretion
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction,
may the SC entertain a petition for certiorari
under Rule 65.
Civil Service Commission: In the case of
decisions of the CSC, Administrative Circular
1-95538 which took effect on June 1, 1995,
provides that final resolutions of the CSC shall
be appealable by certiorari to the CA within 15
days from receipt of a copy thereof. From the
decision of the CA, the party adversely
affected thereby shall file a petition for review
on certiorari under Rule 45 of the Rules of
Court.
Q: When certiorari to the Supreme Court is
chosen, what is required?
A: Rule 65, Section 1 says that certiorari may
be resorted to when there is no other plain or
speedy and adequate remedy. But
reconsideration is a speedy and adequate
remedy. Hence, a case may be brought to the
Supreme Court only after reconsideration.
(As a consequence, in the case of decisions of
the COMELEC, only decision en banc may be
brought to the Court by certiorari since Article
IX-C, 3 says that motions for reconsideration
of decisions shall be decided by the
Commission en banc. (Reyes v. RTC, 1995)
F. Enforcement of Decisions
The final decisions of the Civil Service Commission
are enforceable by a writ of execution that the
Civil Service Commission may itself issue. (Vital-
Gozon v. CA, 212 SCRA 235)
G. Fiscal Autonomy
Article IX-A, Section 5 gives the constitutional
commissions fiscal autonomy, that is, their
approved annual appropriations shall be
automatically and regularly released and shall not
be subject to pre-audit.539
538
Pursuant to RA 7902.
539
Bernas Commentary, p 1003(2003 ed).
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Fiscal Autonomy. In Civil Service Commission
v. DBM, July 22, 2005, the SC said that the “no
report, no release” policy may not be validly
enforced against offices vested with fiscal
autonomy, without violating Section 5 of Article IX-A
of the Constitution. The “automatic release” of
approved annual appropriations to petitioner, a
constitutional commission vested with fiscal
autonomy should thus be construed to mean that
no condition to fund releases to it may be imposed.
xxx
However, petitioner’s claim that its budget may not
be reduced by Congress below the amount
appropriated for the previous year, as in the case
of the Judiciary, must be rejected. The provisions in
Section 3, Article VIII, prohibiting the reduction in
the appropriation for the Judiciary below the
amount appropriated for the previous year does not
appear in Section 5, Article IX-A. The plain
implication of this omission is that Congress is not
prohibited from reducing the appropriations of
Constitutional Commissions below the amount
appropriated for them for the previous year.
Note: The Supreme Court said that the
Commission on Human Rights, unlike the three
constitutional commissions, does not enjoy fiscal
autonomy. (CHR Employees Association v. CHR,
November 25, 2004).
H. Power to Promulgate Rules of Procedure
Article IX-A, Section 6 gives the constitutional
commissions authority, sitting en, to promulgate
rules of procedure.
Q: In case of conflict between a rule of procedure
promulgated by a Commission and a Rule of Court,
which prevails?
A: In case of conflict between a rule of procedure
promulgated by a Commission and a Rule of Court,
the rule of the Commission should prevail if the
proceeding is before the Commission; but if the
proceeding is before a court, the Rules of Court
prevail. (Aruelo Jr. v. CA, October 20, 1993)
Q: May the Supreme Court disapprove internal
rules promulgated by the Commissions?
A: The Supreme Court has no power to disapprove
Commission rules except through the exercise of
the power of “judicial review” when such
Commission rules violate the Constitution.540
Q: May Congress assume power to review rules
promulgated by the Commission?
A: No. (By vesting itself with the powers to
approve, review, amend, and revise the
Implementing Rules for the Overseas Absentee
Voting Act of 2003, Congress acted beyond the
540
Bernas Commentary, p 1003(2003 ed).
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
scope of its constitutional authority. Congress
trampled upon the constitutional mandate of
independence of the COMELEC.) (Macalintal v.
COMELEC, July 10, 2003)
If the rules promulgated by a Commission are
inconsistent with a statute, the statute prevails.
(Antonio v. COMELEC, September 22, 1999)
II. Civil Service Commission
Composition of CSC
Functions/ Objective of CSC
Nature of the Powers of CSC
Qualifications of CSC Commissioners
Appointment of CSC Commissioners
Scope of Civil Service
Classification of Positions
Classes of Service
Disqualifications
Security of Tenure
Partisan Political Activity
Right to Self-organization
Protection to Temporary Employees
Standardization of Compensation
Double Compensation
Section 1. (1) The civil service shall be
administered by the Civil Service Commission
composed of a Chairman and two Commissioners
who shall be natural-born citizens of the
Philippines and, at the time of their appointment,
at least thirty-five years of age, with proven
capacity for public administration, and must not
have been candidates for any elective position in
the elections immediately preceding their
appointment.
(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners shall be
appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of seven
years without reappointment. Of those first
appointed, the Chairman shall hold office for
seven years, a Commissioner for five years, and
another Commissioner for three years, without
reappointment. Appointment to any vacancy shall
be only for the unexpired term of the predecessor.
In no case shall any Member be appointed or
designated in a temporary or acting capacity.
Section 2. (1) The civil service embraces all
branches, subdivisions, instrumentalities, and
agencies of the Government, including
government-owned or controlled corporations with
original charters.
(2) Appointments in the civil service shall be made
only according to merit and fitness to be
determined, as far as practicable, and, except to
positions which are policy-determining, primarily
confidential, or highly technical, by competitive
examination.
(3) No officer or employee of the civil service shall
be removed or suspended except for cause
provided by law.
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(4) No officer or employee in the civil service shall
engage, directly or indirectly, in any electioneering
or partisan political campaign.
(5) The right to self-organization shall not be
denied to government employees.
(6) Temporary employees of the Government shall
be given such protection as may be provided by
law.
Section 3. The Civil Service Commission, as the
central personnel agency of the Government, shall
establish a career service and adopt measures to
promote morale, efficiency, integrity,
responsiveness, progressiveness, and courtesy in
the civil service. It shall strengthen the merit and
rewards system, integrate all human resources
development programs for all levels and ranks,
and institutionalize a management climate
conducive to public accountability. It shall submit
to the President and the Congress an annual
report on its personnel programs.
Section 4. All public officers and employees shall
take an oath or affirmation to uphold and defend
this Constitution.
Section 5. The Congress shall provide for the
standardization of compensation of government
officials and employees, including those in
government-owned or controlled corporations with
original charters, taking into account the nature of
the responsibilities pertaining to, and the
qualifications required for, their positions.
Section 6. No candidate who has lost in any
election shall, within one year after such election,
be appointed to any office in the Government or
any Government-owned or controlled corporations
or in any of their subsidiaries.
Section 7. No elective official shall be eligible for
appointment or designation in any capacity to any
public office or position during his tenure.
Unless otherwise allowed by law or by the primary
functions of his position, no appointive official shall
hold any other office or employment in the
Government or any subdivision, agency or
instrumentality thereof, including Government-
owned or controlled corporations or their
subsidiaries.
Section 8. No elective or appointive public officer
or employee shall receive additional, double, or
indirect compensation, unless specifically
authorized by law, nor accept without the consent
of the Congress, any present, emolument, office,
or title of any kind from any foreign government.
Pensions or gratuities shall not be considered as
additional, double, or indirect compensation.
A. Composition of CSC
Civil Service Commission is composed of a Chairman
and two Commissioners. (Article IX-B, Section 1(1))
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B. Functions of CSC
1. The CSC shall administer the civil service.
(Art. IX-B, §1(1))
2. The CSC as the personnel agency of the
government shall establish a career service;
3. It shall adopt measures to promote morale,
efficiency, integrity, responsiveness,
progressiveness, and courtesy in the civil
service.
4. It shall strengthen the merit and rewards
system;
5. It shall integrate all human resources
development programs for all levels and ranks;
6. It shall institutionalize a management climate
conducive to public accountability.
7. It shall submit to the President and the
Congress an annual report on its personnel
programs. (Article IX-B, Section 3)
Power to Grant Civil Service Eligibility. In the
exercise of its powers to implement RA 6850
(granting civil service eligibility toe employees
under provisional or temporary status who have
rendered seven years of efficient service), the CSC
enjoys wide latitude of discretion and may not be
compelled by mandamus to issue eligibility.
(Torregoza v. CSC) But the CSC cannot validly
abolish the Career Executive Service Board
(CESB); because the CESB was created by law, it
can only be abolished by the Legislature (Eugenio
v. CSC, 1995)
Power to hear and decide administrative cases.
Under the Administrative Code of 1987, the CSC
has the power to hear and decide administrative
cases instituted before it directly or on appeal,
including contested appointments.541
Jurisdiction on Personnel actions. It is the intent
of the Civil Service Law, in requiring the
establishment of a grievance procedure, that
decisions of lower officials (in cases involving
personnel actions) be appealed to the agency
head, then to the CSC. The RTC does not have
jurisdiction over such personal actions. (Olanda v.
Bugayong, 2003)
Authority to Recall Appointments. The Omnibus
Rules implementing the Administrative Code
provides, among others, that notwithstanding the
initial approval of an appointment, the same may
be recalled for violation of other existing Civil
service laws, rules and regulations. Thus, in
Debulgado v. CSC, it was held that the power of
the CSC includes the authority to recall
appointment initially approved in disregard of
541
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 307
(2006)
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applicable provisions of the Civil Service law and
regulations.542
Original jurisdiction to hear and decide a
complaint for cheating. The Commission has
original jurisdiction and decide a complaint for
cheating in the Civil Service examinations
committed by government employees. The fact that
the complaint was filed by the CSC itself does not
mean that it cannot be an impartial judge. (Cruz v.
CSC. 2001)543
Q: When there are more than one person qualified
for a position, may the CSC dictate to the
appointing authority who among those qualified
should be appointed?
A: No. the power of the CSC is limited to attesting
to the eligibility or ineligibility of the appointee.
(Orbos v. CSC, 1990)544
Q: May the CSC revoke a certificate of eligibility?
A: Yes. As central personnel agency of the
government, the CSC may revoke a certificate of
eligibility motu propio. The power to issue a
certificate of eligibility carries with it the power to
revoke one that has been given. Whether hearing
is required for revocation depends on
circumstances of a case.
(Thus, where the case “simply involves the
rechecking of examination papers and nothing
more than a re-evaluation of documents already in
the records of the CSC according to a standard
answer key previously set by it, notice and hearing
is not required. Instead, what [would apply in such
a case is] the rule of res ipsa loquitor.” (Lazo v.
CSC, 1994)
Q: What jurisdiction does the CSC have over the
personnel cases given by statute to the jurisdiction
of the Merit Systems Board?
A: It has only automatic review jurisdiction, not
original jurisdiction. (GSIS v. CSC, 1991)
C. Nature of the Powers of CSC
The Commission is an administrative agency,
nothing more. As such, it can only perform powers
proper to an administrative agency. It can perform
executive powers, quasi-judicial powers and quasi-
legislative or rule-making powers.545
D. Qualifications of CSC Commissioners
542
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 307
(2006)
543
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 307
(2006)
544
Bernas Primer at 386 (2006 ed.)
545
Bernas Primer at 372 (2006 ed.)
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
1. Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2. At the time of their appointment, at least thirty-
five years of age;
3. With proven capacity for public administration;
4. Must not have been candidates for any
elective position in the elections immediately
preceding their appointment. (Article IX-B,
Section 1(1))
E. Appointment of CSC Commissioners
The Chairman and the Commissioners shall be
appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of seven
years without reappointment.
Of those first appointed, the Chairman shall hold
office for seven years, a Commissioner for five
years, and another Commissioner for three years,
without reappointment.
Appointment to any vacancy shall be only for the
unexpired term of the predecessor. In no case shall
any Member be appointed or designated in a
temporary or acting capacity. (Article IX-B, Section
1(2))
Reason for Staggering of Terms:
1. To lessen the opportunity of the President to
appoint a majority of the body during his term;
2. To ensure continuance of the body, which
always retains 2/3 of its membership.
3. The system is expected to stabilize the policies
of the body as maintained by the remaining
members.546
F. Scope of Civil Service System
The civil service embraces all branches,
subdivisions, instrumentalities, and agencies of the
Government, including government-owned or
controlled corporations with original charters.
(Article IX-B, Section 2(1))
Test for determining whether a government
owned or controlled corporation is subject to
the Civil Service Law: The test is the manner of
its creation. Corporations created by special
charter are subject to the Civil Service, whereas
corporations incorporated under the Corporation
Law are not. (PNOC v. Leogardo, 1989)
Corporations with original charters. They are
those created by special law, like GSIS, SSS, Local
Water Districts and PAGCOR. (Corporations which
are subsidiaries of these chartered agencies like
546
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 289 (1995 ed).
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the Manila Hotel and PAL, are not within the
coverage of the Civil Service.547
Note: The moment, that a corporation ceases to be
government controlled, for instance, if it is
privatized, it ceases to fall under the Civil
Service.548
Q: Does the Department of Labor have a role over
civil service members?
A: Yes. Entities under the civil service system are
not completely beyond the reach of Department of
Labor or labor laws.
(When a government entity that is under the Civil
Service enters into a contract, e.g., with a security
agency or janitorial agency, it becomes an indirect
employer of the security guards or the janitors. In
such a situation, under the Labor Code, the
liabilities for wages are joint and solidary with the
contractor. The law on wages on in the Labor Code
specifically provides that “employer” includes any
person acting directly or indirectly in the interest of
an employer in relation to employees. (Philippine
Fisheries Development Authority v. NLRC & Odin
Security Agency, 1992)
G. Classification of Positions (under Section 2(2) for
purpose of determining the manner of testing merit and
fitness)
1. Competitive Positions
2. Non-competitive Positions
Competitive Positions
As a general rule, positions in all branches of
government belong to the competitive service.
(Samson v. CA)
Facts: Petitioner, the Mayor of Caloocan City,
terminated the services of respondent, the Assistant
Secretary to the Mayor, on the ground of loss of
confidence. Respondent protested on the ground
that his position belonged to the classified service.
Petitioner argued that under the Civil Service Law,
the secretaries of city mayors occupied primarily
confidential position and respondent was a secretary
to the mayor.
Held: The termination of respondent is void. The
position of Assistant Secretary to the Mayor
should be considered as belonging to the
competitive service. The position of Secretary of
the Mayor and Assistant Secretary are two distinct
positions. The latter is of a lower rank and is not
primarily confidential. An assistant secretary merely
helps in a subordinate capacity the person clothed
with the duties of a secretary. (Samson v. CA, 145
SCRA 654)549
Facts: Respondent was appointed as member of
internal security staff of the PAGCOR. He was
547
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.290 (1995 ed).
548
Bernas Primer at 374 (2006 ed.)
549
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 365 (2006 ed.)
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
terminated allegedly for loss of confidence, because
he allegedly engaged in proxy betting. When
respondent sued for reinstatement, the PAGCOR
argued that under PD 1869, all its employees are
classified as confidential.
Held: The classification in PD 1869 can be no more
than an initial determination and is not conclusive. It
is the nature of the position which finally determines
whether a position is primarily confidential.
Respondent did not enjoy close intimacy with the
appointing authority which would make him a
confidential employee. As member of the internal
staff, he was tasked with preventing irregularities
among the employees and customers, reporting
unusual incidents and infractions, coordinating with
security department during chips inventory, refills,
yields and card shuffling, and escorting the delivery
of table capital boxes, refills and shoe boxes. (CSC
v. Salas, 274 SCRA 414)550
Classes of Non-Competitive Positions
1. Policy Determining
2. Primarily Confidential
3. Highly Technical
Policy-Determining Position
One charged with laying down of principal or
fundamental guidelines or rules, such as that
of a head of a department.551
Primarily Confidential Position
One denoting not only confidence in the
aptitude of the appointee for the duties of the
office but primarily close intimacy which
ensures freedom of intercourse without
embarrassment or freedom from misgivings or
betrayals of personal trust on confidential
matters of state (De los Santos v. Mallare, 87
Phil 289).
Proximity Rule: The occupant of a particular
position can be considered a confidential
employee if the predominant reason why he
was chosen by the appointing authority was the
latter’s belief that he can share a close intimate
relationship with the occupant which ensures
freedom of discussion without fear of
embarrassment or misgivings of possible
betrayals of personal trust and confidential
matters of stare. Delos Santos v.
Mallare)(Where the position occupied is remote
from that of the appointing authority, the
element of trust between them is no longer
predominant, and therefore, cannot be
classified as primarily confidential)
The following are held to be primarily
confidential:
1. Chief legal counsel of PNB. (Besa v. PNB)
2. City legal officer (Cadiente v. Santos)
3. Provincial attorney(Grino v. CSC)
(However, positions of the legal staff are
not confidential)
550
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 367 (2006 ed.)
551
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.293 (1995 ed).
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4. Security guards of a vice-mayor (Borres v.
CA)
Facts: Upon recommendation of the vice-
mayor, the mayor appointed respondents as
security guards of the vice mayor. The
mayor and vice mayor lost in the election. As
the new mayor, petitioner terminated the
services of respondents for lack of confidence.
Respondents sued for reinstatement on the
ground that their removal was illegal.
Held: The positions of respondents
[security guards of the vice mayor] are
primarily confidential, as they involve giving
protection to the vice mayor. The relationship
between the vice mayor and his security
depend on the highest of trust and confidence.
Hence, the tenure of respondents ended upon
loss of confidence in them. (Borres v. CA, 153
SCRA 120)552
Highly Technical Position
A highly technical position requires the
appointee thereto to possess technical skill or
training in the supreme or superior degree.
The position of a city engineer may be technical
but not highly so because he is not required or
supposed to posses a supreme or superior
degree of technical skill. The duties of a city
engineer are eminently administrative in
character and can be discharged even by non-
technical men. (Delos Santos v. Mallare)
In Montecillo v. CSC, 2001, the SC said that under
Administrative Code of 1987, the CSC is expressly
empowered to declare positions in the CSC as
primarily confidential. This signifies that the
enumeration in the Civil Service decree, which
defines the non-career service, is not an exclusive
list. The Commission can supplement this
enumeration, as it did when it issued Memorandum
Circular 22, s. 1991, specifying positions in the Civil
Service which are considered primarily confidential
and, therefore, their occupants hold tenure co-
terminous with the officials they serve.553
Q: Who determines whether a position is policy-
determining, primarily confidential or highly
technical?
A: It is a judicial question. It is the nature of the
position which finally determines whether a position
is primarily confidential, policy-determining or
highly technical. The initial classification may be
made by the authority creating the office. Executive
pronouncements as to the nature of the office can
be no more than initial determination of the nature
of the office.554
552
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 366 (2006 ed.)
553
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 311
(2006)
554
See Bernas Commentary, p 1016(2003 ed); See also Antonio B.
Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 311 (2006)
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
[The competitive and non-competitive positions roughly
correspond to the classification in the Civil Service
Code now embodied in the Revised Administrative
Code of 1987: (1) Career Service and (2) Non-Career
Service.]555
H. Classes of Service (under the Revised
Administrative Code)
1. Career Service
2. Non-Career Service
1. Career Service (1999 Bar Question)
The career service is characterized by:
1. Entrance based on the merit and fitness to be
determined as far as practicable by
competitive examinations, or based on highly
technical qualifications;
2. Opportunity for advancement to higher career
positions;
3. Security of Tenure.556
The career service includes:
1. Open Career positions for appointment to
which prior qualification in an appropriate
examination is required.
2. Closed Career positions which are scientific
or highly technical in nature; these include the
faculty and academic staff of state colleges
and universities, and scientific and technical
positions in scientific or research institutions
which shall establish and maintain their own
merit systems;
3. Positions in the Career Executive Service,
namely, Undersecretary, Assistant Secretary,
Bureau Director, Assistant Bureau Director,
Regional Director, Assistant Regional Director,
Chief of Department Service and other officers
of equivalent rank as may be identified by the
Chief Executive Service Board, all of whom
are appointed by the President;
4. Career officers, other that those in the Career
Executive Service, who are appointed by the
President, such as the Foreign Service
Officers in the DFA.
5. Commissioned officers and enlisted men of
the Armed Forces, which shall maintain a
separate merit system;
6. Personnel of government-owned or
controlled corporations, whether performing
governmental or proprietary functions, who do
not fall under the non-career service; and
7. Permanent laborers, whether skilled, semi-
skilled, or unskilled.557
555
Bernas Commentary, p 1017(2003 ed).
556
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.290 (1995 ed).
557
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.290 (1995 ed).
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Career Service Executives (CES). On May 31,
1994, the CSC issued Memorandum Circular No. 21
identifying the positions covered by the CES. The
Memorandum provides that, “incumbents of
positions which are declared to be CES positions for
the first time pursuant to this Resolution who hold
permanent appointments thereto shall remain under
permanent status in their respective positions.
However, upon promotion or transfer to other CES
positions, these incumbents shall be under
temporary status in said other CES positions until
they qualify.”558
CES and Security of Tenure. The mere fact that a
position belongs to the CES does not automatically
confer security of tenure on the applicant. Such right
will have to depend on the nature of his appointment
which, in turn, depends on his eligibility or lack of it.
A person who does not have the requisite
qualifications for the position cannot be appointed to
it in the first place or, only as an exception to the
rule, may be appointed to it only in an acting
capacity in the absence of appropriate eligibles. The
appointment extended to him cannot be regarded as
permanent even if it may be so designated. Such
being the case, he could transferred or reassigned
without violating the constitutional guarantee of
security of tenure. (De Leon v. CA, 2001)
Requisites for Security of Tenure of CES
employee:
1. Career Service Eligibility
2. Appointment to the appropriate career
executive service rank.
It must be stressed that the security of
tenure of employees in the CES (except
1st and 2nd level employees in the civil
service) pertains only to rank and not to
the office or to the position to which they
may be appointed. (Thus, a CES officer
may be transferred or reassigned form
one position to another without losing his
rank which follows him wherever he is
transferred or reassigned. In fact, a CES
officer suffers no diminution in salary even
if assigned to a CES position with lower
salary grade, as he is compensated
according to his CES rank and not on the
basis of the position or office which he
occupies. (General v. Roco, 2001)
2. Non-Career Service
The non-career service is characterized by:
1. Entrance on bases other than of the usual
tests of merit and fitness utilized for the career
service;
2. Tenure which is limited to a period specified by
law, or which is co-terminous with that of the
appointing authority or subject to his pleasure,
or which is limited to the duration of a
558
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 307
(2006)
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
particular project for which purpose
employment was made.559
The non-career service includes:
1. Elective officials and their personal or
confidential staff;
2. Department heads and other officials of
Cabinet rank who hold positions at the
pleasure of the President and their personal or
confidential staff;
3. Chairmen and members of commissions and
boards with fixed terms of office and their
personal or confidential staff;
4. Contractual personnel or those whose
employment in the government is in
accordance with a special contract to
undertake a specific work or job, requiring
special or technical skills not available in the
employing agency, to be accomplished within
a specific period, which in no case shall
exceed one year, and perform or accomplish
the specific work or job, under their own
responsibility with a minimum of direction and
supervision from the hiring agency; and
5. Emergency and seasonal personnel.560
Q: Is the classification in the Revised
Administrative Code (Career and Non-Career) and
the classification in Section 2(2) (Competitive and
Non-competitive) mutually exclusive?
A: No. Rather, they overlap and complement each
other. The classification in the Code is for the
purposes of determining tenure. The classification
in Section 2(2) is for purposes of determining the
manner of testing merit and fitness.
I. Significance of Distinction between competitive
and non-competitive positions
Appointment to a competitive positions must be
made according to merit and fitness as
determined, as far as practicable, by
competitive examination. Merit and fitness in
appointments to non-competitive positions are not
determined by competitive examinations; but merit
and fitness are required.561
J. Appointments in the Civil Service
Appointments in the civil service shall be made
only according to merit and fitness to be
determined, as far as practicable, by competitive
examination. (Article IX-B, Section 2(2))
Except: To positions which are policy-determining,
primarily confidential, or highly technical.
559
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.291 (1995 ed).
560
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.292 (1995 ed).
561
Bernas Primer at 375 (2006 ed.)
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1. Permanent Appointments
A permanent appointment shall be issued to a
person who meets all the requirements for the
positions to which he is being appointed, including
the appropriate eligibility prescribed, in accordance
with the provision of laws, rules and standards
promulgated in pursuance thereof. (Administrative
Code of 1987, Book V-A, Sec. 27)
2. Temporary Appointments
In the absence of appropriate eligibles and it
becomes necessary in the public interest to fill a
vacancy, a temporary appointment shall be issued
to a person who meets all the requirement for the
position to which he is being appointed except the
appropriate civil service eligibility.
Temporary appointments do not have a
definite term and may be withdrawn or
discontinued, with or without cause, by the
appointing power.562 The new Constitution now
says: “Temporary employees of the
Government shall be given such protection as
may be provided by law.” (The provision is not
self-executory)
Q: A permanent appointment is extended. The
Civil Service Commission approves it as
temporary in the belief that somebody else is
better qualified. May the Commission do so?
A: No. The sole function of the Commission is
to attest to the qualification of the appointee.
(Luego v. CSC, 1986)
Discretion of Appointing Authority
The appointing authority has discretion who to
appoint even in the career service of the Civil
Service, where the appointee possesses the
minimum qualification requirements prescribed by
law for the position. (Luego v. CSC, 143 SCRA
327)
Thus, even if officers and employees in the career
service of the Civil Service enjoy the right to
preference in promotion, it is not mandatory that the
vacancy be filled by promotion. The appointing
authority should be allowed the choice of men of his
confidence, provided they are qualified and eligible.
(Central Bank v. CSC 171 SCRA 744)
The discretion of the appointing authority is not
only in the choice of the person who is to be
appointed, but also in the nature or character of
the appointment issued, i.e., whether the
appointment is permanent or temporary. (The CSC
may, however, approve as merely temporary an
appointment intended to be permanent where the
appointee does not possess the requisite eligibility
and the exigency of the service demands that the
position be filled up, even in a temporary capacity.)
562
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.293 (1995 ed).
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
Role of CSC (1994 Bar Question)
“All the Commission is authorized to do is to check
that the appointee possesses the qualifications and
appropriate eligibility. If he does, his appointment is
approved; if not, it is disapproved.” (Lopez v. CSC)
The CSC is not a co-manager, or surrogate
administrator of government offices and agencies.
Its functions and authority are limited to approving
or reviewing appointments to determine their
compliance with requirements of the Civil Service
Law. On its own the Commission does not have the
power to terminate employment or to drop
members from the rolls. (Torres v. CSC, 2001)
Substantive Requirement. A substantive
requirement under Section 11 of the Omnibus
Service Rules and Regulations is that an
appointment should be submitted to the CSC within
30 days from issuance; otherwise it shall be
ineffective. (See OMNC v. Macaraig, 2004)
Legal Standing. Both the appointing authority and
the appointee are the real party interest, and both
have legal standing, in a suit assailing a CSC order
disapproving an appointment. (Abella Jr. v. CSC)
K. Disqualifications
1. No candidate who has lost in any election
shall, within one year after such election, be
appointed to any office in the Government or
any Government-owned or controlled
corporations or in any of their subsidiaries.
(§6)
2. No elective official shall be eligible for
appointment or designation in any capacity to
any public office or position during his tenure.
(§7)
3. Unless otherwise allowed by law or by the
primary functions of his position, no appointive
official shall hold any other office or
employment in the Government or any
subdivision, agency or instrumentality thereof,
including Government-owned or controlled
corporations or their subsidiaries. (§7)
Q: What is the purpose of the prohibition of appointment
of “lame ducks” in Section 6?
A: The extirpation of the “spoils system.”
Q: Are there exceptions to the rule against appointment
of elective officials?
A: Yes. The Vice-President may be appointed member of
the Cabinet. A member of Congress is designated to sit in
the Judicial and Bar Council.563
Q: Is the rule on appointive officials (§7) applicable to
members of Cabinet?
563
Bernas Primer at 387 (2006 ed.)
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A: No. For them, the applicable rule is the stricter
prohibition in Article VII, Section 13.564
Q: Distinguish the rule on appointments of members of
Congress and rule on elective officials (other than
Congressmen).
A: The 1st paragraph of Section 7 governs elective
officials. Unlike the provision for members of Congress in
Article VI Section 13, which does not prohibit acceptance
of an appointment but merely causes the forfeiture of the
congressional seat if the holder accepts an appointment,
1st paragraph of Section 7 prohibits elective officials
other than members of Congress from accepting
appointment during their tenure. If the elective official
accepts an appointment without first resigning his elective
position, the appointment is invalid. Neither, however,
does he thereby forfeit his elective seat. (Flores v. Drilon,
1993)
Q: May Congress by law authorize the appointment of
elective officials?
A: No. Unlike the case of appointive officers in 2nd
paragraph of Section 7, Congress may not create
exception on elective officials mentioned in 1st paragraph
of Section 7.
L. Security of Tenure (1993, 1999, 2005 Bar Question)
No officer or employee of the civil service shall be
removed or suspended except for cause provided by
law. (§2(3))
1. Significance of Security of Tenure
The efficiency of the a civil service system depends
largely on the morale of the officers and employees
in the service. Morale, in turn, can be fatally
undermined when the security of officers in the
possession of their office is unprotected against the
arbitrary action of superior officers.
Hence, basic in any civil service is a guarantee of
security of tenure, a guarantee against arbitrary
impairment, whether total or partial of the right to
continue in the position held.565
2. “For Cause Provided by Law”
This is a guarantee of both procedural and
substantive due process. “For Cause” means for
reasons which the law and sound public policy
recognize as sufficient for removal, that is legal
cause, and not merely causes which the appointing
power in the exercise of discretion may deem
sufficient. Moreover, the cause must relate to and
effect the administration of the office, and must be
restricted to something of a substantial nature
directly affecting the rights and interests of the
public. (De los Santos v. Mallare)
3. Coverage of Security of Tenure
No officer or employee of the civil service shall be
removed or suspended except for cause provided
by law. (§2(3))
564
Bernas Primer at 388 (2006 ed.)
565
Bernas Primer at 378 (2006 ed.)
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Security of Tenure is enjoyed only by those who
posses a permanent appointment.566
• One does not become a permanent appointee
unless qualified for the position, and this, even if the
appointment extended is mistakenly designated as
permanent.
• The appointment of one who is not qualified can only
be temporary and it is understood from the outset
that it is without fixity but enduring only at the
pleasure of the appointing authority.
• For an appointment to be permanent, it must be a
real appointment by the appointing authority and
not just a designation by one who does not have the
appointing authority. (Thus, where the law says that
the officer is to be appointed by the President,
designation by the department secretary does not
result in a permanent appointment. (Binamira v.
Garucho))
• Even one who has an appointment to a position
which is subsequently converted to a career position
must yield the position to one who has it if he or she
does not possess career eligibility.(Dimayuga v.
Benedicto II)
• A person lacking the necessary qualifications
who is given a temporary appointment does not
automatically become a permanent appointee when
he or she acquires the required qualification. (For a
temporary appointee to become permanent, he must
receive a new commission, that is, a permanent
appointment if he is to be considered permanent.)
Persons occupying non-competitive positions
are also covered by the guarantee of security of
tenure. The distinction between competitive and
non-competitive is significant only for purposes of
appointment. The termination of the official relation
of officials and employees holding primarily
confidential positions on the ground of loss of
confidence can be justified because in that case
their cessation from office involves no removal but
expiration of the term of office. (Hernandez v.
Villegas, 14 SCRA 544, 1965)567
Facts: Petitioner a watchman in the office of the
provincial treasurer, was dismissed for the convenience of
the province. He has no civil service eligibility. He sued
for reinstatement.
Held: Although petitioner is not a civil service eligible, this
is not a ground to dismiss him anytime without formal
charge. The position of watchman falls under the
unclassified service. Positions in the unclassified
service are also guaranteed security of tenure.
(Baquidra v. CFI, 80 SCRA 123)568
Q: Do appointees to the foreign service who do not
belong to the Career Corps enjoy security of tenure like
the Career Corp.?
A: No. Political appointees in the foreign service possess
“tenure coterminous with that of the appointing authority
566
Bernas Commentary, p 1025(2003 ed).
567
Bernas Primer at 379 (2006 ed.)
568
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 370 (2006 ed.)
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or subject to his pleasure.” (Astraquillo et al v. Manglapus,
1990)
Q: Binamira was “designated” by the Secretary of
Tourism as Manager of the Tourism Authority. The law,
however, requires that the Manager be appointed by the
President. Did Binamira acquire security of tenure?
A: No, because he did no receive a valid appointment.
(Binamira v. garucho, 1990)
Q: Can one who does not have qualifications for a
position acquire security of tenure therein?
A: No, security of tenure in an office is acquired only by
one who has the qualifications for that office. (Dimayuga
v. Benedicto , 2002)
Q: Are temporary appointees protected by the guarantee
of security of tenure?
A: No. they may be removed anytime. (Mendiola v.
Tancinco, 1973) The new Constitution now says:
“Temporary employees of the Government shall be given
such protection as may be provided by law.” (The
provision is not self-executory)
Q: What is the extent of the President’s disciplinary
authority over presidential appointees who belong to the
career service?
A: The power is limited. Career service officers and
employees who enjoy security of tenure may be removed
only for any of the causes enumerated by law. (Larin .v.
Executive Secretary, 280 SCRA 713)
4. Transfers
Permanent Transfer. The transfer of a permanent
employee to another permanent position without
the consent of the employee violates security of
tenure. (Gloria. CA, 2000)
Temporary Transfer. While a temporary transfer or
assignment of personnel is permissible even
without the employee’s prior consent, it cannot be
done when the transfer is a preliminary step toward
his removal, or is a scheme to lure him away from
his permanent position, or designed to indirectly
terminate his service, or force his resignation. Such
would in effect circumvent the provision which
safeguards the tenure of office of those who are in
the Civil Service. (Gloria v. CA, 2000)
5. Abolition of Office
While abolition of office does not imply removal of
the incumbent officer, this is true only where the
abolition of office is done in good faith and not
merely as a cover for a removal otherwise not
allowed by the Constitution. (Briones v. Osmena,
1958)
Thus, for abolition of office to escape the taint of
unconstitutionality, it must be made:
1. In good faith;
2. Not for personal or political reasons; and
3. Not in violation of the law. (Roque v. Ericta)
Note: Abolition of office, even if arising from
reorganization mandated by law must be justified
by good faith and public need. (Abrogar v.
Garrucho, 1991) Moreover, abolition of an office
created by law can only be done also by law.
(Eugenio v. CSC, 1995)
6. Reorganization (1988 Bar Question)
Abolition by law as a result of reorganization is a
recognized cause for termination of a government
employee.
Q: Does the President have the authority to reorganize
the executive department?
A: Yes. And this can include deactivation of offices. As far
as bureaus, agencies or offices in the executive
department are concerned, the President’s power of
control may justify him to inactivate the functions of a
particular office, or certain laws may grant him the broad
authority to carry out reorganization measures. (Buklod
ng Kawaning EIIB v. Executive Secretary, 2001)569
7. Declaration of Office Vacant
Q: Section 35 of RA 6715 declared all positions of
the Commissioners, Executive Labor Arbiters and
Labor Arbiters of the present NLRC vacant.
Petitioners question its constitutionality.
A: Unconstitutional. While abolition by law as a
result of reorganization is a recognized cause for
termination of a government employee, it is not the
same as a declaration that the office is vacant. RA
6715 has effected no express abolition of the
positions, neither an implied abolition (i.e., an
irreconcilable inconsistency between the nature,
duties and functions of the petitioner’s offices
under the old rules and those of the new law)
(Mayor v. Hon. Macaraig, 1991)
8. Preventive Suspension
Pending administrative investigation, it is provided
that the employee charged shall be subject to
preventive suspension but the same shall be lifted
after ninety days if he is not a presidential
appointee unless the delay in the conduct of the
probe is imputable to him. (Book V(A), Sec. 46)
9. Back Wages
When an employee is illegally dismissed, and his
reinstatement is later ordered by the Court, for all
intents and purposes he is considered as not
having left his office, and notwithstanding the
silence of the decision, he is entitled to payment of
back salaries. (Del Castillo v. CSC, 1997)
But where the reinstatement is ordered by the court
not as the result of exoneration but merely as an
act of liberality of the Court of Appeals, the claim
for backwages for the period during which the
employee was not allowed to work must be denied.
The general rule is that a public official is not
entitled to compensation if he has not rendered any
service. (Balitaosan v. DECS, 2003)
569
Bernas Primer at 383 (2006 ed.)

