Medium Density Housing

Best practice in medium
density housing design
for
Housing New Zealand Corporation
A report on
Best practice in medium

density housing design
for
Housing New Zealand Corporation
September 2004
David Turner
John Hewitt
Cesar Wagner
Bin Su
Kathryn Davies
i
Contents
Executive Summary 1
Summary of Conclusions
Introduction 5
Context and Research Aims
Legislative Background of Medium Density Housing in New Zealand, and Attitudes Towards
Residential Density
Literature Review 11
New Zealand
Australia
North America
United Kingdom
Summary and Conclusions
A New Zealand Definition of Medium Density Housing 21
Introduction
Density
Density and Privacy
Security and Privacy
Car Parking and Storage
External Style
Summary
Case Studies: Methodology and Criteria 31
Introduction
Methodology
Site Selection
Location
Multi-development Sites
Methodology
Topographical Criteria
Value and House Types
Refuse Collection
Washing/drying Arrangements
Case Studies 39
Case Study Conventions
Case Study Data
Case Study Evaluation
Glossary
(1) Vinograd Mews, Harbour View, Waitakere City 42
(2) Adelphi Villas, East Tamaki, Manukau City 43
(3) Seymour Road, Sunnyvale, Waitakere City 44
(4) Corban Village, Henderson, Waitakere City 45
(5) Fairhaven, Glen Eden, Waitakere City 46
(6) Romola Street, Glendowie, Auckland City 47
(7) Tuscany Towers, Ambrico Place, New Lynn, Waitakere City 48
(8) Melview, Ambrico Place, New Lynn, Waitakere City 49
(9) Albion Vale, Sunnyvale, Waitakere City 50
(10) Arawa Street, New Lynn, Waitakere City 51
(11) Oates Road, Glen Eden, Waitakere City 52
(12) Mt Taylor Drive, Glendowie (Project), Auckland City 53
(13) St George’s Terrace, Avondale, Auckland City 54
(14) Gunner Drive, Harbour View, Waitakere City 55
(15) Rowena Crescent, Glendowie, Auckland City 56
(16) Tuscany Way, Harbour View, Waitakere City 57
(17) Sacramento 1A, Botany Downs, Manukau City 58
(18) Oatlands Development, Pennant Hills Road, Sydney 59
ii Best practice in medium density housing design
(19) Fontenoy Road, Macquarie Park, Sydney 60

(20) Carolina Place, Albany, North Shore City 61
(21) Bush Road, Albany, North Shore City 62
(22) Holly Street, Avondale (Project), Auckland City 63
(23) Cottontree, Brisbane 64
(24) Soljak Place, Mount Albert, Auckland City 65
(25) Ewenton St, Balmain, Sydney 66
(26) Beaumont Quarter, Auckland City 67
(27) Sacramento 1B, East Tamaki, Manukau City 68
(28) Hillsborough Road, Lynfield, Auckland City 69
(29) 2 Ambrico Place, New Lynn, Waitakere City 70
(30) Mokoia Road, Birkenhead, North Shore City 71
(31) Galway Street, Onehunga, Auckland City 72
(32) Krisley Court, Ambrico Place, New Lynn, Waitakere City 73
(33) Keeling Road, Henderson, Waitakere City 74
(34) Eden 1, Mt Eden, Auckland City 75
Case Studies Data Table 77
Discussion and Conclusions 79
Introduction
Density and Layout Type
Summary
Vehicle Planning and Parking
Mixed Development and Internal Design
Further Research
References 87
General Media References
Appendix A Local Authority Intensive Housing Policies in Metropolitan Auckland 95
North Shore City Council
Manukau City Council
Auckland City Council
Waitakere City Council
Acknowledgements
The report was commissioned by the Research and Evaluation Team of Housing New
Zealand Corporation and was prepared by the Housing Research Group of the School of
Architecture and Landscape Architecture at Unitec New Zealand.
The views contained in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of Housing New Zealand Corporation.
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Cook Sargisson Pirie, Architects,
JBA Urban Planning Consultants Pty Ltd., (Sydney) and Architectus Ltd, for supply of
data material. All photographs and drawings used in the report were produced by David
Turner and Cesar Wagner, unless otherwise indicated.
Executive
Summary
2 Best practice in medium density housing design
MEDIUM DENSITY HOUSING: development values will be retained