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The payment of backwages during the period of
suspension of a civil servant who is subsequently
reinstated is proper only if he is found innocent of
the charges and the suspension is unjustified. (See
Brugada v. Sec. of Education, 2005)
M. Partisan Political Activity
1. Coverage
No officer or employee in the civil service shall
engage, directly or indirectly, in any electioneering
or partisan political campaign.(§2(4))
The military establishment is covered by this
provision. Article XVI, Section 5(3) provides that no
member of the military shall engage directly or
indirectly in any partisan political activity except to
vote. But this prohibition applies only to those in
the active military service, not to reservists. (Cailles
v. Bonifacio, 65 Phil 328)
Exceptions:
1. Particularly exempted from the prohibition
against partisan political activity are
members of the Cabinet.570
2. Public officers and employees holding
political offices (who are allowed to take
part in political and electoral activities,
except to solicit contributions from their
subordinates or commit acts prohibited
under the Election Code) (Section 45 of
Civil Service Law)571
2. Purpose of the Prohibition Against Partisan
Political Activity
1. To prevent the members of the civil service
from using the resources of the government
for the benefit of their candidates;
2. To insulate them from political retaliation from
winning candidates they have opposed or not
supported.572
3. Meaning of Partisan Political Activity
As interpreted by the Civil Service Commission,
partisan political activity means active support for
or affiliation with the cause of a political party
or candidate. This would include, among others,
being a candidate for any elective office or
delegate to any political convention, being an
officer or member of any political committee, party
or organization, delivering speeches, canvassing or
soliciting votes or political support or contributions
570
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.297 (1995 ed).
571
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law, 320
(2006)
572
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.298 (1995 ed; Santos v. Yatco,
106 Phil 745)
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
for any political party or candidate or, in general,
becoming actively identified with the success or
failure of any candidate or candidates for election
to public office.573
4 Admin Code of 1987
“No officer or employee in the Civil Service,
including members of the AFP, shall engage
directly or indirectly in any partisan political activity
or take part in any election except to vote nor shall
he use his official authority or influence to coerce
the political activity of any other person or body.
Nothing herein provided shall be understood to
prevent any officer or employee from expressing
his views on current political problems or issues, or
from mentioning the names of candidates for public
office whom he supports: Provided, That public
officers and employees holding political offices may
take part in political and electoral activities but it
shall be unlawful for them to solicit contributions
from their subordinates or subject them to any of
the acts involving subordinates prohibition in the
Election Code.” (Book V(A), Sec. 56)
N. Right to Self-Organization
The right to self-organization shall not be denied to
government employees. (§2(5))
Thus, the Congress may provide, for example, that
temporary employees who acquire civil service
eligibility for the positions occupied by them shall be
automatically considered permanent appointees
thereto, or that temporary employees may not be
replaced during a fixed period except for cause, or
shall be entitled to the same material benefits, such
as leave privileges, during incumbency.574
Q: May members of the Civil Service unionize?
A: Yes.
1. Article III, Section 8 guarantees the right
of all “including those employed in the
public and private sectors, to form
unions…”
2. Article IX-B, Section 2(5) states that “the
right to self-organization shall not be
denied to government employees.”
3. Article XIII, Section 3 guarantees “the right
of all workers to self-organization,
collective bargaining and negotiations,
and peaceful concerted activities,
including the right to strike in accordance
with law.”
Their right to strike, however, may be limited
by law.575
Right to Strike
573
Section 14, Rule XVIII, Civil Service Rules.
574
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.300 (1995 ed).
575
Bernas Primer at 385 (2006 ed.)
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Right to organize does not include the right to
strike. Hence, the Court ruled that employees of
SSS and public school teachers do not have a
constitutional right to strike. This does not mean,
however, that they may not be given the right to
strike by statute.576
O. Protection to Temporary Employees
Temporary employees of the Government shall be
given such protection as may be provided by law.
(§2(6))
P. Standardization of Compensation
The Congress shall provide for the standardization
of compensation of government officials and
employees, including those in government-owned
or controlled corporations with original charters,
taking into account the nature of the responsibilities
pertaining to, and the qualifications required for,
their positions. (Art. IX-B, §5)
Q. Double Compensation/ Additional Compensation
No elective or appointive public officer or employee
shall receive additional, double, or indirect
compensation, unless specifically authorized by
law, nor accept without the consent of the
Congress, any present, emolument, office, or title
of any kind from any foreign government.
Pensions or gratuities shall not be considered as
additional, double, or indirect compensation. (Art.
IX-B, §8)
1. Reason for Prohibition
1. To inform the people of the exact amount a
public functionary is receiving from the
government so they can demand
commensurate services;
2. To prevent the public functionary from dividing
his time among several positions concurrently
held by him and ineptly performing his duties
in al of them because he cannot devote to
each the proper attention it deserves.
2. What is Prohibited
The prohibition of the Constitution was against
double compensation or additional compensation,
not double appointments. Hence, a second position
may be held concurrently with the principal position
as long as the two are not incompatible, but the
incumbent cannot collect additional salaries for
services rendered unless specifically allowed by
law. (Quimson v. Ozaeta)
Additional Compensation. There is
additional compensation when for one and the
576
Bernas Commentary, p 1027(2003 ed).
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same office for which a compensation has
been fixed there is added to such fixed
compensation an extra reward in the form, for
instance, of a bonus. This is not allowed in the
absence of law specifically authorizing such
extra reward. (Thus, where an officer’s pay as
provided by law was a fixed per diem, the SC
disallowed additional compensation in the form
of cost of living allowances as well as incentive
and Christmas bonuses. However, the Court
was careful to point out that when a per diem
or an allowance is given as reimbursement for
expenses incident to the discharge of an
officer’s duties, it is not an additional
compensation prohibited by the Constitution.
(Peralta v. Mathay, 1967))
Double Compensation. Refers to two sets of
compensation for two different offices held
concurrently by one officer. In the instances
when holding a second office is allowed, when
an officer accepts a second office, he can
draw the salary attached to the second office
only when he is specifically authorized by law
to receive double compensation.577
3. Meaning of “Specifically Authorized By Law”
Strict Interpretation: “The authority required by
the Constitution to receive double or additional
compensation is a specific authority given to a
particular employee or officer of the government
because of peculiar or exceptional reasons
warranting the payment of extra or additional
compensation.” (Sadueste v. Surigao, 1941)
(The above interpretation seems to be too strict. It
seems in effect to require a special law for every
instance of additional or double compensation. An
obiter dictum in the later case of Quimson v.
Ozaeta, 1956, approves of a more liberal and
perhaps administratively more rational
approach.)578
Liberal Interpretation: “According to law, under
certain circumstances, the President may authorize
double compensation in some cases, such as
government officials acting as members with
compensation in government examining board…,
or department secretaries acting as members of
Board of Directors of government corporations, and
in such cases the prohibition against double
compensation is not observed. If the President
approves the double compensation, well and good.
The appointee whose appointment may then be
regarded as valid from the beginning could receive
extra compensation. If it is disapproved, then the
appointment will have to be withdrawn or
cancelled, unless of course, the appointee was
577
Bernas Primer at 389 (2006 ed.)
578
Bernas Primer at 389 (2006 ed.)
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willing to serve without compensation, in which
case there would be no valid objection. (Quimson
v. Ozaeta, 98 Phil 705, 709-710))
When a law says that money generated by a school
may be used for “other programs/projects of the
university or college,” such a law is not
authorization for giving additional or double
compensation.579
Q: Upon optional retirement from the judiciary on April 1,
1992, Santos was fully paid of his retirement gratuity
under RA 910, as amended. For five years thereafter he
has been receiving a monthly pension. Thereafter he was
appointed Director III of the defunct MMA.
(1) Can he continue to receive his pension while receiving
salary as director?
A: Yes. The second paragraph of Section 8 means that a
retiree receiving pension of gratuity can continue to
receive such pension or gratuity even if he accepts
another government position to which another
compensation is attached.
(2) Upon separation from MMA, can his separation pay
under RA 7294 include years of service in judiciary?
A: No. That would be double compensation for the same
service in the judiciary for which he has already been
paid. Section 11 of RA 7924 does not specifically
authorize payment of additional compensation for years
of government outside of the MMA. (Santos v. CA,
2000)580
O. Oath of Allegiance
All public officers and employees shall take an oath
or affirmation to uphold and defend this
Constitution. (Art. IX-B, §4)
III. Commission on Elections
Composition of COMELEC
Qualifications of COMELEC Commissioners
Appointment of COMELEC Commissioners
Independence of COMELEC
Nature of COMELEC Powers
Constitutional Powers and Objectives
Statutory Powers of COMELEC
En Banc and Division Cases
Judicial Review
Open Party System
Representation
Elections
Section 1. (1) There shall be a Commission on
Elections composed of a Chairman and six
Commissioners who shall be natural-born citizens
of the Philippines and, at the time of their
appointment, at least thirty-five years of age,
holders of a college degree, and must not have
been candidates for any elective positions in the
immediately preceding elections. However, a
majority thereof, including the Chairman, shall be
members of the Philippine Bar who have been
579
Benguet State U v. Colting, G.R. No. 169637, June 8, 2007.
580
Bernas Primer at 390 (2006 ed.)
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engaged in the practice of law for at least ten
years.
(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners shall be
appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of seven
years without reappointment. Of those first
appointed, three Members shall hold office for
seven years, two Members for five years, and the
last Members for three years, without
reappointment. Appointment to any vacancy shall
be only for the unexpired term of the predecessor.
In no case shall any Member be appointed or
designated in a temporary or acting capacity.
Sec. 2. The Commission on Elections shall
exercise the following powers and functions:
(1) Enforce and administer all laws and regulations
relative to the conduct of an election, plebiscite,
initiative, referendum, and recall.
(2) Exercise exclusive original jurisdiction over all
contests relating to the elections, returns, and
qualifications of all elective regional, provincial,
and city officials, and appellate jurisdiction over all
contests involving elective municipal officials
decided by trial courts of general jurisdiction, or
involving elective barangay officials decided by
trial courts of limited jurisdiction.
Decisions, final orders, or rulings of the
Commission on election contests involving elective
municipal and barangay offices shall be final,
executory, and not appealable.
(3) Decide, except those involving the right to vote,
all questions affecting elections, including
determination of the number and location of polling
places, appointment of election officials and
inspectors, and registration of voters.
(4) Deputize, with the concurrence of the
President, law enforcement agencies and
instrumentalities of the Government, including the
Armed Forces of the Philippines, for the exclusive
purpose of ensuring free, orderly, honest,
peaceful, and credible elections.
(5) Register, after sufficient publication, political
parties, organizations, or coalitions which, in
addition to other requirements, must present their
platform or program of government; and accredit
citizens' arms of the Commission on Elections.
Religious denominations and sects shall not be
registered. Those which seek to achieve their
goals through violence or unlawful means, or
refuse to uphold and adhere to this Constitution, or
which are supported by any foreign government
shall likewise be refused registration.
Financial contributions from foreign governments
and their agencies to political parties,
organizations, coalitions, or candidates related to
elections, constitute interference in national affairs,
and, when accepted, shall be an additional ground
for the cancellation of their registration with the
Commission, in addition to other penalties that
may be prescribed by law.
(6) File, upon a verified complaint, or on its own
initiative, petitions in court for inclusion or
exclusion of voters; investigate and, where
appropriate, prosecute cases of violations of
election laws, including acts or omissions
constituting election frauds, offenses, and
malpractices.
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(7) Recommend to the Congress effective
measures to minimize election spending, including
limitation of places where propaganda materials
shall be posted, and to prevent and penalize all
forms of election frauds, offenses, malpractices,
and nuisance candidacies.
(8) Recommend to the President the removal of
any officer or employee it has deputized, or the
imposition of any other disciplinary action, for
violation or disregard of, or disobedience to, its
directive, order, or decision.
(9) Submit to the President and the Congress, a
comprehensive report on the conduct of each
election, plebiscite, initiative, referendum, or recall.
Section 3. The Commission on Elections may sit
en banc or in two divisions, and shall promulgate
its rules of procedure in order to expedite
disposition of election cases, including pre-
proclamation controversies. All such election
cases shall be heard and decided in division,
provided that motions for reconsideration of
decisions shall be decided by the Commission en
banc.
Section 4. The Commission may, during the
election period, supervise or regulate the
enjoyment or utilization of all franchises or permits
for the operation of transportation and other public
utilities, media of communication or information, all
grants, special privileges, or concessions granted
by the Government or any subdivision, agency, or
instrumentality thereof, including any government-
owned or controlled corporation or its subsidiary.
Such supervision or regulation shall aim to ensure
equal opportunity, and equal rates therefor, for
public information campaigns and forums among
candidates in connection with the objective of
holding free, orderly, honest, peaceful, and
credible elections.
Section 5. No pardon, amnesty, parole, or
suspension of sentence for violation of election
laws, rules, and regulations shall be granted by
the President without the favorable
recommendation of the Commission.
Section 6. A free and open party system shall be
allowed to evolve according to the free choice of
the people, subject to the provisions of this Article.
Section 7. No votes cast in favor of a political
party, organization, or coalition shall be valid,
except for those registered under the party-list
system as provided in this Constitution.
Section 8. Political parties, or organizations or
coalitions registered under the party-list system,
shall not be represented in the voters' registration
boards, boards of election inspectors, boards of
canvassers, or other similar bodies. However, they
shall be entitled to appoint poll watchers in
accordance with law.
Section 9. Unless otherwise fixed by the
Commission in special cases, the election period
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shall commence ninety days before the day of
election and shall end thirty days thereafter.
Section 10. Bona fide candidates for any public
office shall be free from any form of harassment
and discrimination.
Section 11. Funds certified by the Commission as
necessary to defray the expenses for holding
regular and special elections, plebiscites,
initiatives, referenda, and recalls, shall be provided
in the regular or special appropriations and, once
approved, shall be released automatically upon
certification by the Chairman of the Commission.
A. Composition of COMELEC
There shall be a Commission on Elections
composed of a Chairman and six
Commissioners. (Article IX-C, Section 1(1))
B. Qualifications of Members of COMELEC
1. Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2. At the time of their appointment, at least thirty-
five years of age;
3. Holders of a college degree;
4. Must not have been candidates for any
elective positions in the immediately preceding
elections.
A majority thereof, including the Chairman, shall be
members of the Philippine Bar who have been
engaged in the practice of law for at least ten
years. (Article IX-C, Section 1(1))
Q: For purposes of this provision, what does
“engaged in the practice of law” mean?
A: It means to engage in “any activity, in or out of
court, which requires the application of law, legal
procedure, knowledge, training and experience.”
(Cayetano v. Monsod, 1991)
C. Appointment of COMELEC Members
The Chairman and the Commissioners shall be
appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of seven
years without reappointment.
Of those first appointed, three Members shall hold
office for seven years, two Members for five years,
and the last Members for three years, without
reappointment.
Appointment to any vacancy shall be only for the
unexpired term of the predecessor. In no case shall
any Member be appointed or designated in a
temporary or acting capacity. (Article IX-C, Section
1(2))
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Q: What is the common starting point for appointees
to the Commission?
A: February 2, 1987, the day the new Constitution
took effect. Thus, in reckoning the seven year term,
counting must always start from February 2 even if
the appointee took office later. This way the
staggering of the terms is preserved.581
Facts: Respondents were appointed as ad interim
Chairman and Commissioners of the COMELEC. As their
appointments were not acted upon by the Commission on
Appointments (COA), the President renewed their ad
interim appointments twice. Petitioner questioned the
validity of appointments on the ground that they violated
the constitutional prohibition against temporary
appointments and reappointments to the COMELEC.
Held: An ad interim appointment is a permanent
appointment, because it takes effect immediately and can
no longer be withdrawn by the President once the
appointee has qualified into the office. The fact that is
subject to confirmation by COA does not alter its
permanent character. An ad interim appointment means it
is a permanent appointment made by the President in the
meantime that Congress is in recess.
The prohibition on reappointment in Section 1(20,
Article IX-C of the Constitution does not apply to a
by-passed ad interim appointment, because there is
no final disapproval under Article VII, Section 16.
There must be confirmation by the COA of the
previous appointment before the prohibition on
appointment can apply. If an interim appointment
cannot be renewed, the President will hesitate to make ad
interim appointments because most of the appointees will
effectively disapproved by mere inaction of the COA. This
will nullify the constitutional power of the President to
make ad interim appointments. (Matibag v. Benipayo,380
SCRA 49)582
Q: In the absence of a Chairman of the COMELEC, the
President designated Commissioner Yorac Acting
Chairman. Valid?
A: No. Article IX-C, Section 1(2) prohibits the appointment
of Members in a temporary or acting capacity. The choice
of temporary chairman fall under the discretion of the
Commission and cannot be exercised for it by the
President. (Brillantes v. Yorac, 1990)
D. Independence of COMELEC
For violating the constitutional mandate of
independence of the COMELEC, Sections 17.19
and 25 of RA 9189 (Overseas Absentee Voting Act
of 2003) insofar as they relate to the creation of
Joint Congressional Oversight Committee and
grant to it the power to review, revise, amend and
approve the Implementing Rules and Regulations
promulgated by the COMELEC, were declared
unconstitutional. (Makalintal v. COMELEC, 2003)
E. Nature of powers of the COMELEC
581
Bernas Primer at 391 (2006 ed.)
582
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 381 (2006 ed.)
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Like the CSC, the COMELEC is an administrative
agency. As such, therefore, the power it possesses
are executive, quasi-judicial and quasi-
legislative.
By exception, however, it has been given judicial
power as judge with exclusive original jurisdiction
over “all contest relating to the election, returns,
and qualifications of all elective regional, provincial,
and city officials, and appellate jurisdiction over all
contest involving elective municipal officials
decided by trial courts of general jurisdiction or
involving elective barangay officials decided by trial
courts of limited jurisdiction.583
F. Constitutional Powers of COMELEC (under Article
IX-C)
(Read complete text of Section 2 above)
1. Enforcement of election laws. (Section 2 (1),
(4),(6) and (8)).
2. Deciding election contests. (Section 2(2)).
3. Deciding Administrative Questions. (Section
2(3)).
4. Deputization of Law-enforcement agencies.
(Section 2(4)).
5. Registration of Political Parties. (Section
2(5))
6. Improvement of elections. (Section 2(7), (8)
and (9)).
7. Power to Promulgate Rules (Section 3)
8. Supervision or regulation of franchises
(Section 4)
9. Power to recommend executive clemency
for violation of election laws and rules.
(Section 5)
10. In special cases, power to fix the election
period. (Section 9)
1. Enforcement of Election Laws
Section 2(1): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [e]nforce and administer all laws
and regulations relative to the conduct of an
election, plebiscite, initiative, referendum, and
recall.”
(See also Section 2(6) and (8))
Such authority includes:
1. Promulgate rules and regulations for the
implementation of election laws. (Gallardo
v. Tabamo, 1993)
2. Power to Ascertain identity of a political
party and its legitimate officer. (LDP v.
COMELEC)
583
Bernas Primer at 393 (2006 ed.)
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3. By virtue of such authority, the COMELEC
can require compliance with the rules for
the filing of certificates of candidacy,
prevent or prosecute election offenses,
supervise the registration of voters and
the holding of the polls, and see to tie that
the canvass of the votes and the
proclamation of the winners are done in
accordance with law.584
4. Such authority includes the power to
annul an illegal registry of voters, to
cancel a proclamation made by the board
of canvassers on the basis of irregular or
incomplete canvass, and even to oust the
candidate proclaimed notwithstanding that
he has already assumed office. It may
also reject nuisance candidates.585
5. Power to annul an entire municipal
election on the ground of post-election
terrorism. (COMELEC has extensive powers
under the general authority to “enforce and
administer all laws relative to the conduct of
elections.” (Biliwang v. COMELEC, 1982) (Here
the COMELEC had found that it was impossible
to distinguish the illegal from the valid returns.
(Note also that the COMELEC annulled the
elections after proclamation))
Power to promulgate rules and regulations for
the implementation of election laws. The
Commission may promulgate rules and regulations
for the implementation of election laws. Such
power is deemed implicit in the power to
implement regulations. (Gallardo v. Tabamo, 1993)
Accordingly, where the subject of the action is
the enforcement of the provisions of the
Omnibus Election Code, the case is within the
exclusive jurisdiction of the COMELEC, not of
the regular courts. (Gallardo v. Tabamo, 1993)
Power to Ascertain identity of a political party
and its legitimate officer. The power to enforce
and administer laws relative to the conduct
elections, decide all questions affecting elections,
register and regulate political parties, and ensure
orderly elections, include the ascertainment of the
identity of political party and its legitimate officers.
(LDP v. COMELEC, 2004) (In this case the SC held
that the COMELEC erred in resolving the
controversy by granting official candidate status to
the LDP candidates either the “Angara Wing” or the
“Aquino Wing”, because clearly, it is the Party
Chairman, who is the Chief Executive Officer of the
Party, who has the authority to represent the party
in all external affairs and concerns, and to sign
documents for and in its behalf.)
584
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 308 (1995 ed).
585
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 308 (1995 ed).
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The regular courts have no jurisdiction to entertain
a petition to enjoin the construction of public works
projects within 45 days before an election.
(Gallardo v. Tabamo, 218 SCRA 253)
Section 2(4): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [d]eputize, with the concurrence of
the President, law enforcement agencies and
instrumentalities of the Government,
including the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, for the exclusive purpose of
ensuring free, orderly, honest, peaceful, and
credible elections.”
Section 2(8): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [r]ecommend to the President the
removal of any officer or employee it has
deputized, or the imposition of any other
disciplinary action, for violation or disregard
of, or disobedience to, its directive, order, or
decision.”
Article IX-C, Section 2(8); Section 52, Omnibus
Election Code: The COMELEC has the power to
recommend the imposition of disciplinary action
upon an employee it has deputized for violation of
its order.
Since the COMELEC can recommend that
disciplinary action be taken against an officer it
had deputized, it can investigate an
administrative charge against such an officer
to determine whether or not it should
recommend that disciplinary action be taken
against him. (Tan v. COMELEC, 237 SCRA
353)
Section 2(6): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [f]ile, upon a verified complaint, or
on its own initiative, petitions in court for
inclusion or exclusion of voters; investigate
and, where appropriate, prosecute cases of
violations of election laws, including acts or
omissions constituting election frauds,
offenses, and malpractices.”
Jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute
cases. The COMELEC has exclusive jurisdiction
to investigate and prosecute cases for violations of
election laws. (De Jesus v. People, 120 SCRA 760)
However, the COMELEC may validly delegate this
power to the Provincial Fiscal [Prosecutor]. (People
v. Judge Basilla, 179 SCRA 87)
Finding of probable cause. It is well-settled that
the finding of probable cause in the prosecution of
election offenses rests in the COMELEC’s sound
discretion. The COMELEC exercises the
constitutional authority to investigate and where
appropriate, prosecute cases for violation of
election laws, including acts or omissions
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constituting election, fraud, offenses and
malpractices. (Baytan v. COMELEC, 2003)
No obligation to search for evidence needed.
COMELEC has no obligation to search for the
evidence needed. ”The task of the COMELEC as
investigator and prosecutor, acting upon any
election offense complaint is not searching and
gathering of proof in support of a complaint for
alleged commission of an election offense. A
complainant, who in effect accuses another person
of having committed an act constituting an election
offense, has the burden, as it is his responsibility to
follow through his accusation and prove the
complaint.”586
Subject to authority of trial judge. When the
Commission acts as prosecutor, its actions and
decision are subject to the authority of the trial
judge. Even after the Commission has decided that
an information be filed, a trial judge before whom
the information is filed may still order
reinvestigation.
Authority to decide whether to appeal. This
power to investigate and prosecute election law
violations includes the authority to decide whether
or not to appeal the dismissal of a criminal case by
the trial court. (COMELEC v. Silva, 286 SCRA 177)
Q: The COMELEC is given authority to investigate
and prosecute violations of the election law and
Section 7 says that decisions, orders and rulings of
the Commission may be reviewed only by the SC
on certiorari. After the preliminary investigation
conducted by COMELEC lawyers and after the
COMELEC approves the report and orders the
filing of a criminal case, may the trial court order a
reinvestigation and require the presentation of the
records of the preliminary investigation made by
the COMELEC?
A: Yes. The final orders, rulings and decision of the
COMELEC reviewable on certiorari by the SC as
provided by law are those rendered in actions of
proceedings before the COMELEC and taken
cognizance of by said body in the exercise of its
adjudicatory or quasi-judicial powers. (such as
decisions in election contests. It does not refer to
prosecutory function of the Commission) The RTC
on the other hand, is given exclusive authority to try
and decide criminal cases involving elections.
When the COMELEC as prosecutor files a case
before a trial court, the trial court acquires
jurisdiction and all subsequent dispositions of the
case must be subject to approval by the court.
Hence, the court may order reinvestigation and
require submission of records of the preliminary
examination to satisfy itself that there is probable
cause for the issuance of a warrant of arrest.
(People v. Hon. Delgado, 1990)
The power of the Commission under Section 2(6)
covers not just criminal cases but also
586
Kilosbayan v. COMELEC (1997)
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administrative cases. (Thus, where the
Commission has deputized a City Prosecutor as
election canvasser, such Prosecutor cannot claim
immunity from the power of the Commission on the
argument that he comes under the executive
department. The Commission has power all
persons required by law to perform duties relative
to the conduct of elections. However, under Section
2(8), the Commission may merely issue a
recommendation for disciplinary action to the
President.)587
2. Deciding Election Contests
Section 2(2): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [e]xercise exclusive original
jurisdiction over all contests relating to the
elections, returns, and qualifications of all
elective regional, provincial, and city officials,
and appellate jurisdiction over all contests
involving elective municipal officials decided
by trial courts of general jurisdiction, or
involving elective barangay officials decided
by trial courts of limited jurisdiction.
Decisions, final orders, or rulings of the
Commission on election contests involving
elective municipal and barangay offices shall
be final, executory, and not appealable. “
Powers under Section 2(2):
1. Exclusive original jurisdiction over all
contests relating to the elections, returns, and
qualifications of all elective regional, provincial,
and city officials;
2. Appellate jurisdiction over all contests
involving elective municipal officials
decided by trial courts of general
jurisdiction, or involving elective barangay
officials decided by trial courts of limited
jurisdiction.
(The enumeration found in Section 2(2)
excludes jurisdiction over elections for the
Sangguniang Kabataan. Jurisdiction over
these is given to the DILG. (Alunan III v.
Mirasol, 1997)
The COMELEC shall exercise… exclusive
original jurisdiction over all contests relating
to the elections, returns, and qualifications of
all elective regional, provincial, and city
officials.588
Who decides problems involving
“elections, returns, and qualifications” of
candidates?
Congressional Candidate: Once a winning
candidate has been proclaimed, taken his
oath, and assumed office as a Member of the
House of Representatives, COMELEC’s
jurisdiction over election contests relating to
587
Bernas Commentary, p 1055 (2003 ed).
588
Dean Bautista: Decide questions affecting elections (but not to be
voted for).
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his election, returns and qualifications ends,
and the HRET”s own jurisdiction begins
(Aggabao v. COMELEC, 2005)
Municipal Offices: In the case of municipal
offices; even if the case began with the
COMELEC before proclamation before the
controversy is resolved, it ceases to be a pre-
proclamation controversy and becomes a
contest cognizable by the Court of First
Instance.589
Q: What is the difference between the jurisdiction
of the COMELEC before the proclamation and its
jurisdiction after proclamation?
A: The difference lies in the due process
implications. COMELEC’s jurisdiction over a pre-
proclamation controversy is administrative or quasi-
judicial and is governed by the less stringent
requirements of administrative due process
(although the SC has insisted that question on
“qualifications” should be decide only after a full-
dress hearing).
COMELEC’s jurisdiction over “contests” is judicial
and is governed by the requirements of judicial
process. Hence, even in the case of regional or
provincial or city offices, it does make a difference
whether the COMELEC will treat it as a pre-
proclamation controversy or as a contest.590
Exclusive Jurisdiction over pre-proclamation
cases. The COMELEC shall have exclusive
jurisdiction over all pre-proclamation controversies.
(BP 881, Section 242) This should be construed as
referring only to regional, provincial and city
officials.(Pangilinan v. COMELEC)591
RA 7166 Section 15 prohibits pre-proclamation
controversies in national offices (except on
questions involving the composition and
proceedings of the Board of Canvassers).592
As regards national offices, No pre-proclamation
case is allowed regarding the preparation,
transmission, receipt, custody and appreciation of
the election returns or certificate of canvass.
(Pangilinan v. COMELEC, 228 SCRA 36)593
In a congressional election, the losing
candidate cannot file a petition for correction
of manifest errors. (Vinzons-Chato v.
COMELEC, 520 SCRA 166)594
Q: Does the COMELEC have authority to review contests
involving the election of officers of a barangay federation?
589
Bernas Primer at 396 (2006 ed.)
590
Bernas Primer at 391 (2006 ed.)
591
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 390 (2006 ed.)
592
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 330
(2006 ed.)
593
Jacinto Jimenez, Election Law 37 (2008).
594
Jacinto Jimenez, Election Law 37 (2008).
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A: No. the power of the COMELEC is over popular
elections. (Taule v. Secretary Santos, 1991)
The COMELEC shall have …appellate
jurisdiction over all contests involving elective
municipal officials decided by trial courts of
general jurisdiction, or involving elective barangay
officials decided by trial courts of limited
jurisdiction.
Appellate Jursidiction. The COMELEC exercises
appellate jurisdiction over contests involving
municipal or barangay officials as originally decided
by regional or municipal trial courts, and its
decision in these cases shall be final, executory
and not appealable
Q: Section 9 of RA 6679 makes decisions of a
municipal or metropolitan court in a barangay
election appealable to the regional trial court. Is this
valid?
A: No. The COMELEC has exclusive appellate
jurisdiction over all contests involving barangay
elective officials decided by trial court of limited
jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of the COMELEC,
however, is over questions of fact; questions of law
go to the Supreme Court. (Flores v. COMELEC,
1990)
Power to issue writs. The appellate
jurisdiction includes, by virtue of Section 50 of
BP 967, the power to issue writs of certiorari,
prohibition and mandamus.595
The COMELEC has the power to review
decisions of municipal courts on municipal
election contests. And when it does so, the
entire case is not opened as what happens in
appeals on criminal cases.596
Period to Appeal from RTC. Appeal to the
COMELEC from the RTC must be filed within
5 days from receipt of a copy of the decision. A
motion for reconsideration of the RTC decision
is a prohibited pleading, and does not interrupt
the running of the period for appeal. (Veloria v.
COMELEC)597
Under COMELEC Rules of Procedure, the
mere filing of the Notice of Appeal is not
enough; it should be accompanied by payment
of the correct amount of appeal fee, in order
that the appeal may be deemed perfected.598
Execution Pending Appeal. The COMELEC
cannot deprive the RTC of its competence to
order execution of judgment pending appeal,
595
Bernas Commentary, p 1048 (2003 ed).
596
Manzala v. Comelec, GR 176211m May 8, 2007.
597
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 332
(2006 ed.)
598
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 332
(2006 ed.)
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because the mere filing of appeal does not
divest the trial court of its jurisdiction over a
case and the authority to resolve pending
incidents. (Edding v. COMELEC, 246 SCRA
502)599
Rationale. Such exception is allowed in
election cases “to give as much recognition to
the worth of the trial judge’s decision as that
which is initially ascribed by the law to the
proclamation of the board of canvassers”.
Indeed, to deprive trial courts of their discretion
to grant execution pending appeal would “bring
back the ghost of the ‘grab-the-proclamation,
prolong the protest’ techniques so often
resorted to by devious politicians in the past in
their efforts to perpetuate their hold on an
elective public office.” (Santos v. COMELEC,
2003)600
It was held that RTC may grant a motion for
execution pending appeal when there are valid
and special reasons to grant the same such as:
1. The public interest or the will of the
electorate;
2. The shortness of the remaining portion of
the term;
3. The length of time that the election contest
has been pending. (Navarosa v.
COMELEC, 2003)
The motion for execution pending appeal
should be filed before the expiration of the
period for appeal. (Relampos v. Cumba, 243
SCRA 757)
Q: Does the COMELEC have jurisdiction to issue
writs of certiorari, mandamus, quo warranto or
habeas corpus?
A: Yes, it does, but only in aid of its appellate
jurisdiction over election protest cases involving
elective municipal officials decided by courts of
general jurisdiction. (This means that its jurisdiction
is concurrent with that of the Supreme Court under
Article VIII, Section 5(1). (Carlos v. Judge Angeles,
2000)601
Congressional Candidate. The general rule is
that the proclamation of a congressional candidate
divests COMELEC of jurisdiction in favor of the
proper Electoral Tribunal – unless the proclamation
was invalid.602
Plebiscites. The Comelec has jurisdiction over
cases involving plebiscites. Thus where the
question was whether the electorate of Taguig
voted in favor of, or against the conversion of the
municipality of Taguig into a highly urbanized city in
the plebiscite conducted for the purpose, the
599
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 332
(2006 ed.)
600
Antonio B. Nachura, Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 332
(2006 ed.)
601
Bernas Primer at 393 (2006 ed.)
602
Planas v Comelec, G.R. No. 167594, March 10, 2006.
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Comelec correctly assumed jurisdiction. The
problem was not for regular courts. It was not a
case calling for the exercise of judicial power since
it did not involve the violation of any legally
demandable right and its enforcement. There was
no plaintiff or defendant in the case. It merely
involved the ascertainment of the vote of the
electorate of Taguig.603
Q: Does the Commission have the power to transfer
municipalities form one congressional district to another
for the purpose of preserving proportionality?
A: No. This is not one of the broad power granted by
Section 2(2). Neither is it what is referred to by the
Ordinance Appended to the Constitution (Sections 2 and
3) authorizing the Commission to make “ minor
adjustments”. The deliberations of the Constitutional
Commission on the subject clearly excluded the power to
transfer whole municipalities. (Montejo v. COMELEC,
1995)
Power to Punish Contempt. The power to punish
contempt can be exercised only in connection with
judicial functions and not administrative functions.
(Masangcay v. COMELEC, 6 SCRA 27)
Decisions, final orders, or rulings of the
Commission on election contests involving
elective municipal and barangay offices shall
be final, executory, and not appealable. “
. (This rule does not conflict with the minimum
appellate jurisdiction of the SC under Article VIII,
Section 5(2), which covers only the final judgments
and orders of courts of justice. The Commission is
not a judicial tribunal but only an administrative
body.) It should be noted that, its decisions, orders
and rulings may be challenged in a petition for
certiorari with the SC under Article IX-A, Section 7,
on the ground of grave abuse of discretion.604
The non-appealable character refers only to
questions of fact and not of law. Such decisions
remain subject to the jurisdiction of the SC through
the special civil action of certiorari under Rule 65 in
accordance with Article IX-A, Section 7.(Rivera v.
COMELEC, 1991)
3. Deciding Administrative Questions
Section 2(3): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [d]ecide, except those involving the
right to vote, all questions affecting elections,
including determination of the number and
location of polling places, appointment of
election officials and inspectors, and
registration of voters.”
Questions on Right to Vote. The COMELEC
cannot decide the right to vote, which refers to the
603
Buac and Bautista v. Comelec, G.R. No. 155855, January 26,
2004.
604
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 311 (1995 ed).
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inclusion or exclusion of voters. (2001 Bar
Question)
The Constitution prevents the COMELEC, in
the exercise of its administrative powers and
functions, to decide questions involving the
right to vote. (It may do so, however, in the
discharge of its duties concerning registration
of voters, except that its decision shall be
subject to judicial review. Such power comes
within its quasi-judicial authority and may be
validly exercised as incidental to its powers of
regulation.)605
Change in polling places. While changes in the
location of polling places may be initiated by the
written petition of the majority of the voters, or by
agreement of all the political parties, ultimately, it is
the COMELEC that determines whether a change
is necessary after due notice and hearing. (Cawasa
v. COMELEC, 2002)
The Supreme Court held that the contempt power
conferred upon the COMELEC by law was an
inherently judicially prerogative and could not be
exercised by it in connection with the discharge of
its purely routinary or administrative duties, as
distinguished from quasi-judicial duties. (Guevara
v. COMELEC)
4. Deputization of Law Enforcement Agencies
Section 2(4): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [d]eputize, with the concurrence of
the President, law enforcement agencies and
instrumentalities of the Government,
including the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, for the exclusive purpose of
ensuring free, orderly, honest, peaceful, and
credible elections.“
It should be stressed that this power may be
exercised only with the consent of the President, or
negatively stated, may not be exercised without his
permission.606
Q: What is the scope of power of the Commission over
deputized officers?
A: The power of the Commission over deputized officers
under Section 2(6) covers not just criminal cases but also
administrative cases. Thus, where the Commission has
deputized a City Prosecutor as election canvasser, such
Prosecutor cannot claim immunity form the power of the
Commission on the argument that he comes under the
executive department. The Commission has power over
605
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 313 (1995 ed); Nachura: As
an incident to its duties concerning registration of voters, it
may decide a question involving the right to vote, but its
decision shall be subject to judicial review. Antonio B. Nachura,
Outline/Reviewer in Political Law 334 (2006 ed.)
606
Bernas Commentary, p 1052 (2003 ed).
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all persons required by law to perform duties relative to
the conduct of elections. However, under Section 2(8),
the Commission may merely issue a recommendation for
disciplinary action to the President. (Tan v. COMELEC,
1994)
Q: What is one instance that the COMELEC is
subordinated to the President?
A: Section 2(8) provides that the COMELEC may merely
“recommend to the President the removal of any officer
or employee it has deputized, or the imposition of any
disciplinary action, for violation or disregard of, or
disobedience to, its decision, order, or directive.”607
5. Registration of Political Parties
Section 2(5): “The Commission on elections
shall xxx [r]egister, after sufficient publication,
political parties, organizations, or coalitions
which, in addition to other requirements, must
present their platform or program of
government; and accredit citizens' arms of
the Commission on Elections. Religious
denominations and sects shall not be
registered. Those which seek to achieve their
goals through violence or unlawful means, or
refuse to uphold and adhere to this
Constitution, or which are supported by any
foreign government shall likewise be refused
registration.
Financial contributions from foreign
governments and their agencies to political
parties, organizations, coalitions, or
candidates related to elections, constitute
interference in national affairs, and, when
accepted, shall be an additional ground for
the cancellation of their registration with the
Commission, in addition to other penalties
that may be prescribed by law.”
Purpose of Registration.
1. To acquire juridical personality
2. To qualify for accreditation,
3. To be entitled to the rights of political
parties, a political party must be registered
with the COMELEC (Section 60, Omnibus
Election Code)
Reason for presentation of platforms and
programs. It is essential that political parties
present their programs and platforms of
government for the information of the electorate
whose support they are seeking as otherwise the
voters may not properly and intelligently exercise
their suffrages. This rule will also enable the
Commission to determine if the party seeking
registration is not entitled thereto because it is a
religious group, or is subversive in nature or
purpose, or does not recognize the Constitution, or
being supported by a foreign government.
607
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 314 (1995 ed).
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Political Party. Section 80 of the 1965 Election
Code and Section 22 of the 1971 Election Code
defined a political party as “an organized group of
person pursuing the same political ideals in a
government and includes its branches and
divisions..” the 1978 Election Code adopted the
aforequoted definition by providing in Section 199
that “any other group of persons pursuing the same
political ideals in the government may register with
the Commission and be entitled to the same right
and privileges.” (Geronimo v. COMELEC, 1981)608
Groups which cannot be registered as political
parties:
1. Religious denominations or sects;
2. Those who seek to achieve their goals
through violence or unlawful means;
3. Those who refuse to uphold and adhere to
the Constitution; and
4. Those supported by foreign governments
(Article IX-C, Section2(5))
Grounds for Cancellation of Registration. Under
RA 7941, COMELEC may motu propio or upon a
verified complaint of any interested party, refuse or
cancel, after due notice and hearing, the
registration of any national, regional or sectoral
party, organization or coalition, on any of the
following grounds:
1. It is a religious sect or denomination,
organization or association organized for
religious purposes;
2. Advocates violence or unlawful means to seek
its goal;
3. It is a foreign party or organization;
4. It is receiving support from any foreign
government; foreign political party, foundation,
organization, whether directly or through any
of its officers or members, or indirectly through
third parties, for partisan election purposes;
5. It violates or fails to comply with laws, rules
and regulations relating to elections;
6. T declares untruthful statements in its petition;
7. It has ceased to exist for at least one year;
8. It fails to participate in the last two preceding
elections, or fails to obtain at least 2% of the
votes cast under the party-list system in the
two preceding elections for the constituency in
which it was registered.
One candidate per party for each Political Party.
The SC annulled the COMELEC resolution dividing
the LDP into “wings”, each of which nominate
candidates for every elective position and be
entitled to representation in the election
committees that the COMELEC create. The Court
declared that the electoral process envisions one
candidate from a political party for each position,
and disunity and discord amongst members of a
608
Bernas Primer at 404 (2006 ed.)
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political party should not be allowed to create a
mockery thereof. By according both wings
representation in the election committees, the
COMELEC has eroded the significance of political
parties and effectively divided the opposition. (LDP
v. COMELEC)
Q: To register for purposes of the electoral process, must
an organization be a political party?
A: No.609
Q: Is there a distinction between an accredited political
party and a registered political party?
A: The concept of accreditation no longer appears in the
new Constitution. For purpose of the electoral process, all
parties, organizations and coalitions are considered
equal.610
6. Improvement of Elections
Section 2(7): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [r]ecommend to the Congress
effective measures to minimize election
spending, including limitation of places where
propaganda materials shall be posted, and to
prevent and penalize all forms of election
frauds, offenses, malpractices, and nuisance
candidacies.”
The Omnibus Election Code has expanded the list
of prohibited election practices, changed the
limitations on the expenses to be incurred by
political parties or candidates, allows the
COMELEC to refuse to give due course to
certificates of nuisance candidates and assures
equal treatment for all candidates privileged or
not.611
Section 2(9): “The Commission on Elections
shall xxx [s]ubmit to the President and the
Congress, a comprehensive report on the
conduct of each election, plebiscite, initiative,
referendum, or recall.”
The report mentioned here can be the basis of
legislation that may improve the conduct of future
elections.612
7. Power to Promulgate Rules of Procedure
Section 3: “The Commission on Elections
may sit en banc or in two divisions, and shall
promulgate its rules of procedure in order to
expedite disposition of election cases,
including pre- proclamation controversies. All
such election cases shall be heard and
decided in division, provided that motions for
reconsideration of decisions shall be decided
by the Commission en banc.”
609
Bernas Primer at 405 (2006 ed.)
610
Bernas Primer at 405 (2006 ed.)
611
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 317 (1995 ed).
612
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 317 (1995 ed).
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COMELEC Rules v. Rules of Court. Should there
be a conflict between a rule of procedure
promulgated by the Commission and a Rule of
Court, if the proceeding is before the Commission ,
the Commission rule should prevail; but if the
proceeding is in court, the Rules of Court should
prevail. ( Aruelo v. CA, 1993)
8. Supervision or Regulation of Franchises
Section 4: “The Commission may, during the
election period, supervise or regulate the
enjoyment or utilization of all franchises or
permits for the operation of transportation
and other public utilities, media of
communication or information, all grants,
special privileges, or concessions granted by
the Government or any subdivision, agency,
or instrumentality thereof, including any
government-owned or controlled corporation
or its subsidiary. Such supervision or
regulation shall aim to ensure equal
opportunity, and equal rates therefor, for
public information campaigns and forums
among candidates in connection with the
objective of holding free, orderly, honest,
peaceful, and credible elections.”
Chavez v. COMELEC, 2004: The SC upheld the
validity of Section 32, Resolution No. 6520,
providing that all materials showing the picture,
image or name of a person, and all advertisements
on print, in radio or on television showing the
image or mentioning the name of a person, who
subsequent to the placement or display thereof
becomes a candidate for public office shall be
immediately removed, otherwise the person and
the radio station shall be presumed to have
conducted premature campaigning in violation of
Section 80 of the Omnibus Election Code.
PPI v. COMELEC, 244 SCRA 272: The SC
invalidated the COMELEC resolution requiring
newspapers to give, for free, one-half page
newspaper space for use by the COMELEC. This
was held to be an invalid exercise of the police
power, there being no imperious public necessity
for the taking of the newspaper space.
SWS v. COMELEC, 181 SCRA 529: The SC held
that this power may be exercised only over the
media, not over practitioners of media. Thus, in this
case the SC invalidated a COMELEC resolution
prohibiting radio and TV commentators and
newspaper columnists from commenting on the
issues involved in the forthcoming plebiscite for the
ratification of the organic law establishing the CAR.
Q: Does the power to regulate media during “election
period” also extend to the period of a plebiscite or
referendum?
A: Yes. Of essence to plebiscite and referenda is “fair
submission.” Moreover, the formulation of the Constitution
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is more important in a sense than choice of men who will
implement that charter. Evidently, therefore, regulatory
power during the period of plebiscite or referendum, is
also intended. (Unido v. COMELEC, 1981)
9. Power to Recommend Executive Clemency…
Section 5: “No pardon, amnesty, parole, or
suspension of sentence for violation of
election laws, rules, and regulations shall be
granted by the President without the
favorable recommendation of the
Commission.”
10. In Special Cases, Power to Fix Election
Period
Section 9: Unless otherwise fixed by the
Commission in special cases, the election
period shall commence ninety days before
the day of election and shall end thirty days
thereafter.
Election Period v. Campaign Period.
Election period refers to the period of time
needed for administering an election. It can thus go
beyond the date for the casting of ballots.613
Campaign period refers to the period of active
solicitation of votes. This may be set by the
legislature for a period less than the election
period.614 Campaign period cannot extend
beyond the election day.615
Q: Enumerate some specific recommendatory powers of
COMELEC.
A: Section 2(7), (8) and (9). (See also Section 5)
E. Statutory Powers
1. The COMELEC shall have exclusive charge of
the enforcement and administration of all laws
relative to the conduct of elections. (BP 881,
Section 52)
2. Exercise direct and immediate supervision and
control over national and local officials or
employees. (BP 881, Section 52(a)).
3. The power to authorize any members of AFP,
PNP, NBI to act as deputies during the period
of campaign and ending 30 days thereafter
when in any are of the country there are
persons committing acts of terrorism. (BP 881,
Section 52(b)).
4. Promulgate rules and regulations
implementing provisions of laws which the
Commission is required to enforce. (BP 881
Section 52(c)).
5. Power to summon parties to a controversy
pending before it. (BP 881, Section 52(d))
613
Bernas Commentary, p 1062 (2003 ed).
614
Bernas Commentary, p 1062 (2003 ed).
615
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 318 (1995 ed).
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6. Power to punish contempt. (BP 881, Section
52(d))
7. Power to enforce and execute its decisions,
directives, orders and instructions. (BP 881,
Section 52(f))
8. Power to prescribe forms to be used in the
election, plebiscite or referendum.
9. Power to procure any supplies, equipment,
materials or services needed for holding of
elections. (BP 881, Section 52(h))
10. Power to prescribe use or adoption of the
latest technological devices. (BP 881,
Section 52(i))
11. Power to prescribe latest technological and
electronic devices upon notice to
accredited political parties and candidates
not less than 30 days before. The
COMELEC is authorized to use an
AUTOMATED ELECTION SYSTEM for the
process of voting, counting votes, and
canvassing of the results. (RA 8436, Section
6)
12. Power to carry out continuing systematic
campaign. (BP 881, Section 52(j))
13. Power to enlist non-partisan group or
organizations of citizens (BP 881, Section
52(k))
14. Power to issue search warrants during
election periods. (BP 881, Section 57(1))
15. Power to stop any election activity, or
confiscate tear down, and stop any unlawful,
libelous, misleading or false election
propaganda, after due notice and hearing. (BP
881, Section 57(2))
16. Power to inquire into the financial records
of candidates and any organization or group of
persons after due notice and hearing. (BP 881,
Section 57(3))
17. Power to declare failure of election and call
for special elections (RA 7166, Section 4)
18. Divide a province with only one legislative
district into two districts for purposes of
the election of the members of the
Sangguniang Kabataan. (RA 7166, Section
3(b))
Power to Declare Failure of Elections
The SC said that under BP 881, there are only
three instances where a failure of elections may
been declare, namely:
1. The election in any polling place has not bee
held on the date fixed on account of force
majeure, violence, terrorism, fraud or other
analogous causes;
2. The election in any polling place had been
suspended before the hour fixed by law for the
closing of the voting on account of force
majeure, violence terrorism, fraud or other
analogous cases; or
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3. After the voting and during the preparation and
transmission of the election returns or in the
custody or canvass thereof such election
results in a failure to elect on account of force
majeure, violence, terrorism, fraud or other
analogous causes. (Sison v. COMELEC, 1999;
Pasandalan v. COMELEC, 2002)
Contents of Petition. The SC held that for
COMELEC to conduct a hearing on a verified
petition to declare a failure of election, it is
necessary that the petition must show on its face
two conditions:
1. That no voting has taken place in the precinct
on the date fixed by law or, even if there was
voting, the election nevertheless results in a
failure to elect; and
2. The votes not cast would affect the results of
the election. (Mitmug v. COMELEC, 230 SCRA
54)
Thus, in this case, for failure of the petition to show
the existence of the first condition, the COMELEC
did not commit grave abuse of discretion when it
dismissed the petition even without a hearing.
G. Examples of Matters Not Within the
Powers/Jurisdiction of COMELEC
1. COMELEC has no power to decide questions
“involving the right to vote.” (Section 2(3)
Section 2(6) places cases involving “inclusion
or exclusion of voters” under the jurisdiction of
courts.616
2. The general rule is that the proclamation of a
congressional candidate divests COMELEC of
jurisdiction in favor of the proper Electoral
Tribunal – unless the proclamation was
invalid.617
3. In the case of municipal offices; even if the
case began with the COMELEC before
proclamation before the controversy is
resolved, it ceases to be a pre-proclamation
controversy and becomes a contest
cognizable by the Court of First Instance.618
4. The COMELEC has no power to make a
reapportionment of legislative districts.
(Montejo v. COMELEC)
5. The COMELEC cannot prohibit radio and TV
commentators and newspaper columnists from
commenting on the issues involved in the
forthcoming plebiscite for the ratification of the
organic law establishing the CAR. (PPI v.
COMELEC)
6. The COMELEC cannot deprive the RTC of its
competence to order execution of judgment
pending appeal, because the mere filing of
616
Bernas Commentary, p 1051 (2003 ed).
617
Planas v Comelec, G.R. No. 167594, March 10, 2006.
618
Bernas Primer at 396 (2006 ed.)
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appeal does not divest the trial court of its
jurisdiction over a case and the authority to
resolve pending incidents. (Edding v.
COMELEC, 246 SCRA 502)
H. Powers of Chairman
Facts: Respondent as Chairman of the COMELEC
removed petitioner as Director of the Education and
Information Department and reassigned her to the Law
Department. Petitioner argued that only the COMELEC
acting as a collegial body can authorize her
reassignment.
Held: Under Section 7(4), chapter 2, Subtitle C,
Book V of the Revised Administrative Code, the
Chairman COMELEC is vested with power to
make temporary assignments, rotate and
transfer personnel in accordance with the
provision of the Civil Service Law. In the
exercise of this power, the Chairman is not required
by law to secure the approval of the COMELEC en
banc. (Matibag v. Benipayo)619
I. En Banc/ Two Divisions
The Commission on Elections may sit en banc or in
two divisions, and shall promulgate its rules of
procedure in order to expedite disposition of election
cases, including pre- proclamation controversies. All
such election cases shall be heard and decided in
division, provided that motions for reconsideration of
decisions shall be decided by the Commission en
banc. (Article IX-C, Section 3)
The last sentence of Section 3 prescribes two
important rules:
1. Motions for reconsideration are
decided en banc.
But a decision en banc is required only when
the subject for reconsideration is a “decision,”
that is, a resolution of substantive issues. Thus,
reconsideration of a dismissal based on lack of
interest may be heard in division. (Salazar v.
COMELEC, 1990)
However, while a motion to reconsider an
interlocutory order of a division should be
resolved by the division which issued the
interlocutory order, it may be referred to
the Comelec en banc if all the members
of the division agree. (Soriano et al v
Comelec, GR 164496-505, April 2, 2007).
If a case which should go to the Comelec
en banc is erroneously filed with a
division, it may automatically be elevated
to the Comelec en banc. This is not
provided for in the Comelec Rules of
Procedure, but such action is not
prohibited. (Mutilan v Comelec, G.R.
1712468, April 2, 2007.)
2. Election cases are decided in division.
619
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 382 (2006 ed.)
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The rule that all election cases, including pre-
proclamation cases, should first be heard and
decided by the COMELEC in division applies
only when the COMELEC exercises its
adjudicatory or quasi-judicial functions, not
when it exercises purely administrative
functions. (Municipal Board of Canvassers v.
COMELEC, 2003)
The conduct of a preliminary investigation
before the filing of an information in court
does not involve the exercise of
adjudicatory function. (Balindong v.
COMELEC, 2003)
Election cases must first be decided in division.
Hence the Comelec en banc may not decide an
election case still pending before a division.
(Muñoz v Comelec, G.R. 170678, July 17,
2006.)
Cases which must first be heard and decided in
division:
1. All election cases, including pre-proclamation
contests, originally cognizable by the
Commission in the exercise of its powers
under Section 2(2) of Article IX-C.
2. Petition to cancel a certificate of candidacy
rests with the COMELEC in division, not he
COMELEC en banc. (Bautista v. COMELEC,
2003)
3. Cases appealed from the RTC or MTC. (Abad
v. COMELEC, 1999)
4. Petition for certiorari from a decision of the
RTC (or MTC).(Soller v. COMELEC, 2000)
Cases by En Banc
1. Motions for reconsideration of “decisions”.
(Section 3, Article IX-C)
2. Cases that involve the exercise of purely
administrative functions.
• COMELEC en banc may directly assume
jurisdiction over a petition to correct
manifest errors in the tabulation or tallying
of results (Statement of Votes) by the
Board of canvassers.(Torres v.
COMELEC)
o Statement of Votes is merely a
tabulation per precinct of the votes
obtained by the candidates as reflected
in the election returns. What is involved
is simple arithmetic. In making the
correction in the computation, the Board
of Canvassers acts in an administrative
capacity under the control and
supervision of the COMELEC. Pursuant
to its constitutional function to decide
questions affecting elections, the
COMELEC en banc has authority to
resolve any question pertaining to
proceedings of the Board of
Canvassers. (Mastura v. COMELEC)
• The power of the COMELEC to prosecute
cases of violation of election laws involves
the exercise of administrative powers
which may be exercised directly by the
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COMELEC en banc. (Baytan v.
COMELEC, 2003)
Q: Does the COMELEC en banc have jurisdiction to
decide election cases?
A: No. This power pertains to the divisions of the
Commission. Any decision by the Commission en banc as
regards election cases decided by it in the first instance is
null and void. (Soller v. COMELEC, 2000)
Q: When is hearing by division required?
A: It is only in the exercise of its adjudicatory or quasi-
judicial powers that the COMELEC is mandated to hear
and decide cases first by division and then, upon motion
for reconsideration, by the COMELEC en banc. The
conduct of a preliminary investigation before the filing of
an information in court does not involve the exercise of
adjudicatory function. (Baytan v. COMELEC, 2003)
Q: Must a motion for reconsideration of an order of
dismissal for lack of interest due to the failure of petitioner
or counsel to appear for hearing be reviewed by the
COMELEC en banc or may it be considered by a
division?
A: It may be considered by a division. What the
Constitution says must be heard en banc are motions for
reconsideration of “decisions,” that is resolutions of
substantive issues. The described dismissal was not a
decision. (Salazar v. COMELEC, 1990)
Q: Is the rule on preferential disposition of election cases
suggested by Article IX-A, Section 7 and the requirement
in Section 257 of the Omnibus Election CODE that the
COMELEC shall decide all election cases brought before
it within ninety days from the date of submission a hard
and firm rule?
A: No. Considering the tribunal’s manpower and logistic
limitations, it is sensible to treat the procedural
requirements on deadlines realistically. (Alvarez v.
COMELEC, 2001)
H. Party System
Section 6: A free and open party system shall be
allowed to evolve according to the free choice of
the people, subject to the provisions of this
Article.
Section 7. No votes cast in favor of a political
party, organization, or coalition shall be valid,
except for those registered under the party-list
system as provided in this Constitution.
(Relate this to Article VI, Section 5 par.2 providing for
20% of the seats in the House of Representatives being
allocated to party-list representatives)
Section 8: Parties…registered under the party-
list system…shall be entitled to appoint poll
watchers in accordance with law.
I. Representation
Political parties, or organizations or coalitions
registered under the party-list system, shall not be
represented in the voters' registration boards,
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boards of election inspectors, boards of
canvassers, or other similar bodies. However, they
shall be entitled to appoint poll watchers in
accordance with law. (Article IX-C, Section 8)
J. Elections
1. Election Period
Unless otherwise fixed by the Commission in
special cases, the election period shall commence
ninety days before the day of election and shall
end thirty days thereafter. (Article IX-C, Section 9)
The election period is distinguished from the
campaign period in that the latter cannot extend
beyond the election day.620
2. Equal Protection of Candidates
Bona fide candidates for any public office shall be
free from any form of harassment and
discrimination. (Article IX-C, Section 10)
Q: Does Section 10 give candidates immunity from
suit?
A: No.621
Q: Give example of discrimination.
A: Unequal treatment in the availment of media
facilities.622
3. Funds/ Fiscal Autonomy
Funds certified by the Commission as necessary to
defray the expenses for holding regular and special
elections, plebiscites, initiatives, referenda, and
recalls, shall be provided in the regular or special
appropriations and, once approved, shall be
released automatically upon certification by the
Chairman of the Commission. (Article IX-C, Section
11)
K. Review of Decisions
Article IX-A, Section 7. xxx Unless otherwise
provided by this Constitution or by law, any
decision, order, or ruling of each Commission
may be brought to the Supreme Court on certiorari
by the aggrieved party within thirty days from
receipt of a copy thereof.
Supreme Court. Only decisions of the COMELEC
en banc may be brought to the SC on certiorari (as
a special civil action under Rule 65).
What is contemplated by the term final orders,
rulings and decisions of COMELEC
reviewable by certiorari by the SC as provided
by law are those rendered in actions or
proceedings before the COMELEC and taken
620
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p. 318 (1995 ed).
621
Bernas Primer at 407 (2006 ed.)
622
Bernas Primer at 407 (2006 ed.)
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cognizance of by the said body in the exercise
of its adjudicatory or quasi-judicial
powers623. (Filipinas Engineering and Machine
Shop v. Ferrer, 135 SCRA 25) The certiorari
jurisdiction of the SC does not refer to purely
executive powers such as those which relate
to the COMELEC’s appointing power.624 (Ambil
v. COMELEC, 2000)
Trial Courts. Determinations made by the
COMELEC which are merely administrative (not
judicial) in character, may be challenged in an
ordinary civil action before trial courts. (Filipinas
Engineering & Machine Shop v. Ferrer)
• Thus, where what was assailed in the
petition for certiorari was the COMELEC’s
choice of appointee, which is a purely
administrative duty, the case is cognizable
by the RTC (or the CSC as the case may
be).
IV. Commission on Audit
Composition of COA
Qualifications of Commissioners of COA
Appointment of Commissioners
Powers and Duties of COA
Jurisdiction
Section 1. (1) There shall be a Commission on Audit
composed of a Chairman and two Commissioners, who
shall be natural-born citizens of the Philippines and, at the
time of their appointment, at least thirty-five years of age,
Certified Public Accountants with not less than ten years of
auditing experience, or members of the Philippine Bar who
have been engaged in the practice of law for at least ten
years, and must not have been candidates for any elective
position in the elections immediately preceding their
appointment. At no time shall all Members of the
Commission belong to the same profession.
A. Composition of COA
Commission on Audit is composed of a Chairman
and two Commissioners.
B. Qualifications of Commissioners
1. Natural-born citizens of the Philippines;
2. At the time of their appointment, at least thirty-
five years of age;
3. Certified Public Accountants with not less than
ten years of auditing experience, or members
623
Thus, a person whose certificate of candidacy is rejected or
canceled by the COMELEC on the ground, say, that he does
not possess the required qualifications, may elevate the matter
on certiorari to the Supreme Court. (Cruz, Philippine Political
Law, p. 319 (1995 ed).
624
Hence, questions arising from the award of a contract for
the construction of voting booths can be brought before a trial
court.
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of the Philippine Bar who have been engaged
in the practice of law for at least ten years;
4. Must not have been candidates for any
elective position in the elections immediately
preceding their appointment.
At no time shall all Members of the Commission
belong to the same profession.
C. Appointment of Commissioners
Section 1(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners shall
be appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of seven years
without reappointment. Of those first appointed, the
Chairman shall hold office for seven years, one
Commissioner for five years, and the other Commissioner
for three years, without reappointment. Appointment to any
vacancy shall be only for the unexpired portion of the term
of the predecessor. In no case shall any Member be
appointed or designated in a temporary or acting capacity.
D. Powers and Duties of COA
Section 2. (1) The Commission on Audit shall have the
power, authority, and duty to examine, audit, and settle all
accounts pertaining to the revenue and receipts of, and
expenditures or uses of funds and property, owned or held
in trust by, or pertaining to, the Government, or any of its
subdivisions, agencies, or instrumentalities, including
government-owned or controlled corporations with original
charters, and on a post- audit basis:
(a) constitutional bodies, commissions and offices that have
been granted fiscal autonomy under this Constitution;
(b) autonomous state colleges and universities;
(c) other government-owned or controlled corporations and
their subsidiaries; and
(d) such non-governmental entities receiving subsidy or
equity, directly or indirectly, from or through the Government,
which are required by law or the granting institution to
submit to such audit as a condition of subsidy or equity.
However, where the internal control system of the audited
agencies is inadequate, the Commission may adopt such
measures, including temporary or special pre-audit, as are
necessary and appropriate to correct the deficiencies. It
shall keep the general accounts of the Government and, for
such period as may be provided by law, preserve the
vouchers and other supporting papers pertaining thereto.
(2) The Commission shall have exclusive authority, subject
to the limitations in this Article, to define the scope of its
audit and examination, establish the techniques and
methods required therefor, and promulgate accounting and
auditing rules and regulations, including those for the
prevention and disallowance of irregular, unnecessary,
excessive, extravagant, or unconscionable expenditures or
uses of government funds and properties.
1. General Function of COA
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It is the function of the COA to examine the
accuracy of the records kept by accountable
officers and to determine whether expenditures
have been made in conformity with law. It is
therefore through the Commission on Audit that the
people can verify whether their money has been
properly spent.625
2. Classification of COA’s Functions626
1. To examine and audit all forms of government
revenues;
2. To examine and audit all forms of government
expenditures;
3. To settle government accounts;
4. To define the scope of techniques for its own
auditing procedures;
5. To promulgate accounting and auditing rules
“including those for the prevention and
disallowance of irregular, unnecessary,
excessive, extravagant, or unconscionable
expenditures,”;
6. To decide administrative cases involving
expenditures of public funds.
To examine and audit all forms of
government expenditures;
Post-audit. The provision on post-audit is a
recognition of the fact that there are certain
government institutions which can be
hampered in their operation by pre-audit
requirements.627
Post-audit Authority. The Commission has
only post-audit authority over:
1. Constitutional bodies, commissions and
offices that have been granted fiscal
autonomy under the Constitution;
2. Autonomous state colleges and
universities;
3. Other government-owned controlled
corporations and their subsidiaries;
4. Such non-governmental entities receiving
subsidy or equity, directly or indirectly,
from or through the government, which
are required by law or by the granting
institution to submit to such audit as a
condition of subsidy or equity.
(Where the internal control system of audited
agencies is inadequate, the Commission may
adopt such measures, including temporary or
special pre-audit, as are necessary and
appropriate to correct any deficiencies.
Moreover, even in cases where pre-audit is
allowed and pre-audit has already been
performed, the Commission is not estopped
from making a post-audit.)
625
Bernas Primer at 409 (2006 ed.)
626
Bernas Primer at 409 (2006 ed.)
627
Bernas Commentary, p 1066 (2003 ed).
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Private Auditors. Public corporations may
employ private auditors. The clear and
unmistakable conclusion from a reading of the
entire Section 2 is that the COA's power to
examine and audit is non-exclusive. On the
other hand, the COA's authority to define the
scope of its audit, promulgate auditing rules
and regulations, and disallow unnecessary
expenditures is exclusive.
However, as the constitutionally mandated
auditor of all government agencies, the COA's
findings and conclusions necessarily prevail
over those of private auditors, at least insofar
as government agencies and officials are
concerned.628
Compromise Agreement. The participation by
the City in negotiations for an amicable
settlement of a pending litigation and its
eventual execution of a compromise agreement
relative thereto, are indubitably within its
authority and capacity as a public corporation,
and a compromise of a civil suit in which it is
involved as a party is a perfectly legitimate
transaction, not only recognized but even
encouraged by law. Thus, COA committed
grave abuse of discretion when it disallowed
the City’s appropriation of P30,000 made
conformably with the compromise agreement.
(Osmena v. COA, 238 SCRA 463)
Salary Voucher. The duty to pass in audit a
salary voucher is discretionary. (Gonzales v.
Provincial Board of Iloilo, 12 SCRA 711)
The SC held that the COA has the power to
overrule the NPC (National Power Corporation)
General Counsel on post-audit measures
relative to the determination of whether an
expenditure of a government agency is
irregular, unnecessary, extravagant or
unconscionable.
Q: May COA in the exercise of its auditing function,
disallow the payment of backwages to employees illegally
dismissed and say that the responsibility belongs to the
official who dismissed them in bad faith?
A: No. COA cannot say that the responsibility belongs to
the official who made the illegal dismissal when such
official has not been heard. Besides, payment of
backwages is not an irregular, unnecessary, excessive or
extravagant expense. (Uy et. al. v. COA, 2000)
Q: Does the power of the Commission extend to non-
accountable officers?
A: Yes. The Commission has authority not just over
accountable officers but also over the officers who
perform functions related to accounting such as
verification of evaluations and computation of fees
collectible, and the adoption of internal rules of control.
(An Evaluator/Computer, for instance is an indispensable
part of the process of assessment and collection and
comes within the scope of the Commission’s
jurisdiction.) (Mamaril v. Domingo, 1993)629
628
DBP v. COA, G.R. No. 88435. January 16, 2002
629
Bernas Primer at 409 (2006 ed.)
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To settle government accounts
Power to “settle accounts”. This means the
power to settle liquidated accounts, that is,
those accounts which may be adjusted simply
by an arithmetical process. It does not include
the power to fix the amount of an unfixed or
undetermined debt. (Compania General de
Tabacos v. French and Unison, 1919)
Unliquidated claims present a justiciable
question which is beyond the powers of the
COA to adjudicate. Recovery based on
quantum meruit involves a unliquidated claim,
because its settlement requires the application
of judgment and discretion and cannot be
adjusted by simple arithmetical process. (F.F.
Manacop Construction Co., Inc. v. CA, 266
SCRA 235)630
To secure the release of funds from the
Treasury, a warrant must be drawn by the
proper administrative official and
countersigned by the Commission on
Audit.631 This counter-signature may be
compelled if it can be shown that:
1. The warrant has been legally drawn by
the officer authorized by law to do so;
2. An appropriation to which the warrant may
be applied exists by virtue of law;
3. An unexpected balance of the amount
appropriated is available. (Yncausti v.
Wright, 47 Phil. 866)
The duty to countersign the warrant in this
case is merely ministerial.
The following have been held to be
discretionary:
1. The duty to pass audit a salary voucher.
(Gonzales v. Provincial Auditor of Iloilo, 12
SCRA 711)
2. The duty of the Commission on Audit to
issue a certificate of clearance to any
accountable officer seeking to leave the
Philippines. (Lamb v. Philipps, 22 Phil.
473)
Decide Money Claims. The COA can decide
money claims based on law. But if a money
claim is denied by a law, COA has no authority
to pass judgment on the constitutionality of the
law.632
1998 Bar Question (Money Claims)
Q: The Department of National Defense
entered into a contract with Raintree
Corporation for the supply of ponchos to the
AFP, stipulating that, in the event of breach,
630
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 394 (2006 ed.)
631
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.324
632
Parreño c. COA, G.R. 162224 June 7, 2007
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action may be filed in the proper courts in
Manila. Suppose the AFP fails to pay for
delivered ponchos, where must Raintreee
Corporation file its claim? Why?
A: Raintree Corporation must file its claim with
the COA. Under Article IX-D, Section 2(1), the
COA has the authority to settle all the accounts
pertaining to expenditure of public funds.
Raintree Corporation cannot file a case in
court. The Republic of the Philippines did not
waive its immunity from suit when it entered
into the contract with Raintree Corporation for
the supply of ponchos for the use of AFP. The
contract involves the defense of the
Philippines and therefore relates to a
sovereign function.
The provision for venue in the contract does
not constitute a waiver of the State immunity
from suit because the express waiver of this
immunity can only be made by a statute.
Authority to define the scope of its audit an
examination, establish techniques and
methods required therefor.
The SC said that the power of the Commission
to define the scope of its audit and to
promulgate auditing rules and regulations and
the power to disallow unnecessary
expenditures is exclusive. (But its power to
examine and audit is not exclusive)
To promulgate accounting and auditing
rules “including those for the prevention
and disallowance of irregular, unnecessary,
excessive, extravagant, or unconscionable
expenditures.”
The SC held that the COA has the power to
overrule the NPC (National Power
Corporation) General Counsel on post-audit
measures relative to the determination of
whether an expenditure of a government
agency is irregular, unnecessary, extravagant
or unconscionable.
It was held that COA may stop the payment of
the price stipulated in government contracts
when found to be irregular, extravagant or
unconscionable. (Sambeli v. Province of
Isabela, 210 SCRA 80)
COA Circular No 75-6, prohibiting the use of
government vehicles by officials who are
provided with transportation allowance was
held to be a valid exercise of its powers under
Section 2, Article IX-D of the Constitution; and
the prohibition may be made to apply to
officials of the NPC.
Q: The COA reduced the amount that was passed in
audit on the ground that the original amount was
“excessive and disadvantageous to the
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government.” Does the Commission have the
authority to do so?
A: Yes, on the basis of its authority in Article IX-D,
Section 2(1). This extends to the accounts of all
persons respecting funds or properties received or
held by tem in an accountable capacity. (Dincong v.
Commissioner Guingona, 1988)633
Q: May COA in the exercise of its auditing function,
disallow the payment of backwages to employees
illegally dismissed and say that the responsibility
belongs to the official who dismissed them in bad
faith?
A: No. COA cannot say that the responsibility
belongs to the official who made the illegal dismissal
when such official has not been heard. Besides,
payment of backwages is not an irregular,
unnecessary, excessive or extravagant expense. (Uy
et. al. v. COA, 2000)
Power to veto appropriations. There is now
a view to the effect that the critical function of
the Commission on Audit under the reworded
provision of the Constitution authorizes it to
veto appropriations. This can be done, so it is
argued, through the power of the Commission
to refuse to “examine, audit and settle” any
account violating its own regulations “for the
prevention and disallowance of irregular,
unnecessary, excessive, extravagant or
unconscionable expenditures or uses of
government funds properties.”634
E. Jurisdiction
Section 3. No law shall be passed exempting any entity of
the Government or its subsidiaries in any guise whatever, or
any investment of public funds, from the jurisdiction of the
Commission on Audit.
Water Districts Subject to the Jurisdiction of
COA. The Court already ruled in several cases that
a water district is a government-owned and
controlled corporation with a special charter since it
is created pursuant to a special law, PD 198. The
COA has the authority to investigate whether
directors, officials or employees of GOCC receiving
additional allowances and bonuses are entitled to
such benefits under applicable laws. Thus, water
districts are subject to the jurisdiction of the COA.
(De Jesus v. COA, 2003)
PAL (Phil. Airlines) having ceased to be a
government-owned or –controlled corporation, is
no longer under the audit jurisdiction of the COA.
(PAL v. COA, 245 SCRA 39)
2001 Bar Question
Q: The PNB was then one of the leading
government –owned banks and it was under the
633
Bernas Primer at 410 (2006 ed.)
634
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.329
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audit jurisdiction of the COA. A few years ago, it
was privatized. What is the effect if any, of the
privatization of PNB on the audit jurisdiction of the
COA?
A: In accordance with the ruling in Pal v. COA,
since PNB is no longer owned by the government
the COA no longer has jurisdiction to audit it as an
institution. Under Article IX-D, Section 2(2),
GOCCs and their subsidiaries are subject to audit
by the COA.
However, in accordance with Section 2(1), the COA
can audit the PNB with respect to its accounts
because the government still has equity in it.
Audit of Private Entities
Facts: Petitioners were end-users of copra. PD
276 imposed a levy on copra to be collected by the
end-users from the sellers of the copra. The fund
was to be used to subsidize the purchase of copra
to maintain the stability of the price. The COA
audited the petitioners and found that there was a
deficiency in their collection of the levy. Petitioners
argued that the COA had no authority to audit them
as they were not government-owned or controlled
corporation.
Held: The argument has no merit. Under the
Constitution, the COA has the power to audit non-
governmental entities receiving subsidy from or
through the government. (Blue Bar Coconut
Philippines v. Tantuico, 163 SCRA 716)635
In Bagatsing v. Committee on Privatization, the Court
interpreting COA Circular No. 89-296 that there is failure
of bidding when (a) there is only one offeror, or (b) when
all the offers are non-complying or unacceptable,
declared that the COA circular does not speak of
accepted bids, but of offerors, without distinction as to
whether they are disqualified or qualified. Thus, since in
the bidding of the 40% block of Petron shares, there were
three offerors, namely Saudi Aramco, Petronas and
Westmont—although the latter were disqualified—then
there was no failure of bidding.
F. Report
Section 4. The Commission shall submit to the President
and the Congress, within the time fixed by law, an annual
report covering the financial condition and operation of the
Government, its subdivisions, agencies, and
instrumentalities, including government-owned or controlled
corporations, and non-governmental entities subject to its
audit, and recommend measures necessary to improve their
effectiveness and efficiency. It shall submit such other
reports as may be required by law.
Purpose of Report. Through the report required
by this provision, the President and the Congress
shall be informed of the financial status of the
government and the manner in which revenues
have been collected, appropriation laws have been
635
Jacinto Jimenez, Political Law Compendium, 391 (2006 ed.)
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implemented, and expenditures or uses of public

funds and properties undertaken. Information
contained in this report and the recommendations
made by the Commission on Audit will be useful in
enabling the government to improve its financial
operations.636

The authority of the Commission to recommend

measure to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of the government empowers it “to
conduct the so-called performance audit which
consist of the analytical and critical review,
assessment and evaluation of the activities,
management and fiscal operations of the
Government in order to reduce operational costs
and losses and promote greater economy and
administrative efficiency in public expenditures.
This is a modern concept of auditing that goes
beyond the mere examination of receipts and
expenditures as it extends to the evaluation of the
application of funds, to the analysis of expenditures
as well as cost benefit studies.”637

H. Review of Commission’s Decisions

The review power of the SC over decision of the

Commission is the same as that over the
COMELEC- the limited-certiorari power under Rule
65. The jurisdiction of the SC over the Commission
is on money matters and not over decisions on
personnel movements. Neither is it the task of the
SC to review a Commission opinion on tax
liability.638

636
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.330
637
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.331 quoting Montejo, The New
Constitution, 208.
638
Bernas Commentary, p 83 (2003 ed).

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Article X
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
I. LOCAL GOVERNMENTS (Sections 1, 10-
14)
II. LOCAL AUTONOMY (Section 2)
III. LOCAL GOVERNMENT CODE (Section 3)
IV. GENERAL POWERS AND ATTRIBUTES
(Section 5,6,7)
V. MUNICIPAL LIABILITY
VI. LOCAL OFFICIALS (Section 8,9)
VII. AUTONOMOUS REGIONS
VIII.INTER-GOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS
IX. LOCAL INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM
GENERAL PROVISIONS
I. Local Governments
Local Government Unit
Quotable Quotes on Nature of Local Governments
Territorial and Political Subdivisions
The Barangay
The Municipality
The City
The Province
Leagues of LGUs/Officials
Section 1. The territorial and political subdivisions of the
Republic of the Philippines are the provinces, cities,
municipalities, and barangays. There shall be autonomous
regions in Muslim Mindanao and the Cordilleras as
hereinafter provided.
A. What is a Local Government Unit?
A local government unit is a political subdivision
of the State which is constituted by law and
possessed of substantial control over its own
affairs. In a unitary system of government, it is an
intra-sovereign subdivision of one sovereign
nation, not intended to be an imperium in imperio
[empire within an empire)]. (Alvarez v. Guingona
GR 118303, 1996)
When the Drafters of the 1987 Constitution
enunciated the policy of ensuring the autonomy of
local governments, it was never their intention to
create an imperium in imperio and install an intra-
sovereign political subdivision independent of a
single sovereign state. (Batangas CATV v. Court of
Appeals, GR No. 138810, 2004)
Q: What is the present form of local government?
A: The present form consists of an executive distinct
from the legislative body.639
639
Bernas Primer at 416 (2006 ed.)
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B. Quotable Quotes on Nature of Local
Governments
1. “Ours is still a unitary form of government,
not a federal state. Being so, any form of
autonomy granted to local governments will
necessarily be limited and confined within the extent
allowed by the central authority.” (Lina v. Pano,
GR 129093, 08.30.2001)
2. “A Local Government Unit is a political
subdivision of the State which is constituted by
law and possessed of substantial control over its
own affairs. Remaining to be an intra sovereign
subdivision of one sovereign nation, but not
intended, however, to be an imperium in imperio,
the local government unit is autonomous in the
sense that it is given more powers, authority,
responsibilities and resources. Power which used to
be highly centralized in Manila, is thereby
deconcentrated, enabling especially the peripheral
local government units to develop not only at their
own pace and discretion but also with their own
resources and assets.” (Alvarez v. Guingona, GR
118303, 01.31.96)
3. An LGGU is created by law and all its
powers and rights are sourced therefrom. It
has therefore no power to amend or act beyond the
authority given and the limitations imposed on it by
law.” (Paranaque v. VM Realty Corp., GR
127820, 07.20.98)
C. Enumerate the Territorial and Political
Subdivisions in Section 1:
The territorial and political subdivisions of the
Republic of the Philippines are the:
1. Provinces
2. Cities
3. Municipalities
4. Barangays
There shall be autonomous regions in Muslim
Mindanao and Cordilleras as provided in the
Constitution. (Section1)
Significance of Section 1. The constitutional
significance of Section 1 is that provinces, cities
and municipalities and barangays have been fixed
as the standard territorial and political subdivisions
of the Philippines. This manner of subdividing
the Philippines cannot go out of existence
except by a constitutional amendment.640
Q: EO 220 dated July 15, 1987 creates the Cordillera
Administrative Region (CAR) creating a temporary
administrative agency pending the creation of Cordillera
Autonomous Region. Does EO 222 thereby create a
territorial and political subdivision?
A: No. What is created is not a public corporation but an
executive agency under the control of the national
government. It is more similar to the regional
development councils which the President may create
640
Bernas Primer at 413 (2006 ed.)
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under Article X, Section 14. (Cordillera Board Coalition v.
COA, 1990)
D. Municipal Corporations
1. Municipal Corporation
A body politic and corporate constituted by the
incorporation of the inhabitants for the purpose of
local government.641
2. Elements of a Municipal Corporation642
1. Legal creation or incorporation- the law
creating or authorizing the creation or
incorporation of a municipal corporation.
2. Corporate name- The name by which the
corporation shall be known.
The Sangguniang Panlalawigan may, in
consultation with the Philippine Historical
Institute, change the name of the component
cities and municipalities, upon the
recommendation of the sanggunian concerned;
provided that the same shall be effective only
upon the ratification in a plebiscite conducted
for the purpose in the political unit directly
affected. (RA 7160, Section 13)
3. Inhabitants- The people residing in the
territory of the corporation.
4. Territory- The land mass where the
inhabitants reside, together with the internal
and external waters, and the air space above
the land waters.
3. Dual Nature and Functions
Every local government unit created or organized
(under the Local Government Code) is a body
politic and corporate endowed with powers to be
exercised by it in conformity with law. As such, it
shall exercise powers as a political subdivision of
the National Government and as a corporate entity
representing the inhabitants of its territory. (RA
7160, Section 15) Accordingly it has dual functions
namely:
1. Public or governmental- It acts as an
agent of the State for the government of
the territory and the inhabitants.
2. Private or proprietary- It acts as an
agent of the community in the
administration of local affairs. As such, it
acts as a separate entity, for its own
purposes, and not as a subdivision of the
State (Bara Lidasan v. Comelec, 21 SCRA
496)
E. Creation/ Dissolution of Municipal Corporations
1. Authority to Create
641
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 553 (2006)
642
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 553 (2006)
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A local government unit may be created, divided,
merged, abolished, or its boundaries substantially
altered either by law enacted by Congress in the
case of a province, city, municipality or any other
political subdivision, or by ordinance passed by the
sangguniang panlalawigan or sagguniang
panlungsod concerned in the case of a barangay
located within its territorial jurisdiction, subject to
such limitations and requirements prescribed in the
Local Government Code (RA 7160, Section 6)
2. Requisites/Limitations on Creation or
Conversion
Article X, Section 10: No province, city,
municipality or any barangay may be created,
divided, merged, abolished, or is its boundary
substantially altered, except in accordance with the
criteria established in the local government code
and subject to approval by a majority of the votes
cast in a PLEBISCITE in the political units directly
affected.
RA 7160, Section 10: No creation, division or
merger, abolition or substantial alteration of
boundaries of local government units shall take
effect unless approved by a majority of the votes
cast in a plebiscite called for the purpose in the
political unit or units directly affected. Said
plebiscite shall be conducted by the Comelec
within 120 days from the date of effectivity of the
law or ordinance effecting such action, unless said
law or ordinance fixes another date.
It was held that a plebiscite for creating a new
province should include the participation of the
residents of the mother province in order to conform
to the constitutional requirement. (Tan v. Comelec,
142 SCRA 727; Padilla v. Comelec, 214 SCRA 735)
In other words, all political units affected should
participate in the plebiscite. If what is involved is a
barangay, the plebiscite should be municipality or
city-wide; if a municipality or component city,
province wide. If a portion of province is to be carved
out and made into another province, the plebiscite
should include the mother province. (Tan v.
COMELEC, 1986)
RA 7160, Section 7: Based on verifiable indicators
of viability and projected capacity to provide
services, to wit:
1. Income- Income must be sufficient, based on
acceptable standards, to provide for all
essential government facilities and services
and special functions commensurate with the
size of population, as expected of the local
government unit concerned. Average annual
income for the last two consecutive years
based on 1991 constant prices should be at
least:
Municipality: 2.5 M
City: 100M (Year 2000 constant prices,
amended by RA 9009)
Highly urbanized city: 50M
Province: 20M
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It was held that the Internal Revenue

Allotments (IRAs) should be included in the 3. Beginning of Corporate Existence
computation of the average annual income of Upon the election and qualification of its chief
the municipality (for purposes of determining
whether the municipality may be validly
executive and a majority of the members of its
converted into a city), but under RA 9009, it is sanggunian, unless some other time is fixed
specifically provided that for conversion to therefor by the law or ordinance creating it. (RA
cities, the municipality’s income should not 7160, Section 14)
include the IRA. (Alvarez v. Guingona, 252
SCRA 695) 4. Division and Merger; Abolition of LGUs
2. Population- it shall be determined as the total Division and merger shall comply with same
number of inhabitants within the territorial requirements, provided that such division shall not
jurisdiction of the local government unit reduce the income, population or land area of the
concerned. local government unit or units concerned to less
3. Land Area- It must be contiguous, unless it than the minimum requirements prescribed;
provided further that the income classification of
comprises two or more islands or is separated
the original local government unit or units shall not
by a local government unit independent of the
fall below its current income classification prior to
others; properly identified by metes and
the division. (RA 7160, Section 8)
bounds with technical descriptions and
sufficient to provide for such basic services
Abolition. A local government unit may be
and facilities to meet the requirements of its
abolished when its income, population or land area
populace.
Income Population Land Area
has been irreversibly reduced to less than the
Barangay 2,000 inhabitants minimum standards prescribed for its creation, as
(except in Metro certified by the national agencies mentioned. The
Manila and other law or ordinance abolishing a local government unit
metropolitan shall specify the province, city, municipality or
political barangay with which the local government unit
subdivisions or sought to be abolished will be incorporated or
in highly merged. (RA 7160, Section 9)
urbanized cities
where the
requirement is 5. De Facto Municipal Corporations
5,000 Requisites:
inhabitants) 1. Valid law authorizing incorporation
Municipalit 2.5M 25,000 50sqkm 2. Attempt in good faith to organize under it
y 3. Colorable compliance with the law.
City 100M 150,000 100sqkm 4. Assumption of corporate powers
Highly 50M 200,000 The SC declared as unconstitutional Section 68 of the
Urbanized Revised Administrative Code which authorized the
City President to create municipalities through Executive
Province 20M 250,000 2,000sq Order. With this declaration, municipalities created by
hkm Executive Order could not claim to be de facto municipal
Compliance with the foregoing indicators shall be corporations because there was no valid law authorizing
attested to by the Department of Finance, the NSO incorporation. (Pelaez v. Auditor General, 15 SCRA 569)
and the Lands Management Bureau of the DENR.
6. Attack Against Invalidity of Incorporation
The SC said that the requirement that the territory No collateral attack shall lie; and inquiry into the
of newly-created local government units be legal existence of a municipal corporation is
identified by metes and bounds is intended to reserved to the State in a proceeding for quo
provide the means by which the area of the local warranto or other direct proceeding. (Malabang v.
government unit may be reasonably ascertained, Benito, 27 SCRA 533) But this rule applies only
i.e., as a toll in the establishment of the local when the municipal corporation is at least a de
government unit. As long as the territorial facto municipal corporation.
jurisdiction of the newly created city may be However, where the challenge was made nearly 30
years after the executive order; creating the
reasonably ascertained—by referring to common municipality was issued, or where the municipality
boundaries with neighboring municipalities—then has been in existence for all of 16 years before the
the legislative intent has been sufficiently served. ruling in Pelaez v. Auditor General was promulgated
(Mariano v. Comelec, 242 SCRA 211) and various governmental acts throughout the years
[Note: RA 7854, which converted Makati into a city, indicate the State’s recognition and acknowledgment
did not define the boundaries of the new city by of the existence of the municipal corporation, the
metes and bounds, because of a territorial dispute municipal corporation should be considered as a
between Makati and Taguig, which was best left for regular de jure municipality.
the courts to decide]

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2004 Bar Question:
Q:MADAKO is a municipality composed of 80
barangays, 30 west of Madako River and 50 east
thereof. The 30 western barangays, feeling left out
of economic initiatives, wish to constitute
themselves into a new and separate town to be
called Masigla. A law is passed creating Masigla
and a plebiscite is made in favor of the law. B.
Suppose that one year after Masigla was
constituted as a municipality, the law creating it is
voided because of defects. Would that invalidate
the acts of the municipality and/or its municipal
officers? Explain briefly.
Suggested Answer: Although the municipality
cannot be considered as a de facto corporation,
because there is no valid law under which it was
created, the acts of the municipality and of its
officers will not be invalidated, because the
existence of the law creating it is an operative fact
before it was declared unconstitutional. Hence, the
previous acts of the municipality and its officers
should be given effect as a matter of fairness and
justice. (Municipality ofMalabang v. Benito, 27
SCRA 533 [1969]
F. The Barangay
As the basic political unit, the barangay serves as
the primary planning and implementing unit of
governmental policies, plans, programs, projects
and activities in the community, as a forum wherein
the collective views of the people may be
expressed , crystallized and considered, and where
disputes may be amicably settled. (RA 7160,
Section 384)
G. The Municipality
The municipality, consisting of a group of baranays,
serves primarily as a general purpose government
for the coordination of and delivery of basic, regular
and direct services and effective governance of the
inhabitants within its jurisdiction. (RA 7160, Section
440)
RA 7160 Sections 440-447
H. The City
The city, composed of more urbanized and
developed barangays, serves as a general-
purpose government for the coordination and
delivery of basic, regular and direct services and
effective governance of the inhabitants within its
territorial jurisdiction. (RA 7160, Section 448)
RA 7160 Sections 448-258
Section 12. Cities that are highly urbanized,
as determined by law, and component cities
whose charters prohibit their voters from
voting for provincial elective officials, shall be
independent of the province. The voters of
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component cities within a province, whose
charters contain no such prohibition, shall not
be deprived of their right to vote for elective
provincial officials.
Q: May a resident of “component cities whose charter
prohibit their voters from voting for provincial elective
officials” run for a provincial elective office?
A: No. Section 12 says, these are independent of the
province. This independence includes the incapacity of its
residents to run for provincial office. (Abella v. COMELEC,
1991)
I. The Province
The province composed of a cluster of
municipalities and component cities, and as a
political and corporate unit of government, serves
as a dynamic mechanism for developmental
processes and effective governance of local
government units within its territorial jurisdiction.
(RA 7160, Section 459)
(See RA 7160 Sections 459-468)
J. Autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao and in
Cordilleras
(This will be discussed under Section 15)
(As of this writing, only one autonomous region,
that of the Muslim Mindanao, has been
established.)
K. Special Metropolitan Political Subdivisions
Section 11. The Congress may, by law, create special
metropolitan political subdivisions, subject to a plebiscite as
set forth in Section 10 hereof. The component cities and
municipalities shall retain their basic autonomy and shall be
entitled to their own local executive and legislative
assemblies. The jurisdiction of the metropolitan authority
that will thereby be created shall be limited to basic services
requiring coordination.
Pursuant to Article X, Section 11, Congress may,
by law, create special metropolitan political
subdivisions subject to a plebiscite set forth in
Section 20, but the component cities and
municipalities shall retain their basic autonomy and
shall be entitled to their own local executives and
legislative assemblies. The jurisdiction of the
metropolitan authority that will thereby created shall
be limited to basic services requiring coordination.
NOTE: As earlier decided in the Belair case, the
MMDA is NOT the metropolitan political unit
contemplated in Section 11. Rather it is an
administrative agency of the government and as
such it does not possess police power. It may
exrcise only such powers as are given to it by law.
Hence, where there is a traffic law or regulation
validly enacted by the legislature or those agencies
to whom legislative powers have been delegated
(the City of Manila in this case) empowering it to
confiscate suspend licenses of erring drivers, it
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may do perform such acts. Without such law,
however, the MMDA has no power.643
L. Leagues of LGUs/Officials
(See RA 7160 Sections 491-495; 496-498)
Section 13. Local government units may group themselves,
consolidate or coordinate their efforts, services, and
resources for purposes commonly beneficial to them in
accordance with law.
Q: Does the grouping contemplated in Section 13
create a new juridical entity?
A: No.644
Q: May local government units create these groupings
even without prior enabling law?
A: Yes.
Liga ng mga Barangay- Organization of all
barangay for the primary purpose of determining
the representation of the Liga in the sanggunians,
and for ventilating, articulating and crystallizing
issues affecting barangay government
administration and securing, through proper and
legal means, solutions thereto.
2003 Bar Question
Q: Can the Liga ng mga Barangay exercise
legislative powers?
SUGGESTED ANSWER: The Liga ng Mga
Barangay cannot exercise legislative powers. As
stated in Bito-Onon v. Fernandez. 350 SCRA 732
[2001], it is not a local government unit and its
primary purpose is to determine representation of
the mga in the sanggunians; to ventilate, articulate,
and crystallize issues affecting barangay
government administration; and to secure solutions
for them through proper and legal means.
League of Municipalities. Organized for the
primary purpose of ventilating, articulating and
crystallizing issues affecting municipal government
administration, and securing, through proper and
legal means, solutions thereto.
M. Regional Development Councils
Section 14. The President shall provide for regional
development councils or other similar bodies composed of
local government officials, regional heads of departments
and other government offices, and representatives from
non-governmental organizations within the regions for
purposes of administrative decentralization to strengthen the
autonomy of the units therein and to accelerate the
economic and social growth and development of the units in
the region.
Purpose. The purpose of this provision is to foster
administrative decentralization as a complement to
643
MMDA v. Garin, G.R. No. 130230, April 15, 2005.
644
Bernas Primer at 432 (2006 ed.)
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political decentralization. This is meant to allow
bottom-to-top planning rather than the reverse.645
Power to Create RDCs. It will be noted that the
power to form these development councils is given
to the President. He does not need authorization
from Congress.646
II. Local Autonomy
Section 2. The territorial and political subdivisions shall
enjoy local autonomy.
A. Constitutional Provisions
Article II, Section 25: The State shall ensure the
autonomy of local governments.
Article X, Section 2: The territorial and political
subdivisions shall enjoy local autonomy.
(See also Sections 4,5,6, 7 and 10 of Article X)
B. Significance of Declaration of Local Autonomy
It is meant to free local governments from the well-
nigh absolute control by the legislature which
characterized local government under the 1935
Constitution. Thus, although a distinction is made
between local governments in general and
autonomous regions, even those outside the
autonomous regions are supposed to enjoy
autonomy.647
D. Rules on Local Autonomy
“In resumé, the Court is laying down the following
rules:
1. Local autonomy, under the Constitution,
involves a mere decentralization of
administration, not of power, in which local
officials remain accountable to the central
government in the manner the law may
provide;
2. The new Constitution does not prescribe
federalism;
3. The change in constitutional language (with
respect to the supervision clause) was meant
but to deny legislative control over local
governments; it did not exempt the latter from
legislative regulations provided regulation is
consistent with the fundamental premise of
autonomy;
4. Since local governments remain accountable
to the national authority, the latter may, by law,
and in the manner set forth therein, impose
disciplinary action against local officials;
645
Bernas Commentary, p 1098 (2003 ed).
646
Bernas Commentary, p 1098 (2003 ed).
647
Bernas Primer at 414 (2006 ed.)
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5. "Supervision" and "investigation" are not
inconsistent terms; "investigation" does
not signify "control" (which the President
does not have); xxx” (Ganzon v. CA, GR
93252, 08.05.91)
E. Meaning of Local Autonomy
*Local autonomy, under the Constitution,
involves a mere DECENTRALIZATION OF
ADMINISTRATION, not of power.... (Ganzon v.
CA, 1991)
Nachura and Agra Notes: The principle of local
autonomy under the 1987 Constitution simply means
decentralization. (Basco v. Pagcor, 197 SCRA
52)648 (Lina v. Pano, 2001)
Bernas: Local autonomy means more than just
decentralization. But the concept of autonomy is
relative. Autonomy for local governments in general
will be less than for the autonomous regions.649
However, even as we recognize that the
Constitution guarantees autonomy to local
government units, the exercise of local autonomy
remains subject to the power of control by
Congress, and the power of general supervision by
the President. (Judge Dadole v. COA, 2002)
Q: What is the meaning of local autonomy as it has
emerged in recent decisions?
A: It means that local governments have certain
powers given by the Constitution which may not be
curtailed by the national government, but that,
outside of these, local governments may not pass
ordinances contrary to statute. (Magtajas v. Pryce
Properties, 234 SCRA 255 (1994)).650
Q: Do local governments have the power to grant
franchise to operate CATV system.
A: No. (Batangas CATV v. CA, 2004)
Q: The law says that the budget officer shall be
appointed by the Department head upon the
recommendation of the head of local government
subject to civil service rules and regulations. If none
of those recommended by the local government
head meets the requirements of law, may the
Department head appoint anyone he chooses?
A: No, he must return the recommendations of the
local government head explaining why the
recommendees are not qualified and ask for a new
recommendation. In other words, the
recommendation of the local government head is a
condition sine qua non of the Department’s
appointing authority. This is the only way local
autonomy can be given by recognition the
Constitution wants it to have. When in doubt, favor
autonomy. (San Juan v. CSC, 1991)
648
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 551 (2006)
649
Bernas Commentary, p 1077 (2003 ed).
650
Bernas Primer at 415 (2006 ed.)
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Q: May COA reduce the allowance given to judges
by local governments?
A: No. Since the Local Government Code authorizes
local governments to give allowance to judges and
decide how much this should be, local autonomy
prohibits the Commission on Audit from interfering
with the authority of the local a government by
reducing what has been decided by the local
government. (Dadole v. COA, 2002; Leynes v. COA,
2003)
F. Regional Autonomy
Regional autonomy is the degree of self-
determination exercised by the local
government unit vis-à-vis the central
government. (Disomangcop v. Secretary of Public
Works and Highways, GR 149848, 11.25.2004)
“Regional autonomy refers to the granting of
basic internal government powers to the people
of a particular area or region with least control
and supervision from the central government.
The objective of the autonomy system is to permit
determined groups, with a common tradition and
shared social-cultural characteristics, to develop
freely their ways of life and heritage, exercise their
rights, and be in charge of their own business.”
(Disomangcop v. Secretary of Public Works and
Highways, GR 149848, 11.25.2004)
Regional autonomy is also a means towards
solving existing serious peace and order
problems and secessionist movements.
Parenthetically, autonomy, decentralization and
regionalization, in international law, have become
politically acceptable answers to intractable
problems of nationalism, separatism, ethnic conflict
and threat of secession. However, the creation of
autonomous regions does not signify the
establishment of a sovereignty distinct from that of
the Republic, as it can be installed only "within the
framework of this Constitution and the national
sovereignty as well as territorial integrity of the
Republic of the Philippines. (Disomangcop v.
Secretary of Public Works and Highways, GR
149848, 11.25.2004)
G. Fiscal Autonomy
“Local autonomy includes both administrative
and fiscal autonomy. xxx The Court declared
therein that local fiscal autonomy includes the
power of the LGUs to, inter alia, allocate their
resources in accordance with their own priorities.
xxx Further, a basic feature of local fiscal autonomy
is the constitutionally mandated automatic release
of the shares of LGUs in the national internal
revenue.” (Province of Batangas v. Romulo, GR
152774, 05.27.2004)
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“Under existing law, local government units, in
addition to having administrative autonomy in the
exercise of their functions, enjoy fiscal autonomy
as well. Fiscal autonomy means that local
governments have the power to create their
own sources of revenue in addition to their
equitable share in the national taxes released
by the national government, as well as the
power to allocate their resources in accordance
with their own priorities. It extends to the
preparation of their budgets, and local officials in turn-
have to work within the constraints thereof. They are not
formulated at the national level and imposed on local
governments, whether they are relevant to local needs
and resources or not. Hence, the necessity of a balancing
of viewpoints and the harmonization of proposals from
both local and national officials, who in any case are
partners in the attainment of national goals. Local fiscal
autonomy does not however rule out any manner of
national government intervention by way of supervision,
in order to ensure that local programs, fiscal and
otherwise, are consistent with national goals.
Significantly, the President, by constitutional fiat, is the
head of the economic and planning agency of the
government, primarily responsible for formulating and
implementing continuing, coordinated and integrated
social and economic policies, plans and programs for the
entire country. However, under the Constitution, the
formulation and the implementation of such policies and
programs are subject to "consultations with the
appropriate public agencies, various private sectors, and
local government units. The President cannot do so
unilaterally.” (Pimentel v. Aguirre, GR 132988,
07.19.2000)
“xxx the limited and restrictive nature of the tax
exemption privileges under the Local
Government Code is consistent with the State
policy to ensure autonomy of local
governments and the objective of the Local
Government Code to grant genuine and
meaningful autonomy to enable local government
units to attain their fullest development as self-
reliant communities and make them effective
partners in the attainment of national goals. The
obvious intention of the law is to broaden the tax
base of local government units to assure them of
substantial sources of revenue.” (PHILRECA v.
DILG, GR 143076, 06.10.2003)
“With the added burden of devolution, it is even
more imperative for government entities to share
in the requirements of development, fiscal or
otherwise, by paying taxes or other charges due
from them.” (NAPOCOR v. Cabanatuan City, GR
149110, 04.09.2003)
“ xxx in taxing government-owned or controlled
corporations, the State ultimately suffers no
loss.” (Philippine Ports Authority v. Iloilo City, GR
109791, 07.14.2003)
“The important legal effect of Section 5 (of Article X
of the 1987 Constitution) is that henceforth, in
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interpreting statutory provisions on municipal
fiscal powers, doubts will have to be resolved in
favor of municipal corporations.” (San Pablo City v.
Reyes, GR 127708, 03.25.99)
ACORD v. Zamora (GR 144256, 06.08.2005)
Constitution provides for automatic release of
IRA.
The General Appropriation Act of 2000 cannot
place a portion of the Internal Revenue
Allotment (P10B) in an Unprogrammed Fund
only to be released when a condition is met i.e.
the original revenue targets are realized, since
this would violate the automatic release
provision under Section 5, Article X of the
Constitution. As the Constitution lays upon the
executive the duty to automatically release the
just share of local governments in the national
taxes, so it enjoins the legislature not to pass
laws that might prevent the executive from
performing this duty. Both the executive and
legislative are barred from withholding the
release of the IRA. If the framers of the
Constitution intended to allow the enactment of
statutes making the release of IRA conditional
instead of automatic, then Article X, Section 6
of the Constitution would have been worded
differently. Congress has control only over the
share which must be just, not over the manner
by which the share must be released which
must be automatic since the phrase “as
determined by law” qualified the share, not the
release thereof.
Province of Batangas v. Romulo (GR 152774,
05.27.2004)
GAA cannot amend LGC. Constitution provides
for automatic release of IRA.
The General Appropriation Acts of 1999, 2000
and 2001 and resolutions of the Oversight
Committee cannot amend the 1991 Local
Government Code insofar as they provide for
the local governments’ share in the Internal
Revenue Allotments as well as the time and
manner of distribution of said share. A national
budget cannot amend a substantive law, in this
case the Code. The provisions in the GAA
creating the Local Government Special
Equalization Fund and authorizing the non-
release of the 40% to all local governments are
inappropriate provisions. Further, the
restrictions are violative of fiscal autonomy.
Fiscal autonomy means that local governments
have the power to create their own sources of
revenue in addition to their equitable share in
the national taxes released by the national
government, as well as the power to allocate
their resources in accordance with their own
priorities. It extends to the preparation of their
budgets, and local officials in turn have to work
within the constraints thereof. They are not
formulated at the national level and imposed on
local governments, whether they are relevant to
local needs and resources or not. Further, a
basic feature of local fiscal autonomy is the
constitutionally mandated automatic release of
the shares of local governments in the national
internal revenue.
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Civil Service Commission v. Department of
Budget and Management (GR 158791,
07.22.2005)
“No Report, No Release” policy violates fiscal
autonomy.
A “no report, no release” policy may not be
validly enforced against offices vested with
fiscal autonomy. Such policy cannot be
enforced against offices possessing fiscal
autonomy such as Constitutional Commissions
and local governments. The automatic release
provision found in the Constitution means that
these local governments cannot be required to
perform any act to receive the “just share”
accruing to them from the national coffers.
Pimentel v. Aguirre (GR 132988, 07.19.2000)
Executive withholding of 10% of the Internal
Revenue Allotment without complying with
requirements set forth in Section 284 LGC
violated local autonomy and fiscal autonomy of
local governments; Withholding amounted to
executive control
“Under existing law, local government units, in
addition to having administrative autonomy in
the exercise of their functions, enjoy fiscal
autonomy as well” and that “fiscal autonomy
means that local governments have the power
to create their own sources of revenue in
addition to their equitable share in the national
taxes released by the national government, as
well as the power to allocate their resources in
accordance with their own priorities”.
Dadole v. Commission on Audit (GR 125350,
12.03.2002)
DBM cannot impose a limitation when the law
imposes none.
DBM Local Budget Circular No. 55 which
provides a limit to allowance that may be given
by local governments to judges is null and void
since the 1991 Local Government does not
prescribe a limit. By virtue of his/ her power of
supervision, the President can only interfere in
the affairs and activities of a local government
unit if it has acted contrary to law.
Leynes v. COA (GR 143596, 12.11.2003)
DBM cannot nullify a statutory power.
A National Compensation Circular by the
Department of Budget and Management cannot
nullify the authority of municipalities to grant
allowances to judges authorized in the 1991
Local Government Code. The Circular prohibits
the payment of representation and
transportation allowances from more than one
source – from national and local governments.
G. Self-Determination
“Self-determination refers to the need for a political
structure that will respect the autonomous peoples'
uniqueness and grant them sufficient room for self-
expression and self-construction. (Disomangcop v.
Secretary of Public Works and Highways, GR
149848, 11.25.2004)
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H. Decentralization
A necessary prerequisite of autonomy is
decentralization. Decentralization is a decision by
the central government authorizing its
subordinates, whether geographically or
functionally defined, to exercise authority in certain
areas. It involves decision-making by subnational
units. It is typically a delegated power, wherein a
larger government chooses to delegate certain
authority to more local governments. Federalism
implies some measure of decentralization, but
unitary systems may also decentralize.
Decentralization differs intrinsically from federalism
in that the sub-units that have been authorized to
act (by delegation) do not possess any claim of
right against the central government.
Decentralization comes in two forms —
deconcentration and devolution.
Deconcentration is administrative in nature; it
involves the transfer of functions or the delegation
of authority and responsibility from the national
office to the regional and local offices. This mode of
decentralization is also referred to as
administrative decentralization.
Devolution, on the other hand, connotes political
decentralization, or the transfer of powers,
responsibilities, and resources for the performance
of certain functions from the central government to
local government units. This is a more liberal form
of decentralization since there is an actual transfer
of powers and responsibilities. It aims to grant
greater autonomy to local government units in
cognizance of their right to self-government, to
make them self-reliant, and to improve their
administrative and technical capabilities.”
(Disomangcop v. Secretary of Public Works and
Highways, GR 149848, 11.25.2004)
“Decentralization simply means the devolution
of national administration, not power, to local
governments. Local officials remain accountable
to the central government as the law may provide.”
(Pimentel v. Aguirre, GR 132988, 07.19.2000)
Q: Are autonomy and decentralization the same?
A: Not really. Autonomy is either decentralization
of administration or decentralization of power.
There is decentralization of administration when
the central government delegates administrative
powers to political subdivisions in order to broaden
the base of governmental power an in the process to
make local governments more responsive and
accountable and ensure their fullest development as
self-reliant communities and make them mote
effective partners in the pursuit of national
development and social progress. At the same time
it relieves the central government of the burden of
managing local affairs and enable it to concentrate
on national concerns…
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Decentralization of power on the other hand,
involves an abdication of political power in favor of
local government units declared to be autonomous.
In that case the autonomous government is free to
chart its own destiny and shape its future with
minimum intervention from central government
authorities. According to a constitutional author,
decentralization of power amounts to “self-
immolation,” since in that event, the autonomous
government becomes accountable not to the central
authorities but to its constituency. (Limbona v. Conte
Miguelin, 1989 citing Bernas, Brewing the Storm
Over Autonomy)651
I. President’s General Supervision
Section 4. The President of the Philippines shall exercise
general supervision over local governments. Provinces with
respect to component cities and municipalities, and cities
and municipalities with respect to component barangays,
shall ensure that the acts of their component units are within
the
scope of their prescribed powers and functions.
1. Power of General Supervision
The power of general supervision is the power of a
superior officer to see to it that the lower officers
perform their functions in accordance with law. It
does not include the power to substitute one’s
judgment for that of a lower officer in matters where
a lower officer has various legal alternatives to
choose from.652
“Consistent with the doctrine that local government
does not mean the creation of imperium in imperio
or a state within a State, the Constitution has
vested the President of the Philippines the power of
general supervision over local government units.
Such grant of power includes the power of
discipline over local officials, keeping them
accountable to the public, and seeing to it that their
acts are kept within the bounds of law. Needless to
say, this awesome supervisory power, however,
must be exercised judiciously and with utmost
circumspection so as not to transgress the avowed
constitutional policy of local autonomy.” (Malonzo
v. Zamora, GR 137718, 07.27.99)
“Hand in hand with the constitutional restraint on
the President's power over local governments is
the state policy of ensuring local autonomy. xxx
Paradoxically, local governments are still
subject to regulation, however limited, for the
purpose of enhancing self-government.”
(Pimentel v. Aguirre, GR 132988, 07.19.2000)
Q: When Section 187 of the Local Government
Code authorizes the Secretary of Justice to pass
judgment on the constitutionality or legality of tax
ordinances or revenue measures, does he not
exercise the power of control?
651
Bernas Primer at 414 (2006 ed.)
652
Bernas Primer at 418 (2006 ed.)
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A: No. He does not thereby dictate the law should
be but merely ensures that the ordinance is in
accordance with law. (Drilon v. Lim)
Q: Petitioner challenges the right of the President,
through the Secretary of Interior to suspend him on
the ground that the removal of the phrase “As may
be provided by law” from unconstitutional provision
has stripped the President and legislature of the
power over local governments. Corollarily, he argues
that new Constitution has effectively repealed
existing laws on the subject. Decide.
A: The power of general supervision of the President
includes the power to investigate and remove.
Moreover, Section 3 itself of this Article provides that
the Local Government Code (LGC) may provide for
“removal” thus indicating that laws on the subject are
not out of the compass of the legislature. Autonomy
does not transform local governments into kingdoms
unto themselves. (Ganzon v. CA, 1991)
Q: May the Secretary of the local Government
annul the election of officers of a federation of
barangay officials?
A: No. Such annulment would amount to control and
therefore in excess of executive supervisory powers.
(Taule v. Secretary Santos, 1991)653
2. Supervisory Structure in the Local
Government System
The President has general supervision over all
LGUs. But his direct supervisory contact is with
autonomous regions, provinces, and independent
cities. The rest follow in hierarchal order as
indicated in Section 4.
J. Local Autonomy and Legislative Control
“The Constitution did not, however, intend, for the
sake of local autonomy, to deprive the legislature
of all authority over municipal corporations, in
particular, concerning discipline. The change in
constitutional language did not exempt local
governments from legislative regulation provided
regulation is consistent with the fundamental
premise of autonomy.” (Ganzon v. CA, GR 93252,
08.05.91)
This basic relationship between the national
legislature and the local government units has not
been enfeebled by the new provisions in the
Constitution strengthening the policy of local
autonomy. Without meaning to detract from that
policy, we here confirm that Congress retains
control of the local government units although
in significantly reduced degree now than under
our previous Constitutions. The power to create still
includes the power to destroy. The power to grant
still includes the power to withhold or recall. xxx By
and large, however, the national legislature is still
the principal of the local government units, which
cannot defy its will or modify or violate it.”
653
Bernas Primer at 419 (2006 ed.)
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(Magtajas v. Pryce Properties, GR 111097,

07.20.94) D. Declaration of Policy (Section 2)

III. Local Government Code 1. The territorial and political subdivisions of the
Principal Guidelines Given to Congress State shall enjoy genuine and meaningful local
Effectivity of LGC autonomy to enable them to attain their fullest
Scope of Application development as self-reliant communities and
Declaration of Policy make them more effective partners in the
Rules of Interpretation attainment of national goals;
2. Ensure accountability of local government
Section 3. The Congress shall enact a local government units through the institution of effective
code which shall provide for a more responsive and mechanisms of recall, initiative and
accountable local government structure instituted through a referendum; and
system of decentralization with effective mechanisms of 3. Require all national agencies and offices to
recall, initiative, and referendum, allocate among the conduct periodic consultations with appropriate
different local government units their powers, local government units, non-governmental and
responsibilities, and resources, and provide for the
qualifications, election, appointment and removal, term,
people’s organizations, and other concerned
salaries, powers and functions and duties of local officials, sectors of the community before any project or
and all other matters relating to the organization and program is implemented in their respective
operation of the local units. jurisdictions.