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY or improved at higher densities if
design techniques are sophisticated;
This study identifies the characteristics and
extra development costs of higher
potential of medium density housing as a
density can be recovered by better
typology suitable for affordable urban
unit values if design improvements
development in the New Zealand context.
are made.
The conclusions listed below are based on
three premises: 3. The literature on medium density
housing and the case studies re-
(i) Medium density housing has viewed in this report indicate that:
developed in the last decade as a
common housing typology, but is not density ceilings can be identified for
foreign to the urban culture of New different layouts (defined primarily
Zealand; by types of car parking provision);
(ii) Research and literature on medium the trade-offs that occur between
density housing in New Zealand is different objectives can be located
very limited in scope, quality, and on a density scale, as illustrated in
quantity; the case studies reviewed;
(iii) Planning strategies to consolidate the need for developers and design-
urban growth pre–suppose a higher ers to acknowledge that one 'high-
density housing form that, at this value' compromise often reduces
stage, lacks any clear definition or the quality of the whole living envi-
preferred model. ronment for all units;
the most successful developments
Summary of Conclusions take detailed account of all design
issues, including the intended resi-
1. Medium density housing invariably dent mix, neighbourhood character,
involves a degree of compromise. interface with the public domain,
This is a consequence of building at site specifics (e.g. topography), car
higher density levels (than traditional parking, appearance (style), pri-
suburban housing) while seeking to vacy, security, landscaping, low
address multiple objectives, includ- maintenance, and refuse collection;
ing the mix of house types, car ac- no single design factor determines
cess, privacy, security, interface with best practice.
the public domain, and construction
costs. 4. Housing Mix: mix, in this report, re-
fers to a mix of house types, house
2. A review of the literature indicates sizes, and tenure-types (owner-occu-
that: piers and rental), within a develop-
ment. The case studies in this report
there are numerous ways of calcu- are mainly private sector schemes
lating density, and the term medium that reflect a desire for commercial
density housing refers to different certainty of outcome, with few de-
density ranges in different jurisdic- velopments catering for a housing
tions; mix. However, the literature review
good design becomes critical above suggests that where a broader strat-
a density threshold of approxi- egy has influenced design a more
mately 30 dwellings per hectare; mixed development has been
achieved, along with a notably more
Executive Summary 3
diverse, socially active community, Medium density housing in New

at all levels of density Zealand needs to identify with the
local traditions of domestic design
A review of the literature suggests (while avoiding a 'compacted
that a carefully considered mix of suburbia' approach) and at the same
house types, house sizes, and tenure time establish its own language
types makes an important without reference to imported 'style'
contribution to the success of many and expression.
medium density developments.
In addition to the above:
5. The study observes that traditional
housing forms are widely re-em- 7. The trend towards more flexible liv-
ployed in New Zealand in modified ing space in new housing, seen in pri-
forms and in compacted versions, vate sector developments, could
both inside the house and in the site impact on design in all housing
layouts, in many new developments. forms, including the medium density
It is considered that quality medium category. More flexible internal
density housing environments can- space facilitates:
not be achieved by this strategy, and
that the challenges of changing urban occupation by more varied forms of
lifestyles, demographic shifts, and family and household composition,
environmental conditions cannot be as needs change over time;
adequately met by this 'compacted a wider variety of activities to be
suburbia' approach. Best practices in more readily undertaken (e.g.
other comparable countries have de- home-based employment).
veloped house types and layouts
specifically suited to medium density 8. Public acceptance of medium density
housing. housing is affected by location, and
design. Public and neighbourhood
Future medium density housing expectations of new schemes include
should avoid a 'compacted suburbia' their ability to offer economic and
approach and consider the social integration. Good design qual-
development of climate-responsive, ity has been identified in Britain, the
adaptable house types, including rear United States, and Australia as a key
access layouts, and courtyard types, factor in increasing the degree of
up to identifiable density 'ceilings'. public acceptance of medium density
housing. New projects could follow
6. Design: In New Zealand, the external the recommendations of Australian
style of medium density housing is a researchers to select architects by
significant factor in creating both reputation and design skill, as al-
identity, and compatibility within a ready occurs in New South Wales,
given neighbourhood. Many contem- Victoria, and increasingly, in other
porary medium density develop- centres.
ments demonstrate that a wide
variety of styles can contribute to the 9. The recognition of the relevance of
critical strategy of disguising the dif- urban design principles (e.g. charac-
ferences between medium density ter, legibility, adaptability) in the de-
housing and traditional lower density sign of the best examples of medium
suburban housing. density housing is established in the
literature. The principles of high
quality urban design could be applied
more positively in the medium den-