A. Principal Guidelines Given to Congress E. Rules of Interpretation

The principal guidelines given to Congress for 1.

structuring LGUs are:
1. That the structure must be “responsive and
accountable” and “instituted though a system
of decentralization.”
2. The structure must be both sensitive to the
needs of the locality, accountable to the
electorate of the locality, and freed as much as
possible from central government
interference.654
Q: The 1973 Constitution contained a provision
which said that “No change in the existing form of
government shall take effect until ratified by a
majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite called for
the purpose.” Why was this not retained?
A: The provision was considered too limitive of the
power of Congress.655
B. Effectivity of LGC
January 1, 1992, unless otherwise provided
herein, after its complete publication in at least one
newspaper of general circulation (RA 7160, Section
536)
C. Scope of LGC’s Application
The Code shall apply to all provinces, cities,
municipalities, barangays and other political
subdivisions as may be created by law, and , to the
extent herein provided, to officials, offices or
agencies of the National Government (RA 7160,
Section 536)
654
Bernas Commentary, p 1081 (2003 ed).
655
Bernas Primer at 417 (2006 ed.)
Any provision on a power of local government
unit shall be liberally interpreted in its favor,
and in case of doubt, any question thereon
shall be resolved in favor of devolution of
powers and of the local government unit.
2. Any tax ordinance or revenue measure shall
be construed strictly against the local
government unit enacting it and liberally in
favor of the taxpayer. Any tax exemption,
incentive or relief granted by any local
government unit shall be construed strictly
against the person claiming it.
3. The general welfare provisions shall be
liberally interpreted to give more powers to
local government units in accelerating
economic development and upgrading the
quality of life for the people in the community.
4. Rights and obligations existing on the date of
effectivity of this Code and arising out of
contracts or any other source of prestation
involving a local government unit shall be
governed by the original terms and conditions
of said contracts or the law in force at the time
such rights were vested.
5. In the resolution of controversies arising under
this Code where no legal provision or
jurisprudence applies, resort may be had to
the customs and traditions in the place where
the controversies take place.656
(See page 676-697 of Jack’s Compendium(2006))
IV. General Powers and Attributes of LGUs
Powers in General
Governmental Powers
Corporate Powers
656
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 561 (2006)

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2. Where the statute is silent, local

Section 5. Each local government unit shall have the power
to create its own sources of revenues and to levy taxes,
fees and charges subject to such guidelines and limitations
as the Congress may provide, consistent with the basic
policy of local autonomy. Such taxes, fees, and charges
shall accrue exclusively to the local governments.
Section 6. Local government units shall have a just share,
as determined by law, in the national taxes which shall be
automatically released to them.
Section 7. Local governments shall be entitled to an
equitable share in the proceeds of the utilization and
development of the national wealth within their respective
areas, in the manner provided by law, including sharing the
same with the inhabitants by way of direct benefits.
A. Powers in General
government units have discretion to select
reasonable means and methods of
exercise.657
B. Governmental Powers
1. General Welfare (RA 7160, Section 16)
2. Basic Services and Facilities (RA 7160, §17)
3. Power to Generate and Apply Resources (RA
7160 §18; Article X, §§5-7)
4. Eminent Domain (RA 7160, § 19)
5. Reclassification of Lands (RA 7160, § 20)
6. Closure and Opening of Roads (RA 7160, §
21)
7. Local Legislative Power (RA 7160, §§ 48-59)
8. Authority over Police Units (See Article XVI,
Section 6; PNP Act)

1. General Welfare
1. Sources
RA 7160, Section 16: Every local government unit
1. Article II, Section 25: “The Sate shall
shall exercise the powers expressly granted, those
ensure the autonomy of local
necessarily implied therefrom, as well as powers
governments.”
necessary, appropriate, or incidental for its efficient
2. Article X, Sections 5,6, & 7.
and effective governance, and those which are
3. Statutes (e.g., RA 7160)
essential to the promotion of general welfare.
4. Charter (particularly of cities)
Within their respective territorial jurisdiction, local
government units shall ensure and support, among
2. Classification
other things, the preservation and enrichment of
1. Express, implied, inherent (powers culture, promote health and safety, enhance the
necessary and proper for governance, right of the people to a balanced ecology,
e.g., to promote health and safety, encourage and support the development of
enhance prosperity, improve morals of appropriate and self-reliant scientific and
inhabitants) technological capabilities, improve public morals,
2. Public or governmental; Private or enhance economic prosperity and social justice,
proprietary promote full employment among its residents,
maintain peace and order, and preserve the
3. Intramural, extramural
comfort and convenience of their inhabitants.
4. Mandatory, directory; Ministerial, Police power. The general welfare clause is
discretionary. the statutory grant of police power to local
government units.
Governmental Powers Corporate Powers
1. General Welfare 1. To have continuous “The general welfare clause has two
2. Basic Services and succession in its branches.
Facilities corporate name.
(1) General legislative power, authorizes the
3. Power to Generate 2. To sue and be sued
and Apply Resources 3. To have and use a municipal council to enact ordinances and
4. Eminent Domain corporate seal make regulations not repugnant to law, as may
5. Reclassification of 4. To acquire and be necessary to carry into effect and discharge
Lands convey real or the powers and duties conferred upon the
6. Closure and Opening personal property municipal council by law.
of Roads 5. Power to enter into (2) Police power proper, authorizes the
7. Local Legislative contracts municipality to enact ordinances as may be
Power 6. To exercise such
necessary and proper for the health and
8. Authority over Police other powers as are
Units granted to safety, prosperity, morals, peace, good order,
corporations, subject comfort, and convenience of the municipality
to the limitations and its inhabitants, and for the protection of
provided in the Code their property.” (Rural Bank of Makati v.
and other laws. Makati, GR 150763, 07.02.2004)

3. Execution of Powers
1. Where statute prescribes the manner of
exercise, the procedure must be followed; 657
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 562 (2006)

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“As with the State, the local government may
be considered as having properly exercised its
police power only if the following requisites are
met: (1) the interests of the public generally,
as distinguished from those of a particular
class, require the interference of the State, and
(2) the means employed are reasonably
necessary for the attainment of the object
sought to be accomplished and not unduly
oppressive upon individuals. Otherwise
stated, there must be a concurrence of a
lawful subject and lawful method.” (Lucena
Grand Central v. JAC, GR 148339
02.23.2005)
Limitations on the exercise of powers under
this clause:
1. Exercisable only within territorial limits of the
local government unit, except for protection of
water supply.
2. Equal protection clause. (The interests of the
public in general, as distinguished from those
of a particular class, require the exercise of the
power.
3. Due process clause. (The means employed
are reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of the purpose and not unduly
oppressive on individuals)
4. Must not be contrary to the Constitution and
the laws. Prohibited activities may not be
legalized in the guise of regulation; activities
allowed by law cannot be prohibited, only
regulated.
Magtajas v. Pryce Properties: To be
valid , an ordinance:
a. Must not contravene the Constitution and
any statute;
b. Must not be unfair or oppressive;
c. Must not be partial or discriminatory;
d. Must not prohibit, but ay regulate trade;
e. Must not be unreasonable and;
f. Must be general in application and
consistent with public policy.
Cases:
Valid Exercise of Police Power
1. Closure of Bank. A local government unit may, in
the exercise of police power under the general
welfare clause, order the closure of a bank for failure
to secure the appropriate mayor’s permit and
business licenses. (Rural Bank of Makati v.
Municipality of Makati, 2004)
2. Ban on Shipment. The SC upheld, as legitimate
exercise of the police power, the validity of the
Puerto Princesa Ordinance “banning the shipment of
all live fish and lobster outside Puerto Princesa from
1993-1998 as well as the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan Resolution “prohibiting that catching,
gathering, possessing, buying, selling and shipment
of live marine coral dwelling of aquatic organisms for
a period of 5 years, coming from Palawan waters.”
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3. It was held that the power of municipal corporations
is broad and has been said to be commensurate
with but to exceed the duty to provide for the real
needs of the people in their health, safety, comfort
and convenience, and consistently as may be with
private rights. Ordinance is not unconstitutional
merely because it incidentally benefits a limited
number of persons. The support for the poor has
long been an accepted exercise of the police power
in the promotion of the common good. (Binay v.
Domingo, 201 SCRA 508)
4. Imposition of Annual Fee. It was held that where
police power is used to discourage non-useful
occupations or enterprises, an annual permit/
license fee of P100.00 although a bit exorbitant, is
valid. (Physical Therapy Organization of the
Philippines v. Municipal Board of Manila)
5. The ordinance requiring owners of commercial
cemeteries to reserve 6% of their burial lots for
burial grounds of paupers was held invalid; it was
not an exercise of the police power, but of eminent
domain. (QC v. Ericta, 122 SCRA 759)
6. The Manila Ordinance prohibiting barber shops from
conducting massage business in another room was
held valid, as it was passed for the protection of
public morals. (Velasco v. Villegas, 120 SCRA 568)
7. Zoning Ordinance. A zoning ordinance
reclassifying residential into commercial or light
industrial area is a valid exercise of the police power.
(Ortigas v. Feati Bank, 94 SCRA 533)
8. The act of the Municipal Mayor in opening Jupiter
and Orbit Streets of Bel Air Subdivision, to the public
was deemed a valid exercise of police power.
(Sangalang v. IAC, 176 SCRA 719)
Invalid Ordinances
1. LGU may not regulate subscriber rate. A local
government unit may not regulate the subscribe
rates charged by CATV operators within its territorial
jurisdiction. The regulation and supervision of the
CATV industry shall remain vested “solely” in the
NTC. Considering that the CATV industry is so
technical a field, NTC, a specialized agency, is in a
better position than the local government units to
regulate it. This does not mean, however, that the
LGU cannot prescribe regulations over CATV
operators in the exercise of the general welfare
clause. (Batangas CATV v. CA, 2004)
2. Ordinance contrary to statute held invalid. The
ordinance prohibiting the issuance of a business
permit to, and cancelling any business permit of any
establishment allowing its premises to be used as a
casino, and the ordinance prohibiting the operation
of a casino, were declared invalid for being contrary
to PD 1869 (Charter of PAGCOR)which has the
character and force of a statute. (Magtajas)
3. Where power to grant franchise not granted.
What Congress delegated to the City of Manila in RA
409 (Revised Charter of Manila) with respect to
wagers and betting was the power “to license, permit
or regulate,” not the power to franchise. This means
that the license or permit issued by the City of
Manila to operate wager or betting activity, such as
jai-lai, would not amount to something meaningful
unless the holder of the license or permit was also
franchised by the National Government to operate.
Therefore, Manila Ordinance No. 7065, which
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purported to grant ADC a frachise to conduct jai-alai
operations, is void and ultra vires (Lim v. Pacquing)
RA 7160 expressly authorizes the Mayor to
issue permits and licenses for the holding of
activities for any charitable or welfare purpose;
thus, the Mayor cannot feign total lack of
authority to act on requests for such permits.
(Olivares v. Sandiganbayan , 1995) But its is
the Laguna Lake Development Authority
(LLDA), not the municipal government, which
has the exclusive jurisdiction to issue permits
for the enjoyment of fishery privileges in
Laguna de Bay, by virtue of RA 4850, PD 813
and EO 927, because although RA 7160 vests
in municipalities the authority to grant fishery
privileges in municipal waters, RA 7160 did not
repeal the charter of LLDA, and the latter is an
exercise of the police power. (LLDA v. CA)
4. The ordinance of Bayambang, Pangasinan,
appointing Lacuesta manager of fisheries for 25
years, renewable for another 25 years, was held
invalid, ultra vires, as it effectively amends a general
law.(Terrado, v. CA, 131 SCRA 373)
5. An ordinance imposing P0.30 police inspection fee
per sack of cassava flour produced and shipped out
of the municipality was held invalid. It is not a license
fee but a tax, unjust and unreasonable, since the
only service of the municipality is for the policeman
to verify from the drivers of trucks of petitioner the
number of sacks actually loaded. (Matalin Coconut v.
Municipal Council of Malabang, 143 SCRA 404)
6. The power to issue permits to operate cockpits is
vested in the Mayor, in line with the policy of local
autonomy. (Philippine Gamefowl Commission v. IAC)
7. The Bocaue, Bulacan ordinance prohibiting the
operation of night-clubs, was declared invalid,
because of his prohibitory, not merely regulatory,
character. (Dela Cruz v. Paras, 123 SCRA 569)
8. It was held that the ordinance penalizing persons
charging full payment for admission of children
(ages 7-12) in moviehouses was an invalid exercise
of police power for being unreasonable and
oppressive on business of petitioners. (Balacuit v.
CFI)
1993 Bar Question
Q: Mayor Alfredo Lim closed the funhouses in the Ermita
district suspected of being fronts for prostitution. To
determine the feasibility of putting up a legalized red light
district, the city council conducted an inquiry and invited
operators of the closed funhouses to get their views. No
one honored the invitation. The city council issued
subpoenas to compel the attendance of the operators but
which were completely disregarded. The council declared
the operators guilty of contempt and issued warrants for
their arrest. The operators come to you for legal advice,
asking the following questions: (1) Is the council
empowered to issue subpoenas to compel their
attendance? (2) Does the council have the power to cite
for contempt?
Suggested Answer: (1) The city council is not
empowered to issue subpoenas to compel the attendance
of the operators of the fun-houses In the Ermita district.
There is no provision in the Constitution, the Local
Government Code, or any law expressly granting local
legislative bodies the power to subpoena witnesses. As
held in Negros Oriental II Electric Cooperative, Inc. vs.
Sangguniang Panlungsod of Dumaguete, 155 SCRA 421,
such power cannot be implied from the grant of delegated
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legislated power. Such power is Judicial. To allow local
legislative bodies to exercise such power without express
statutory basis would violate the doctrine of separation of
powers.
(2) The city council does not have the power to cite for
contempt. There is likewise no provision in the
Constitution, the Local Government Code, or any other
laws granting local legislative bodies the power to cite for
contempt. Such power cannot be deemed implied in the
delegation of legislative power to local legislative bodies,
for the existence of such power poses a potential
derogation of individual rights.
2. Basic Services and Facilities
RA 7160, Section 17: Local government units shall
endeavor to be self-reliant and shall continue
exercising the powers and discharging the duties
and functions currently vested upon them. They
shall also discharge the functions and
responsibilities of national agencies and offices
devolved to them pursuant to this Code (within 6
months after the effectivity of this Code) They shall
likewise exercise such other powers and discharge
such other functions as are necessary, appropriate,
or incidental to efficient and effective provision of
the basic services and facilities enumerated herein.
Note that public works and infrastructure projects
and other facilities, programs and services funded
by the national government under the General
Appropriations Act and other laws, are not covered
under this section, except where the local
government unit is duly designated as the
implementing agency for such projects, facilities,
programs and services.658
Devolution. Devolution refers to the act by which
the national government confers power and authority
upon the various local government units to perform
specific functions and responsibilities. This includes
the transfer to the local government units of the
records, equipment and other assets and personnel
of national agencies and offices. Regional offices of
national agencies shall be phased out within one
year form the approval of this Code. Career regional
directors who cannot be absorbed by the local
government unit shall be retained by the national
government, without diminution in rank, salary or
tenure.659
3. Power to Generate and Apply Resources
RA 7160, Section 18: Local government units shall
have the power and authority to establish an
organization that shall be responsible for the
efficient and effective implementation of their
development plans, program objectives and
priorities; to create their own sources of revenue
and to levy taxes, fees and charges which shall
accrue exclusively to their use and disposition and
which shall be retained by them; to have a just
share in the national taxes which shall be
automatically and directly released to them without
need of further action; to have an equitable share
in the proceeds from the utilization and
658
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 566 (2006)
659
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 567 (2006)
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development of the national wealth and resources
within their respective territorial jurisdictions
including develop, lease, encumber, alienate or
otherwise dispose of real or personal property held
by them in their proprietary capacity and to apply
their resources and assets for productive,
developmental or welfare purposes, in the exercise
of furtherance of their governmental or proprietary
powers and functions and thereby ensure their
development into self-reliant communities and
active participants in the attainment of national
goals.
Section 18 of RA 7160 restates and
implements Sections 5,6,7 of Article X. But
this power is always subject to the limitations which
the Congress may provide by law. (Basco v.
PAGCOR, 197 SCRA 52) Thus, it was held that the
local government units have no power to tax
instrumentalities of the National Government, such
as PAGCOR.
“The power to tax is primarily vested in the
Congress; however, in our jurisdictions, it may be
exercised by local legislative bodies, no longer
merely by virtue of a valid delegation as before,
but pursuant to direct authority conferred by
Section 5, Article X of the Constitution. Under the
latter the exercise of the power may be subject to
such guidelines and limitations as the Congress may
provide which, however, must be consistent with the
basic policy of local autonomy. xxx These policy
considerations are consistent with the State policy to
ensure autonomy to local governments and the
objective of the LGC that they enjoy genuine and
meaningful local autonomy to enable them to attain
their fullest development as self-reliant communities
and make them effective partners in the attainment
of national goals. The power to tax is the most
effective instrument to raise needed revenues to
finance and support myriad activities of local
government units for the delivery of basic services
essential to the promotion of the general welfare and
the enhancement of peace, progress, and prosperity
of the people.” (Mactan Cebu International Airport v.
Marcos, GR 110082, 09.11.96)
Q: What are the fund sources of local
governments?
A: They are:
1. Local taxes, fees and charges;
2. Its share in the national taxes;
3. Its share in the proceeds of the utilization of
national resources within their respective
areas;
4. Other “sources of revenues” which they may
legitimately make use of either in their public
or governmental capacity, or private or
proprietary capacity.660
Q: What is the scope of their power to levy taxes,
fees, and charges?
A: They are subject to such guidelines and
limitations as Congress may provide. However, such
guidelines and limitations to be imposed by
660
Bernas Primer at 423 (2006 ed.)
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Congress must not be such as to frustrate the “basic
policy of local autonomy.”661
Q: What is the share of the national government in
such taxes, fees and charges?
A: None.662
Q: In what way can local governments share in the
fruits of the utilization of local natural resources?
A: Local governments can either have shares from
revenues accruing through fees and charges or they
can receive direct benefits such as lower rates, e.g.,
for consumption of electricity generated within their
locality.663
Fundamental Principle Governing the Exercise of
the Taxing and other Revenue-Raising Powers of
LGUs (RA 7160, Section 130)
1. Taxation shall be uniform in each LGU;
2. Taxes, fees, charges and other impositions
shall be equitable and based as far as
practicable on the taxpayer’s ability to pay;
levied and collected only for public purposes;
not unjust, excessive, oppressive or
confiscatory; and not contrary to law, public
policy, national economic policy, or in restraint
of trade;
3. The collection of local taxes, fees and charges
and other impositions shall in no case be let to
any private person;
4. The revenue collected shall inure solely to the
benefit of, and be subject to disposition by the
local government unit, unless specifically
provided herein; and
5. Each LGU shall as far as practicable evolve a
progressive system of taxation.
Cases:
1. The exercise by local governments of the power to
tax is ordained by the present Constitution; only
guidelines and limitations that may be established by
Congress can define and limit such power of local
governments. (Philippine Petroleum Corporation v.
Municipality of Pililia, Rizal, 198 SCRA 82)
2. Congress has the power of control over local
governments; if Congress can grant a municipal
corporation the power to tax certain matters, it can
also provide for exemptions or even take back the
power. xxx The power of local governments to
impose taxes and fees is always subject to
limitations which Congress may provide by law.xxx
Local governments have no power to tax
instrumentalities of the National Government and is
therefore exempt from local taxes. (Basco v.
PAGCOR, 197 SCRA 52)
3. LGUs have the power to create their own sources of
revenue, levy taxes, etc., but subject to such
guidelines set by Congress. (Estanislao v. costales,
196 SCRA 853)
4. Section 187, RA 7160 which authorizes the
Secretary of Justice to review the constitutionality of
legality of a tax ordinance—and if warranted, to
revoke it on either or both grounds—is valid, and
661
Bernas Primer at 423 (2006 ed.)
662
Bernas Primer at 423 (2006 ed.)
663
Bernas Primer at 423 (2006 ed.)
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does not confer the power of control over local
government units in the Secretary of Justice, as
even if the latter can set aside a tax ordinance, he
cannot substitute his own judgment for that of the
local government unit. (Drilon v. Lim, 1994)
5. The City of Cebu as a LGU, the power to collect real
property taxes from the Mactan Cebu International
Airport Auhtority (MCIAA v. Marcos, 1996) There is
no question that under RA 6958, MCIAA is exempt
form the payment of realty taxes imposed by the
National Government or any of its political
subdivisions; nevertheless, since taxation is the rule,
the exemption may be withdrawn at the pleasure of
the taxing authority. The only exception to this rule is
where the exemption was granted to private parties
based on material consideration of a mutual nature,
which then becomes contractual and is thus covered
by the non-impairment clause of the Constitution.
6. While indeed local governments are authorized to
impose business taxes, they can do so only if the
entity being subjected to business tax is a business.
(Thus, for Makati to impose a business tax on a
condominium, the city must prove that the
condominium is engaged in business.)664
Article X, Section 6: “Local government units
shall have a just share, as determined by law, in
the national taxes which shall be automatically
released to them.”
Share in National Taxes. Section 6 mandates that
(1) the LGUs shall have a "just share" in the national
taxes; (2) the "just share" shall be determined by
law; and (3) the "just share" shall be automatically
released to the LGUs. Thus, where the local
government share has been determined by the
General Appropration Act, its relese may not be
made subject to te condition that "such amount shall
be released to the local government units subject to
the implementing rules and regulations, including
such mechanisms and guidelines for the equitable
allocations and distribution of said fund among local
government units subject to the guidelines that may
be prescribed by the Oversight Committee on
Devolution." To subject its distribution and release to
the vagaries of the implementing rules and
regulations, including the guidelines and
mechanisms unilaterally prescribed by the Oversight
Committee from time to time, as sanctioned by the
assailed provisos in the GAAs of 1999, 2000 and
2001 and the OCD resolutions, makes the release
not automatic and a flagrant violation of the
constitutional and statutory mandate that the "just
share" of the LGUs "shall be automatically released
to them."665
Moreover, neither Congress nor the Executive may
impose conditions on the release. As the
Constitution lays upon the executive the duty to
automatically release the just share of local
governments in the national taxes, so it enjoins the
legislature not to pass laws that might prevent the
executive from performing this duty. To hold that the
executive branch may disregard constitutional
664
Yamane v. BA Lepanto Condominium, G.R. No. 154993, October
25, 2005.
665
Batangas v. Executive Secretary, G.R. No. 152774. May 27,
666
2004
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provisions which define its duties, provided it has the
backing of statute, is virtually to make the
Constitution amendable by statute – a proposition
which is patently absurd. Moreover, if it were the
intent of the framers to allow the enactment of
statutes making the release of IRA conditional
instead of automatic, then Article X, Section 6 of the
Constitution would have been worded to say “shall
be [automatically] released to them as provided by
law.”666
Fundamental Principle Governing the Financial
Affairs, Transactions and Operations of LGUs
(RA 7160, Section 305)
1. No money shall be paid out of the local treasury
except in pursuance of an appropriation
ordinance of law;
2. Local government funds and monies shall be
spent solely for public purposes;
3. Local revenue is generated only from sources
expressly authorized by law or ordinance, and
collection thereof shall at all times be
acknowledged properly.
4. All monies officially received by a local
government officer in any capacity or on any
occasion shall be accounted for as local funds,
unless otherwise provided by law;
5. Trust funds in the local treasury shall not be
paid out except in fulfillment of the purpose for
which the trust was created or the funds
received;
6. Every officer of the local government unit
whose duties permit or require the possession
or custody of local funds shall be properly
bonded, and such officer shall be accountable
and responsible for said funds and for the
safekeeping thereof in conformity with the
provisions of law;
7. Local governments shall formulate sound
financial plans, and the local budgets shall be
based on functions, activities, and projects in
terms of expected results;
8. Local budget plans and goals shall, as far as
practicable, be harmonized with national
development plans, goals and strategies in
order to optimize the utilization of resources
and to avoid duplication in the use of fiscal and
physical resources.
9. Local budgets shall operationalize approved
local development plans;
10. LGUs shall ensure that their respective budgets
incorporate the requirements of their
component units and provide for equitable
allocation of resources among these
component units;
11. National planning shall be based on local
planning to ensure that the needs and
aspirations of the people is articulated by the
LGUs in their respective local development
plans are considered in the formulation of
budgets of national line agencies or offices;
12. Fiscal responsibility shall be shared by all those
exercising authority over the financial affairs,
transactions, and operations of the LGUs; and
13. The LGU shall endeavor to have a balanced
budget in each fiscal year of operation.
Alternative Center v. Zamora, G.R. No. 144256, June 8, 2005.
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1991 Bar Question
Q:The province of Palawan passes an ordinance
requiring all owners/operators of fishing vessels
that fish in waters surrounding the province to
invest ten percent (10%) of their net profits from
operations therein in any enterprise located in
Palawan. NARCO Fishing Corp., a Filipino
corporation with head office in Navotas, Metro
Manila, challenges the ordinance as
unconstitutional. Decide the case.
Suggested Answer: The ordinance is invalid. The
ordinance was apparently enacted pursuant to
Article X, Sec. 7 of the Constitution, which entitles
local governments to an equitable share in the
proceeds of the utilization and development of the
national wealth within their respective areas.
However, this should be made pursuant to law. A
law is needed to implement this provision and a
local government cannot constitute itself unto a
law. In the absence of a law the ordinance in
question is invalid.
4. Eminent Domain
RA 7160, Section 19: A Local Government Unit
may, through its chief executive and acting
pursuant to an ordinance, exercise power of
eminent domain for public use, or purpose, or
welfare for the benefit of the poor and the landless,
upon payment of just compensation, pursuant to
the provisions of the Constitution and pertinent
laws: Provided, however, That the power of
eminent domain may not be exercised unless a
valid and definite offer has been previously made
to the owner and such offer was not accepted:
Provided, further, That the LGU may immediately
take possession of the property upon the filing of
expropriation proceedings and upon making a
deposit with the proper court of at least 15% of the
fair market value of the property based on the
current tax declaration of the property to be
expropriated: Provided, finally, That the amount to
be paid for the expropriated property shall be
determined by the proper court, based on the fair
market value at the time of the taking of the
property.
“Local government units have no inherent power
of eminent domain and can exercise it only when
expressly authorized by the legislature. By virtue of
RA 7160, Congress conferred upon local
government units the power to expropriate. xxx
There are two legal provisions which limit the
exercise of this power: (1) no person shall be
deprived of life, liberty, or property without due
process of law, nor shall any person be denied the
equal protection of the laws; and (2) private property
shall not be taken for public use without just
compensation. Thus, the exercise by local
government units of the power of eminent domain is
not absolute. In fact, Section 19 of RA 7160 itself
explicitly states that such exercise must comply with
the provisions of the Constitution and pertinent
laws.” (Lagcao v. Labra, GR 155746, 10.13. 2004)
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“Strictly speaking, the power of eminent domain
delegated to an LGU is in reality not eminent but
"inferior" domain, since it must conform to the
limits imposed by the delegation, and thus partakes
only of a share in eminent domain. Indeed, "the
national legislature is still the principal of the local
government units, which cannot defy its will or
modify or violate it.” (Paranaque v. VM Realty Corp.,
GR 127820, 07.20.98)
“It is true that local government units have no
inherent power of eminent domain and can exercise
it only when expressly authorized by the legislature.
It is also true that in delegating the power to
expropriate, the legislature may retain certain control
or impose certain restraints on the exercise thereof
by the local governments. While such delegated
power may be a limited authority, it is complete
within its limits. Moreover, the limitations on the
exercise of the delegated power must be clearly
expressed, either in the law conferring the power or
in other legislations. Statutes conferring the power
of eminent domain to political subdivisions
cannot be broadened or constricted by
implication.” (Province of Camarines Sur v. CA,
222 SCRA 173)
Limitations on the Exercise of the Power of
Eminent Domain by Local Government Units:
1. Exercised only by the local chief executive,
acting pursuant to a valid ordinance;
2. For public use or purpose or welfare, for the
benefit of the poor and the landless;
3. Only after a valid and definite offer had been
made to, and not accepted by, the owner.
It was held that the Sangguniang Panlalawigan
cannot validly disapprove the resolution of the
municipality expropriating a parcel of land for the
establishment of a government center. The power of
eminent domain is explicitly granted to the
municipality under the Local Government Code.
2005 Bar Question
Q: The Sangguniang Bayan of the Municipality of Santa,
Ilocos Sur passed Resolution No. 1 authorizing its Mayor
to initiate a petition for the expropriation of a lot owned by
Christina as site for its municipal sports center. This was
approved by the Mayor. However, the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan of Ilocos Sur disapproved the Resolution as
there might still be other available lots in Santa for a
sports center. Nonetheless, the Municipality of Santa,
through its Mayor, filed a complaint for eminent domain.
Christina opposed this on the following grounds: (a) the
Municipality of Santa has no power to expropriate; (b)
Resolution No. 1 has been voided since the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan disapproved it for being arbitrary; and (c)
the Municipality of Santa has other and better lots for that
purpose. Resolve the case with reasons.
Suggested Answer: Under Section 19 of R.A. No. 7160,
the power of eminent domain is explicitly granted to the
municipality, but must be exercised through an ordinance
rather than through a resolution. (Municipality
ofParanaque v. V.M. Realty Corp., G.R. No. 127820, July
20, 1998)
The Sangguniang Panlalawigan of Ilocos Sur was without
the authority to disapprove Resolution No. 1 as the
municipality clearly has the power to exercise the right of
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eminent domain and its Sangguniang Bayan the capacity
to promulgate said resolution. The only ground upon
which a provincial board may declare any municipal
resolution, ordinance or order invalid is when such
resolution, ordinance or order is beyond the powers
conferred upon the council or president making the same.
Such is not the situation in this case. (Moday v. Court of
Appeals, G.R. No. 107916, February 20, 1997)
The question of whether there is genuine necessity for
the expropriation of Christina's lot or whether the
municipality has other and better lots for the purpose is a
matter that will have to be resolved by the Court upon
presentation of evidence by the parties to the case.
5. Reclassification of Lands
A city or municipality may, through an ordinance
passed after conducting public hearings for the
purpose, authorize the reclassification of
agricultural lands and provide for the manner of
their utilization or disposition:
1. When the land ceases to be economically
feasible and sound for agricultural
purposes as determined by the
Department of Agriculture, or
2. Where the land shall have substantially
greater economic value for residential,
commercial or industrial purposes, as
determined by the sanggunian;
Provided that such reclassification shall be
limited to the following percentage of the total
agricultural land area at the time of the
passage of the ordinance:
i. For highly urbanized cities and
independent component cities: 15%
ii. For component cities and 1st to 3rd
class municipalities: 10%
iii. For 4th to 6th municipalities: 5%.
Provided that agricultural land distributed to
land reform beneficiaries shall not be
affected by such reclassification.
6. Closure and Opening of Roads
RA 7160, Section 21. A local government unit may,
pursuant to an ordinance, permanently or
temporarily close or open any local road, alley, park
or square falling within its jurisdiction, provided that
in case of permanent closure, such ordinance must
be approved by at least 2/3 of all the members of
the sanggunian, and when necessary, an adequate
substitute for the public facility shall be provided.
Additional limitations in case of permanent
closure:
1. Adequate provision for the maintenance of
public safety must be made;
2. The property may be used or conveyed for any
purpose for which other real property may be
lawfully used or conveyed, but no freedom
park shall be closed permanently without
provision for its transfer or relocation to a new
site.
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Note: Temporary closure may be made during an
actual emergency, fiesta celebrations, public rallies,
etc.
Cases:
1. A municipality has the authority to prepare and
adopt a land use map, promulgate a zoning
ordinance, and close any municipal road.
(Pilapil v. CA, 216 SCRA 33)
2. The closure of 4 streets in Baclaran,
Paranaque was held invalid for non-compliance
with MMA Ordinance No. 2. Further, provincial
roads and city streets are property for public
use under Article 424, Civil Code, hence under
the absolute control of Congress. They are
outside the commerce of man, and cannot be
disposed of to private persons. (Note: This
case was decided under the aegis of the old
Local Government Code) (Macasiano v.
Diokno, 212 SCRA 464)
3. One whose property is not located on the
closed section of the street ordered closed by
the Provincial Board of Catanduanes has no
right to compensation for the closure if he still
has reasonable access to the general system
of streets. (Cabrera v. CA, 195 SCRA 314)
4. The power to vacate is discretionary on the
Sanggunian.xxx when properties are no longer
intended for public use, the same may be used
or conveyed for any lawful purpose, and may
even become patrimonial and thus be the
subject of common contract. (Cebu Oxygen &
Acetylene Co. v. Berciles, 66 SCRA 481)
5. The City Council has the authority to determine
whether or not a certain street is still necessary
for public use. (Favis v. City of Baguio, 29
SCRA 456)
6. The City Mayor of Manila cannot by himself,
withdraw Padre Rada as a public market. The
establishment and maintenance of public
markets is among the legislative powers of the
City of Manila; hence, the need for joint action
by the Sanggunian and the Mayor.
7. Local Legislative Power (Exercised by the
local sanggunian)
a. Products of legislative action:
1. Ordinance- prescribes a permanent rule
of conduct.
2. Resolution- of temporary character, or
expresses sentiment.
b. Requisites for validity
1. Must not contravene the Constitution and
any statute;
2. Must not be unfair or oppressive;
3. Must not be partial or discriminatory;
4. Must not prohibit but may regulate trade;
5. Must not be unreasonable;
6. Must be general in application and
consistent with public policy.
c. Approval of Ordinances
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Ordinances passed by the sangguniang
panlalawigan, sangguniang panlungsod, or
sangguniang bayan shall be approved:
1. If the local chief executive approves the
same, affixing his signature on each an
every page thereof.
2. If the local chief executive vetoes the
same, and the veto is overridden by 2/3
vote of all the members of the
sanggunian. The local chief executive
may veto the ordinance, only once, on the
ground that the ordinance is ultra vires, or
that it is prejudicial to the public welfare.
He may veto any particular item or items
of an appropriation ordinance, an
ordinance or resolution adopting a
development plan and public investment
program, or an ordinance directing the
payment of money or creating liability. In
such a case, the veto shall not affect the
items or items which are not objected to.
The veto shall be communicated by the
local chief executive to the sanggunian
within 15 days in case of a province, or 10
days in case of a city or municipality;
otherwise, the ordinance shall be deemed
approved as if he signed it.
In Delos Reyes v. Sandiganbayan, 1997,
where petitioner was charged with
falsification of a public document for
approving a resolution which purportedly
appropriate money to pay for the terminal
leave of 2 employees when actually no
such resolution was passed, the petitioner
argued that his signature on the resolution
was merely ministerial. The SC disagreed,
saying that the grant of the veto power
accords the Mayor the discretion whether
or not to disapprove the resolution.
“A sanggunian is a collegial body. Legislation,
which is the principal function and duty of the
sanggunian, requires the participation of all its
members so that they may not only represent
the interests of their respective constituents but
also help in the making of decisions by voting
upon every question put upon the body. The acts
of only a part of the Sanggunian done outside
the parameters of the legal provisions
aforementioned are legally infirm, highly
questionable and are, more importantly, null and
void. And all such acts cannot be given binding
force and effect for they are considered unofficial
acts done during an unauthorized session.”
(Zamora v. Caballero, GR 147767,
01.14.2004)
[Note: Ordinances enacted by the
sangguniang barangay shall, upon
approval by a majority of all its members,
be signed by the punong barangay. The
latter has no veto power.]
d. Review by Sangguniang Panlalawigan
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Procedure: Within 3 days after approval, the
secretary of the sanguniang panlugsod (in
component cities) or sangguninang bayan
shall forward to the sangguniang
panglalawigan for review copies of approved
ordinances and resolutions approving the local
development plans and public investment
programs formulated by the local development
councils. The sannguniang panlalawigan shall
review the same within 30 days; if it finds that
the ordinance or resolution is beyond the
power conferred upon the sangguniang
panlusgsod or sagguniang bayan concerned, it
shall declare such ordinance or resolution
invalid in whole or in part. If no action is taken
within 30 days, the ordinance or resolution is
presumed consisted with law, valid.
e. Review of Barangay Ordinances
Within 10 days from enactment, the
sangguniang barangay shall furnish copies of
all barangay ordinances to the sangguniang
panlungsod or sangguniang bayan for review.
If the reviewing sanggunian finds the barangay
ordinances inconsistent with law or city or
municipal ordinances, the sanggunian
concerned shall, within 30 days form receipt
thereof, return the same with its commentsand
recommendations to the sangguniang
barangay for adjustment, amendment or
modification, in which case the effectivity of the
ordinance is suspended until the revision
called for is effected. If no action is taken by
the sangguniang panlungsod or sangguniang
bayan within 30 days, the ordinance is
deemed approved.
f. Enforcement of disapproved ordinances/
resolutions
Any attempt to enforce an ordinance or
resolution approving the local development
plan and public investment program, after the
disapproval thereof, shall be sufficient ground
for the suspension or dismissal of the official or
employee concerned.
g. Effectivity.
Unless otherwise stated in the ordinance or
resolution, the same shall take effect after 10
days from the date a copy thereof is posted in
a bulletin board at the entrance of the
provincial capitol, or city, municipal or
barangay hall, and in at least two other
conspicuous places in the local government
unit concerned.
i. The gist of all ordinances with penal
sanction shall be published in a
newspaper of general circulation within
the province where the local legislative
body concerned belongs. In the absence
of a newspaper of general circulation
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within the province, posting of such
ordinances shall be made in all
municipalities and cities of the province
where the sanggunian of origin is
situated.
ii. In the case of highly urbanized and
independent component cities, the main
features of the ordinance or resolution
duly enacted shall, in additions to being
posted, be published once in a local
newspaper of general circulation within
the city; of there is no such newspaper
within the city, then publication shall be
made in any newspaper of general
circulation.
h. Scope of Local Law Making Authority
1. Sanggunians exercise only delegated
legislative powers conferred on them by
Congress. As mere agents, local
governments are vested with the power of
subordinate legislation. (Magtajas v.
Pryce, GR 111097, 07.20.94)
2. It is a fundamental principle that municipal
ordinances are inferior in status and
subordinate to the laws of the State. An
ordinance in conflict with a state law of
general character and statewide
application is universally held to be
invalid. The principle is frequently
expressed in the declaration that
municipal authorities, under a general
grant of power, cannot adopt ordinances
which infringe upon the spirit of a state
law or repugnant to the general policy of
the state. In every power to pass
ordinances given to a municipality, there is
an implied restriction that the ordinances
shall be consistent with the general law.
(Batangas CATV v. Court of Appeals, GR
138810, 09.20.2004)
3. The 1991 Local Government Code
provides that local legislative power shall
be exercised by the sanggunian. The
legislative acts of the sanggunian in the
exercise of its lawmaking authority are
denominated ordinances. For an
ordinance to be valid, it must not only be
within the corporate powers of the local
government concerned to enact but must
also be passed according to the
procedure prescribed by law. (Lagcao v.
Labra, GR 155746, October 13, 2004)
4. A proviso in an ordinance directing that
the real property tax be based on the
actual amount reflected in the deed of
conveyance or the prevailing BIR zonal
value is invalid not only because it
mandates an exclusive rule in determining
the fair market value but more so because
it departs from the established procedures
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stated in the Local Assessment
Regulations No. 1-92 and unduly
interferes with the duties statutorily placed
upon the local assessor by completely
dispensing with his analysis and discretion
which the Code and the regulations
require to be exercised. Further, the
charter does not give the local
government that authority. An ordinance
that contravenes any statute is ultra vires
and void. (Allied Banking Corporation v.
Quezon City, GR 154126, 10.11.2005)
1999 Bar Question
Q: Johnny was employed as a driver by the
Municipality of Calumpit, Bulacan. While driving
recklessly a municipal dump truck with its load of
sand for the repair of municipal streets,Johnny hit a
jeepney. Two passengers of the jeepney were
killed. The Sangguniang Bayan passed an
ordinance appropriating P300,000 as
compensation for the heirs of the victims.
1) Is the municipality liable for the negligence of
Johnny?
2) Is the municipal ordinance valid?
Suggested Answer:
2) The ordinance appropriating P300,000.00 for the
heirs of the victims of Johnny is void. This amounts
to appropriating public funds for a private purpose.
Under Section 335 of the Local Government Code,
no public money shall be appropriated for private
purposes.
Alternative Answer: Upon the foregoing
considerations, the municipal ordinance is null and
void for being ultra vires. The municipality not being
liable to pay compensation to the heirs of the
victims, the ordinance is utterly devoid of legal
basis. It would in fact constitute an illegal use or
expenditure of public funds which is a criminal
offense. What is more, the ordinance does not
meet one of the requisites for validity of municipal
ordinances, ie., that it must be in consonance with
certain well-established and basic principles of a
substantive nature, to wit: [it does not contravene
the Constitution or the law, it is not unfair or
oppressive. It is not partial or discriminatory. It is
consistent with public policy, and it is not
unreasonable.]
8. Authority Over Police Units
As may be provided by law. (See Section 6, Article
XVI; PNP Act)
C. Corporate Powers
Local government units shall enjoy full autonomy in
the exercise of their proprietary functions and in the
management of their economic enterprises, subject
to limitations provided in the Code and other
applicable laws. The corporate powers of local
government units are:
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7. To have continuous succession in its corporate
name.
8. To sue and be sued
9. To have and use a corporate seal
10. To acquire and convey real or personal
property
11. Power to enter into contracts
12. To exercise such other powers as are granted
to corporations, subject to the limitations
provided in the Code and other laws.
1. To have continuous succession in its
corporate name
2. To sue and be sued
The rule is that suit is commenced by the local
executive, upon the authority of the Sanggunian,
except when the City Councilors themselves and
as representatives of or on behalf of the City, bring
action to prevent unlawful disbursement of City
funds. (City Council of Cebu v. Cuison, 47 SCRA
325)
But the municipality cannot be represented by a
private attorney. Only the Provincial Fiscal or the
Municipal Attorney can represent a province or
municipality in lawsuits. This is mandatory. The
municipality’s authority to employ a private lawyer is
limited to situations where the Provincial Fiscal is
disqualified to represent it, and the fact of
disqualification must appear on record. The Fiscal’s
refusal to represent the municipality is not legal
justification for employing the services of private
counsel; the municipality should request the
Secretary of Justice to appoint an Acting Provincial
Fiscal in place of the one declined to handle the case
in court. (Municipality of Pililia Rizal v. CA, 233 SCRA
484)
3. To have and use a corporate seal
LGUs may continue using, modify or change their
corporate seal; any change shall be registered with
the DILG.667
4. To acquire and convey real or personal
property
a. The LGU may acquire tangible or intangible
property, in any manner allowed by law, e.g.,
sale, donation, etc.
b. The local government unit may alienate only
patrimonial property, upon proper authority.
c. In the absence of proof that the property was
acquired through corporate or private funds,
the presumption is that it came from the State
upon the creation of municipality and thus, is
governmental or public property. (Salas v.
Jarencio, 48 SCRA 734)
d. Town plazas are properties of public dominion;
they may be occupied temporarily, but only for
667
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 576 (2006)
668
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 576 (2006)
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the duration of an emergency (Espiritu v.
Pangasinan, 102 Phil 866)
e. A public plaza is beyond the commerce of
man, and cannot be the subject of the lease or
other contractual undertaking. And, even
assuming the existence of a valid lease of the
public plaza or part thereof, the municipal
resolution effectively terminated the
agreement, for it is settled that the police
power cannot be surrendered or bargained
away through the medium of a contract.
(Villanueva v. Castaneda, 154 SCRA 142)
f. Public streets or thoroughfares are property for
public use, outside the commerce of man, and
may not be the subject of lease or other
contracts. (Dacanay v. Asistio, 208 SCRA 404)
g. Procurement of supplies is made through
competitive public bidding [PD 526], except
when the amount is minimal (as prescribed in
PD 526) where a personal canvass of at least
three responsible merchants in the locality
may be made by the Committee on Awards, or
in case of emergency purchases allowed
under PD 526.668
5. Power to Enter into Contracts
Requisites of valid municipal contract:
1. The local government units has the
express, implied or inherent power to
enter into the particular contract.
2. The contract is entered in to by the proper
department, board, committee, officer or
agent. Unless otherwise provided by the
Code, no contract may be entered into by
the local chief executive on behalf of the
local government unit without prior
authorization by the sanggunian
concerned.
3. The contract must comply with certain
substantive requirements, i.e., when
expenditure of public fund is to be made,
there must be an actual appropriation and
a certificate of availability of funds.
4. The contract must comply with the formal
requirements of written contracts, e.g. the
Statute of Frauds.
Ultra Vires Contracts. When a contract is entered
into without the compliance with the 1st and 3rd
requisites (above), the same is ultra vires and is
null and void. Such contract cannot be ratified or
validated. Ratification of defective municipal
contracts is possible only when there is non-
compliance with the second and/or the fourth
requirements above. Ratification may either be
express or implied.
In Quezon City v. Lexber, 2001, it was held that PD
1445 does not provide that the absence of
appropriation ordinance ipso fact makes a contract
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entered into by a local government unit null and
void. Public funds may be disbursed not only
pursuant to an appropriation law, but also in
pursuance of other specific statutory authority. (In
this case, BP 337, the law which was then in force,
empowered the Mayor to represent the city in its
business transactions and sign all warrants drawn
on the city treasury and all bonds, contracts and
obligations of the city. While the Mayor has power to
appropriate funds to support the contracts, neither
does BP 337 prohibit him from entering into
contracts unless and until funds are appropriated
therefor. By entering into the two contracts, Mayor
Simon did not usurp the city council’s power to
provide for the proper disposal of garbage and to
appropriate funds therefor. The execution of
contracts to address such a need is his statutory
duty, just as it is the city council’s duty to provide for
such service. There is no provision in the law that
prohibits the city mayor form entering into contracts
for the public welfare unless and until there is a prior
authority form the city council.)
Other Cases:
1. A contract of lease granting fishing privileges is
a valid and binding contract and cannot be
impaired by a subsequent resolution setting it
aside and grating the privilege to another.
(Unless the subsequent resolution is a police
measure, because the exercise of police power
prevails over the non-impairment
clause.)(Manantan v. La Union, 82 Phil 844)
2. A municipal zoning ordinance, as a police
measure, prevails over the non-impairment
clause. (Ortigas v. Feati Bank, 94 SCRA 533)
3. Breach of contractual obligations by the City of
Manila renders the City liable in damages. The
principle of respondeat superior applies.
Authority to negotiate and secure grants. (RA
7160, Section 23) the local chief executive may,
upon authority of the sanggunian, negotiate and
secure financial grants or donations in kind, in
support of the basic services and facilities
enumerated in Section 17, from local and foreign
assistance agencies without necessity of securing
clearance or approval form and department
agency, or office of the national government or
from any higher local government unit; Provided,
that projects financed by such grants or assistance
with national security implications shall be
approved by the national agency concerned.
6. To exercise such other powers as are
granted to corporations subject to the
limitations provided in the Code and other laws.
V. Municipal Liability
RULE: LGUs and their officials are not exempt
from liability for death or injury to persons or
damage to property (RA 7160, Section 24)
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A. Specific Provisions of Law Making LGUs Liable
1. Article 2189, Civil Code: The Local
Government Unit is liable in damages or
injuries suffered by reason of the defective
condition of roads, streets, bridges, public
buildings and other public works.
City of Manila v. Teotico, 22 SCRA 267: The City
of Manila was held liable for damages when a
person fell into an open manhole in the streets of
the city.
Jimenez v. City of Manila, 150 SCRA 510:
Despite a management and operating contract
with Asiatic Integrated Corporation over the Sta.
Ana Public Market, the City of Manila (because of
Mayor Bagatsing’s admission that the City still has
control and supervision) is solidarily liable for
injuries sustained by an individual who stepped on
a rusted nail while the market was flooded.
Guilatco v. City of Dagupan, 171 SCRA 382:
Liability of the City for injuries due to defective
roads attaches even if the road does not belong to
the local government unit, as long as the City
exercises control or supervision over said road.
2. Article 2180 (6th par.) Civil Code: The State
is responsible when it acts through a special
agent.
3. Article 34, Civil Code: The local government
unit is subsidiarily liable for damages suffered
by a person by reason of the failure or refusal
of a member of the police force to render aid
and protection in case of danger to life and
property.
B. Liability for Tort
Despite the clear language of Section 24, RA 7160,
that local government units and their officials are
not exempt form liability for death or injury to
persons or damage to property, it is still unclear
whether liability will accrue when the local
government unit is engaged in governmental
functions. Supreme Court decisions, interpreting
legal provisions existing prior to the effectivity of
the Local Government Code, have come up with
the following rules on municipal liability for tort:
1. If the LGU is engaged in governmental
functions, it is not liable;
2. If engaged in proprietary functions; LGU is
liable.
1. If the LGU is engaged in governmental
functions, it is not liable.
i. The prosecution of crimes is a
governmental function, and thus, the local
government unit may not be held liable
therefor. (Palafox v. Province of Ilocos
Norte, 102 Phil 1186)
ii. In Municipality of San Fernando v. Firme,
195 SCRA 692, the municipality was not
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held liable for torts committed by a regular
employee, even if the dump truck used
belong to the municipality, inasmuch as
the employee was discharging
governmental (public works) functions.
iii. Delivery of sand and gravel for the
construction of municipal bridge in the
exercise of the governmental capacity of
local governments. The municipality is not
liable for injuries that arise in the
performance of governmental functions.
(La Union v. Firme,195 SCRA 692)
Note: For liability to arise under Article 2189 of the
Civil Code, ownership of the roads, streets,
bridges, public buildings and other public works is
not a controlling factor, it being sufficient that a
province, city or municipality has control or
supervision thereof. On the other hand, a
municipality’s liability under Section 149 of the
1983 Local Government Code for injuries caused
by its failure to regulate the drilling and excavation
of the ground for the laying of gas, water, sewer,
and other pipes, attaches regardless of whether
the drilling or excavation is made on a national or
municipal road, for as long as the same is within its
territorial jurisdiction. (Municipality of San Juan v.
CA, GR 121920, 08.09.2005)
2. If engaged in proprietary functions, LGU is
liable
i. Operation of a ferry service is a
proprietary function. The municipality is
negligent and thus liable for having
awarded the franchise to operate ferry
service to another notwithstanding the
previous grant of the franchise to the
plaintiff. (Mendoza v. De Leon, 33 Phil
508)
ii. Holding of town fiesta is a proprietary
function. The Municipality of Malasigue,
Pangasinan was held liable for the death
of a member of the zarzuela group when
the stage collapsed, under the principle of
respondeat superior. [Note: The Municipal
Council managed the town fiesta. While
the municipality was held liable, the
councilors themselves are not liable for
the negligence of their employees or
agents.] (Torio v. Fontanilla, 85 SCRA
599)
iii. The operation of a public cemetery is a
proprietary function of the City of Manila.
The City is liable for the tortuous acts of
its employees, under the principle of
respondeat superior.
iv. Maintenance of cemeteries is in the
exercise of the proprietary nature of local
governments. The City is liable for breach
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of agreement. (City of Manila v. IAC, 179
SCRA 428)
v. Liability for illegal dismissal of an
employee. It was held that inasmuch as
there is no finding that malice or bad faith
attended the illegal dismissal and refusal
to reinstate respondent Gentallan by her
superior officers, the latter cannot be held
personally accountable for her back
salaries. The municipal government
therefore, should disburse funds to
answer for her claims (back salaries and
other monetary benefits form the time of
her illegal dismissal up to her
reinstatement) resulting from dismissal.
In City of Cebu v. Judge Piccio, 110 Phil
558, it was held that a municipal
corporation, whether or not included in the
complaint for recovery of back salaries
due to wrongful removal from office, is
liable.
vi. Local officials may also be held
personally liable.
City of Angeles v. CA, 261 SCRA 90, where the
city officials ordered the construction of a drug
rehabilitation center on the open space donate
by the subdivision owner in violation of PD
1216, the cost of the demolition of the drug
rehabilitation center should be borne by the cit
officials who ordered the construction because
they acted beyond the scope of their
authority and with evident bad faith.
(However, since the city mayor and the
sanggunian members were sued in their official
capacity, they cannot be held personally liable
without giving them their day in court.)
Rama v. CA, 148 SCRA 496, the Provincial
governor and the members of the Provincial
Board where held liable in damages in their
personal capacity arising form the illegal act of
dismissing employees in bad faith. Where
they act maliciously and wantonly and
injure individuals rather than discharge a
public duty, they are personally liable.
Correa v. CFI Bulacan, 92 SCRA 312, the
Mayor who, without just cause, illegally
dismissed an employee, acted with grave
abuse of authority, and he not the Municipality
of Norzagaray, Bulacan, is personally liable.
This liability attaches even if, at the time of
execution, he is no longer the Mayor.
Salcedo v. CA, 81 SCRA 408, the Mayor, for his
persistent defiance of the order of the CSC to
reinstate the employee, was held personally
liable for the payment of back salaries.
Pilar v. Sangguniang Bayan of Dasol, 128
SCRA 173, the Mayor was held liable for
exemplary and corrective damages for vetoing,
without just cause, the resolution of the
Sangguniang Bayan appropriating the salary of
petitioner.
Nemenzo v. Sabillano, 25 SCRA 1, Mayor
Sabillano was adjudged personally liable for
payment of back salaries of a policeman who
was illegally dismissed. The Mayor cannot hide
behind the mantle of his official capacity and
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pass the liability to the Muncipality of which he
is Mayor.
San Luis v. CA, 1989, Laguna Governor San
Luis was held personally liable for moral
damages for refusing to reinstate Berroya,
quarry superintendent, despite the ruling of the
CSC as affirmed by the Office of the President.
C. Liability for Violation of Law
1. Where the Municipality closed a part of a
municipal street without indemnifying the
person prejudiced thereby, the Municipality
can be held liable for damages. (Abella v,
Municipality of Naga, 90 Phil 385)
2. Lack of funds does not excuse the Municipality
from paying the statutory minimum wage of
P120 a month to its employees. The payment
of the minimum wage is a mandatory statutory
obligation of the Municipality. (Racho v.
Municipality of Ilagan, Isabela)
3. The Municipality of Bunawan, Agusan del Sur,
through the Mayor was held in contempt and
fined P1,000.00 with a warning, because of the
refusal of the Mayor to abide by a TRO issued
by the Court.
D. Liability for Contracts
1. Rule: A municipal corporation, like an ordinary
person, is liable on a contract it enters into,
provided that the contract is intra vires (If the
contract is ultra vires, the municipal
corporation is not liable.)
2. A private individual who deals with a municipal
corporation is imputed constructive knowledge
of the extent of the power or authority of the
municipal corporation to enter into contracts.
3. Ordinarily, therefore, the doctrine of estoppel
does not lie against the municipal corporation.
4. The doctrine of implied municipal liability: A
municipality may become obligated upon an
implied contact to pay the reasonable value of
the benefits accepted or appropriated by it as
to which it has the general power to contract.
(Province of Cebu v. IAC, 147 SCRA 447) The
doctrine applies to all cases where money or
other property of a party is received under
such circumstances that the general law,
independent of an express contract, implies an
obligation to do justice with respect to the
same.
i. It was held that the Province of Cebu
cannot set up the plea that the contract
was ultra vires and still retain benefits
thereunder.xxx having regarded the
contract as valid for purposes of reaping
benefits, the Province of Cebu is
estopped to question its validity for the
purpose of denying answerability.
(Province of Cebu v. IAC, 147 SCRA
447)
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ii. Q: Does Province of Cebu v. IAC,
reverse De Guia v. Auditor General
where the Supreme Court held that the
engagement of the services of Atty. De
Guia by the Municipal Council of
Mondragon, Northern Samar was ulra
vires, because a municipality can
engage the services of a private lawyer
only if the Provincial Fiscal is
disqualified from appearing as counsel
for the municipality?
A: Apparently not, because in Province
of Cebu v. IAC, the Province could not
possibly engage the legal services of
the Provincial Fiscal, the latter having
taken a position adverse to the interest
of the Province for having priorly
rendered an opinion that the donation
was valid.
iii. Estoppel cannot be applied against a
municipal corporation in order to
validate a contract which the municipal
corporation has no power to make or
which it is authorized to make only
under prescribed limitations or in a
prescribed mode or manner—even if
the municipal corporation has accepted
benefits therunder. In San Diego v.
Municipality of Naujan, the SC rejected
the doctrine of estoppels, because to
apply the principle would enable the
municipality to do indirectly what it
cannot do directly.
iv. In Muncipality of Pililia Rizal v. CA,
where the SC said that the municipality
cannot be represented by a private
attorney. Only the Provincial Fiscal or
the Muncipal Attorney can represent a
province of municipality in lawsuits. This
is mandatory. The municipality’s
authority to employ a private lawyer is
limited to situations where the Provincial
Fiscal is disqualified to represent it, and
the fact of disqualification must appear
on record. The Fiscal’s refusal to
represent the municipality is not a legal
justification for employing the services
of private counsel; the municipality
should request the Secretary of Justice
to appoint an Acting Provincial Fiscals
in place of the one who declines to
handle the case in court.
v. But if the suit is filed against a local
official which could result in personal
liability of the said public official, the
latter may engage the services of
private counsel. (Mancenido v. CA,
2000)
VI. Local Officials
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A. Nature of Office (Agra Notes)
1. A local chief executive is considered an
accountable public officer as defined under the
Revised Penal Code since he/ she, in the
discharge of his/ her office, receives money or
property of the government which he/ she is duty
bound to account for. Thus, a local chief executive
is guilty of malversation upon finding that he/ she
received public funds and was unable to
satisfactorily account for the same. (Tanggote v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 103584, 09.02.94)
2. A local chief executive is mandated to abide by
Article I of Section 444(b)(x) of 1991 Local
Government Code which directs executive officials
and employees of the municipality to faithfully
discharge their duties and functions as provided
by law. (Velasco v. Sandiganbayan, GR 160991,
02.28.2005)
3. The 1987 Constitution provides that no elective
official shall be eligible for appointment or
designation in any capacity to any other public
office or position during his/ her tenure in order
that they may serve full-time with dedication.
Thus, a local chief executive cannot be appointed
as chairperson of the Subic Bay Metropolitan
Authority since such office is not an ex officio post
or attached to the office of the local chief
executive. (Flores v. Drilon, GR 104732, 06.22.93)
4. The municipal mayor, being the appointing
authority, is the real party in interest to challenge
the Civil Service Commission's disapproval of the
appointment of his/ her appointee. The CSC's
disapproval of an appointment is a challenge to
the exercise of the appointing authority's
discretion. The appointing authority must have the
right to contest the disapproval. (Dagadag v.
Tongnawa, GR 161166-67, 02.03.2005)
5. The municipal mayor, not the municipality alone
must be impleaded in a petition assailing the
dismissal of an employee whom he/she appointed
even if the mayor acted in his/her official capacity
when he dismissed the respondent. If not
impleaded, he/she cannot be compelled to abide
by and comply with its decision, as the same
would not be binding on him/her. (Civil Service
Commission v. Sebastian, GR 161733,
10.11.2005)
6. A proclaimed candidate who was later on
disqualified has no legal personality to institute an
action seeking to nullify a decision of the Civil
Service Commission concerning the dismissal of
municipal employees since he/ she is not a real
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party in interest. (Miranda v. Carreon, GR 143540,
04.11.2003)
7. The city treasurer is the proper disciplining
authority in the case of a local revenue officer, the
former being the head of agency. (Garcia v.
Pajaro, GR 141199, 07.05.2002)
8. A punong barangay cannot terminate the services
of the barangay treasurer and secretary without
the concurrence of sangguniang barangay since
this is explicitly required under Section 389 of the
1991 Local Government Code. (Alquizola v. Ocol,
GR 132413, 08.27.99)
B. Provisions Applicable to Elective and Appointive
Local Officials
Prohibited Business and Pecuniary Interest (RA
7160, Section 89): It shall be unlawful for any local
government official or employee, directly or
indirectly to:
1. Engage in any business transaction with the
local government unit in which he is an official
or employee or over which he has the power of
supervision, or with any of its authorized
boards, officials, agents or attorneys, whereby
money is to be paid, or property or any other
thing of value is to be transferred, directly or
indirectly, out of the resources of the local
government unit to such person or firm;
2. Hold such interests in any cockpit or other
games licensed by the local government unit;
3. Purchase any real estate or other property
forfeited in favor of the local government unit
for unpaid taxes or assessment, or by virtue of
a legal process at the instance of the local
government unit;
4. Be a surety of any person contracting or doing
business with the local government unit for
which a surety is required; and
5. Possess or use any public property of the local
government unit for private purposes.
6. The prohibitions and inhibitions prescribed in
RA 6713 also apply.
Practice of Profession (Section 90, RA 7160)
1. All governors, city and municipal mayors are
prohibited form practicing their profession or
engaging in any occupation other than the
exercise of their function as local chief
executives.
2. Sanggunian members may practice their
profession, engage in any occupation, or teach
in schools except during session hours,
Provided, that those who are also members of
the Bar shall not (i) appear as counsel before
any court in any civil case wherein the local
government unit or any office, agency or
instrumentality of the government is the
adverse party; (ii) appear as counsel in any
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criminal case wherein an officer or employee
of the national or local government is accused
of an offense committed in relation to his
office; (iii) collect any fee for their appearance
in administrative proceedings involving the
LGU of which he is an official; and (iv) use
property and personnel of the government
except when the sanggunian member
concerned is defending the interest of the
government.
It was held that by appearing as counsel for
dismissed employees, City Councilor Javellana
violated the prohibition against engaging in
private practice if such practice represents
interests adverse to the government. (Javellana
v. DILG, 212 SCRA 475)
3. Doctors of medicine may practice their
profession even during official hours of work
only on occasion of emergency, provided they
do not derive monetary compensation
therefrom.
It was held that DILG Memorandum Circular
No. 90-81 does not discriminate against
lawyers and doctors; it applies to all provincial
and municipal officials. (Javellana v. DILG, 212
SCRA 475)
Prohibition Against Appointment (RA 7160,
Section 94)
1. No elective or appointive local official shall be
eligible for appointment or designation in any
capacity to any public office or position during
his tenure. Unless otherwise allowed by law or
by the primary functions of his office, no local
official shall hold any other office or
employment in the government or any
subdivision, agency or instrumentality thereof,
including GOCCs or their subsidiaries. (Relate
this to Section 7, Article IX-B)
2. Except for losing candidates in barangay
election, no candidate who lost in any election
shall, within one year after such election, be
appointed to any office in the government of
GOCC or their subsidiaries. (Relate this to
Section 6, Article IX-B)
C. Elective Local Officials
Qualifications
Disqualifications
Manner of Election
Date of Election
Term of Office
Rules of Succession
Compensation
Recall
Resignation
Grievance Procedure
Discipline
Cases on Offenses (Agra Notes)
Cases on Procedure (Agra Notes)
Complaints
Preventive Suspension
Penalty (Agra Notes)
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Administrative Appeal
Execution Pending Appeal
Jurisdiction of Sandiganbayan (Agra Notes)
Effect of Re-election
1. Qualifications (RA 7160, Section 39)
1. Citizen of the Philippines;
2. Registered Voter in the barangay,
municipality, city or province, or in the
case of a member of the sangguniang
panlalawigan, panlungsod or bayan, the
district where he intends to be elected;
3. A resident therein for at least 1 year
immediately preceding the election’
4. Able to read and write Filipino or any other
local language or dialect;
5. On the election day, must be at least 23
years of age [for governor, vice-governor,
member of the sangguniang
panlalawigan, mayor, vice mayor, or
member of the ssangguniang panlungsd
of highly urbanized cities]; 21 years of age
[for mayor or vice mayor of independent
component cities, component cities, or
munciplaities]; 18 years of age [for
member of the sangguniang panlungsod
or sagguniang bayan, or punong
barangay or member of the sangguniang
barangay], or at least 15 but not more
than 21 years of age [candidates for the
sangguniang kabataan]
i. The LGC does not specify any particular
date when the candidate must posses
Filipino citizenship. Philippine citizenship
is required to ensure that no alien shall
govern our people. An official begins to
govern only upon his proclamation and
on the day that his term begins. Since
Frivaldo took his oath of allegiance the
day that his term begins. Since Frivaldo
took his oath of allegiance on June 30,
1995, when his application for
repatriation was granted by the Sepcial
Committee on Naturalization created
under PD 825, he was therefore qualified
to be proclaimed. Besides, Section 30 of
the LGC speaks of qualifications of
elective officials, not of candidates.
Furthermore, repatriation retroacts to the
date of the filing of his application on
August 17, 1994. (Frivaldo v. COMELEC,
257 SCRA 727)
ii. In Altajeros v. COMELEC, 2004, the
petitioner took his oath of allegiance on
December 17, 1997, but his Certificate of
Repatriation was registered with the Civil
Registry of Makati City only after 6 years,
or on February 18, 2004, and with the
Bureau of Immigration on March 1, 2004,
thus completing the requirements for
repatriation only after he filed his
certificate of candidacy, but before the
election. On the issue of whether he was
qualified to run for Mayor of San Jacinto,
Masabate, the Court applied the ruling in
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Frivaldo, that repatriation retroacts to the
date of filing of the application for
repatriation. Petitioner was, therefore,
qualified to run for Mayor.
iii. Petitioner who was over 21 years of age
on the day of the election was ordered
disqualified by the SC when the latter
rejected the contention of the petitioner
that she was qualified because she was
less than 22 years old. The phrase “not
more than 21 years old” is not equivalent
to “less than 22 years old.” (Garvida v.
Sales, 271 SCRA 767)
2. Disqualifications (RA 7160, Section 40)
The following are disqualified from running for
any elective local position:
1. Those sentenced by final judgment for an
offense involving moral turpitude or for an
offense punishable by one year or more of
imprisonment, within two years after
serving sentence;
2. Those removed from office as a result of
an administrative case;
3. Those convicted by final judgment for
violating the oath of allegiance to the
Republic.
4. Those with dual citizenship669;
5. Fugitives from justice in criminal or non-
political cases here or abroad;
6. Permanent residents in a foreign country
or those who have acquired the right to
reside abroad and continue to avail of the
same right after the effectivity of the Code;
7. The insane or feeble-minded.
i. Violation of the Anti-Fencing Law involves
moral turpitude, and the only legal effect of
probation is to suspend the
implementation of the sentence. Thus, the
disqualification still subsists. (De la Torre
v. COMELEC, 258 SCRA 483) Likewise,
violation of BP 22 is a crime involving
moral turpitude, because the accused
knows at the time of the issuance of the
check that he does not have sufficient
funds in , or credit with, the drawee bank
for payment of the check in full upon
presentment. (Villaber v. COMELEC,
2001)
ii. Article 73 of the Rules Implementing RA
7160, to the extent that it confines the
term “fugitive from justice” to refer only
to a person “who has been convicted by
final judgment” is an inordinate an undue
circumscription of the law. The term
includes not only those who flee after
conviction to avoid punishment, but
likewise those who, after being charged,
flee to avoid prosecution”.
In Rodriguez v. COMELEC, 259 SCRA
296, it was held that Rodriuez cannot be
considered a “fugitive from justice”,
669
Interpreted in the case of Mercado v. Manzano, 307 SCRA 630).
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because his arrival in the Philippines form
the US preceded by at least five months
the filing of the felony complaint in the Los
Angeles Court and the issuance of the
warrant for his arrest by the same foreign
court.
iii. Section 40, RA 7160, cannot apply
retroactively. Thus, an elective local official
who was removed from office as a result
of an administrative case prior to January
1, 1992 (date of LGC’s effectivity) is not
disqualified form running for elective local
office (Grego v. COMELEC
In Reyes v. COMELEC, 254 SCRA 514,
the SC ruled that the petitioner, a
Municipal Mayor who had been ordered
removed from office by the Sanggunian
Panlalawigan, was disqualified, even as
he alleged that the decision was not yet
final because he had not yet received a
copy of the decision. It was shown,
however, that he merely refuse to accept
delivery of the copy of the decision.
iv. In Mercado v. Manzano, 307 SCRA 630,
the SC clarified the “dual citizenship”
disqualification, and reconciled the same
with Section 5, Article IV of the
COnsitution on “dual allegiance”.
Recognizing situation in which a Filipino
citizen may, without performing any act
and as an involuntary consequence of the
conflicting laws of different countries, be
also a citizen of another State, the Court
explained that “dual citizenship”, as a
disqualification, must refer to citizens with
“dual allegiance”. Consequently, persons
with mere dual citizenship do not fall
under the disqualification.
3. Manner of Election (RA 7160, Section 41)
1. The governor, vice-governor, city or
municipal mayor, city or municipal vice-
mayor and punong barangay shall be
elected at large in their respective units.
The sangguniang kabataan chairman
shall be elected by the registered voters of
the katipunan ng kabataan.
2. The regular members of the sangguniang
panlalawigan, panlungsod and bayan
shall be elected by district as may be
provided by law. The presidents of the
leagues of sanggunian members of
component cities and municipalities shall
serve as ex officio members of the
sanffuniang panlalawigan concerned. The
presidents of the liga ng mga barangay
and the pederasyon ng mga sangguniang
kabataan elected by their respective
chapters, shall serve ex officio members
of the sangguniang panlalawigan,
panlungsod or bayan.
Article X, Section 9. Legislative bodies of
local governments shall have sectoral
representation as may be prescribed by law.
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3. In addition, there shall be one sectoral
representative from the women, one from
the workers, and one from any of the
following sectors: urban poor, indigenous
cultural communities, disabled persons, or
any other sector as may be determined by
sanggunian concerned within 90 days
prior to the holding of the next local
elections as may be provided by law. The
Comelec shall promulgate the rules and
regulations to effectively provide for the
election of such sectoral representatives.
4. Date of Election
Every three years on the second Monday of May,
unless otherwise provided by law.
5. Term of Office
Three years, starting from noon of June 30, 1992,
or such date as may be provided by law, except
that of elective barangay officials. No local elective
official shall serve for more than three consecutive
terms in the same position. The term of office of
barangay officials and members of the
sangguniang kabataan shall be for five (5) years,
which shall begin after the regular election of
barangay officials on the second Monday of May,
1997. (RA 8524)
Article X, Section 8. The term of office of elective local
officials, except barangay officials, which shall be
determined by law, shall be three years and no such
official shall serve for more than three consecutive
terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for any
length of time shall not be considered as an
interruption in the continuity of his service for the full
term for which he was elected.
Q: Due to incumbent mayor’s death, the vice-mayor
succeeds to the office of mayor by operation of law and
serves the remainder of the mayor’s term. Is he
considered to have served a term in that office for the
purpose of the three-term limit?
A: No. Section of Article X embodies two policies, viz.:
(1)to prevent political dynasties and
(2) to enhance the freedom of choice of the people. The
term limit of elective officials must be taken to refer
to the right to be elected as well as the right to serve
in the same elective position. Consequently, it is not
enough that an individual served three consecutive terms
in an elective local office, he must also been elected to
the same position for the same number of times before
the disqualification can apply.670
Q: When will the three-limit of local elective officials-
except barangay officials- apply?
A: Only when these two conditions concur:
1. The local official concerned has been elected
three consecutive times; and
2. He has fully served three consecutive terms.
(Borja v. COMELEC, 1998)
670
Borja v. COMELEC, 1998
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SC devised scenarios to explain the
application of Article X, Section 8 in Borja v.
COMELEC:
Q: Suppose A is a vice-mayor who becomes mayor by
reason of the death of the incumbent. Six months
before the next election, he resigns and is twice
elected thereafter. Can he run again for mayor in the
next election?
A: Yes, because although he has already first served
as mayor by succession and subsequently resigned
from office before the full term expired, he has not
actually served there full terms in all for the purpose of
applying the term limit. Under Art. X, Section 8,
voluntary renunciation of office is not considered as an
interruption in the continuity of his service for the full
term only if the term is one “for which he was elected.”
Since A is only completing the service of the term for
which the deceased and not he was elected, A cannot
be considered to have completed one term. His
resignation constitutes an interruption of the full term.
(Borja v. COMELEC, 1998)
Q: Suppose B is elected mayor and, during his term,
he is twice suspended for misconduct for a total of 1
year. If he is twice re-elected after that, can he run for
one more term in the next election?
A: Yes, because he has served only two-full terms
successively. (Borja v. COMELEC, 1998) Bernas: It is
submitted that this is not correct. Suspension does not
interrupt his term nor in fact his tenure because the
office still belongs to him during suspension.
Moreover, the Court’s solution rewards wrong doing.
Q: The case of vice-mayor C who becomes mayor by
succession involves a total failure of the two conditions
to concur for the purpose of applying Article X, Section
8. Suppose he is twice elected after that term, is he
qualified to run again in the next election?
A: Yes, because he was not elected to the office of the
mayor in the first terms but simply found himself thrust
into it by operation of law. Neither had he served the
full term because he only continued the service,
interrupted by the death, of the deceased mayor.
Current Rules on Term Limits:
1. Lonzanida was elected Mayor to a third term. His
election was challenged, however, and he lost and had
to abandon his office. He could still run in the next
election year because he did not serve three full
terms.671
2. Talaga lost when he ran for a third term. The
winner, however, lost to him in a recall election and he
served the rest of the former winner’s term. At the end
of this term he could run again because he had not
served three full terms.672
3. Hagedorn served as Mayor for three full terms. In
the first year after the end of his third term, he ran in a
recall election. Qualified? Yes, because between the
end of his third term and the recall election there was
an interruption thus breaking the successiveness.673
4. During the third term of a Mayor of a municipality,
the municipality was converted to a city. The Mayor
was allowed to finish the third term. Could he run as
Mayor of the city in the next election? No. There has
671
Lonzanida v Comelec, G.R. No. 135150. July 28, 1999.
672
Adormeo v Comelec, G.R. No. 147927. February 4, 2002.
673
Socrates v Comelec, G.R. No. 154512. November 12, 2002.
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been no change in territory nor in constituency. Thus
the three term limit applies.674
5. When a municipal councilor assumed the office of
Vice-Mayor respondent’s assumption of office as vice-
mayor in January 2004 by operation of law, it was an
involuntary severance from his office as municipal
councilor resulting in an interruption in the service of
his 2001-2004 term. He did not serve the full 2001-
2004 term.675
6. After serving a full three year term, Alegre was
declared to have been invalidly elected. Should that
term be counted for purposes of the three term limit?
Yes. The decision declaring him not elected is of no
practical consequence because he has already
served.676
Q: RA 7160, Section 43-c limits the term of office of
barangay official to three years. Petitioners argue that
Section 8, Article X “by excepting barangay officials
whose ‘terms shall be determined law’ from the general
provision fixing the term of ‘elective local officials’ at three
years,” impliedly prohibits Congress form legislating a
three-year term for such officers. Thus, Section 43-C of
RA 7160 is unconstitutional. Decide.
A: The Constitution did not expressly prohibit Congress
from fixing any term of office of barangay officials. (David
v. COMELEC, 1997)
Q: How long then is the term of barangay officials?
A: As may be determined by law. And the Local
Government Code, Section 43-c limits their term to three
years.
2006 Bar Question. Law fixing the terms of
local elective officials.
Q:State whether or not the law is constitutional.
Explain briefly.
“A law fixing the terms of local elective officials,
other than barangay officials, to 6 years.”
Suggested Answer: The law is invalid. Under
Article X, Section 8 of the 1987 Constitution, "the
term of office of elective local officials, except
barangay officials, which shall be determined by
law, shall be three years and no such official shall
serve for more than three consecutive terms." The
law clearly goes against the aforesaid constitutional
requirement of three year terms for local officials
except for barangay officials.
6. Rules of Succession (RA 7160, Sections 444-
46)
Permanent Vacancies- A permanent vacancy
arises when an elective local officials fills higher
vacant office, refuses to assume office, fails to
qualify, dies, is removed from office, voluntarily
resigns, or is permanently incapacitated to
discharge the functions of his office. If a permanent
vacancy occurs in the office of:
674
Latasa v. Comelec. G.R. No. 154829. December 10, 2003.
675
Montebon v COMELEC, G.R. No. 180444, April 8, 2008.
676
Ong v. Alegre, G.R. No. 163295, January 23, 2006; Rivera III v.
Morales, GR 167591, May 9, 2007.
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
1. Governor or mayor, the vice-governor or vice-
mayor concerned shall become the governor
or mayor.
2. Vice-governor or vice-mayor, the highest
ranking sanggunian member or, in case of
permanent inability, the second highest
ranking sanggunian member, and subsequent
vacancies shall be filled automatically by the
other sanggunian members according to their
ranking. Ranking in the sanggunian shall be
determined on the basis of the proportion of
votes obtained by each winning candidate to
the total number of registered voters in each
district in the immediately preceding election.
a) In Victoria v. Comelec, 229 SXRA 269, the SC
rejected the contention that this provision be
interpreted by factoring the number of the
voters who actually voted, because the law is
clear and must be applied—and the courts may
not speculate as the probable intent of the
legislature apart form the words used in the
law.
b) In Menzon v. Petilla, 197 SCRA 251, it was held
that this mode of succession for permanent
vacancies may also be observed in the case of
temporary vacancies in the same office.
3. Punong barangay, the highest-ranking
sanggunian barangay member, or in case of
his permanent inability, the second highest
ranking barangay member. [Note: A tie
between or among the highest ranking
sanggunian members shall be resolved by
drawing of lots.]
4. Sangguniang member, where automatic
succession provided above do not apply: filled
by appointment by the President, through the
Executive Secretary in the case of the
Sanggunian Panlalawigan or sanggunian
panlungsod of highly urbanized cities and
independent component cities; by the
Governor in the case of the sangguniang
panlungsod of component cities and
sangguniang bayan; and by the city or
municipality mayor in the case of sangguniang
barangay upon recommendation of the
sangguniang barangay concerned.
However, except for the sangguniang
barangay, only the nominee of the political
party under which the sanggunian member
concerned had been elected and whose
elevation to the position next higher in rank
created the last vacancy in the sanggunian
shall be appointed.
A nomination and a certificate of membership
of the appointee from the highest official of the
political party concerned are conditions sine
qua non, and any appointment without such
nomination and certificate shall be null and
void and shall be a ground for administrative
action against the official concerned.
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In case the permanent vacancy is caused by a
sangguniang member who does not belong to
any political party, the local chief executive
shall upon the recommendation of the
sanggunian concerned, appoint a qualified
person to fill the vacancy.
a) The reason behind the right given to a political
party to nominate a replacement when a
permanent vacancy occurs in the Sanggunian
is to maintain the party representation as willed
by the people in the election. (In this case, with
the elevation of Tamayo, who belonged to
Reforma-LM to the position of Vice Mayor, a
vacancy occurred in the Sangguninan that
should be filled up with someone who belongs
to the political party of Tamayo. Otherwise,
Reforma-LM’s representation in the
Sanggunian would be diminished. To argue that
the vacancy created was that formerlyheld by
the 8th Sanggunian member, a Lakas-NUCD-
Kampi member, would result in the increase in
that party’s representation in the Sanggunian at
the expense of Reforma-LM. (Navarro v. CA,
2001)
b) The appointment to any vacancy caused by the
cessation from office of a member of the
sangguniang barangay must be made by the
mayor upon the recommendation of the
sanggunian. The recommendation by the
sanggunian takes the place of nomination by
the political party (since members of the
sangguniang barangay are prohibited to have
party affiliations) and is considered as a
condition sine qua non for the validity of the
appointment.
In Farinas v. Barba, 256 SCRA 396, where
vacancy to be filled was that of a member of
the Sangguniang Bayan who did not belong to
any political party, the SC held that neither the
petitioner nor the respondent was validly
appointed. Not the petitioner, because although
he was appointed by the Governor, he was not
recommended by the Sanggunian Bayan.
Neither the respondent, because although he
was recommended by the Sanggunian Bayan,
he was not appointed by the Governor.
5. Vacancy in the representation of the youth and
the barangay in the sanggunian: filled
automatically by the official next in rank of the
organization concerned.
In Garvida v. Sales, 271 SCRA 767, the SC
pointed out that under the LGC, the member of
the Sangguniang Kabataan who obtained the
next highest number of votes shall succeed the
Chairman if the latter refuses to assume office,
fails to qualify, is convicted of a crime, voluntary
resigns, dies is permanently incapacitated, is
removed from office, or has been absent
without leave for more than three consecutive
months. Ineligibility is not one of causes
enumerated in the Local Government Code.
Thus, to avoid hiatus in the office of the
Chairman, the vacancy should be filled by the
members of the Sangguniang Kabataan
chosen by the incumbent SK members by
simple majority from among themselves.
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
Other Cases on “Succession”
1. Vice-governor acting as governor cannot
continue to preside over sangguniang
panlalawigan sessions while acting as such.
(Gamboa v. Aguirre, GR 134213, 07.20.99)
2. Under Section 444(b)(1)(xiv) of the 1991 Local
Government Code, applications for leave of
municipal officials and employees appointed
by the Mayor shall be acted upon by him/her,
not by the Acting Vice-Mayor. (Civil Service
Commission v. Sebastian, GR 161733,
10.11.2005)
3. In case of vacancy in the Sangguniang Bayan,
the nominee of the party under which the
member concerned was elected and whose
elevation to the higher position created the last
vacancy will be appointed. The last vacancy
refers to that created by the elevation of the
councilor as vice-mayor. The reason behind
the rule is to maintain party representation.
(Navarro v. Court of Appeals, GR 141307,
03.28.2001)
4. The ranking in the sanggunian shall be
determined on basis of the proportion of the
votes obtained by each winning candidate to
the total number of registered voters. The law
does not provide that the number of votes who
actually voted must be factored in the ranking.
(Victoria v. Comelec, GR 109005, 01.10.94)
5. The prohibition on midnight appointments only
applies to presidential appointments. There is
no law that prohibits local elective officials from
making appointments during the last days of
his/ her tenure. (De Rama v. Court of Appeals,
353 SCRA 94)
6. In accordance with Section 44 of the 1991
Local Government Code, the highest ranking
sangguniang barangay member, not the
second placer, who should become the
punong barangay in case the winning
candidate is ineligible. (Bautista v. Comelec,
GR 154796, 10.23.2003; Toral Kare v.
Comelec, GR 157526/ 157527, 04.28.2004)
Temporary Vacancies
1. When the governor, city or municipal mayor, or
punong barangay is temporarily incapacitated
to perform his duties for physical or legal
reasons such as, but not limited to, leave of
absence, travel abroad and suspension form
office, the vice governor, city or municipal vice
mayor, or the highest ranking sanggunian
barangay member shall automatically exercise
the powers and perform the duties and
functions of the local chief executive
concerned, except the power to appoint,
suspend, or dismiss employees which can be
exercised only if the period of temporary
incapacity exceeds thirty working days. (Said
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temporary incapacity shall terminate upon
submission to the appropriate sanggunian of a
written declaration that he has reported back
to office. In case the temporary incapacity is
due to legal causes, the local chief executive
concerned shall also submit necessary
documents showing that the legal causes no
longer exists.)
2. When the local chief executive is travelling
within the country but outside this territorial
jurisdiction for a period not exceeding three
consecutive days, he may designate in writing
the officer-in-charge of the said office. Such
authorization shall specify the powers and
functions that the local official shall exercise in
the absence of the local chief executive,
except the power to appoint, suspend or
dismiss employees. (If the local chief executive
fails or refuses to issue such authorization, the
vice-governor, city or municipal vice-mayor, or
the highest ranking sanggunian barangay
member, as the case may be , shall have the
right to assume the powers, duties and
functions of the said office on the fourth day of
absence of the local chief executive, except
the power to appoint., suspend or dismiss
employees.)
7. Compensation (RA 7160, Section 81)
The compensation of local officials and personnel
shall be determined by the sanggunian concerned,
subject to the provisions of RA 6758
[Compensation and Position Classification Act of
1989). The elective barangay officials shall be
entitled to receive honoraria, allowances and other
emoluments as may be provided by law or
barangay, municipal or city ordinance, but in no
case less than 1,000 per month for the punong
barangay and P600.00 for the sanggunian
members.
Elective officials shall be entitled to the same leave
privileges as those enjoyed by appointive local
officials, including the cumulation and commutation
thereof.
8. Recall
Recall is the termination of official relationship of an
elective official for loss of confidence prior to the
expiration of his term through the will of electorate.
1. Initiating the process of recall through the
convening of the Preparatory Recall
Assembly (PRA) is constitutional. The
Constitution empowers Congress to provide
effective means of recall. The adoption of the
PRA resolution is not the recall itself. (Garcia
v. Comelec, GR 111511, 10.05.93)
2. Loss of confidence as a ground for recall is a
political question. (Garcia v. Comelec, GR
111511, 10.05.93)
3. Another resolution by the Preparatory Recall
Assembly must be adopted to initiate the
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
recall of a vice-mayor who, before the recall
election, became the mayor. (Afiado v.
Comelec, GR 141787, 09.18.2000)
4. The Preparatory Recall Assembly is distinct
from liga ng mga barangay. Barangay
officials who participated in recall did so not
as members of the liga but as PRA members.
(Malonzo v. Comelec, GR 127066, 03.11.97)
5. Notice to all members of the Preparatory
Recall Assembly is a mandatory requirement.
(Garcia v. Comelec, GR 111511, 10.05.93)
6. Notice may be served by president of the liga
ng mga barangay who is also a member of
the Preparatory Recall Assembly. (Malonzo v.
Comelec, GR 127066, 03.11.97)
7. Service of notice may be effected under any
of the modes of service of pleadings –
personal, by registered mail. (Malonzo v.
Comelec, GR 127066, 03.11.97)
8. The 1-year ban (from assumption and next
election) refers to the holding of the recall
election, not the convening of the PRA.
(Claudio v. Comelec, GR 140560/ 714,
05.04.2000)
9. The ‘regular recall election’ mentioned in the
1-year proscription refers to an election
where the office held by the local elective
official sought to be recalled will be contested
and filled by the electorate. (Paras v.
Comelec, GR 123169, 11.04.96; Jariol v.
Comelec, GR 127456, 03.20.97)
10. A party aggrieved by the issuance of
Comelec en banc resolution (calendar of
activities for recall election) when he/ she had
sufficient time, must file a motion for
reconsideration with Comelec en banc.
(Jariol v. Comelec, GR 127456, 03.20.97)
9. Resignation (RA 7160, Section 82)
Resignation of elective local officials shall be
deemed effective only upon acceptance by the
following authorities:
a) The President, in case of governors, vice-
governors, and mayors and vice-mayors of
highly urbanized cities and independent
component cities.
b) The governor, in the case of municipal mayors
and vice-mayors, city mayors and vice-mayors
of component cities.
c) The sanggunian concerned, in case of
sanggunian members.
d) The city or municipal mayor, in the case of
barangay officials.
[Note: The resignation shall be deemed accepted if
not acted upon by the authority concerned within
15 working days from receipt thereof. Irrevocable
resignations by sanggunian members shall be
deemed accepted upon presentation before an
open session of the sanggunian concerned and
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duly entered in its records, except where the
sanggunian members are subject to recall
elections or to cases where existing laws prescribe
the manner of acting upon such resignations.]
10. Grievance Procedure (RA 7160, Section 83)
The local chief executive shall establish a
procedure to inquire into, act upon, resolve or
settle complaints and grievances presented by
local government employees.
11. Discipline (RA 7160, Sections 60-68)
Grounds for Disciplinary Action:
An elective local official may be disciplined,
suspended, or removed from office on any of the
following grounds:
1. Disloyalty to the republic of the Philippines.
2. Culpable violation of the Constitution.
3. Dishonesty, oppression, misconduct in office,
gross negligence, or dereliction of duty.
It was held that acts of lasciviousness cannot
be considered misconduct in office, and may
not be the basis of an order of suspension. To
constitute a ground for disciplinary action, the
mayor charged with the offense must be
convicted in the criminal action.
4. Commission of any offense involving moral
turpitude or an offense punishable by at least
prision mayor.
5. Abuse of authority.
In failing to share with the municipalities
concerned the amount paid by the Naitonal
Power Corporation for the redemption of the
properties acquired by the Province of Albay at
a public auction held for delinquent realty taxes,
the Provincial Officials were held guilty of
abuse of authority. (Salalima v. Guingona, 257
SCRA 55)
6. Unauthorized absence for 15 consecutive
working days, except in the case of members
of the sangguniang palalawigan, panlungsod,
bayan and barangay.
7. Application for, or acquisition of, foreign
citizenship or residence or the status of an
immigrant of another country.
8. Such other grounds as may be provided in this
Code and other laws.
[An elective local official may be removed from
office on the grounds enumerated above by order
of the proper court.]
Cases on Discipliinary Action (Agra Notes)
1. The power of the President over
administrative disciplinary cases against
elective local officials is derived from his/ her
power of general supervision over local
governments. The power to discipline and
ensure that the laws be faithfully executed
must be construed to authorize the
President to order an investigation of the act
or conduct of local officials when in his/ her
opinion the good of the public service so
I sweat, I bleed, I soar…
Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
requires. Thus: “Independently of any
statutory provision authorizing the President
to conduct an investigation of the nature
involved in this proceeding, and in view of
the nature and character of the executive
authority with which the President of the
Philippines is invested, the constitutional
grant to him/ her power to exercise general
supervision over all local governments and
to take care that the laws be faithfully
executed must be construed to authorize
him/ her to order an investigation of the act
or conduct of the local official.(Joson v.
Torres, GR 131255, 05.20.98)
2. Jurisdiction over administrative disciplinary
actions against elective local officials is
lodged in two authorities: the Disciplining
Authority and the Investigating Authority.
The Disciplinary Authority may constitute a
Special Investigating Committee in lieu of
the Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government. With respect to a provincial
governor, the disciplining Authority is the
President of the Philippines, whether acting
by himself/ herself or through the Executive
Secretary. The Secretary of the Interior and
Local Government is the Investigating
Authority, who may act himself/ herself or
constitute and Investigating Committee. The
Secretary of the Department, however, is not
the exclusive Investigating Authority. In lieu
of the Department Secretary, the Disciplining
Authority may designate a Special
Investigating Committee. The power of the
President over administrative disciplinary
cases against elective local officials is
derived from his/ her power of general
supervision over local governments. The
power of the Department to investigate
administrative complaints is based on the
alter-ego principle or the doctrine of qualified
political agency. (Joson v. Torres, GR
131255,05.20.98)
3. An ‘administrative offense’ means every act
or conduct or omission which amounts to, or
constitutes, any of the grounds for
disciplinary action. (Salalima v. Guingona,
GR 117589-92,05.22.96)
4. The 1991 Local Government Code is the
applicable law insofar as disciplinary action
against an elective local official is
concerned. The Code prevails over the
Administrative Code since the latter is of
general application and the former was
enacted much later than the latter. (Calingin
v. Court of Appeals, GR 154616,
07.12.2004)
5. When a mayor is adjudged to be
disqualified, a permanent vacancy was
created for failure of the elected mayor to
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qualify for the office. In such eventuality, the
duly elected vice mayor shall succeed as
provided by law. The second placer cannot
be declared as mayor. (Toral Kare v.
Comelec, GR 157526/ 157527, 04.28.2004)
6. Any vote cast in favor of a candidate, whose
disqualification has already been declared
final regardless of the ground, shall be
considered stray. The application of this rule
is not only limited to disqualification by
conviction in a final judgment. Section 40 of
the 1991 Local Government Code
enumerates other grounds. The
disqualification of a candidate is not only by
conviction in a final judgment. (Toral Kare v.
Comelec, GR 157526/ 157527, 04.28.2004)
7. A reelected local official may not be held
administratively accountable for misconduct
committed during his/ her prior term of
office. The re-election of a public official
extinguishes only the administrative, but not
the criminal, liability incurred during the
previous term of office. (Valencia v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 141336, 06.29.2004) A
local official who was re-elected can no
longer be charged administratively for
misconduct during previous term. (Garcia v.
Mojica, GR 139043, 09.10.99) An
administrative case has become moot and
academic as a result of the expiration of
term of office of an elective local official
during which the act complained of was
allegedly committed. Proceedings against
respondent are therefore barred by his/ her
re-election. (Malinao v. Reyes, GR 117618,
03.29.96; Reyes v. Comelec, GR 120905,
03.07.96)
8. Under the 1991 Local Government Code,
the disqualification to run for any elective
local position is for two years after service of
sentence, not 5 years under the Omnibus
Election Code since the LGC is the later
enactment. (Magno v. Comelec, GR
147904, 10.04.2002)
12. Cases on Offenses (Agra Notes)
1. There are no unlawful disbursements of
public funds when disbursements are made
pursuant to a reenacted budget. Money can
be paid out of the local treasury since there is
a valid appropriation. There is no undue injury
since there was non unlawful expenditure.
However, only the annual appropriations for
salaries and wages, statutory and contractual
obligations, and essential operating expenses
are deemed reenacted. There is criminal
liability in delay in submission of the budget
proposal provided the requirements under
Section 318 of the Code are not met. The
mayor must first receive the necessary
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
financial documents from other city officials in
order to be able to prepare the budget.
(Villanueva v. Ople, GR 165125, 11.18.2005)
2. A mayor who continues to perform the
functions of the office despite the fact that he/
she is under preventive suspension usurps
the authority of the Office of the Mayor and is
liable for violation of Section 13 of the Anti-
Graft and Corrupt Practices Act. Section 13 of
R.A. No. 3019 covers two types of offenses:
(1) any offense involving fraud on the
government; and (2) any offense involving
public funds or property. The first type
involves any fraud whether public funds are
involved or not. “Fraud upon government”
means “any instance or act of trickery or
deceit against the government.” It cannot be
read restrictively so as to be equivalent to
malversation of funds. Honest belief that he is
no longer under preventive suspension
cannot serve as defense when he refused to
leave his position despite having received the
memorandum from the Department of Interior
and Local Government and only vacating the
office after being forced out by the Philippine
National Police. (Miranda v. Sandiganbayan,
GR 154098, 07.27.2005)
3. By allowing a dismissed employee whose
dismissal was affirmed by the Civil Service
Commission to continue working and receive
his/ her salary, the mayor accorded
unwarranted benefits to a party. Therefore he/
she is liable for violating Section 3(e) of the
Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act. At the
time of the commission of the crime, the
municipal mayor, he/ she was mandated to
abide by Article I of Section 444(b)(x) of 1991
Local Government Code which directs
executive officials and employees of the
municipality to faithfully discharge their duties
and functions as provided by law.
Considering such duty, the mayor had to
enforce decisions or final resolutions, orders
or rulings of the Civil Service Commission.
(Velasco v. Sandiganbayan, GR160991,
02.28.2005)
4. Under Section 3(h) of R.A. 3019, the person
liable is any public officer who directly or
indirectly has financial or pecuniary interest in
any business, contract or transaction in
connection with which he intervenes or takes
part in his official capacity, or in which he is
prohibited by the Constitution or by any law
from having any interest. The essential
elements of the violation of said provision are
as follows: 1) The accused is a public officer;
2) he has a direct or indirect financial or
pecuniary interest in any business, contract
or transaction; 3) he either: a) intervenes or
takes part in his official capacity in connection
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with such interest, or b) is prohibited from
having such interest by the Constitution or by
law. In other words, there are two modes by
which a public officer who has a direct or
indirect financial or pecuniary interest in any
business, contract, or transaction may violate
Section 3(h) of R.A. 3019. The first mode is
when the public officer intervenes or takes
part in his official capacity in connection with
his financial or pecuniary interest in any
business, contract or transaction. The second
mode is when he is prohibited from having
such an interest by the Constitution or by law.[
Thus, a mayor violated the aforestated
provision via the first mode when he/she
intervened in his/her official capacity in
connection with his/her financial or pecuniary
interest in the transaction regarding the
supply and delivery of mixed gravel and sand
to the constituent barangays. It was the
mayor’s company that supplied the materials.
(Domingo v. Sandiganbayan, GR 149175,
10.25.2005)
5. There are two modes by which a public
officer who has a direct or indirect financial or
pecuniary interest in any business, contract,
or transaction may violate Section 3(h) of the
Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act. The first
mode is if in connection with his/ her
pecuniary interest in any business, contract
or transaction, the public officer intervenes or
takes part in his/ her official capacity. The
second mode is when he/ she is prohibited
from having such interest by the Constitution
or any law. A mayor relative to the issuance of
a license to operate a cockpit which he/ she
owns cannot be held liable under the first
mode since he/ she could not have
intervened or taken part in his/ her official
capacity in the issuance of a cockpit license
because he was not a member of the
Sangguniang Bayan. Under the 1991 Local
Government Code, the grant of a license is a
legislative act of the sanggunian. However,
the mayor could be liable under the second
mode. Further, Section 89 of the 1991 Local
Government Code proscribes such pecuniary
interest. The penalty must be that one
provided under the Code, not under the Anti-
Graft Law since the Code specifically refers
to interests in cockpits while the latter refers
in general to pecuniary interest. (Teves v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 154182, 12.17.2004)
6. An illegally dismissed government employee
who is later ordered reinstated is entitled to
backwages and other monetary benefits from
the time of his/ her illegal dismissal up to his/
her reinstatement. This is only fair and just
because an employee who is reinstated after
having been illegally dismissed is considered
as not having left his/ her office and should
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be given the corresponding compensation at
the time of his/ her reinstatement. When there
is no malice or bad faith that attended the
illegal dismissal and refusal to reinstate on
the part of the municipal officials, they cannot
be held personally accountable for the back
salaries. The municipal government should
disburse funds to answer for the claims
resulting from dismissal. (Civil Service
Commission v. Gentallan, GR 152833,
05.09.2005)
7. ‘Moral Turpitude’ is an act of baseness,
vileness, or depravity in the private duties
which a person owes his/ her fellow men (and
women) or to the society in general, contrary
to the accepted and customary rule of right
and duty between man and woman or
conduct contrary to justice, honesty, modesty,
or good morals. One such act is the crime of
fencing. (Dela Torre v. Comelec GR 121592,
07.05.96)
8. A local chief executive is not duty-bound to
approve and sign a voucher when there is no
appropriations ordinance and when there is
no certification of availability of funds for the
intended purpose. For not signing the
voucher, bad faith cannot be imputed against
him/ her. (Llorente v. Sandiganbayan,
GR122166, 03.11.98)
9. When the validity of subsequent
appointments to the position of Assistant City
Assessor has not been challenged, the city
mayor who appointed a person to serve in
said position had every right to assume in
good faith that the one who held the position
prior to the appointments no longer held the
same. Thus, the city mayor is not liable for
violation of Sections 3(a) and 3(e) of the Anti-
Graft and Corrupt Practices Act. Section 3(a)
requires a deliberate intent on the part of the
public official concerned to violate those rules
and regulations duly promulgated by
competent authority, or to commit an offense
in connection with official duties. On the other
hand, Section 3(e) poses the standard of
manifest partiality, evident bad faith, or gross
inexcusable negligence before liability can be
had on that paragraph. Manifest partiality has
been characterized as a clear, notorious or
plain inclination or predilection to favor one
side rather than the other. Evident bad faith
connotes a manifest deliberate intent on the
part of the accused to do wrong or cause
damage. Gross inexcusable negligence has
been defined as negligence characterized by
the want of even slight care, acting or
omitting to act in a situation where there is a
duty to act, not inadvertently but wilfully and
intentionally with a conscious indifference to
consequences in so far as other persons may
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be affected. (Reyes v. Atienza, GR 152243,
09.23.2005)
10. The approval by the Commission on Audit
(COA) of disbursements of local funds by a
local executive relates to the administrative
aspect of the matter of the officials
accountability. It does not foreclose the
Ombudsman’s authority to investigate and
determine whether there is a crime to be
prosecuted for which he/ she is accountable.
Compliance with COA rules and regulations
does not necessarily mean that no
misappropriation of public funds was
committed. Evidence in this regard must still
be adduced. (Aguinaldo v. Sandiganbayan,
GR 124471, 11.28.96)
11. Public officials, more especially an elected
one, should not be onion-skinned. Thus, a
vice-mayor who beat up a motorist despite
the provocation by the latter, is guilty of
misconduct. The period where an official was
placed under preventive suspension cannot
be credited to the penalty imposed on him/
her. (Yabut v. Office of the Ombudsman, GR
111304, 07.17.94)
12. A city mayor cannot be held liable under
Section 3(g) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act for entering into a contract
which is grossly and manifestly
disadvantageous to the government when the
contract which is subject of the complaint has
been rescinded before the report of the
Commission on Audit came out and before
the complaint was filed with the Ombudsman.
(Duterte v. Sandiganbayan, GR 130191,
04.27.98)
13. Partial restitution of cash shortage is an
implied admission of misappropriation of
missing funds by the municipal treasurer in
case where he/ she offers no competent and
credible evidence to prove that the missing
funds were actually cash advances of
employees in the municipality. (Doldol v.
People of the Philippines, GR 164481,
09.20.2005)
13. Cases on Procedure (Agra Notes)
1. An erring elective local officials has rights
akin to the constitutional rights of an accused.
These are essentially part of procedural due
process. The local elective official has the (1)
right to appear and defend himself/ herself in
person or by counsel; (2) the right to confront
and cross-examine the witnesses against
him/ her; and (3) the right to compulsory
attendance of witness and the production of
documentary evidence. Thus, the official’s
right to a formal investigation was not
satisfied when the complaint against him/ her
decided on the basis of position papers. The
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
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provisions for administrative disciplinary
actions elective local officials are markedly
different from appointive officials. The rules
on the removal and suspension of elective
local officials are more stringent. The
procedure of requiring position papers in lieu
of a hearing in administrative cases is
expressly allowed with respect to appointive
officials but not to those elected. An elective
official, elected by popular vote, is directly
responsible to the community that elected
him/ her. The official has a definite term of
office fixed by law which is relatively of short
duration. Suspension and removal from office
definitely affects and shortens this term of
office. When an elective official is suspended
or removed, the people are deprived of the
services of the official they had elected.
(Joson v. Torres, GR 131255, 05.20.98)
2. The essence of procedural due process is
embodied in the basic requirement of notice
and a real opportunity to be heard. In
administrative proceedings, procedural due
process simply means the opportunity to
explain one’s side or the opportunity to seek
a reconsideration of the action or ruling
complained of. Procedural due process has
been recognized to include the following: (1)
the right to actual or constructive notice of the
institution of proceedings which may affect a
respondent’s legal rights; (2) a real
opportunity to be heard personally or with the
assistance of counsel, to present witnesses
and evidence in one’s favor, and to defend
one’s rights; (3) a tribunal vested with
competent jurisdiction and so constituted as
to afford a person charged administratively a
reasonable guarantee of honesty as well as
impartiality; and (4) a finding by said tribunal
which is supported by substantial evidence
submitted for consideration during the
hearing or contained in the records or made
known to the parties affected. Kinship alone
does not establish bias and partiality. Bias
and partiality cannot be presumed. In
administrative proceedings, no less than
substantial proof is required. Mere allegation
is not equivalent to proof. Mere suspicion of
partiality is not enough. There should be
hard evidence to prove it, as well as manifest
showing of bias and partiality stemming from
an extrajudicial source or some other basis.
(Casimiro v. Tandog, GR 146137,
06.08.2005)
3. An administrative complaint against an erring
elective official must be verified and filed with
the proper government office. A complaint
against an elective provincial or city must be
filed with the Office of the President. A
complaint against an elective municipal
official must be filed with the Sangguniang
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Panlalawigan while that of a barangay official
must be filed before the Sangguniang
Panlungsod or Sangguniang Bayan.
(Mendoza v. Laxina, GR 146875,
07.14.2003)
4. The lack of verification in a letter-complaint
may be waived, the defect being not fatal.
Verification is a formal, not jurisdictional
requites. (Joson v. Torres GR 131255,
05.20.98)
5. Decisions of the Office of the President are
final and executory. No motion for
reconsideration is allowed by law but the
parties may appeal the decision to the Court
of Appeals. The appeal, however, does not
stay the execution of the decision. The
Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government may validly move for its
immediate execution. (Calingin v. Court of
Appeals, GR 154616, 07.12.2004)
6. Direct recourse to the courts without
exhausting administrative remedies is not
permitted. Thus, a mayor who claims that the
imposition of preventive suspension by the
governor was unjustified and politically
motivated, should seek relief first from the
Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government, not from the courts. (Espiritu v.
Melgar, GR 100874, 02.13.92)
7. The 1991 Local Government Code does not
preclude the filing of an appeal of a decision
of a sangguniang panlungsod involving an
elective barangay official. Section 68 of the
Code specifically allows a party to appeal to
the Office of the President. The decision is
immediately executory but the respondent
may nevertheless appeal the adverse
decision to the Office of the President or to
the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, as the case
may be. (Mendoza v. Laxina, GR 146875,
07.14.2003)
8. Under Section 61 of the 1991 Local
Government Code, a complaint against any
elective official of a municipality shall be filed
before the sangguniang panlalawigan whose
decision may be appealed to the Office of the
President. When appeal to the Office of the
President is available, resort to filing a
petition for certiorari, prohibition and
mandamus with the Court of Appeals under
Rule 65, 14 was inapt. The availability of the
right of appeal precludes recourse to the
special civil action for certiorari. (Balindong v.
Dacalos, GR 158874, 11.10. 2004)
9. No notice of the session where a decision of
the sanggunian is to be promulgated on the
administrative case is required to be given to
the petitioner. The deliberation of the
sanggunian is an internal matter. In order to
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
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render a decision in administrative cases
involving elective local officials, the decision
of the sanggunian must be writing stating
clearly and distinctly the facts and the
reasons for the decision. Thus, the voting
following the deliberation of the members of
the sanggunian did not constitute the
decision unless this was embodied in an
opinion prepared by one of them and
concurred in by the others. Until the members
have signed the opinion and the decision is
promulgated, they are free to change their
votes. (Malinao v. Reyes, GR 117618,
03.29.96)
10. The filing of motion for reconsideration before
the supervising local government concerning
a disciplinary case involving an elective
official of the supervised unit prevents the
decision of the former from becoming final.
Thus, there is thus no decision finding the
official guilty to speak of which would
disqualify said official. (Lingating v. Comelec,
GR 153475, 11.13.2002)
11. Under the 1991 Local Government Code, an
elective local official must be citizen of the
Philippines. One who claims that a local
official is not has the burden of proving his/
her claim. In administrative cases and
petitions for disqualification, the quantum of
proof required is substantial evidence.
(Matugas v. Comelec, GR 151944,
01.20.2004)
12. The Office of the President is authorized to
stay the execution of a decision against a
municipal mayor issued by the Sangguniang
Panalawigan pending appeal. Reviewing
officials are not deprived of their authority to
order a stay an appealed decision.
Supervising officials are given such
discretion. (Berces v. Guingona, 241 SCRA
539)
14. Complaints
1. A verified complaint against provincial, highly
urbanized city or independent component city
elective official, shall be filed before the Office
of the President.
a) It may be noted that the Constitution places
local governments under the supervision of the
Executive. Likewise, the Constitution allows
Congress to include in the Local Government
Code provisions for removal of local officials,
which suggest that Congress may exercise
removal powers. So, the Local Government
Code has done and delegated its exercise to
the President. Note also that legally,
supervision is not incompatible with disciplinary
authority. (Ganzon v. CA, 200 SCRA 271)
b) Under Administrative Order No. 23, the
President has delegated the power to
investigate complaints to the Secretary of
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Interior and Local Government. This is valid
delegation because what is delegated is only
the power to investigate, not the power to
discipline. Besides, the power of the Secretary
of Interior and Local Government to investigare
is based on the alter ego principle. (Joson v.
Torres, 290 SCRA 279)
c) The respondent has the right to formal
investigation under Administrative Order No. 23
which includes the right to appear and defend
himself in person or by counsel, the right right
to confront the witnesses against him and the
right to compulsory process for the attendance
of witnesses and the production of documents.
Thus, in this case, where the Secretary denied
the petitioners motion for a formal investigation
and decided the case on the basis of position
papers, the right f the petitioner was violated
(Joson v. Torres) In Salalima v. Guingona, 257
SCRA 55, the SC said that the administrative
investigation can proceed even during the
pendency of an appeal of audit findings to the
Commission on Audit.
2. A verified complaint against elective municipal
officials, shall be filed before the sangguinian
panlalawigan, whose decision may be
appealed to the Office of the President.
a) Administrative Order No. 18 dated February 12,
1987, which provides that on appeal from the
decision of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, the
President may stay execution of the appealed
decision, was deemed not to have been
repealed by RA 7160 did not expressly repeal
the administrative order, and implied repeals
are frowned upon. (Berces v. Executive
Secretary, 241 SCRA 539)
b) The decision of the sanggunian panlalawigan in
administrative cases involving elective officials
may be in writing stating clearly and distinctly
the facts and the reasons for the decision, and
must be signed by the requisite majority of the
sanggunian. (Malinao v. Reyes, 256 SCRA
616)
3. A valid complaint against elective barangay
officials, shall be filed before the sangguniang
panglungsod os sagguniang bayan concerned,
whose decision shall be final and executor.
15. Preventive Suspension (Agra Notes)
1. Nature. Preventive suspension is merely a
preventive measure, a preliminary step in an
administrative investigation.
Purpose. The purpose of the suspension
order is to prevent the accused from using his
position and the powers and prerogatives of
his office to influence potential witnesses or
tamper with records which may be vital in the
prosecution of the case against him. If after
such investigation, the charge is established
and the person investigated is found guilty of
acts warranting his suspension or removal,
then he is suspended, removed or dismissed.
This is the penalty. Not being a penalty, the
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Service, Sacrifice, Excellence
ARIS S. MANGUERA
period within which one is under preventive
suspension is not considered part of the
actual penalty of suspension. Thus, service of
the preventive suspension cannot be credited
as service of penalty. (Quimbo v. Gervacio,
GR 155620,08.09.2005)
2. Pre-requisites. A preventive suspension may
be imposed by the Disciplinary Authority at
any time (a) after the issues are joined i.e.
respondent has filed an answer; (b) when the
evidence of guilt is strong; and (c) given the
gravity of the offenses, there is great
probability that the respondent, who
continues to hold office, could influence the
witnesses or pose a threat to the safety and
integrity of the records and other evidence.
These are the pre-requisites. However, the
failure of respondent to file his/ her answer
despite several opportunities given him/ her
is construed as a waiver of his/ her right to
present evidence in his/ her behalf. In this
situation, a preventive suspension may be
imposed even if an answer has not been
filed. (Joson v. Torres, GR 131255, 05.20.98)
3. Section 63 of the Local Government Code
which provides for a 60 day maximum period
for preventive suspension for a single office
does not govern preventive suspensions
imposed by the Ombudsman, which is a
constitutionally created office and
independent from the Executive branch of
government. The Ombudsman’s power of
preventive suspension is governed by
Republic Act No. 6770 otherwise known as
“The Ombudsman Act of 1989”. Under the
Act, the preventive suspension shall continue
until the case is terminated by the Office of
the Ombudsman but not more than six
months. (Miranda v. Sandiganbayan, GR
154098, 07.27.2005)
4. Under the 1991 Local Government Code, a
single preventive suspension of local elective
officials should not go beyond 60 days. Thus,
the Sandiganbayan cannot preventively
suspend a mayor for 90 days. (Rios v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 129913, 09.26.97)
5. A municipal official placed under preventive
suspension by a sangguniang panlalawigan
must file a motion for reconsideration before
the said sanggunian before filing a petition for
certiorari with the Court of Appeals. Such
motion is a condition sine qua non before
filing a petition for certiorari under Rule 65 of
the 1997 Rules of Civil Procedure, as
amended. (Flores v. Sangguniang
Panlalawigan of Pampanga, GR 159022,
02.23.2005)
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6. There is nothing improper in placing an officer
in preventive suspension before charges
against him/ her are heard and before he/she
is given an opportunity to prove his/her
innocence. This is allowed so that such
officer may not hamper the normal course of
the investigation through the use of his/ her
influence and authority. (Espiritu v. Melgar,
GR 100874, 02.13.92)
7. The Ombudsman pursuant to Republic Act
No. 6770 and the President are both
authorized to place under preventive
suspension erring local officials of highly-
urbanized cities, independent cities and
provinces. The Ombudsman may impose a
longer period of preventive suspension than
the President may. In order to justify the
preventive suspension of a public official
under Section 24 of Republic Act No. 6770,
the evidence of guilt should be strong, and
(a) the charge against the officer or employee
should involve dishonesty, oppression or
grave misconduct or neglect in the
performance of duty; (b) the charges should
warrant removal from the service; or (c) the
respondent’s continued stay in office would
prejudice the case filed against him/her. The
Ombudsman can impose the 6-month
preventive suspension on all public officials,
whether elective or appointive, who are under
investigation. On the other hand, in imposing
the shorter period of sixty (60) days of
preventive suspension under the 1991 Local
Government Code on an elective local official
(at any time after the issues are joined), it
would be enough that (a) there is reasonable
ground to believe that the respondent has
committed that act or acts complained of, (b)
the evidence of culpability is strong, (c) the
gravity of the offense so warrants, or (d) the
continuance in office of the respondent could
influence the witnesses or pose a threat to
the safety and integrity of the records and
other evidence. (Hagad v. Gozo-dadole, GR
108072, 12.12.95)
Who may impose preventive suspension.
Preventive suspension may be imposed by the
President, the governor, or the mayor [as the case
may be] at any tome after the issues are joined,
when the evidence of guilt is strong, and given the
gravity of the offense, there is great probability that
the continuance in office of the respondent could
influence the witnesses or pose a threat to the
safety and integrity of the records and other
evidence; provided that any single preventive
suspension shall not extend beyond 60 days, and
in the event several administrative cases are filed
against the respondent, he cannot be suspended
for more than 90 days within a single year on the
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same ground or grounds existing and known at the
time of the first suspension.
1. The authority to preventively suspend is
exercised concurrently by the Ombudsman,
pursuant to RA 6770; the same law authorizes
a preventive suspension of six months. (Hagad
v. Gozo-Dadole, 1995)
The preventive suspension of an elective local
official (in this case the Mayor of San
Fernando, Romblon) by the Sandignabayan
on a charge of violation of RA 3019, shall
likewise be only for a period of 60 days, not 90
days, consistent with Section 63, RA 7160,
which provides that “any single preventive
suspension of local elective officials shall not
extend beyond 60 days.” (Rios v.
Sandiganbayan, 1997)
2. Upon expiration of the preventive suspension,
the respondent shall be deemed reinstated in
office without prejudice to the continuation of
the proceedings against him, which shall be
terminated within 120 days from the time he
was formally notified of the case against him.
3. Any abuse of the exercise of the power of
preventive suspension shall be penalized as
abuse of authority.
16. Penalty (Agra Notes)
1. Under Section 60 of the 1991 Local
Government Code, the penalty of dismissal
from service upon an erring local official may
be declared only by a court of law. Thus,
Article 124(b), Rule XIX of the Rules and
Regulations Implementing the Local
Government Code, which grants the
disciplinary authority the power to remove
elective local officials, is a nullity. (Pablico v.
Villapando, GR 147870, 07.31.2002)
2. A sanggunian panlalawigan may cause the
removal of a municipal mayor who did not
appeal to the Office of the President within
the reglemantary period the decision removal
him/ her from office. If a public official is not
removed before his/ her term of office
expires, he/ she can no longer be removed if
he/she thereafter re-elected for another term.
Therefore, a decision removing an elective
local official, which has become final before
the election, constitutes a disqualification.
(Reyes v. Comelec, GR 120905, 03.07.96)
3. The President may suspend an erring
provincial elected official who committed
several administrative offenses for an
aggregate period exceeding 6 months
provided that each administrative offense, the
period of suspension does not exceed the 6-
month limit. (Salalima v. Guingona, GR
117589-92, 05.22.96)
4. Dishonesty, oppression, misconduct in office,
gross negligence, or an offense punishable
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by at least prison mayor constitute grounds
for removal upon order of the proper court.
(Castillo-Co v. Barbers GR 129952, 06.16.98)
The penalty of suspension imposed upon the
respondent shall not exceed his unexpired term, or
a period of 6 months for every administrative
offense, nor shall said penalty be a bar to the
candidacy of the respondent as long as he meets
the qualifications required for the office.
1. In Pablico v. Villapando, 2002, it was held that
by virtue of Section 60 of the LGC, which
provides that “an elective local official may be
removed from office on grounds enumerated
above by order of the proper court,” the
penalty of dismissal form the service may be
imposed upon an erring local elective official
only by a court of law. The provision of the
Implementing Rules and Regulations granting
the disciplining authority the power to remove
an elective local official administratively are
invalid.
2. Note that under Section 40 of the Local
Government Code, the penalty of removal
form office as a result of an administrative
case shall be a bar to the candidacy of the
respondent for any elective local office.
3. In Salalima v. Guingona, 257 SCRA 55, the SC
upheld the imposition of the administrative
penalty of suspension of not more than 6
months for each offense, provided that the
successive serves of the sentence should not
exceed the unexpired portion of the term of the
petitioners. The suspension did not amount to
removal from office.
17. Administrative Appeal
Decision may, within 30 days from receipt thereof,
be appealed to:
1. The sangguniang panlalawigan, in the case of
decision of component cities’ sangguniang
panlungsod and sangguniang bayan;
2. The Office of the President, in the case of
decision of the sangguniang panlalawigan and
the sangguniang panglungsod of highly
urbanized cities and independent component
cities. Decision of the Office of the President
shall be final and executory.
a) In Malinao v. Reyes, 255 SCRA 616, the SC
ruled that certiorari will not lie because there is
still adequate remedy available in the ordinary
course of law, i.e., appeal of the decision of the
Sangguniang Panlalawigan to the Office of the
President.
b) That there is appeal to the Office of the
President is reiterated in Mendoza v. Laxina,
2003, although in this case, because the issue
raised was purely legal, resort to court was
upheld. The phrases, “final and executory” and
“final or executory” in Sections 67 and 68 of the
Local Government Code, simply mean that
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administrative appeal will not prevent the
enforcement of the decision. While the
administrative decision is immediately
executory, the local elective official may
nevertheless appeal the adverse decision to
the Office of the President or the Sanggunian
Panlalawigan, as the case may be. After all, if
exonerated on appeal, he will be paid his salary
an such other emoluments denied him during
the pendency of the appeal.
18. Execution Pending Appeal
An appeal shall not prevent a decision from being
executed; the respondent shall be considered as
having been placed under preventive suspension
during the pendency of the appeal. But in Berces
v. Executive Secretary, 241 SCRA 530, the SC
pointed out the Administrative Order No. 18
authorizes the Office of the President to stay the
execution of a decision pending appeal.
Administrative Order No. 18 was not repealed by
the Local government Code.
19. Jurisdiction of Sandiganbayan
1. For an offense to fall under the exclusive
original jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan, the
following requisites must concur:
(1) the offense committed is a violation of
(a) R.A. 3019, as amended (the Anti-Graft
and Corrupt Practices Act),
(b) R.A. 1379 (the law on ill-gotten
wealth), (c) Chapter II, Section 2, Title VII,
Book II of the Revised Penal Code (the
law on bribery),
(d) Executive Order Nos. 1, 2, 14 and 14-
A, issued in 1986 (sequestration cases),
or
(e) other offenses or felonies whether
simple or complexed with other crimes;
(2) the offender committing the offenses in
items (a), (b), (c) and (e) is a public official or
employee holding any of the positions
enumerated in paragraph A of Section 4; and
(3) the offense committed is in relation to the
office.
Thus, for the Sandiganbayan to have
exclusive jurisdiction, it is essential that the
facts showing the intimate relation between
the office of the offender, a mayor who holds
a salary grade level 27, and the discharge of
official duties be alleged in the information.
The jurisdiction of a court is determined by
the allegations in the complaint or
information, and not by the evidence
presented by the parties at the trial. It does
not thus suffice to merely allege in the
information that the crime charged was
committed by the offender in relation to his
office or that he took advantage of his
position as these are conclusions of law. The
specific factual allegations in the information
that would indicate the close intimacy
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between the discharge of the offender’s
official duties and the commission of the
offense charged, in order to qualify the crime
as having been committed in relation to
public office are controlling. (Adaza v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 154886, 07.28.2005)
2. For purposes of acquisition of jurisdiction by
the Sandiganbayan, the requirement imposed
by Republic Act No. 8249 that the offense be
“committed in relation” to the offender’s office
is entirely distinct from the concept of “taking
advantage of one’s position” as provided
under Articles 171 (Falsification by public
officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastic
minister) and 172 (Falsification by private
individuals and use of falsified documents) of
the Revised Penal Code. The offender under
Article 172 must be a private individual or
maybe a public officer, employee or notary
public who does not “take advantage of his
official position.”. Under Article 171, an
essential element of the crime is that the act
of falsification must be committed by a public
officer, employee or notary who “takes
advantage of his official position.” The
offender “takes advantage of his official
position” in falsifying a document when:
(1) he has the duty to make or to prepare or
otherwise intervene in the preparation of the
document; or
(2) he has the official custody of the
document which he falsifies. (Adaza v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 154886, 07.28.2005)
3. For purposes of vesting jurisdiction with the
Sandiganbayan, the local elective official who
holds a position of Grade 27 under the Local
Government Code of 1991 must have
committed the offense charged in relation to
the office. For an offense to be committed in
relation to the office, the relation between the
crime and the office must be direct and not
accidental, in that in the legal sense, the
offense can not exist without the office. As an
exception to this rule, the Court held that
although public office is not an element of an
offense charged, as long as the offense
charged in the information is intimately
connected with the office and is alleged to
have been perpetrated while the accused
was in the performance, though improper or
irregular, of his/ her official functions, there
being no personal motive to commit the crime
and had the accused would not have
committed it had he not held the aforesaid
office, the accused is held to have been
indicted for “an offense committed in relation”
to his office. However, even if public office is
not an essential element of the offense of
obstruction of justice under Section 1(b) of
P.D. 1829 but could have been committed
had said mayor not held the office of the
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mayor, said official is subject to the
jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan. The mayor
in the course of his/ her duty as Mayor, who is
tasked to exercise general and operational
control and supervision over the local police
forces, used his/ her influence, authority and
office to call and command members of the
municipal police. (Rodriguez v.
Sandiganbayan, GR 141710, 03.03.2004)
4. The Sandiganbayan has original jurisdiction
over a member of the Sangguniang
Panlungsod, who was charged with violation
of Section 3(e) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt
Practices Act. Violation of Republic Act No.
3019 committed by officials in the executive
branch with Salary Grade 27 or higher, and
the officials specifically enumerated in (a) to
(g) of Section 4 a.(1) of P.D. No. 1606, as
amended by Section 2 of Rep. Act No. 7975,
regardless of their salary grades, such as
provincial and city elective officials, likewise
fall within the original jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan. (Inding v. Sandiganbayan,
GR 143047, 07.14.2004)
20. Effect of Re-election
The re-election of a local official bars the
continuation of the administrative case against him,
inasmuch as the re-election of the official is
tantamount to condonation by the people of
whatever past misdeeds he may have committed.
(Malinao v. Reyes, 255 SCRA 616)
In Lingating v. Comelec, 2002, the respondent
Mayor, having been found guilty of the administrative
charges and ordered removed from office, had
seasonably filed a motion for reconsideration with
the Sanggunian Panlalawigan, and no action on his
motion was taken, then the decision of the
Sanggunian Panlalawigan never became final. After
the respondent was re-elected, he may no longer be
removed from office for the administrative offense.
D. Appointive Local Officials
1. Responsibility for human resources and
development
The local chief executive shall be responsible for
human resources and development in his unit and
shall take all personnel actions in accordance with
the Constitution, pertinent laws, including such
policies, guidelines and standards as the Civil
Service Commission may establish; Provided that
the local chief executive may employ emergency or
casual employees or laborer paid on a daily wage
or piecework basis and hired through job orders for
local projects authorized by the sanggunian
concerned, without need of approval or attestation
by the Civil Service Commission, as long as the
said employment shall not exceed 6 months.
a) In De Rama v. CA, 2001, it was held that the
constitutional prohibition on so-called midnight
appointments specifically those made within
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two months immediately prior to the next
presidential elections, applies only to the
President or to Acting President. There is no
law that prohibits local elective officials from
making appointments during the last days of
their tenure absent fraud on their part, when
such appointments are not tainted by
irregularities or anomalies which breach laws
and regulations governing appointments.
b) The Provincial Governor is without authority to
designate the petitioner as Assistant Provincial
Treasurers from a list of recommendees of the
Provincial Governor. (Dimaandal v. COA, 291
SCRA 322)
2. Officials common to all Municipalities, Cities
and Provinces (RA 7160, Section 469-490)
1. Secretary to the Sanggunian
2. Treasurer
3. Assessor
4. Accountant
5. Budget Officer
6. Planning and Development Coordinator
7. Engineer
8. Health Officer
9. Civil Registrar
10. Administrator
11. Legal Officer
12. Agriculturist
13. Social Welfare and Development Officer
14. Environment and Natural Resources Officer
15. Architect
16. Information Officer
17. Cooperatives Officer
18. Population Officer
19. Veterinarian
20. General Services Officer
[Note: In the barangay, the mandated appointed
officials are the Barangay Secretary and the
Barangay Treasurer, although other officials of the
barangay may be appointed by the punong
barangay.]
3. Administrative Discipline
Investigation and adjudication of administrative
complaints against appointive local officials and
employees as well as their suspension and
removal shall be in accordance with the civil
service law and rules and other pertinent laws.
a) Preventive Suspension. The local chief
executive may preventively suspend for a
period not exceeding 60 days any subordinate
official or employee under his authority
pending investigation if the charge against
such official or employee involves dishonesty,
oppression or grave misconduct or neglect in
the performance of duty, or if there is reason to
believe that the respondent is guilty of the
charges which would warrant his removal from
the service.
b) Disciplinary Jurisdiction. Except as otherwise
provided by law, the local chief executive may
impose the penalty of removal from service,
demotion in rank, suspension for not more
than 1 year without pay, fine in an amount not
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exceeding 6 months’ salary, or reprimand. If
the penalty imposed is suspension without pay
for not more than 30 days, his decision shall
be final; if the penalty imposed is heavier, the
decision shall be appealable to the CSC which
shall decide the appeal within 30 days from
receipt thereof.
However, it is not the City Mayor, but the City
Treasurer who exercises disciplinary authority
over a City Revenue Officer. As head of the
Office of the Treasurer, and Revenue Officer
being an officer under him, the former may
validly investigate the said Revenue Officer and
place him under preventive suspension.
(Garcia v. Pajaro, 2002)
VII. Autonomous Regions
NOTE: As of this writing, only one autonomous
region, that of Muslim Mindanao, has been
established. (The Organic Act for the autonomous
region of the Cordilleras failed to obtain the
necessary number of votes because only one
province approved the Organic Act. An autonomous
region must have at least two provinces. It is
however, still possible for an Organic Act for the
Cordilleras to be approved at some future date.)
Article X Section 15. There shall be created autonomous
regions in Muslim Mindanao and in the Cordilleras
consisting of provinces, cities, municipalities, and
geographical areas sharing common and distinctive
historical and cultural heritage, economic and social
structures, and other relevant characteristics within the
framework of this Constitution and the national sovereignty
as well as territorial integrity of the Republic of the
Philippines.
A. Reasons Behind the Creation of Autonomous
Regions
1. The creation of a situation which will allow
each culture to flourish unhampered by the
dominance of other cultures and thereby to
contribute more effectively to national
progress.
2. To furnish possible solution to the regional
conflicts that have arisen partly from cultural
diversity.677
677
Bernas Primer at 433 (2006 ed.)
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Q: Is an autonomous region an independent nation composed of representatives appointed by the President

within the nation?
A: No, an autonomous region is organized “within
the framework of this Constitution and the national
sovereignty.”678
from a list of nominees from multi-sectoral bodies. The
organic act shall define the basic structure of government
for the region consisting of the executive department and
legislative assembly, both of which shall be elective and
representative of the constituent political units. The organic
acts shall likewise provide for special courts with personal,
family, and property law jurisdiction consistent with the
provisions of this Constitution and national laws.

B. President’s General Supervision
Section 16. The President shall exercise general
supervision over autonomous regions to ensure that laws
are faithfully executed.
The creation of the autonomous region shall be effective
when approved by majority of the votes cast by the
constituent units in a plebiscite called for the purpose,
provided that only provinces, cities, and geographic areas
voting favorably in such plebiscite shall be included in the
autonomous region.

Section 19. The first Congress elected under this

Constitution shall, within eighteen months from the time of
C. Powers Not Given to Autonomous Regions organization of both Houses, pass the organic acts for the
autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao and the
Cordilleras.

Section 17. All powers, functions, and responsibilities not

granted by this Constitution or by law to the autonomous
regions shall be vested in the National Government. 1. Enactment of Organic Acts

As preliminary step towards the establishment of

the autonomous regions, Congress is commanded
to formulate an Organic Act for each of the two.
Some of the powers which are NOT given to The Constitution commands the Congress to enact
autonomous regions: an Organic Act which will be the fundamental law of
the regions.
1. Jurisdiction over national defense and
security;
2. Foreign relations and foreign trade;
3. Customs and tariff, quarantine
Q: What law will be the charter of the autonomous
4. Currency, monetary affairs, foreign regions?
exchange, banking and quasi-banking,
external borrowing;
A: Their charter will be the Organic Act which will
5. Posts and communications;
be passed by Congress in the manner and
6. Air and sea transport according to the substantive specifications contained
7. Immigration and deportation; in Section 18.
8. Citizenship and naturalization;
9. General auditing.

Q: If the first Congress fails to pass the Organic Act

within 18 months, will it no longer be able to pass
D. Enactment of Organic Acts; Creation of such Act later?
Autonomous Region
A: Yes. The failure of Congress to act cannot be
allowed to frustrate the clear intent of the electorate.
The relatively short period is prescribed in order to
emphasize the urgency of creating autonomous
Section 18. The Congress shall enact an organic act for regions.
each autonomous region with the assistance and
participation of the regional consultative commission

678
Bernas Primer at 434 (2006 ed.)

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Q: The legality of RA 6734, the Organic Act of
Mindanao, is challenged and the plebiscite called in
13 provinces of Mindanao for the ratification of the
Organic Act is challenged for being illegal in that
aspects of the Organic Act violate the Tripoli
Agreement which is a valid international agreement.
Decide.
A: Even if the Tripoli Agreement were an
international agreement, the fact would not affect the
validity of the Organic Act. International agreements
as internal law are on the same legal level as
statutes and whichever as between the two,
international agreement or statute, comes later
supersedes the other. (Abbas v. Comelec, 1989)
Nature of Organic Act. The Organic Act itself in
legal category is a statute. However, it is more than
an ordinary statute because it enjoys affirmation by a
plebiscite. Hence, its provision cannot be amended
by ordinary statute. (Pandi v. CA, 2002)
2. Creation of Autonomous Region
The enactment of the Organic Act does not yet
create the autonomous region. The creation of the
autonomous regions takes place only when the
Organic Act is ratified “by a majority of the votes
cast by the constituent units in a plebiscite called
for the purpose.”
Q:For the effective creation of the automous region
is it required that the total votes cast in all the units
where the plebiscite is called must yield a majority of
affirmative votes?
A: No. It is enough for the creation of the
autonomous region that some “provinces, cities, and
geographic areas” vote favorably. In other words, as
an examination of the constitutional text shows, for
effective ratification it is not necessary to achieve a
“double majority.” (Abbas v. Comelec, 1989)
What areas become part of the Autonomous
Region? Only those areas which vote in favor of
the Organic Act. And since the Constitution speaks
of “provinces,” an autonomous region has to
consist of more than one province.
Q: What happens to the political subdivisions which
do not vote favorably?
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A: They remain in the administrative region to which
they belong. (Abbas v. Comelec, 1989)
Q: Can constituent units which vote negatively in the
first plebiscite under this Constitution join the
autonomous region at some future time?
A: It is submitted that they may through a
subsequent plebiscite.679
Q: May the Province of Ifugao, which was the only
province which voted for a Cordillera Autonomous
Region, constitute the Cordillera Autonomous
Region?
A: No, the Constitution says that an autonomous
region shall consists of provinces, cities and
municipalities, and therefore, not just on province.
(Ordillo v. Comelec, 1990)
Q: Can a tribal court of the Cordillera Bodong
Administration render a valid executor decision in a
land dispute?
A: No. In the January 30, 1990 plebiscite, the
creation of the Cordillera Autonomous Region was
rejected by all the provinces and city of Cordillera
region except Ifugao province, hence the Cordillera
Autonomous Region did not come to be. Hence, no
autonomous region was created. As a logical
consequence of that, the Cordillera Bodong
Administration created under EO 220 as well as the
indigenous and special courts for the indigenous
cultural communities of the Cordillera region do not
exist. “Such tribal courts are not a part of the
Philippine Judicial system. They do not posses
judicial power. Like the pangkats or conciliation
panels created by PD 1508 in the barangays, they
are advisory and conciliatory bodies whose principal
objective is to bring together parties to a dispute and
persuade them to make peace, settle, and
compromise” (Spouses Badua v. Cordillera Bodong
Administration, 1991)
D. Enumerated Powers of Autonomous Region
Section 20. Within its territorial jurisdiction and subject to
the provisions of this Constitution and national laws, the
organic act of autonomous regions shall provide for
legislative powers over:
679
Bernas Primer at 436 (2006 ed.)
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(1) Administrative organization;
(2) Creation of sources of revenues;
(3) Ancestral domain and natural resources;
(4) Personal, family, and property relations;
(5) Regional urban and rural planning development;
(6) Economic, social, and tourism development;
(7) Educational policies;
(8) Preservation and development of the cultural heritage;
and
(9) Such other matters as may be authorized by law for the
promotion of the general welfare of the people of the region.
Q: Legislation passed by the autonomous regions can
come into conflict with the Constitution. How are such
conflicts to be resolved?
A: The Constitution should always prevail. (For instance,
the full gamut of religious freedom must be recognized
even in an area where a principal basis for the autonomy
is religious homogeneity.)
Q: Legislation passed by the autonomous regions can
come into conflict with national laws. How are such
conflicts to be resolved?
A: There is no easy answer as to which would prevail.
The matter necessitates the serious weighing of the
values. It may even involve adjustment of national laws in
order to accommodate the constitutional desire for local
autonomy in its various aspects. (And indeed conflict will
almost naturally have to be expected because national
laws are generally a reflection of the nationally
predominant culture. But, although Section 20 says that
local legislative power should be subject to national laws,
national laws themselves are subject to the Constitution
one of those state policies is to ensure the autonomy of
local governments.)
Conflicts can also arise in the application of local laws.
This can be particularly crucial in the case of personal
and property laws for those belonging to autonomous
regions but acting outside the autonomous territory and
also for those who do not belong to autonomous regions
but are acting within autonomous territory. Thus, conflict
of law principles could develop could develop within our
one national municipal law.
Q: Is the enumeration in Section 20 exhaustive of what
the Organic Act may give to the autonomous regions?
A: No. See Section 17. The enumeration in Section 20 is
intended as a political signal that indeed the Constitution
takes the matter of regional autonomy seriously.
E. Peace and Order, Defense and National Security
Section 21. The preservation of peace and order within the
regions shall be the responsibility of the local police
agencies which shall be organized, maintained, supervised,
and utilized in accordance with applicable laws. The
defense and security of the regions shall be the
responsibility of the National Government.
Section 21 makes a distinction between the
problem of internal peace and order and the
problem of national defense and security. The
former, understood as the problem of ordinary
criminality which should normally be the concern of
police authorities, is the responsibility of the local
police agencies.
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However, the organization, maintenance, and
supervision of police agencies may in certain
circumstances be beyond the capabilities of local
governments. In such instances, the President, as
Commander-in-Chief may order the armed forces
into the autonomous region to perform whatever
may be necessary.
As to national defense and security, that is, as to
dealing with threats to the stability, integrity, and
survival of the nation, this clearly is the primary
responsibility of the national government.
VIII. Inter-Governmental Relations680
A. National Government
1. Power of General Supervision
The President shall exercise general supervision
over local government units to ensure that their
acts are within the scope of their prescribed powers
and functions. The President shall exercise
supervisory authority directly over provinces, highly
urbanized cities and independent component cities;
through the province with respect to component
cities and municipalities; and through the city and
municipality with respect to the barangays.
2. Enactment of Organic Acts
National agencies and offices with project
implementation functions shall coordinate with one
another and with the local government units
concerned in the discharge of these functions.
They shall ensure the participation of local
government units both in the planning and the
implementation of said national projects.
3. Enactment of Organic Acts
No project or program shall be implemented by
government authorities unless the consultations
mentioned in Sections 2(c) and 26 are complied
with, and prior approval of the sanggunian
concerned is obtained; Provided, that occupants in
areas where such projects are to be implemented
shall not be evicted unless appropriate relocation
sites have been provided.
B. Philippine National Police
The extent of operational supervision and control of
local chief executives over the police force, fire
protection unit and jail management personnel
assigned in their respective jurisdictions shall be
governed by the provisions of RA 6975, otherwise
known as the “DILG Act of 1990.”
C. Inter-governmental Relations
680
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 603 (2006)
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1. The province, through the governor, shall
ensure that every component city and
municipality within its territorial jurisdiction acts
within the scope of its prescribed powers and
functions. Highly urbanized cities and
independent component cities shall be
independent of the province.
Except as otherwise provided under the
Constitution and special statutes, the governor
shall review all executive orders promulgated
by the component city or municipal mayor
within his jurisdiction. The city or municipal
mayor shall review all executive orders
promulgated by the punong barangay within his
jurisdiction. If the governor or the city or
municipal mayor fails to act on said executive
orders within 30 days from submission, the
same shall be deemed consistent with law and
therefore valid.
2. In the absence of the legal officer, the
municipal government may secure the opinion
of the provincial legal officer, and in the
absence of the latter, that of the provincial
prosecutor on any legal question affecting the
municipality.
3. The city or municipality, through the city or
municipal mayor, shall exercise general
supervision over component barangays to
ensure that said barangays acts within the
scope of their prescribed powers and
functions.
4. Local government units may, through
appropriate ordinances, group themselves,
consolidate or coordinate their efforts, services
and resources for purposes commonly
beneficial to them. In support of such
undertakings, the local government units may,
upon approval by the sanggunian after a
public hearing conducted for the purpose,
contribute funds, real estate, equipment, and
other kinds of property and appoint or assign
personnel under such terms and conditions as
may be agreed upon by th participating local
units.
D. People’s and Non-Governmental Organizations
1. Local government units shall promote the
establishment and operation or people’s and
non-governmental organizations to become
active partners in the pursuit of local
autonomy.
2. Local government units may enter into joint
ventures and such other cooperative
arrangements with people’s and non-
governmental organizations to engage in the
delivery o certain basic services, etc.
3. A local government unit may, through its local
chief executive and with the concurrence of
the sanggunian concerned, provide
assistance, financial or otherwise, to such
people’s and non-governmental organizations
for economic, socially-oriented, environmental
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or cultural projects to be implemented within its
territorial jurisdiction.
E. Mandated Local Agencies
1. The Local School Board (Sections 98-101)
The SC held that the Special Education Fund
(SEF) may be used for the payment of salaries
and personnel-related benefits of the teachers
appointed by the province in connection with the
establishment and maintenance of extension
classes and operation and maintenance of public
schools. However, the fund may not be used to
defray expenses for college scholarship grants.
The grant of government scholarship to poor but
deserving students was omitted in Sections
100(c) and 272 of the Local Government. (COA of
Cebu v. Province of Cebu, 2001)
2. The Local Health Board (Section 102-105)
3. The Local Development Council (Sections
106-115)
4. The Local Peace and Order Council (Section
116)
F. Settlement of Boundary Disputes
1. Boundary disputes between and among local
government units shall, as much as possible,
be settled amicably.
The rules on settlement of disputes are:
a) Involving two or more barangays in the
same city or municipality: referred to the
sangguniang panlungsod or sagguniang
bayan.
b) Involving two or more municipalities in the
same province: referred to the
sanggunian panlalawigan.
The SC declared that the RTC was correct
when it ordered a relocation survey to
determine to which municipality the barangay
belonged. The agreement between the
municipalities of Jimenez and Sinacaban
which was approved by the Sanggunian
Panlalawigan is invalid as it would effectively
amend EO 258 (creating the municipality of
Sinacaban). The power of the Sangguniang
Panlalawigan to settle boundary disputes is
limited to implementing the law creating the
municipality; and any alteration of
boundaries not in accordance with the law
would exceed this authority.
c) Involving municipalities or component
cities in different provinces: jointly referred
to the sanggunians of the provinces
concerned.
d) Involving a component city or municipality
on one hand and a highly urbanized city
on the other, or two or more highly
urbanized cities: jointly referred to the
respective sanggunians of the parties.
2. In the event the sanggunian fails to effect a
settlement within 60 days from the date the
dispute was referred to it, it shall issue a
certification to this effect. The dispute shall
then be formally tried by the sanggunian
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concerned which shall decide the issue within
60 days from the date of certification.
3. Within the time and manner prescribed by the
Rules of Court, any party may elevate the
decision of the sanggunian concerned to the
proper RTC having jurisdiction over the area in
dispute which shall decide the appeal within 1
year form the filing thereof.
Inasmuch as Section 118 of the Local
Government Code does not provide for the office
or the agency vested with the jurisdiction over the
settlement of boundary disputes between a
municipality and an independent component city
in the same province, under BP 129, as amended
by RA 7691, it should be the RTC in the province
that can adjudicate the controversy. After all, RTC
has general jurisdiction to adjudicate all
controversies, except only those withheld from its
plenary powers. (Municipality of Kananga v.
Madrona, 2003)
4. The importance of drawing with precise
strokes the territorial boundaries of a local unit
of government cannot be overemphasized.
The boundaries must be clear for they define
the limits of the territorial jurisdiction of the
local government unit. It can legitimately
exercise powers of government only within the
limits of its territorial jurisdiction. Beyond these
limits, its acts are ultra vires. Needless to
state, any uncertainty in the boundaries of
local government units will sow costly conflicts
in the exercise of government power which
ultimately will prejudice the people’s welfare.
(Mariano v. Comelec)
BAR QUESTION (2005): Boundary Dispute
Resolution; LGU; RTC’s Jurisdiction –
Q:There was a boundary dispute between Duenas,
a municipality, and Passi, an independent
component city, both of the same province. State
how the two local government units should settle
their boundary dispute. (5%)
Suggested Answer: Boundary disputes between
local government units should, as much as
possible, be settled amicably. After efforts at
settlement fail, then the dispute may be brought to
the appropriate Regional Trial Court in the said
province. Since the Local Government Code is
silent as to what body has exclusive jurisdiction
over the settlement of boundary disputes between
a municipality and an independent component city
of the same province, the Regional Trial Courts
have general jurisdiction to adjudicate the said
controversy. (Mun. of Kananga v. Madrona, G.R.
No. 141375, April 30, 2003)
IX. Local Initiative and Referendum
A. Local Initiative
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1. Definition of Local Initiative
It is the legal process whereby the registered
voters of a local government unit may directly
propose, enact or amend any ordinance. It may be
exercised by all registered votes or the provinces,
cities, municipalities and barangays.
2. Procedure
a) Not less than 2,000 registered voters in the
region: 1,000 registered voters in case of
provinces and cities; 100 voters in case of
municipalities, and 50 in case of barangays,
may file a petition with the sanggunian
concerned proposing the adoption, enactment,
repeal or amendment of an ordinance. 9RA
6735, Section 13)
b) If no favorable action is taken by the
sanggunian concerned within 30 days form
presentation, the proponents, through their
duty authorized and registered
representatives, may invoke their power of
initiative, giving notice thereof to the
sanggunian concerned.
c) The prposition shall be numbered serially,
starting from numeral I. Two or more
propositions may be submitted in an initiative.
The Comelec or its designated representative
shall extend assistance in the formulation of
the proposition.
d) Proponents shall have 90 days [in case of
provinces and cities], 60 days [in case of
municipalities], and 30 days [in case of
barangays] from notice mentioned in (b) to
collect the required number of signatures.
e) The petition shall be signed before the election
registrar or his designated representative, and
in the presence of a representative of the
proponent and a representative of the
sanggunian concerned in a public placein the
local government unit.
f) Upon the lapse of the period, the Comelec
shall certify as to whether or not the required
number of signatures has been obtained.
Failure to obtain the required number of
signatures defeats the proposition.
g) If the required number is obtained, the
Comelec shall set a date for the initiative
during which the proposition is submitted to
the registered voters in the local government
unit for their approval within 60 days [in case
of provinces], 45 days [in case of
municipalities], and 30 days [in case of
barangays] from the date of certification by the
Comelec. The initiative shall be held on the
date set, after which the results thereof shall
be certified and proclaimed by the Comelec.
h) If the proposition is approved by a majority of
the votes cast, it shall take effect 15 days after
certification by the Comelec as if affirmative
action had been taken thereon by the
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sangguninan and local chief executive

concerned.

3. Limitations
On Local Initiative:
i. The power of local initiative shall not be
exercised more than once a year.
ii. Initiative shall extend only to subjects or
matters which are within the legal powers
of the sanggunian to enact.
iii. If at any time before the initiative is held,
the sanggunian concerned adopts in toto
the proposition presented and the local
chief executive approves the same, the
initiative shall be cancelled. However,
those against such action may, if they so
desire, apply for initiative in the manner
herein provided.

On the Sanggunian
Any proposition or ordinance approved through
an initiative and referendum shall not be
repealed, modified or amended by the
sanggunian within 6 months from the date of
approval thereof, and may be amended,
modified or repealed within 3 years thereafter by
a vote of ¾ of all its members. In case of
barangays, the period shall be 18 months after
the approval thereof.

B. Local Referendum
1. Definition of Local Referendum. The legal
process whereby the registered voters of the
local government units may approve, amend
or reject any ordinance enacted by the
sanggunian.
2. The local referendum shall be held under the
control and direction of the Comelec within 60
days [in case of provinces], 45 days [in case of
municipalities] and 30 days [in case of
barangays]. The Comelec shall certify and
proclaim the results of the said referendum.

C. Authority of Courts

Nothing in the foregoing shall preclude the proper

courts from declaring null and void any proposition
approved pursuant hereto for violation of the
Constitution or want of capacity of the sanggunian
concerned to enact said measure.

(Read Case Digests in Pages 452-502 of Jack’s

Compendium (2006))

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SCHOOL OF LAW
Article XI
ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC
OFFICERS
I. STATEMENT OF POLICY (Section 1)
II. IMPEACHMENT (Sections 2 & 3)
III. SANDIGANBAYAN (Section 4)
IV. OMBUDSMAN (Section 5,6,8-14)
V. SPECIAL PROSECUTOR (Section 7)
VI. ILL-GOTTEN WEALTH (Section 15)
VII. RESTRICTION ON LOANS(Section 16)
VIII.TRANSPARENCY RULE (Section 17)
IX. ALLEGIANCE TO THE STATE AND THE
CONSTITUTION (Section 18)
I. Statement of Policy
Section 1. Public office is a public trust. Public officers and
employees must, at all times, be accountable to the people,
serve them with utmost responsibility, integrity, loyalty, and
efficiency; act with patriotism and justice, and lead modest
lives.
A. Public Office
1. Definition
The right, authority or duty, created and conferred
by law, by which for a given period, either fixed by
law or enduring at the pleasure of the creating
power, an individual is invested with some
sovereign power of government to be exercised by
him for the benefit of the public. (Fernandez v. Sto.
Tomas, 1995)
2. Elements
1. Created by law or by authority of law;
2. Possess a delegation of a portion of the
sovereign powers of government, to be
exercised for the benefit of the public;
3. Powers conferred and duties imposed
must be defined, directly or impliedly, by
the legislature or by legislative authority;
4. Duties must be performed independently
and without the control of a superior
power other than the law, unless they be
those of an inferior or subordinate office
created or authorized by the legislature,
and by it placed under the general control
of a superior office or body; and
5. Must have permanence of continuity.681
3. Creation
Public officers are created:
a. By the Constitution
681
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 423 (2006)
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b. By valid statutory enactments (e.g. Office
of the Insurance Commissioner)
c. By authority of law (e.g. Davide
Commission)682
B. Public Officer
A person who holds a public office.683
C. Public Office as Public Trust
Q: What is meant by “public office is a public trust”?
A: The basic idea of government in the Philippines is that
of a representative government the officers being mere
agents and not rulers of the people… where every officer
accepts office pursuant to the provisions of law and holds
the office as a trust for the people whom he represents.
(Justice Malcom in Cornejo v. Gabriel, 41 Phil 188,
1920)684
Q: What does the command to lead modest lives entail?
A: Even if the public officer is independently wealthy, he
should not live in a manner that flaunts wealth. 685
II. Impeachment
Section 2. The President, the Vice-President, the Members
of the Supreme Court, the Members of the Constitutional
Commissions, and the Ombudsman may be removed from
office on impeachment for, and conviction of, culpable
violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and
corruption, other high crimes, or betrayal of public trust. All
other public officers and employees may be removed from
office as provided by law, but not by impeachment.
Section 3. (1) The House of Representatives shall have the
exclusive power to initiate all cases of impeachment.
(2) A verified complaint for impeachment may be filed by any
Member of the House of Representatives or by any citizen
upon a resolution or endorsement by any Member thereof,
which shall be included in the Order of Business within ten
session days, and referred to the proper Committee within
three session days thereafter. The Committee, after hearing,
and by a majority vote of all its Members, shall submit its
report to the House within sixty session days from such
referral, together with the corresponding resolution. The
resolution shall be calendared for consideration by the
House within ten session days from receipt thereof.
(3) A vote of at least one-third of all the Members of the
House shall be necessary either to affirm a favorable
resolution with the Articles of Impeachment of the
Committee, or override its contrary resolution. The vote of
each Member shall be recorded.
682
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 423 (2006)
683
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 423 (2006)
684
Bernas Primer at 440 (2006 ed.)
685
Bernas Primer at 440 (2006 ed.)
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(4) In case the verified complaint or resolution of
impeachment is filed by at least one-third of all the Members
of the House, the same shall constitute the Articles of
Impeachment, and trial by the Senate shall forthwith
proceed.
(5) No impeachment proceedings shall be initiated against
the same official more than once within a period of one year.
(6) The Senate shall have the sole power to try and decide
all cases of impeachment. When sitting for that purpose, the
Senators shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
President of the Philippines is on trial, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court shall preside, but shall not vote. No
person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-
thirds of all the Members of the Senate.
(7) Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend
further than removal from office and disqualification to hold
any office under the Republic of the Philippines, but the
party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to
prosecution, trial, and punishment, according to law.
(8) The Congress shall promulgate its rules on
impeachment to effectively carry out the purpose of this
section.
A. Definition of Impeachment
A national inquest into the conduct of public men.686
B. Purpose of Impeachment
The purpose of impeachment is not to punish but
only to remove an officer who does not deserve to
hold office.687
C. Impeachable Officers
1. President
2. Vice-President
3. Chief Justice and Associate Justice of the
Supreme Court
4. Chairmen and members of the Constitutional
Commissions
5. Ombudsman
Note: The list of officers subject to impeachment in
Section 2 as worded is exclusive.
Members of the Supreme Court
The Supreme Court said that the Special Prosecutor
cannot conduct an investigation into alleged misconduct
of a Supreme Court justice, with the end view of filing a
criminal information against him with the Sandiganbayan.
A Supreme Court Justice cannot be charged in a criminal
case or a disbarment proceeding, because the ultimate
effect of either is to remove him from office, and thus
circumvent the provision on removal by impeachment
thus violating his security of tenure (In Re: First
686
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 345 (2006)
687
Bernas Primer at 442 (2006 ed.)
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Indorsement from Hon. Raul Gonzalez, A.M. No. 88-4-
5433)
An impeachable officer who is a member of the Philippine
bar cannot be disbarred first without being impeached.
(Jarque v. Desierto, 250 SCRA 11)688
C. Grounds
1. Culpable Violation of the Constitution
2. Treason, Bribery and Graft and Corruption
3. Other High Crimes or
4. Betrayal of Public Trust
Note: The enumeration is exclusive.
Culpable Violation of the Constitution
Culpable violation of the Constitution is wrongful,
intentional or willful disregard or flouting of the
fundamental law. Obviously, the act must be
deliberate and motivated by bad faith to constitute
a ground for impeachment. Mere mistakes in the
proper construction of the Constitution, on which
students of law may sincerely differ, cannot be
considered a valid ground for impeachment.689
Treason
Treason is committed by any person who, owing
allegiance to the Government of the Philippines,
levies war against it or adheres to its enemies,
giving them aid and comfort. (RPC, Article 114)
Bribery
Bribery is committed by any public officer who shall
agree to perform an ac, whether or not constituting
crime, or refrain from doing an act which he is
officially required to do in connection with the
performance of his official duties, in consideration
for any offer, promise, gift or present received by
him personally or through the mediation of another,
or who shall accept gifts offered to him by reason
of his office. 9RPC, Arts. 210-211)
Other High Crimes
According to the special committee of the House of
Representatives that investigated the impeachment
charges against President Quirino, are supposed
to refer to those offenses “which, like treason and
bribery, are of so serious and enormous a nature
as to strike at the very life or the orderly workings
of the government.” This rather ambiguous
definition, assuming it is correct, would probably
exclude such offenses as rape and murder which,
although as serious as treason and bribery, will not
necessarily strike at the orderly workings, let alone
life of the government.690
Graft and Corruption
688
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 345 (2006)
689
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.335
690
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.335
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Graft and corruption is to be understood in the light
of the prohibited acts enumerated in the Anti-Grant
and Corrupt Practices Act, which was in force at
the time of the adoption of the Constitution.691
Betrayal of Public Trust
The 1987 Constitution has added “betrayal of
public trust,” which means any form of violation of
the oath of office even if such violation may not be
criminally punishable offense.692
This is a catch-all to cover all manner of offenses
unbecoming a public functionary but not
punishable by the criminal statutes, like
“inexcusable negligence of duty, tyrannical abuse
of authority, breach of official duty by malfeasance
or misfeasance, cronyism, favoritism, obstruction of
justice.693
D. Procedure
Congress shall promulgate its rules on
impeachment to effectively carry out the purpose.
(Section 3(8))
1. Initiation
The proceeding is initiated or begins, when a
verified complaint (with accompanying
resolution or indorsement) is filed and referred
to the Committee on Justice for action. This is
the initiating step which triggers the series of steps
that follow. (Fransisco v. House Speaker, 2003)
2. Limitation on initiating of impeachment case
The Constitution prohibits the initiation of more
than one “impeachment proceeding” within one
year.
In Fransico v. House of Representatives, the SC
said that considering that the first impeachment
complaint was filed by former President Estrada
against Chief Justice Davide along with seven
associate justices on June 02, 2003 and referred to
the House Committee on Justice on August 05,
2003, the second impeachment complaint filed by
some Rep. Teodoro et. al., against the Chief Justice
on October 23, 2003, violates the constitutional
prohibition against the initiation of impeachment
proceedings against the same impeachable officer
within a one-year period.
3. Trial
The Senate shall have the sole power to try and
decide all cases of impeachment. When sitting for
that purpose, the Senators shall be on oath or
affirmation. When the President of the Philippines
is on trial, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
shall preside, but shall not vote. A decision of
691
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.336
692
Bernas Primer at 442 (2006 ed.)
693
Cruz, Philippine Political Law, p.336
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conviction must be concurred in by at least two-
thirds of all the members of the Senate.
4. Penalty
The penalty which may be imposed “shall not
extend further than removal from office and
disqualification to hold any office under the
Republic.”694
This penalty is beyond the reach of the President’s
power of executive clemency, but does not place
the officer beyond liability to criminal prosecution.
(When criminally prosecuted, therefore, for the
offense which warranted his conviction on
impeachment, the officer cannot plead the defense
of double jeopardy.)695
5. Effect of Conviction
Removal from office and disqualification to hold
any office under the Republic of the Philippines.
But the party convicted shall be liable and subject
to prosecution, trial and punishment according to
law.
6. Judicial Review
III. Sandiganbayan
Section 4. The present anti-graft court known as the
Sandiganbayan shall continue to function and exercise its
jurisdiction as now or hereafter may be provided by law.
A. Composition of Sandiganbayan
Under PD 1606, it is composed of a Presiding
Justice and Eight Associate Justices, with the rank
of Justice of the Court of Appeals. It sits in three [3]
divisions of three members of each.
B. Nature of Sandiganbayan
Sandiganbayan is NOT a constitutional court. It is
a statutory court; that is, it is created not only by
the Constitution but by statute, although its creation
is mandated by the Constitution.696
C. Jurisdiction of Sandiganbayan
Original Jurisdiction
• Violations of RA 3019 (AGCPA) as amended;
RA 1379; and Chapter II, Section 2, Titile VII,
Book II of the RPV where one or more of the
accused are officials occupying the following
694
Bernas Primer at 442 (2006 ed.)
695
Bernas Primer at 442 (2006 ed.)
696
Bernas Primer at 443 (2006 ed.)
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positions in the government, whether in a
permanent, acting or interim capacity at the
time of the commission of the offense:
a. Officials of the Executive branch with the
position of Regional Director or higher, or
with Salary Grade Level 27 (G27)
according to RA 6758.
b. Members of Congress and officials thereof
with G27 an up;
c. Members of the Judiciary without
prejudice to the Constitution;
d. Chairmen and members of the
Constitutional Commissions without
prejudice to the Constitutions; and
e. All other national and local officials with
G27 or higher.
• Other offenses or felonies whether simple or
complexed with other crimes committed by the
public officials and employees mentioned in
Subsection a in relation to their office;
• Civil and criminal cases filed pursuant to and
in connection with EO nos. 1, 2, 14, and 14-A
issued in 1986.
Exclusive Original Jurisdiction over petitions for
the issuance of the writs of mandamus,
prohibitions, certiorari, habeas corpus, injunction
and other ancillary writs and processes in aid of its
appellate jurisdiction; Provided, that jurisdiction
over these petitions shall not be exclusive of the
Supreme Court;
Exclusive Appellate Jurisdiction over final
judgments, resolutions or orders of regional trial
courts whether in the exercise of their own original
jurisdiction or of their appellate jurisdiction. (RA
8249)
The following requisites must concur in order that a
case may fall under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan:
1. The offense committed is a violation of RA
1379, Chapter II, Section , Title VII, Book II of
the Revised Penal Code, Executive Orders
Nos. 1, 2 14 and 14-A, issued in 1986, or other
offenses or felonies whether simple or
complexed with other crimes;
2. The offender committing the offenses (violating
RA 3019, RA 1379, the RPC provisions, and
other offenses, is a public official or employee
holding any of the positions enumerated in par.
A, Section 4, RA 8249; and
3. The offense committed is in relation to the
office. (Lacson v. Executive Secretary, 1999)
Private individuals. “In case private individuals
are charged as co-principals, accomplices or
accessories with the public officers or employees,
they shall be tried jointly with said public officers
and employees. (Section 4, PD 1606)”
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“Private persons may be charged together with
public officers to avoid repeated and unnecessary
presentation of witnesses and exhibits against
conspirators in different venues, especially of the
issues involved are the same. It follows therefore
that if a private person may be tried jointly with
public officers, he may also be convicted jointly
with them, as in the case of the present
petitioners.” (Balmadrid v. The Honorable
Sandiganbayan, 1991)
Macalino v. Sandiganbaya, 2002: It was held that
because the Philippine National Construction
Company (PNCC0 has no illegal charter, petitioner,
an officer of PNCC, is not a public officer. That
being so, the Sandiganbayan has no jurisdiction
over him. The only instance when the
Sandiganbayan may exercise jurisdiction over a
private individual is when the complaint charges
him either as a co-principal, accomplice or
accessory of a public officer who has been charged
within the jurisdiction of the Sandiganbayan.
Determination of Jurisdiction. Whether or not the
Sandiganbayan or the RTC has jurisdiction over
the case shall be determined by the allegations in
the information specifically on whether or not the
acts complained of were committed in relation to
the official functions of the accused. It is required
that the charge be set forth with particularity as will
reasonably indicate that the exact offense which
the accused is alleged to have committed is one in
relation to his office. Thus, the mere allegation in
the information that the offense was committed by
the accused public officer “in relation to his office”
is a conclusion of law, not a factual averment that
would show the close intimacy between the offense
charged and the discharge of the accused’s official
duties. (Lacson v. Executive Secretary)
Binay v. Sandiganbayan, 1999: The Supreme
Court discussed the ramifications of Section 7, RA
8249, as follows:
1. If trial of the cases pending before whatever
court has already begun as of the approval of
RA 8249, the law does not apply;
2. If trial of cases pending before whatever court
has not begun as of the approval of RA 8249,
then the law applies, and the rules are:
i. If the Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction
over a case pending before it, then it
retains jurisdiction;
ii. If the Sandiganbayan has no
jurisdiction over a cased pending
before it, the case shall be referred to
the regular courts;
iii. If the Sandiganbayan has jurisdiction
over a case pending before a regular
court, the latter loses jurisdiction and
the same shall be referred to the
Sandiganbayan;
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iv. If a regular court has jurisdiction over
a case pending before it, then said
court retains jurisdiction.
D. Decisions/Review
The unanimous vote of all the three members shall
be required for the pronouncement of judgment by
a division. Decisions of the Sandiganbayan shall
be reviewable by the Supreme Court on a petition
for certiorari.
a. It is now settled that Section 13, RA 3019,
makes it mandatory for the
Snadiganbayan to suspend any public
officer against whom a valid information
charging violation of that law, or any
offense involving fraud upon the
government or public funds or property is
filed. (Bolastig v. Sandiganbayan, 235
SCRA 103)
b. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court over decisions and final orders of
the Sandiganbayan is limited to questions
of law. (Republic v. Sandiganbayan, 2002)
IV. Ombudsman
Section 5. There is hereby created the independent Office
of the Ombudsman, composed of the Ombudsman to be
known as Tanodbayan, one overall Deputy and at least one
Deputy each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. A separate
Deputy for the military establishment may likewise be
appointed.
Section 6. The officials and employees of the Office of the
Ombudsman, other than the Deputies, shall be appointed by
the Ombudsman, according to the Civil Service Law.
Section 8. The Ombudsman and his Deputies shall be
natural-born citizens of the Philippines, and at the time of
their appointment, at least forty years old, of recognized
probity and independence, and members of the Philippine
Bar, and must not have been candidates for any elective
office in the immediately preceding election. The
Ombudsman must have, for ten years or more, been a
judge or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines.
During their tenure, they shall be subject to the same
disqualifications and prohibitions as provided for in Section
2 of Article 1X-A of this Constitution.
Section 9. The Ombudsman and his Deputies shall be
appointed by the President from a list of at least six
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nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council, and
from a list of three nominees for every vacancy thereafter.
Such appointments shall require no confirmation. All
vacancies shall be filled within three months after they
occur.
Section 10. The Ombudsman and his Deputies shall have
the rank of Chairman and Members, respectively, of the
Constitutional Commissions, and they shall receive the
same salary which shall not be decreased during their term
of office.
Section 11. The Ombudsman and his Deputies shall serve
for a term of seven years without reappointment. They shall
not be qualified to run for any office in the election
immediately succeeding their cessation from office.
Section 12. The Ombudsman and his Deputies, as
protectors of the people, shall act promptly on complaints
filed in any form or manner against public officials or
employees of the Government, or any subdivision, agency
or instrumentality thereof, including government-owned or
controlled corporations, and shall, in appropriate cases,
notify the complainants of the action taken and the result
thereof.
Section 13. The Office of the Ombudsman shall have the
following powers, functions, and duties:
(1) Investigate on its own, or on complaint by any
person, any act or omission of any public official,
employee, office or agency, when such act or
omission appears to be illegal, unjust, improper,
or inefficient.
(2) Direct, upon complaint or at its own instance,
any public official or employee of the Government,
or any subdivision, agency or instrumentality
thereof, as well as of any government-owned or
controlled corporation with original charter, to
perform and expedite any act or duty required by
law, or to stop, prevent, and correct any abuse or
impropriety in the performance of duties.
(3) Direct the officer concerned to take
appropriate action against a public official or
employee at fault, and recommend his removal,
suspension, demotion, fine, censure, or
prosecution, and ensure compliance therewith.
(4) Direct the officer concerned, in any
appropriate case, and subject to such limitations
as may be provided by law, to furnish it with
copies of documents relating to contracts or
transactions entered into by his office involving
the disbursement or use of public funds or
properties, and report any irregularity to the
Commission on Audit for appropriate action.
(5) Request any government agency for
assistance and information necessary in the
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discharge of its responsibilities, and to examine, if
necessary, pertinent records and documents.
(6) Publicize matters covered by its investigation
when circumstances so warrant and with due
prudence.
(7) Determine the causes of inefficiency, red tape,
mismanagement, fraud, and corruption in the
Government and make recommendations for their
elimination and the observance of high standards
of ethics and efficiency.
(8) Promulgate its rules of procedure and exercise
such other powers or perform such functions or
duties as may be provided by law.
Section 14. The Office of the Ombudsman shall enjoy fiscal
autonomy. Its approved annual appropriations shall be
automatically and regularly released.
A. Composition
• An Ombudsman to be known as the
Tanodbayan.
• One over-all Deputy
• At least one Deputy each for Luzon,
Visayas and Mindanao
• A separate Deputy for the military
establishment may likewise be appointed
B. Qualifications
The Ombudsman and his Deputies must be:
1. Natural Born Citizens of the Philippines
2. At least 40 years of age
3. Of recognized probity and independence
4. Members of the Philippine Bar
5. Must not have been candidates for any
elective office in the immediately preceding
election.
The Ombudsman must have been a judge or
engaged in the practice of law for ten years or
more.
C. Appointment
By the President from a list of at least six nominees
prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council, and from
a list of at least three nominees for every vacancy
thereafter. All vacancies to be filled in three
months.
a. Term of Office: Seen years without
reappointment
b. Rank and Salary: The Ombudsman and
his Deputies shall have the rank of
Chairman and Members, respectively, of
the Constitutional Commissions, and they
shall receive the same salary which shall
not be decreased during his term of office.
c. Fiscal Autonomy: The Office of the
Ombudsman shall enjoy fiscal autonomy.
D. Disqualifications/Inhibitions
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During their tenure:
• Shall not hold other office or employment
• Shall not engage in the practice of any
profession or in the active management
of control of any business which in any
way may be affected by the functions of
his office;
• Shall not be financially interested, directly
or indirectly, in any contract with, or in
any franchise or privilege granted by the
Government, or any of its subdivisions,
etc,;
• Shall not be qualified to run for any office
in the election immediately succeeding
their cessation from office.
E. Jurisdiction
How is the jurisdiction of the Ombudsman over
a person determined? For purposes of
determining the scope of the jurisdiction of the
Ombudsman, a public officer is one to whom some
of the sovereign functions of the government has
been delegated.
(The National Centennial Commission performs
executive power which “is generally defined as the
power to enforce and administer laws. It is the
power of carrying the laws into practical operation
and enforcing their due observance.” The executive
function, therefore, concerns the implementation of
the policies as set forth by law. Laurel v. Desierto,
2002)
Q: Charged with murder, the Governor challenges
the authority of the office of the Ombudsman to
conduct the investigation. He argues that the
authority of the Ombudsman is limited to “crimes
related to or connected with an official’s discharge
of his public functions.” Decide.
A: The Ombudsman has authority. Section 12 says
that he may “investigate… any act or omission of
any public official… when such act or omission
appears to be illegal, unjust, improper or
inefficient. Murder is illegal. And since it was
allegedly committed by a public official it comes
within the jurisdiction of the Ombudsman. (Deloso
v. Domingo, 1990)
F. Powers and Duties
(See Section 12 and 13 of Article XI)
Over the years the scope of the powers of the
Ombudsman under Section 12 has been clarified
thus settling various disputed issues:
1. The ombudsman can investigate only officers of
government owned corporations with original
charter. PAL, even when still owned by the
government, did not have original charter.697
697
Khan, Jr v Ombudsman, G.R. No. 125296, July 20. 2006.
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2. The jurisdiction of the Ombudsman over
disciplinary cases involving public school teachers
has been modified by Section 9 of R.A. 4670,
otherwise known as the Magna Carta for Public
School Teachers, which says that such cases must
first go to a committee appointed by the Secretary of
Education.698
It is erroneous, thus, for respondents to contend that
R.A. No. 4670 confers an exclusive disciplinary
authority on the DECS over public school teachers
and prescribes an exclusive procedure in
administrative investigations involving them. R.A.
No. 4670 was approved on June 18, 1966. On the
other hand, the 1987 Constitution was ratified by the
people in a plebiscite in 1987 while R.A. No. 6770
was enacted on November 17, 1989. It is basic that
the 1987 Constitution should not be restricted in its
meaning by a law of earlier enactment. The 1987
Constitution and R.A. No. 6770 were quite explicit in
conferring authority on the Ombudsman to act on
complaints against all public officials and
employees, with the exception of officials who may
be removed only by impeachment or over members
of Congress and the Judiciary.
3. The Ombudsman Act authorizes the
Ombudsman to impose penalties in administrative
cases.699 Section 21 of RA 6770 vests in the
Ombudsman “disciplinary authority over all
elective and appointive officials of the
Government,” except impeachable officers,
members of Congress, and the Judiciary. And
under Section 25 of RA 6770, the Ombudsman may
impose in administrative proceedings the “penalty
ranging from suspension without pay for one
year to dismissal with forfeiture of benefits or a fine
ranging from five thousand pesos (P5,000.00) to
twice the amount malversed, illegally taken or lost,
or both at the discretion of the Ombudsman x x
x.” Clearly, under RA 6770 the Ombudsman has the
power to impose directly administrative penalty on
public officials or employees.700
Note, however, that according to the Local
Government Code, elective officials may be
dismissed only by the proper court. “Where the
disciplining authority is given only the power to
suspend and not the power to remove, it should not
be permitted to manipulate the law by usurping the
power to remove.”701
4. The Special Prosecutor may not file an
information without authority from the Ombudsman.
Republic Act No. 6770, by conferring upon the
Ombudsman the power to prosecute, likewise grants
698
Ombudsman v. Estandarte, GR 168670, April 13, 2007.
699
Ombudsman v. CA, November 22, 2006; Ombudsman v. Lucero,
November 24, 2006.
700
Ombudsman v. CA, G.R. No. 168079, July 17, 2007.
701
Sangguniang Barangay v. Punong Barangay, G.R. No. 170626,
March 3, 2008.
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to the Ombudsman the power to authorize the filing
of informations. A delegated authority to prosecute
was also given to the Deputy Ombudsman, but no
such delegation exists to the Special Prosecutor.
Nor is there an implied delegation. The Special
Prosecutor prosecutes only when authorized by the
Ombudsman.702
5. The Ombudsman has been conferred rule
making power to govern procedures under it. 703 One
who is answering an administrative complaint filed
before the Ombudsman may not appeal to the
procedural rules under the Civil Service
Commission.704
6. The power to investigate or conduct a preliminary
investigation on any Ombudsman case may be
exercised by an investigator or prosecutor of the
Office of the Ombudsman, or by any Provincial or
City Prosecutor or their assistance, either in their
regular capacities or as deputized Ombudsman
prosecutors.705
7. A preventive suspension will only last ninety (90)
days, not the entire duration of the criminal case like
petitioners seem to think. Indeed, it would be
constitutionally proscribed if the suspension were to
be of an indefinite duration or for an unreasonable
length of time. The Court has thus laid down the
rule that preventive suspension may not exceed the
maximum period of ninety (90) days, in consonance
with Presidential Decree No. 807, now Section 52 of
the Administrative Code of 1987.706
Q: RA 6770 empowers the Office of the
Ombudsman to conduct preliminary investigations
and to directly undertake criminal prosecutions.
What is the constitutional basis for this power?
A: Article XI, Section 13(8) means that the
Ombudsman may be validly empowered with
prosecutorial functions by the legislature, and this
the latter did when it passed RA 6770. (Camanag v.
Guerrero, 1997)
Q: RA 6770 empowers the Office of the
Ombudsman to conduct preliminary investigations
and to directly undertake criminal prosecutions.
Does it not violate the principle of separation of
powers since the power to conduct preliminary
investigation is exclusive to the executive branch?
A: If it is authorized by the Constitution it cannot be
logically argued that such power or the exercise
thereof is unconstitutional or violative of the
702
Perez v. Sandigabayan, G.R. No. 166062, September 26, 2006.
703
Buencamino v. CA, GR 175895,April 4, 2007.
704
Medina v. COA, G.R. No. 176478, February 4, 2008.
705
Honasan II v. Panel of Investigators of the DOJ, G.R. No.
159747, April 13, 2004.
706
Villasenor v Sandiganbayan G.R. No. 180700, March 4, 2008
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principle of the separation of powers. (Camanag v.
Guerrero, 1997)
Q: RA 6770 empowers the Office of the
Ombudsman to conduct preliminary investigations
and to directly undertake criminal prosecutions.
Does it not directly contravene Article XI, Section 7
by diminishing the authority and power lodged in
the Office of the Special Prosecutor?
A: In Acop v. Office of the Ombudsman, 1995, the
Court upheld not only the power of Congress to so
place the Office of the Special Prosecutor under
the Ombudsman, but also the power of Congress
to remove some of the powers granted to the Office
of Special Prosecutor. . (Camanag v. Guerrero,
1997)
Q: Are the powers of Ombudsman delegable?
A: The power to investigate or conduct a
preliminary investigation on any Ombudsman case
may be exercised by an investigator or prosecutor
of the Office of the Ombudsman, or by any
Provincial or City Prosecutor or their assistance,
either in their regular capacities or as deputized
Ombudsman prosecutors. (Honasan II v. Panel of
Investigators of the DOJ, 2004)
“In any form or manner” It was held that the fact
that the Ombudsman may start an investigation on
the basis of any anonymous letter does not violate
the equal protection clause. For purposes of
initiating preliminary investigation before the Office
of the Ombudsman, a complaint “in any form or
manner” is sufficient. (Garcia v. Miro, 2003)707
Power of Contempt. The Ombudsman is also
granted by law the power to cite for contempt, and
this power may be exercised by the Ombudsman
while conducting preliminary investigation because
preliminary investigation is an exercise of quasi-
judicial functions. (Lastimosa v. Vasquez, 243
SCRA 497)708
Can the Court be compelled to review the
exercise of discernment in prosecuting or
dismissing a case before the Ombudsman? It
has been consistently held that it is not for the
Court to review the Ombudsman’s paramount
discretion in prosecuting or dismissing a complaint
filed before his office. The rule is based not only
upon the respect for the investigatory and
prosecutor powers granted by the Constitution to
the Office of the Ombudsman but upon practicality
as well. (Otherwise, the functions of the courts will
be grievously hampered by innumerable petitions
assailing the dismissal of investigatory proceedings
conducted by the Office of the Ombudsman with
regard to complaints filed before it. (Olairez v.
Sandiganbayan, 2003)
707
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 351 (2006)
708
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 351 (2006)
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There is, however, one important exception to this
rule, and that is, when grave abuse of discretion on
the part of the Ombudsman in either prosecuting or
dismissing a case before it is evident. In this event,
the act of the Ombudsman can justifiably be
assailed.709
Ombudsman has no authority to directly
dismiss a public officer from government
service. Under Section 13(3) of Article XI, the
Ombudsman can only recommend to the officer
concerned the removal of a public officer or
employee found to be administratively liable.
(Taplador v. Office of the Ombudsman, 2002) Be
that as it may, the refusal, without just cause, of
any officer to comply with such an order of the
Ombudsman to penalize erring officer or employee
is a ground for disciplinary action. Thus, there is a
strong indication that the Ombudsman’s
recommendation is not merely advisory in nature
but actually mandatory within the bounds of law.
This, should not be interpreted as usurpation of the
Ombudsman of the authority of the head of office
or any officer concerned. It has long been settled
that the power of the Ombudsman to investigate
and prosecute any illegal act or omission of any
public official is not an exclusive authority, but a
shared or concurrent authority in respect of the
offense charged. (Ledesma v. CA, 2005)
F. Power to Investigate
The power to investigate, including preliminary
investigation, belongs to the Ombudsman and not
to the Special Prosecutor. (Acop v. Ombudsman,
1995)
Uy v. Sandiganbayan, 2001: It was held that
under Sections 11 and 15, RA 6670, the
Ombudsman s clothed with the authority to conduct
preliminary investigation and to prosecute all
criminal cases involving public officers and
employees, not only those within the jurisdiction of
the Sandiganbayan, but those within the
jurisdiction of regular courts as well. The clause
“any illegal act or omission of any public official” is
broad enough to embrace any crime committed by
a public officer or employee.
Ombudsman’s Power to Investigate, Not
Exclusive. While the Ombudsman’s power to
investigate is primary, it is not exclusive and, under
the Ombudsman Act of 1989, he may delegate it to
others and take it back any time he wants to. (Acop
v. Ombudsman, 1995)
The Ombudsman can also investigate criminal
offenses committed by public officers which have
709
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 353 (2006)
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no relation to their office. (Vasquez v. Alino, 271
SCRA 67)
Q: May the military deputy investigate civilian
police?
A: Because the power of the Ombudsman is broad
and because the Deputy Ombudsman acts under
the direction of the Ombudsman, the power of the
Military Deputy to investigate members of the
civilian police has also been affirmed. (Acop v.
Ombudsman, 1995)
Bar Question (2003)
Ombudsman; Power to Investigate
A group of losing litigants in a case decided by the
Supreme Court filed a complaint before the
Ombudsman charging the Justices with knowingly
and deliberately rendering an unjust decision in
utter violation of the penal laws of the land. Can the
Ombudsman validly take cognizance of the case?
Explain.
SUGGESTED ANSWER: No, the Ombudsman
cannot entertain the complaint. As stated in the
case of In re: Laureta. 148 SCRA 382 [1987],
pursuant to the principle of separation of powers,
the correctness of the decisions of the Supreme
Court as final arbiter of all justiciable disputes is
conclusive upon all other departments of the
government; the Ombudsman has no power to
review the decisions of the Supreme Court by
entertaining a complaint against the Justices of the
Supreme Court for knowingly rendering an unjust
decision.
SECOND ALTERNATIVE ANSWER: Article XI,
Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution provides that
public officers must at all times be accountable to
the people. Section 22 of the Ombudsman Act
provides that the Office of the Ombudsman has the
power to investigate any serious misconduct
allegedly committed by officials removable by
impeachment for the purpose of filing a verified
complaint for impeachment if warranted. The
Ombudsman can entertain the complaint for this
purpose.
Q: May the Ombudsman act on a complaint filed
by disgruntled party litigants against the Supreme
Court alleging certain named members of the Court
as having committed acts that appear to be illegal,
unjust, improper or inefficient? Would it violate the
principle of separation of powers if he takes
cognizance?
Suggested Answer by Abelardo Domondon:
Yes, it is the duty of the Ombudsman to investigate
“on complaint by any person, any act or omission
of any public official, employee, office or agency
when such act or omission appears to be illegal,
unjust, improper or inefficient.” (Article XI, Section
13(1))
G. Power to Suspend
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Preventive Suspension. The power to investigate
also includes the power to impose preventive
suspension. (Buenaseda v. Flavier, 1993)
Suspension under the Ombudsman Act vis-à-
vis the Local Government Code:
In order to justify the preventive suspension of a
public official under Section 24 of RA 6770, the
evidence of guilt should be strong, and:
a. The charge against the officer or employee
should involve dishonesty, oppression or grave
misconduct or neglect in the performance of
duty;
b. That the charges should warrant removal form
the service; or
c. The respondent’s continued stay in office
would prejudice the case filed against him.
The Ombudsman can impose the 6-month
preventive suspension to all public officials,
whether elective or appointive, who are under
investigation.
On the other hand, in imposing the shorter period
of sixty (60) days of preventive suspension
prescribed in the Local Government Code of 1991
on an elective local official (at any time after issues
are joined), it would be enough that:
a. There is reasonable ground to believe that the
respondent has committed the act or acts
complained or;
b. The evidence of culpability is strong;
c. The gravity of the offense so warrants; or
d. The continuance in office of the respondent
could influence the witnesses or pose a threat
to the safety and integrity of the records and
other evidence. (Jose Miranda v.
Sandiganbayan, 2005)
Bar Question (2004)
Ombudsman: Power to Suspend; Preventive
Suspension
Director WOW failed the lifestyle check conducted
by the Ombudsman's Office because WOWs assets
were grossly disproportionate to his salary and
allowances. Moreover, some assets were not
included in his Statement of Assets and Liabilities.
He was charged of graft and corrupt practices and
pending the completion of investigations, he was
suspended from office for six months.
Q: Aggrieved, WOW petitioned the Court of Appeals
to annul the preventive suspension order on the
ground that the Ombudsman could only recommend
but not impose the suspension. Moreover, according
to WOW, the suspension was imposed without any
notice or hearing, in violation of due process. Is the
petitioner's contention meritorious? Discuss briefly.
(5%)
SUGGESTED ANSWER: The contention of Director
WOW is not meritorious. The suspension meted out
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to him is preventive and not punitive. Section 24 of
Republic Act No. 6770 grants the Ombudsman the
power to impose preventive suspension up to six
months. Preventive suspension maybe imposed
without any notice or hearing. It is merely a
preliminary step in an administrative investigation
and is not the final determination of the guilt of the
officer concerned. (Garcia v. Mojica, 314 SCRA 207
[1999]).
Q: For his part, the Ombudsman moved to dismiss
WOWs petition. According to the Ombudsman the
evidence of guilt of WOW is strong, and petitioner
failed to exhaust administrative remedies. WOW
admitted he filed no motion for reconsideration, but
only because the order suspending him was
immediately executory. Should the motion to dismiss
be granted or not? Discuss briefly. (5%)
SUGGESTED ANSWER: The motion to dismiss
should be denied. Since the suspension of Director
WOW was immediately executory, he would have
suffered irreparable injury had he tried to exhaust
administrative remedies before filing a petition in
court (University of the Philippines Board of Regents
v. Rasul, 200 SCRA 685 [19910Besides, the
question involved is purely legal. (Azarcon v.
Bunagan, 399 SCRA 365 [2003]).
Bar Question (1996)
Ombudsman; Power to Suspend; Preventive
Suspension
An administrative complaint for violation of the Anti-
Graft and Corrupt Practices Act against X was filed
with the Ombudsman. Immediately after taking
cognizance of the case and the affidavits submitted
to him, the Ombudsman ordered the preventive
suspension of X pending preliminary investigation.
X questioned the suspension order, contending
that the Ombudsman can only suspend
preventively subordinate employees in his own
office. Is X correct? Explain.
SUGGESTED ANSWER: No, X is not correct. As
held in Buenaseda vs. Flavier, 226 SCRA 645.
under Section 24 of Republic Act No. 6770, the
Ombudsman can place under preventive
suspension any officer under his disciplinary
authority pending an investigation. The moment a
complaint is filed with the Ombudsman, the
respondent is under his authority. Congress
intended to empower the Ombudsman to suspend
all officers, even if they are employed in other
offices in the Government. The words
"subordinate" and "in his bureau" do not appear in
the grant of such power to the Ombudsman.
H. Power of Ombudsman Over His Office
Under the Constitution, the Office of the
Ombudsman is an independent body. As a
guaranty of this independence, the Ombudsman
has the power to appoint all officials and
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employees of the Office of the Ombudsman, except
his deputies. This power necessarily includes the
power of setting, prescribing and administering the
standards for the officials and personnel of the
Office.
To further ensure its independence, the
Ombudsman has been vested with the power of
administrative control and supervision of the Office.
This includes the authority to organize such
directorates for administration and allied services
as may be necessary for the effective discharge of
the functions of the Office, as well as to prescribe
and approve its position structure and staffing
pattern. Necessarily, it also includes the authority to
determine and establish the qualifications, duties,
functions and responsibilities of the various
directorates and allied services of the Office. This
must be so if the constitutional intent to establish
an independent Office of the Ombudsman is to
remain meaningful and significant. The Civil
Service Commission has no power over this.710
I. Claim of Confidentiality
Even the claim of confidentiality will not prevent the
Ombudsman from demanding the production of
documents needed for the investigation.711
In Almonte v. Vasquez, 1995, the Court said that
where the claim of confidentiality does not rest on
the need to protect military, diplomatic or other
national security secrets but on general public
interest in preserving confidentiality, the courts have
declined to find in the Constitution an absolute
privilege even for the President.712
Moreover, even in cases where matters are really
confidential, inspection can be done in camera.713
V. Special Prosecutor
Section 7. The existing Tanodbayan shall hereafter be
known as the Office of the Special Prosecutor. It shall
continue to function and exercise its powers as now or
hereafter may be provided by law, except those conferred
on the Office of the Ombudsman created under this
Constitution.
This provision applies only to civil actions for
recovery of ill-gotten wealth and not to criminal
cases. Thus, prosecution of offenses arising from,
relating, or incident to, or involving ill-gotten wealth
in the said provision may be barred by prescription.
710
Ombudsman v. CSC, G.R. No. 162215, July 30, 2007.
711
Bernas Primer at 446 (2006 ed.)
712
Bernas Primer at 447 (2006 ed.)
713
Bernas Primer at 447 (2006 ed.)
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(Presidential Ad-hoc Fact Finding Committee on
Behest Loans v. Deseirto, 1999)
VI. Ill-gotten Wealth
President, the Members of the Cabinet, the Congress, the
Supreme Court, and the Constitutional Commissions, the
Ombudsman, or to any firm or entity in which they have
controlling interest, during their tenure.

Section 15. The right of the State to recover properties
unlawfully acquired by public officials or employees, from
them or from their nominees or transferees, shall not be
barred by prescription, laches, or estoppel.
This provision applies only to civil actions for
recovery of ill-gotten wealth and not to criminal
cases. Thus, prosecution of offenses arising from,
relating, or incident to, or involving ill-gotten wealth
in the said provision may be barred by prescription.
(Presidential Ad-hoc Fact Finding Committee on
Behest Loans v. Desierto, 1999)
VIII. Transparency Rule
Section 17. A public officer or employee shall, upon
assumption of office and as often thereafter as may be
required by law, submit a declaration under oath of his
assets, liabilities, and net worth. In the case of the
President, the Vice-President, the Members of the Cabinet,
the Congress, the Supreme Court, the Constitutional
Commissions and other constitutional offices, and officers of
the armed forces with general or flag rank, the declaration
shall be disclosed to the public in the manner provided by
law.

Q: Does Section 15 prevent the prescription of the

crime?
A: No. The right to prosecute criminally can
prescribe.714
IX. Allegiance to the State and the Constitution
Bar Question (2002)
Graft and Corruption; Prescription of Crime Section 18. Public officers and employees owe the State
Suppose a public officer has committed a violation and this Constitution allegiance at all times and any public
of Section 3 (b) and (c) of the AntiGraft and Corrupt officer or employee who seeks to change his citizenship or
Practices Act {RA No, 3019), as amended, by acquire the status of an immigrant of another country during
receiving monetary and other material his tenure shall be dealt with by law.
considerations for contracts entered into by him in
behalf of the government and in connection with
Q: Miguel is a holder of a “green card” entitling him
other transactions, as a result of which he has
to be a resident of the United States permanently.
amassed illegally acquired wealth. (a) Does the
In his application for the card he put down his
criminal offense committed prescribe? (2%) (b)
intention to reside in the United States
Does the right of the government to recover the
“permanently”. He actually immigrated to the
illegally acquired wealth prescribe? (3%)
United States in 1984 and thereby assumed
allegiance to the United States. He however
SUGGESTED ANSWER:
returned to the Philippines in 1987 to run for mayor
a) A violation of Section 3(b) and (c) of the Anti-
of a municipality. Is Article XI, Section 18 applicable
Graft and Corrupt Practices Act prescribes. As held
to him? Does he have the necessary residence
in Presidential Ad-Hoc Fact-Finding Committee on
requirement?
Behest Loans v. Desierto, 317 SCRA 272 (1999),
A: Article XI, Section 18 is not applicable because
Article XI, Section 15 of the Constitution does not
it has reference to “incumbents.” What is applicable
apply to criminal cases for violation of the Anti-Graft
is Section 68 of the Omnibus Election Code which
and Corrupt Practices Act
bars “a permanent resident of or an immigrant to a
(b) Article XI, Section 15 of the Constitution
foreign country” unless he waives his status as a
provides that the right of the State to recover
permanent resident of the foreign country. The
properties unlawfully acquired by public officials or
mere filing of a certificate of candidacy is not the
employees, or from them or from their nominees or
required waiver. It must be by a special act done
transferees, shall not be bared by prescription.
before filing a certificate of candidacy. (Caasi v. CA,
1990)
VII. Restriction on Financial Accomodations
X. Notes and Comments by Domondon on
Article XI
Section 16. No loan, guaranty, or other form of financial
accommodation for any business purpose may be granted,
directly or indirectly, by any government-owned or controlled
bank or financial institution to the President, the Vice- 1. Croniyism which involves unduly favoring a
crony to the prejudice of public interest is a
714
Bernas Primer at 451 (2006 ed.)

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form of violation of the oath of office which

constitute betrayal of the public trust.
2. An administrative officer given by statute the
rank of Justice is not a member of the
Judiciary, but of the Executive Department. He
may therefore be investigated by the
Ombudsman. The Supreme Court does not
have jurisdiction to investigate because it
would be violative of the concept of separation
of powers. (Noblejas v. Tehankee, 1968)

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In the pursuit of these goals, all sectors of the economy and

all regions of the country shall be given optimum opportunity
Article XII to develop. Private enterprises, including corporations,
cooperatives, and similar collective organizations, shall be
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND
encouraged to broaden the base of their ownership.
PATRIMONY
A. Threefold goal of the national economy
I. GOALS OF NATIONAL ECONOMY (Section
1) 1. More equitable distribution of wealth;
II. NATURAL RESOURCES/REGALIAN 2. Increase of wealth for the benefit of the
DOCTRINE (Sections 2) people;
III. LANDS OF PUBLIC DOMAIN (Section 3) 3. Increased productivity.
IV. CITIZENSHIP REQUIREMENT
V. FOREST LANDS AND PARKS (Section 4) B. National Policy on Industrialization and
Agricultural Development
VI. ANCESTRAL LANDS AND ANCESTRAL
DOMAIN (Section 5)
VII. STEWARDSHIP CONCEPT; TRANSFER What is envisioned is not necessarily agriculturally
related industrialization but rather industrialization
OF LANDS(Section 6,7, and 8)
that is a result of releasing through agrarian reform
VIII.INDEPENDENT ECONOMIC AND capital locked up in land. Therefore, this does not
PLANNING AGENCY (Section 17) mean a hard-bound rule that agricultural
IX. FILIPINIZATION OF AREAS OF development must have priority over
INVESTEMENTS (Section 18) industrialization. What is envisioned is a flexible
X. PUBLIC UTILITIES (Section 11) and rational relationship between the two as
XI. PREFERNTIAL USE OF FILIPINO LABOR dictated by the common good.715
(Section 12)
XII. TRADE POLICY (Section 13) C. Meaning of the Phrase “UNFAIR FOREIGN
COMPETITION AND TRADE PRACTICES”
XIII. SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCE; PRACTICE OF
PROFESSION (Section 14) The phrase is not to be understood in a limited
legal and technical sense but in the sense of
XIV. COOPERATIVES (Section 15)
anything that is harmful to Philippine enterprises. At
XV. GOCCS (Section 16) the same time, however, the intention is not to
XVI. TEMPORARY STATE TAKE-OVER protect local inefficiency. Nor is the intention to
(Section 17) protect local industries from foreign competition at
XVII. NATIONALIZATION OF INDUSTRIES the expense of the consuming public.716
(Section 18)
XVIII. MONOPOLIES (Section 19) D. De-classification of forests reserves
XIX. CENTRAL MONETARY AUTHORITY
(Section 20) The law on forest reserves was amended by
XX. FOREIGN LOANS (Section 21) Prsidential Decree No. 643 dated 17 May 1974.
XXI. PENAL SANCTIONS (Section 22) Whereas under previous law the concurrence of
the National Assembly was needed to withdraw
forest reserves found to be more valuable for their
I. Goals of National Economy
mineral contents than for the purpose for which the
reservation was made and convert the same into
Section 1. The goals of the national economy are a more non-forest reserves, legislative concurrence is no
equitable distribution of opportunities, income, and wealth; a longer needed. All that is required is a
sustained increase in the amount of goods and services recommendation from the DENR Secretary
produced by the nation for the benefit of the people; and an indicating which forest reservations are to be
expanding productivity as the key to raising the quality of life withdrawn.717
for all, especially the under-privileged.
An unclassified forested area may not be acquired
by continuous possession since it is inalienable.718
The State shall promote industrialization and full
employment based on sound agricultural development and 715
Bernas Primer at 453 (2006 ed.)
agrarian reform, through industries that make full and 716
Bernas Primer at 454 (2006 ed.)
efficient use of human and natural resources, and which are 717
competitive in both domestic and foreign markets. However, Apex Mining v. Soutneast Mindanao Gold, G.R. No. 152613 &
the State shall protect Filipino enterprises against unfair No. 152628, June 23, 2006.
718
foreign competition and trade practices. Republic v. Naguiat, G.R. No. 134209. January 24,
2006.

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II. Natural Resources/Regalian Doctrine
Section 2. All lands of the public domain, waters,
minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces
of potential energy, fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora
and fauna, and other natural resources are owned
by the State. With the exception of agricultural lands, all
other natural resources shall not be alienated. The
exploration, development, and utilization of natural
resources shall be under the full control and supervision of
the State. The State may directly undertake such activities,
or it may enter into co-production, joint venture, or
production-sharing agreements with Filipino citizens, or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of
whose capital is owned by such citizens. Such agreements
may be for a period not exceeding twenty-five years,
renewable for not more than twenty-five years, and under
such terms and conditions as may be provided by law. In
cases of water rights for irrigation, water supply fisheries, or
industrial uses other than the development of water power,
beneficial use may be the measure and limit of the grant.
The State shall protect the nation's marine wealth in its
archipelagic waters, territorial sea, and exclusive economic
zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to
Filipino citizens.
The Congress may, by law, allow small-scale utilization of
natural resources by Filipino citizens, as well as cooperative
fish farming, with priority to subsistence fishermen and fish-
workers in rivers, lakes, bays, and lagoons.
The President may enter into agreements with foreign-
owned corporations involving either technical or financial
assistance for large-scale exploration, development, and
utilization of minerals, petroleum, and other mineral oils
according to the general terms and conditions provided by
law, based on real contributions to the economic growth and
general welfare of the country. In such agreements, the
State shall promote the development and use of local
scientific and technical resources.
The President shall notify the Congress of every contract
entered into in accordance with this provision, within thirty
days from its execution.
A. Regalian Doctrine [Jura Regalia]
“The universal feudal theory that all lands were
held from the Crown” (Carino v. Insular
Government, 1909)
(Recognized in the 1935, 1973 and 1987
Constitutions; As adopted in a republican system,
the medieval concept of jura regalia has been
stripped of regalia overtones: ownership is vested
in the State, not in the head of the State. (Lee
Hong Kok v. David, 48 SCRA 372)719
719
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 356 (2006)
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B. Consequence of the Regalian Doctrine in Section
2
Any person claiming ownership of a portion of the
public domain must be able to show title from the
state according to any of the recognized modes of
acquisition of title. (Lee Hong Kok v. David, 48
SCRA 372)
Q: When the regalia doctrine was introduced into
the Philippines by colonizers, did the colonizers
strip the natives of their ownership of lands?
A: No. “When as far back as testimony or memory
goes, the land has been held by individuals under
a claim of private ownership, it will be presumed
that to have been held in the same way from
before the Spanish conquest, and never to have
been public land.” (Carino v. Insular Government,
1909)
C. Imperium and Dominium
In public law, there exists the well-known distinction
between government authority possessed by the
State which is appropriately embraced in
sovereignty, and its capacity to own or acquire
property. The former comes under the heading of
imperium, and the latter of dominium. The use of
the term dominium is appropriate with reference to
lands held by the State in its proprietary character.
In such capacity, it may provide for the exploitation
and use of lands and other natural resources,
including their disposition, except as limited by the
Constitution.720
D. Limits Imposed by Section 2 on the Jura Regalia
of the State.
1. Only agricultural lands of the public domain
may be alienated.
2. The exploration, development, and utilization of
all natural resources shall be under the full
control and supervision of the State either by
directly undertaking such exploration,
development, and utilization or through co-
production, joint venture, or production-sharing
agreements with qualified persons or
corporations.
3. All agreements with the qualified private sector
may be for only a period not exceeding twenty-
five years, renewable for another twenty-five
years. (The twenty-five year limit is not
applicable to “water rights for irrigation, water
supply, fisheries, or industrial uses other than
the development of water power,” for which
720
Antonio Nachura, Outline on Political Law, 357 (2006)
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“beneficial use may be the measure and the
limit of the grant.”)
4. The use and enjoyment of marine wealth of the
archipelagic waters, territorial sea, and
exclusive economic zone shall be reserved for
Filipino citizens. (It would seem therefore that
corporations are excluded or at least must be
fully owned by Filipinos.)
5. Utilization of natural resources in rivers, lakes,
bays, and lagoons may be allowed on a “small
scale” Filipino citizens or cooperatives- with
priority for subsistence fishermen and
fishworkers. (The bias here is for the protection
of the little people.)721
E. Cases on Regalian Doctrine
Sunbeam Convenience Food v. CA, 181 SCRA
443: “We adhere to the Regalian Doctrine where all
agricultural, timber and mineral lands are subject to
the dominion of the State.” Thus, before any land
may be classified from the forest group and
converted into alienable or disposable land for
agricultural or other purposes, there must be a
positive act from the Government. The mere fact
that a title was issued by the Director of Lands
does not confer ownership over the property
covered by such title where the property is part of
the public forest.
Republic v. Sayo, 191 SCRA 71: It was held that
in the absence of proof that property is privately
owned, the presumption is that it belongs to the
State.
Thus, where there is no showing that the land had
been classified as alienable before the title was
issued, any possession thereof, no matter how
lengthy, cannot ripen into ownership. And all lands
not otherwise appearing to be clearly within private
ownership are presumed to belong to the State.
(Seville v. National Development Company, 2001)
United Paracale v. de la Rosa, 221 SCRA 108:
The Court said that consonant with Regalian
Doctrine, all lands not otherwise appearing to be
clearly within private ownership are presumed to
belong to the State. It is also on the basis of this
doctrine that the State has the power to control
mining claims, as provided in PD 1214.
Republic v. Register of Deeds of Quezon, 244
SCRA 537: Under the Regalian Doctrine, all lands
not otherwise clearly appearing to be privately
owned are presumed to belong to the State. In our
jurisdiction, the task of administering and disposing
lands of the public domain belongs to the Director
of Lands and, ultimately, the Secretary of
Environment and Natural Resources. The
classification of public lands is, thus, an exclusive
721
Bernas Primer at 457 (2006 ed.)
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prerogative of the Executive Department through
the Office of the President. Courts have no
authority to do so. In the absence of such
classification, the land remains unclassified public
land under released therefrom and rendered open
to disposition.
Ituralde v. Falcasantos, 1999: Forest land is nt
capable of private appropriation and occupation in
the absence of a positive act of the government
declassifying it into alienable or disposable land for
agricultural purposes. Accordingly, where there is
yet no award or grant to petitioner of the land in
question by free patent or other ways of acquisition
of public land, petitioner cannot lawfully claim
ownership of the land. Possession of forest lands,
however long, cannot ripen into private ownership.
F. Reclaimed lands
Q: What is the nature of reclaimed foreshore and
submerged lands?
A: They are lands of public domain and, unless
classified as alienable, may not be disposed of.
Q: For reclaimed land to be registered as private
property what is required?
A: (1) There must be a proof that the land had
been classified as alienable;
(2) The person seeking registration must show
proof of having acquired the property (e.g., by
prescription). (Republic v. Enciso, 2005)
Q: Could the Public Estates Authority dispose of
reclaimed lands?
A: In order for PEA to sell its reclaimed foreshore
and submerged alienable lands of the public
domain, there must be legislative authority
empowering PEA to sell these lands. Without such
legislative authority, PEA could not sell but only
lease its reclaimed foreshore and submerged
alienable lands of the public domain.
Nevertheless, any legislative authority granted to
PEA to sell its reclaimed alienable lands of the
public domain would be subject to the
constitutional ban on private corporations from
acquiring alienable lands of the public domain.
Hence, such legislative authority could only benefit
private individuals. (Chavez v. PEA and AMARI,
July 9, 2002)
“Reclaimed lands of the public domain if sold or
transferred to a public or municipal corporation for
a monetary consideration become patrimonial
property… [and] may be sold… to private parties,
whether Filipino citizens of qualified corporations.”
(May 6, 2003 Resolution)
Q: What is the nature of the Roponggi property in
Japan?
A: It is of public dominion (unless it is convincingly
shown that the property has become patrimonial).
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As property of public dominion, the Roponggi lot is
outside the commerce of man.
Chavez v. NHA, G.R. No. 164527, August 15,
2007.
Reclaimed land is public land. Before it can be
registed as private property is must be classified as
alienable.722 Once classified it becomes alienable.
A presidential proclamation is a sufficient
instrument for classifying reclaimed land. Thus
when President Aquino issued MO 415 conveying
the land covered by the Smokey Mountain
Dumpsite to the National Housing Authority as well
as the area to be reclaimed across R-10, the
coneyance implicitly carried with it the declaration
that said lands are alienable and disposable.
Otherwise, the NHA could not effectively use them
in its housing and resettlement project. President
Ramos made similar conveyances to the NHA.
RA 6957 as amended by RA 7718 provides ample
authority for the classification of reclaimed land.
The fact that RA 6957 as modified by RA 7718
declared that t reclaimed lands that shall serve as
payment to the project proponent already implies
that the the land has been classified. This
conclusion is necessary for how else can the land
be used as the enabling component for the Project
if such classification is not deemed made.
We ruled in PEA that “alienable lands of public
domain must be transferred to qualified private
parties, or to government entities not tasked to
dispose of public lands, before these lands can
become private or patrimonial lands (emphasis
supplied).” To lands reclaimed by PEA or through a
contract with a private person or entity, such
reclaimed lands still remain alienable lands of
public domain which can be transferred only to
Filipino citizens but not to a private corporation.
This is because PEA under PD 1084 and EO 525 is
tasked to hold and dispose of alienable lands of
public domain and it is only when it is transferred to
Filipino citizens that it becomes patrimonial
property.
On the other hand, the NHA is a government
agency not tasked to dispose of public lands under
its charter—The Revised Administrative Code of
1987. The NHA is an “end-user agency”
authorized by law to administer and dispose of
reclaimed lands. The moment titles over reclaimed
lands based on the special patents are transferred
to the NHA by the Register of Deeds, they are
automatically converted to patrimonial properties of
the State which can be sold to Filipino citizens and
private corporations, 60% of which are owned by
Filipinos. The reason is obvious: if the reclaimed
land is not converted to patrimonial land once
722
Republic v. Enciso, G.R. 160145, November 11, 2005.
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transferred to NHA, then it would be useless to
transfer it to the NHA since it cannot legally transfer
or alienate lands of public domain. More
importantly, it cannot attain its avowed purposes
and goals since it can only transfer patrimonial
lands to qualified beneficiaries and prospective
buyers to raise funds for the SMDRP.
From the foregoing considerations, we find that the
79-hectare reclaimed land has been declared
alienable and disposable land of the public domain;
and in the hands of NHA, it has been reclassified
as patrimonial property.723
G. Exploration, Development and Utilization of
Inalienable Resources.
“The exploration, development, and utilization of natural
resources shall be under the full control and supervision
of the State. The State may directly undertake such
activities, or it may enter into co-production, joint venture,
or production-sharing agreements with Filipino citizens, or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of
whose capital is owned by such citizens…”
Q: Section 2 speaks of “co-production, joint
venture, or production sharing agreements” as
modes of exploration, development, and utilization
of inalienable lands. Does this effectively exclude
the lease system?
A: Yes, with respect to mineral and forest lands.
(Agricultural lands may be subject of lease)724
Q: Who are qualified to take part in the exploration,
development and utilization of natural resources?
A: Filipino citizens and corporations or associations
at least sixty percent of whose capital is owned by
Filipino citizens. (Note however, that as to marine
wealth, only Filipino citizens are qualified. This is
also true of natural resources in rivers, bays, lakes
and lagoons, but with allowance for
cooperatives.)725
Q: If natural resources, except agricultural land,
cannot be alienated, how may they be explored,
developed, or utilized?
A: (1) Direct undertaking of activities by the State
or
(2) Co-production, joint venture, or production-
sharing agreements with the State and all “under
the full control and supervision of the State.”
Q: May the State enter into service contracts with
foreign owned corporations?
A: Yes, but subject to the strict limitations in the last
two paragraphs of Section 2. Financial and e
technical agreements are a form of service
contract. Such service contacts may be entered
into only with respect to minerals, petroleum, and
723
Chavez v. NHA, G.R. No. 164527, August 15, 2007.
724
Bernas Primer at 457 (2006 ed.)
725
Bernas Primer at 459 (2006 ed.)
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other mineral oils. The grant of such service
contracts is subject to several safeguards, among
them: (1) that the service contract be crafted in
accordance with a general law setting standard of
uniform terms, conditions and requirements; (2) the
President be the signatory for the government; and
(3) the President report the executed agreement to
Congress within thirty days. (La Bugal B’laan Tribal
Assoc., 2004, Reconsideration, 2005)
Q: When technical and financial assistance
agreement is entered into under Section 2, can it
include some management role for the foreign
corporation?
A: Yes. While the Constitution mentions only
financial and technical assistance they necessarily
include the managerial expertise needed in the
creation and operation of the large-scale
mining/extractive enterprise, but the government
through its agencies (DENR/MGB) must actively
exercises full control and supervision over the
entire enterprise. (La Bugal B’laan Tribal Assoc.,
2004, Reconsideration, 2005)
H. Marine Wealth
Article XII, Section 2: “…The State shall protect the
nation's marine wealth in its archipelagic waters,
territorial sea, and exclusive economic zone, and
reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to
Filipino citizens. xxx”
Article XII, Section 2: “The Congress may, by law,
allow small-scale utilization of natural resources by
Filipino citizens, as well as cooperative fish
farming, with priority to subsistence fishermen and
fish- workers in rivers, lakes, bays, and lagoons. “
Marginal Fisherman: A marginal fisherman is
defined as an individual engaged in fishing by
existing price levels, is barely sufficient to yield a
profit or cover the cost of gathering the fish while a
“subsistence” fisherman is one whose catch yields
but the irreducible minimum to his livelihood.
Section 131 of the Local Government Code defines
a “marginal farmer or fisherman” as one engaged
in subsistence farming or fishing, which shall be
limited to the sale, barter or exchange of
agricultural or marine products produced by himself
and his immediate family. The preferential right
granted to them is not absolute. (Tano v. Socrates,
1997)
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ARIS S. MANGUERA
F. Financial and Technical Agreements
The 1987 Constitution did not completely do away
with service contracts; but now their scope has
been limited and are now called financial and
technical agreements and hey may be entered into
with foreign corporations. The grant of such service
contracts is subject to several safeguards, among
them: (1) that the service contract be crafted in
accordance with a general law setting standard or
uniform terms, conditions and requirements; (2) the
President be the signatory for the government; and
(3) the President report the executed agreement to
Congress within thirty days.726
Foreign contractors may provide not just capital,
techonology and technical know-how but also
managerial expertise to the extent needed for the
creation and operation of the large-scale
mining/extractive enterprise. But the government,
through its agencies (DENR, MGB) must actively
exercises full control and supervision over the
entire enterprise.727
III. Lands of Public Domain
Section 3. Lands of the public domain are classified into
agricultural, forest or timber, mineral lands and national
parks. Agricultural lands of the public domain may be further
classified by law according to the uses to which they may be
devoted. Alienable lands of the public domain shall be
limited to agricultural lands. Private corporations or
associations may not hold such alienable lands of the public
domain except by lease, for a period not exceeding twenty-
five years, renewable for not more than twenty-five years,
and not to exceed one thousand hectares in area. Citizens
of the Philippines may lease not more than five hundred
hectares, or acquire not more than twelve hectares thereof,
by purchase, homestead, or grant.
Taking into account the requirements of conservation,
ecology, and development, and subject to the requirements
of agrarian reform, the Congress shall determine, by law,
the size of lands of the public domain which may be
acquired, developed, held, or leased and the conditions
therefor.
Classification of Public Lands. The classification
of public lands is a function of the executive branch
of government, specifically the Director of Lands,
now the Director of the Land Management Bureau.
The decision of the Director, when approved by the
Secretary of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, as to questions of fact, is
conclusive upon the courts. (Republic v. Imperial,
1999)
The prerogative of classifying public lands pertains
to administrative agencies which have been
726
La Bugal B’laan Tribal Assoc. DENR, G.R. No. 127882,
December 1, 2004. (On Reconsideration) and February 1, 2005.
727
Id.
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specially tasked by statutes to do so and the courts
will not interfere on matters which are addressed to
the sound discretion of government and/or quasi-
judicial agencies entrusted with the regulation of
activities coming under their special technical
knowledge and training.728
Q: Who may change the classification of public
lands, e.g., from inalienable to alienable, and how
is the classification done?
A: The classification of public lands is the exclusive
prerogative of the President upon recommendation
of the pertinent department head. (CA No. 141)
Q: Does the classification of land change
automatically when the nature of the land
changes?
A: No. A positive act of the executive is needed.
Anyone who claims that the classification has been
changed must be able to show the positive act of
the President indicating such positive act. The
classification is descriptive of its legal nature and
not of what the land actually looks like. Hence, for
instance, that a former forest has been denuded
does not by the fact meant that it has ceased to be
forest land. (Director of Lands v. Judge Aquino,
1990)
Q: Can a land have a mixed classification, e.g.,
partly mineral, partly agricultural?
A: No. “The Court feels that the rights over the land
are indivisible and that the land itself cannot be half
agricultural and half mineral.(Republic v. CA)
Alienable lands of the public domain shall be
limited to agricultural lands. It was determined
that the lands subject of the decree of the Court of
First Instance were not alienable lands of the public
domain, being part of the reservation for provincial
park purposes and thus part of the forest zone.
Forest land cannot be owned by private persons;
its is not registrable, and possession thereof, no
matter how lengthy, cannot convert it into private
land, unless the land is reclassified and considered
disposable and alienable.
Foreshore land is that part of the land which is
between the high and low water, and left dry
by the flux and reflux of the tides. It is part of
the alienable land of the public domain and
may be disposed of only by lease and not
otherwise. (Republic v. Imperial, 1999)
Private corporations or associations may not
hold such alienable lands of the public domain
except by lease. In Director of Lands v. IAC and
Acme Plywood &Veneer Co., 146 SCRA 509, the
Supreme Court declared that the 1973 Constitution
cannot impair vested rights. Where the land was
acquired in 1962 when corporation were allowed to
acquire lands not exceeding 1,024 hectares, the
728
Republic v. Mendoza, GR 153727. March 28, 2007.
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same may be registered in 1982, despite the
constitutional prohibition against corporations
acquiring lands of the public domain. This is the
controlling doctrine today.
The 1987 Constitution prohibits private
corporations from acquiring alienable lands of
the public domain. Amari being a private
corporation, is barred from such acquisition.
The Public Estates Authority (PEA) is not an
end user agency with respect to the reclaimed
lands under the amended Joint Venture
Agreement, and PEA may simply turn around
and transfer several hundreds of hectares to a
single private corporation in one transaction.
(Chavez v. PEA, 2003)
Q: When does land of the public domain become
private land?
A: When it is acquired from the government either
by purchase of by grant. (As held in Oh Cho v.
Director of Lands, 75 Phil 980, “all lands that were
not acquired from the Government, either by
purchase or by grant, belong to the public domain.
An exception to the rule would be any land that
should have been in the possession of an occupant
and of his predecessors-in-interest since time
immemorial, for such possession would justify the
presumption that the land had never been part of
the public domain or that it had been private
property even before the Spanish conquest.”)
Q: Can prescription transform public land into private
land?
A: Yes, if it is alienable land. (“Open, exclusive and
undisputed possession of alienable public land for the
period prescribed by law creates the legal fiction whereby
the land, upon completion of the requisite period ipso jure
and without need of judicial or other sanction, ceases to
be public land and becomes private property. Such open,
continuous, exclusive and notorious occupation of the
disputed properties for more than 30 years must,
however, be conclusively established. This quantum of
proof is necessary to avoid erroneous validation of
actually fictitious claims or possession over the property
in dispute. (San Miguel Corporation v. CA, 1990)
Q: In computing the thirty-year period for acquisitive
prescription under Section 49(9) of the Public Land Law,
can the period before the land (e.g. forest land) is
converted into alienable public land be included?
A: NO. The thirty-year period only begins to toll only from
the time the land is converted into alienable land.
(Almeda v. CA, 1991)
Q: Do mining claims acquired, registered, perfected, and
patentable under the Old Mining Law mature to private
ownership that would entitle the claimant to the ownership
thereof?
A: “Mere location does not mean absolute ownership
over the affected land or the mining claim. It merely
segregates the located land or area form the public
domain by barring other would-be locators from locating
the same and appropriating for themselves the minerals
found therein. To rule otherwise would imply that location
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is all that is needed to acquire and maintain rights over a
located mining claim. This, we cannot approve or
sanction because it is contrary to the intention of the
lawmaker that the locator should faithfully and
consistently comply with the requirements for annual work
and improvements in the located mining claims.” (Director
of Lands v. Kalahi Investments, 1989)
Q: May aliens lease land of the public domain?
A: No, because that would enjoy enjoyment of the
natural resources of the public domain.
V. Forest Lands and Parks
Section 4. The Congress shall, as soon as possible,
determine, by law, the specific limits of forest lands and
national parks, marking clearly their boundaries on the
ground. Thereafter, such forest lands and national parks
shall be conserved and may not be increased nor
diminished, except by law. The Congress shall provide for
such period as it may determine, measures to prohibit
logging in endangered forests and watershed areas.

Q: May an alien lease a private land? VI. Ancestral Lands and Ancestral Domain
A: Yes. A lease to an alien for a reasonable period
is valid. So is an option giving an alien the right to
buy the real property on condition he is granted Section 5. The State, subject to the provisions of this
Philippine citizenship. Constitution and national development policies and
programs, shall protect the rights of indigenous cultural
IV. Citizenship Requirement communities to their ancestral lands to ensure their
economic, social, and cultural well-being.
Co-production, joint venture Filipino citizens or
or production sharing The Congress may provide for the applicability of customary
agreements [for exploration, Corporations or associations laws governing property rights or relations in determining
development and utilization of at least 60% of whose capital the ownership and extent of ancestral domain.
natural resources] is Filipino owned. (Art. XII,
Section 2)

Note:Agreements shall not

Use and enjoyment of the
nation’s marine wealth in its
archipelagic waters, territorial
sea and exclusive economic
zone {PD 1599]; UN
Convention on the Law of the
Sea (ratified by RP in August,
1983)]
Alienable lands of the public
domain [which shall be
limited to agricultural lands]:
Certain areas of investment
[as Congress shall provide
when the national interest so
dictates]
See Annex 1:”Sixth Regular
Foreign Investment Negative
List,” Lists A and B)
Franchise, certificate or any
other form of authorization for
the operation of a public
utility.
exceed a period of 25 years,
renewable for anther 25 VII. Stewardship Concept; Transfer of Lands
years.
Exclusively for Filipino
Citizens (Art. XII, Section 2) Section 6. The use of property bears a social function, and
all economic agents shall contribute to the common good.
Individuals and private groups, including corporations,
cooperatives, and similar collective organizations, shall have
the right to own, establish, and operate economic
enterprises, subject to the duty of the State to promote
distributive justice and to intervene when the common good
Only for Filipino citizens may so demands.
acquire not more than 12
hectares by purchase,
homestead or grant; or lease
not more than 500 hectares.
Section 7. Save in cases of hereditary succession, no
Private corporations may private lands shall be transferred or conveyed except to
lease not more than 1,000 individuals, corporations, or associations qualified to acquire
hectares for 25 years, or hold lands of the public domain.
renewable for another 25
years.
Reserved for Filipino citizens
or corporations 60% of whose
capital is Filipino owned, Section 8. Notwithstanding the provisions of Section 7 of
although Congress may this Article, a natural-born citizen of the Philippines who has
prescribe a higher percentage lost his Philippine citizenship may be a transferee of private
of Filipino ownership (Art. XII, lands, subject to limitations provided by law.
Section 10)
A. Stewardship Concept
Only to citizens of the
Philippines or corporations at
See Section 6.
least 60% of whose capital is
Filipino owned. (Art. XII,
Section 11) B. Private Lands
1. Rule and Exceptions

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RULE: No private lands shall be transferred or
conveyed except to individuals, corporations, or
associations qualified to acquire or hold lands of
the public domain.
EXCEPTIONS:
1. Hereditary Succession (This does not apply to
testamentary dispositions, Ramirez v. Vda. De
Ramirez, 111 SCRA 740)
2. A natural born citizen of the Philippines who
has lost his Philippine citizenship may be a
transferee of private lands (Section 8, Article
XII)
3. Americans hold valid title to private lands as
against private persons
No private lands shall be transferred or
conveyed except to individuals, corporations,
or associations qualified to acquire or hold
lands of the public domain.
Any sale or transfer in violation of the prohibition is
null and void. In Ong Ching Po v. CA, 239 SCRA
341, it was held that even if the petitioner proves
that the Deed of Sale in his favor is in existence
and duly executed, nonetheless, being an alien,
petitioner is disqualified from acquiring and owning
real property.
Frenzel v. Catito, 2003: The Supreme Court
said that inasmuch as the petitioner is an alien,
he is disqualified form acquiring and owning
lands in the Philippines. The sale of three
parcels of lands was null and void. Neither can
the petitioner recover the money he had spent
for the purchase thereof. Equity, as a rule will
follow the law, and will not permit to be done
indirectly that which, because of public policy,
cannot be done directly.
An action to recover the property sold filed by
the former owner will lie. (The pari delicto rule
has been abandoned as early as PBC v. Lui She,
21 SCRA 52, where the Supreme Court declared
that a lease for 99 years, with a 50-year oprtion to
purchase the property if and when Wong Heng
would be naturalized, is a virtual surrender of all
rights incident to ownership, and therefore, invlaid.)
Land sold to an alien which was later transferred to
a Filipino citizen—or where the alien later becomes
a Filipino citizen—can no longer be recovered by
the vendor, because there is no longer any public
policy involved. (Republic v. IAC, 175 SCRA 398;
Halili v. CA, 1997; Lee v. Director of Lands, 2001)
A natural born citizen of the Philippines who
has lost his Philippine citizenship may be a
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transferee of private lands, subject to
limitations provided by law.
Thus, even if private respondents were already
Canadians when they applied for registration of the
properties in question, there could be no legal
impediment for the registration thereof, considering
that it is undisputed that they were formerly natural-
born citizens. (Republic v. CA, 235 SCRA 657)
RA 8179 provides that natural-born Filipino citizen
may acquire to a maximum area of private land to
5,000 square meters for urban land and 3 hectares
for rural land. Furthermore, such land may now be
used for business and for other purposes.
Americans hold valid title to private lands as
against private persons.
A previous owner may no longer recover the land
from an American buyer who succeeded in
obtaining title over the land. Only the State has the
superior right to the land, through the institution of
escheat proceedings [as a consequence of the
violation of the Constitution], or through an action
for reversion [as expressly authorized under the
Public Land Act with respect to lands which
formerly formed part of the public domain].
2. Remedies to Recover Private Land from
Disqualified Alien
1. Escheat Proceedings
2. Action for Reversion under the Public Land Act
3. An action for recovery filed by the former
Filipino owner (unless the land is sold to an
American citizen prior to July 3, 1974 and the
American citizen obtained title thereto.
Action for reversion under the Public Land Act.
The Director of Lands has the authority and the
specific duty to conduct investigations of alleged
fraud in obtaining free patents and the
corresponding titles to alienable public lands, and ,
if facts disclosed in the investigation warrant, to file
the corresponding court action for reversion of the
land to the State. (Republic v. CA, 172 SCRA 1)
The action of the State for reversion to the public
domain of land fraudulently granted to private
individuals is imprescriptible. (Baguio v. Republic,
1999)
But it is the State alone which may institute
reversion proceedings against public lands
allegedly acquired through fraud and
misrepresentation pursuant to Section 101 of the
Public Land Act. Private parties are without legal
standing at all to question the validity of the
respondent’s title (Urquiga v. CA, 1999)
Thus, in Tankiko v. Cezar, 1999, it was held that
where the property in dispute is still part of the
public domain, only the State can file suit for
reconveyance of such public land. Respondents,
who are merely applicants for sales patent thereon,
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are not proper parties to file an action for
reconveyance.
The State can be put in estoppels by the
mistakes or errors of its officials or agents.
Estoppel against the State is not favored; it
may be invoked only in rare and unusual
circumstances as it would operate to defeat
the effective operation of a policy adopted to
protect the public. However, the State may not
be allowed to deal dishonorably or capriciously
with its citizens.
In Republic v. CA, 1999 because for nearly 20
years starting from the issuance of the titles I
n1996 to the filing of the complaint in 1985, the
State failed to correct and recover the alleged
increase in the land area of the titles issued,
the prolonged inaction strongly militates
against its cause, tantamount to laches, which
means the “failure or neglect, for an
unreasonable and unexpected length of time,
to do that which by exercising due diligence
could or should have been done earlier.” It is
negligence or omission to assert a right within
a reasonable time, warranting a presumption
that the party entitled to assert it either
abandoned it or declined to assert it.
Foreign corporations and land. A foreign
corporation may buy shares in excess of 40% of
the shares of the corporation. But the effect would
be that the corporation it buys into would lose its
status as a Filipino corporation and its capacity to
hold private land.729
It should be noted, however, that the prohibition in
the Constitution on aliens applies only to ownership
of land. It does not extend to all immovable or real
property as defined under Article 415 of the Civil
Code, that is, those which are considered
immovable for being attached to land, including
buildings and construction of all kind attached to
the soil.730
Violation by aliens. An attempt by an alien to
circumvent to prohibition on alien acquisition of
land can have dire consequences for such alien.
Thus an alien may not be reimbursed for the
money he gave to his wife to purchase land and
build a house.. Upon the dissolution of the
community of property the alien reimbursement in
equity on the theory that Maria merely held the
property in trust. To claim equity he must come with
clean hands. Klaus knew he was violating the law
when he purchased the land.731
729
J.G. Summit v. C.A., G.R. No. 124293. January 31, 2005
730
J.G. Summit v. C.A., G.R. No. 124293. January 31, 2005
731
Muller v. Muller, G.R. No. 149615, August 29, 2006.
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VIII. Independent Economic and Planning
Agency
Section 9. The Congress may establish an independent
economic and planning agency headed by the President,
which shall, after consultations with the appropriate public
agencies, various private sectors, and local government
units, recommend to Congress, and implement continuing
integrated and coordinated programs and policies for
national development.
Until the Congress provides otherwise, the National
Economic and Development Authority shall function as the
independent planning agency of the government.
IX. Filipinization of Areas of Investments
Section 10. The Congress shall, upon recommendation of
the economic and planning agency, when the national
interest dictates, reserve to citizens of the Philippines or to
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of
whose capital is owned by such citizens, or such higher
percentage as Congress may prescribe, certain areas of
investments. The Congress shall enact measures that will
encourage the formation and operation of enterprises whose
capital is wholly owned by Filipinos.
In the grant of rights, privileges, and concessions covering
the national economy and patrimony, the State shall give
preference to qualified Filipinos.
The State shall regulate and exercise authority over foreign
investments within its national jurisdiction and in accordance
with its national goals and priorities.
Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, 277 SCRA 408: The
Supreme Court said that the term “patrimony”
pertains to heritage—and for over eight decades,
the Manila Hotel has been mute witness to the
triumphs and failures, loves and frustrations of the
Filipino; its existence is impressed with public
interest; its own historicity associate with our
struggle for sovereignty, independence and
nationhood. Verily, the Manila Hotel has become
part of our national economy and patrimony, and
51 % of its equity comes within the purview of the
constitutional shelter, for it comprises the majority
and controlling stock. Consequently, the Filipino
First policy provisions is applicable. Furthermore,
the Supreme Court said that this provision is a
positive command which is complete in itself and
needs no further guidelines or implementing rules
or laws for its operation. It is per se enforceable. It
means precisely that Filipinos should be preferred
and when the Constitution declares that a right
exists in certain specified circumstances, an action
may be maintained to enforce such right.
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X. Public Utilities
Section 11. No franchise, certificate, or any other form of
authorization for the operation of a public utility shall be
granted except to citizens of the Philippines or to
corporations or associations organized under the laws of the
Philippines, at least sixty per centum of whose capital is
owned by such citizens; nor shall such franchise, certificate,
or authorization be exclusive in character or for a longer
period than fifty years. Neither shall any such franchise or
right be granted except under the condition that it shall be
subject to amendment, alteration, or repeal by the Congress
when the common good so requires. The State shall
encourage equity participation in public utilities by the
general public. The participation of foreign investors in the
governing body of any public utility enterprise shall be
limited to their proportionate share in its capital, and all the
executive and managing officers of such corporation or
association must be citizens of the Philippines.
A franchise, certificate or authorization shall not be
exclusive nor for a period more than 50 years, and
shall be subject to amendment, alteration or repeal
by Congress. All executive and managing officers
must Filipino citizens. In Pilipino Telephone
Corporation v. NRC, 2003, it was held that a
franchise to operate a public utility is not an
exclusive private property of the franchisee. No
franchisee can demand or acquire exclusivitly in
the operation of a public utility. Thus, a franchisee
cannot complain of seizure or taking of property
because of the issuance of another franchise to a
competitor.
See Albano v. Reyes, 175 SCRA 264, where the
Supreme Court said that Congress does not have
the exclusive power to issue such authorization.
Administrative bodies, e.g. LTFRB, ERB, etc., may
be empowered to do so.
In Philippine Airlines v. Civil Aeronautics Board,
1997 where it was held that Section 10, RA 776,
reveals the clear intent of Congress to delegate the
authority to regulate the issuance of a license to
operate domestic air transport services.
In United Broadcasting Networks v. National
Telecommunications Commission, 2003: the
Supreme Court acknowledged that there is a trend
towards delegating the legislative power to
authorize the operation of certain public utilities to
administrative agencies and dispensing with the
requirement of a congressional franchise.
However, in this case, it was held that in view of the
clear requirement for a legislative franchise under
PD 576-A, the authorization of a certificate of public
convenience by the NTC for the petitioner to
operate television Channel 25 does not dispense
with the need for a franchise.
Tatad v. Garcia: The Constitution, in no uncertain
terms, requires a franchise for the operation of
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public utilities. However, it does not require a
franchise before one can own the facilities needed
to operate a public utility so long as it does not
operate them to serve the public. What private
respondent, in this case, owns are rail tracks,
rolling stocks like coaches, rail stations, terminals
and power plant, not public utility. What constitute a
public utility is not their ownership but their use to
the public.
Bagatsing v. Committee on Privatization: The
Court held that Petron is not a public utility; hence
there is no merit to petitioner’s contention that the
sale of the block of shares to Aramco violated
Article XII, Section 11 of the Constitution. A public
utility is one organized “for hire or compensation” to
serve the public, which is given the right to demand
its service. Petron is not engaged in oil refining for
hire or compensation to process the oil of other
parties.
JG Summit Holdings v. CA, 2003: A public utility
is a business or service engaged in regularly
supplying the public with some commodity or
service of public consequence, such as electricity,
gas, water, transportation, telephone or telegraph
service. To constitute a public utility, the facility
must be necessary for the maintenance of life and
occupation of the residents. As the name indicates,
“public utility” implies public use and service to the
public. A shipyard is not a public utility. Its nature
dictates that it serves but a limited clientele whom it
may choose to serve at its discretion. It has no
legal obligation to render the services sought by
each and every client.
TELEBAP v. COMELEC, 289 SCRA 337: All
broadcasting, whether by radio or television
stations, is licensed by the Government. Radio and
television companies do not own the airwaves and
frequencies; they are merely given temporary
privilege of using them. A franchise is a privilege
subject to amendment, and the provision of BP 881
granting free airtime to the COMELEC is an
amendment of the franchise of radio and television
stations.
JG Summit Holdings v. CA, 2003: A joint venture
falls within the purview of an “association” pursuant
to Section 11 of Article XII; thus a joint venture
which would engage in the business of operating a
public utility, such as a shipyard must comply with
the 60%-40% Filipino-foreign capitalization
requirement.
XI. Preferential Use of Filipino Labor
Section 12. The State shall promote the preferential use of
Filipino labor, domestic materials and locally produced
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goods, and adopt measures that help make them
competitive.
XII. Trade Policy
Section 13. The State shall pursue a trade policy that
serves the general welfare and utilizes all forms and
arrangements of exchange on the basis of equality and
reciprocity.
XIII. Sustained Development of Human
Resource; Practice of Profession
Section 14. The sustained development of a reservoir of
national talents consisting of Filipino scientists,
entrepreneurs, professionals, managers, high-level technical
manpower and skilled workers and craftsmen in all fields
shall be promoted by the State. The State shall encourage
appropriate technology and regulate its transfer for the
national benefit.
The practice of all professions in the Philippines shall be
limited to Filipino citizens, save in cases prescribed by law.
XIV. Cooperatives
Section 15. The Congress shall create an agency to
promote the viability and growth of cooperatives as
instruments for social justice and economic development.
In Cooperative Development Authority v. Dolefil
Agrarian Reforms Beneficiaries Cooperative, 2002,
the Supreme Court said that, after ascertaining the
clear legislative intent of RA 6939, it now rules that
the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA) is
devoid of any quasi-judicial authority to adjudicate
intra-cooperative disputes and, more particularly,
disputes related to the election of officers and
directors of cooperatives. It may however, conduct
hearings and inquiries in the exercise of its
administrative functions.
XV. GOCCs
Section 16. The Congress shall not, except by general law,
provide for the formation, organization, or regulation of
private corporations. Government-owned or controlled
corporations may be created or established by special
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charters in the interest of the common good and subject to
the test of economic viability.
XVI. Temporary State Take-Over
Section 17. In times of national emergency, when the public
interest so requires, the State may, during the emergency
and under reasonable terms prescribed by it, temporarily
take over or direct the operation of any privately-owned
public utility or business affected with public interest.
Takeover of Public Utilities. The power given to
the President to take over the operation of public
utilities does not stand alone. It is activated only if
Congress grants emergency powers to the
President under Article VI, Section 23.732
XVII. Nationalization of Industries
Section 18. The State may, in the interest of national
welfare or defense, establish and operate vital industries
and, upon payment of just compensation, transfer to public
ownership utilities and other private enterprises to be
operated by the Government.
XVIII. Nationalization of Industries
Section 19. The State shall regulate or prohibit monopolies
when the public interest so requires. No combinations in
restraint of trade or unfair competition shall be allowed.
Monopoly. A monopoly is “a privilege or peculiar
advantage vested in one more persons or
companies, consisting in the exclusive right (or
power) to carry on a particular business or trade,
manufacture a particular article, or control the sale
of a particular commodity.” Clearly, monopolies are
not per se prohibited by the Constitution but may
be permitted to exist to aid the government in
carrying on an enterprise or to aid in the
performance of various services and functions in
the interest of the public. However, because
monopolies are subject to abuses that can inflict
severe prejudice to the public, they are subjected
to a higher of State regulation than an ordinary
business undertaking (Agan Jr. v. PIATCO)
The Constitution does not absolutely prohibit
monopolies. Thus for example, an award for
stevedoring and arrastre services to only one
732
Obiter in David v. Ermita, G.R. No. 171409, May 3,
2006.
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corporation is valid. (Philippine Authority v. have supervision over the operations of banks and exercise
Mendoza) such regulatory powers as may be provided by law over the
operations of finance companies and other institutions
Be that as it may, in Tatad v. Sec., 1997, the performing similar functions.
Supreme Court declared that Article XII, Section 19
is anti-trust in history and spirit; it espouses Until the Congress otherwise provides, the Central Bank of
competition. The desirability of competition is the the Philippines operating under existing laws, shall function
reason for the prohibition against restraint of trade, as the central monetary authority.
the reason for the interdiction of unfair competition,
and the reason for the prohibition in unmitigated
monopolies. A market controlled by one player
(monopoly) or dominated by a handful of players
(oligopoly) is hardly the marker where honest-to- XX. Foreign Loans
goodness competition will prevail. In this case, it
cannot be denied that our downstream oil industry
Section 21. Foreign loans may only be incurred in
is operated and controlled by oligopoly, foreign
accordance with law and the regulation of the monetary
oligopoly at that. So, of only to help the may who authority. Information on foreign loans obtained or
are poor from further suffering as a result of guaranteed by the Government shall be made available to
unmitigated increase in the prices of oil products the public.
due to deregulation, it is a must that RA 8180 be
repealed completely.

In Tanada v. Angara, 272 SCRA 18, the Supreme XXI. Penal Sanctions
Court said that the WTO does not violate Article II
Section 19, nor Sections 19 and 12 of Article XII,
Section 22. Acts which circumvent or negate any of the
because these sections should be read and provisions of this Article shall be considered inimical to the
understood in relation to Sections 1 and 13 of national interest and subject to criminal and civil sanctions,
Article XII, which require the pursuit of trade policy as may be provided by law.
that “serves the general welfare and utilizes all
forms and arrangements of exchange on the basis
of equality and reciprocity.”
In Association of Philippine Coconut Desiccators v.
Philippine Coconut Authority, 1998, the Supreme
Court declared that although the Constitution
enshrines free enterprise as a policy, it
nevertheless reserves to the Government the
power to intervene whenever necessary for the
promotion of the general welfare, as reflected in
Sections 6 ad 19 of Article XII.

Monopolies in restraint of trade. Contracts

requiring exclusivity are not per se void. Each
contract must be viewed vis-à-vis all the
circumstances surrounding such agreement in
deciding whether a restrictive practice should be
prohibited as imposing an unreasonable restraint
on competition.733

XIX. Central Monetary Authority

Section 20. The Congress shall establish an independent

central monetary authority, the members of whose
governing board must be natural-born Filipino citizens, of
known probity, integrity, and patriotism, the majority of whom
shall come from the private sector. They shall also be
subject to such other qualifications and disabilities as may
be prescribed by law. The authority shall provide policy
direction in the areas of money, banking, and credit. It shall

733
Avon v. Luna, G. R. No. 153674, December 20,
2006.

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