sity typology, in line with urban ini-
tiatives currently being considered in
New Zealand and overseas.
10. Medium density housing in New

Zealand is capable of providing resi-
dential environments of excellent
quality. In the best models it offers
identity, security, privacy, proximity
to private vehicles, and ground level
external private space. As a housing
type, it can be designed to achieve af-
fordable and sustainable buildings
and communities, evidenced by
schemes developed in other coun-
tries in the 1970s and 1980s, and
earlier.
In future, increasing numbers of New

Zealanders will live in medium
density housing. Improvements in
the design of medium density
housing can enhance the quality of
life for residents, increase public
acceptability of more intensive
housing, and contribute to the
building of more sustainable
communities.
1
Introduction
Context and
Research Aims
INTRODUCTION in countries comparable to New Zealand,

including Canada, Australia, and the USA.
Context and Research Aims
Underlying the intensification policies now
The purpose of this report is to examine in place in New Zealand is the assumption
medium density housing as a typology to that a relevant higher density housing
determine best practice in design for an typology can be designed, or evolved, to
affordable and durable model for New meet the needs of many sectors of the urban
Zealand urban conditions. The report community. As part of this process, there
focuses on medium density housing in the are now many recent medium density
Auckland region but has wider relevance housing developments, particularly in the
for other New Zealand urban areas under- private sector, that demonstrate the poten-
going intensification. tial, as well as the problems of evolution, in
an unfamiliar typology.
In many other countries, medium density
The report is presented as an extended
housing has been recognised as a form of
summary of research into the relevant
housing with definitive characteristics, and
context and literature, followed by a
offered as an alternative residential form to
description of the case study-based meth-
low density suburban development. A
odology for the critique and analysis of
study of New Zealand housing in the period
recent medium density examples in the
between 1960–1990 reveals a small
Auckland area. The analysis is summarised
number of examples, including the1970
by a data chart providing an overview of
Pitarua Court development, in Wellington,
quantifiable material collated from case
by Peter Beavan, special housing for the
studies. The conclusions drawn from this
elderly, and student accommodation. There
are set out in Section 6. Each section of the
are also examples of medium density
report is supplemented by endnotes, where
housing developments in the supply of
supporting material relevant to the project
affordable housing. These may be regarded
is included.
as prototypes in the genre, and provide
evidence of New Zealand’s capacity to
experiment with different housing models, Legislative Background of Medium
without supplying a clear variation identifi- Density Housing in New Zealand, and
ably ‘of New Zealand’ in the medium Attitudes Towards Residential Density
density typology.
The debate concerning Auckland’s urban
In the period from 1990 to the present, form, and particularly its low–density
urban planning in New Zealand has moved ‘sprawl’, is not new. Auckland’s first
towards growth policies that seek to comprehensive town planning proposals,
consolidate city development in all the the Outline Development Plan for
main centres. Although not without oppo- Auckland (Auckland Metropolitan Plan-
sition, planning strategies to intensify cities ning Organisation, 1951) specified as an
have been widely adopted in international objective the need “to provide a means of
practice, supporting the theory that checking the tendency towards uneco-
compact urban morphologies can and do nomic and unsatisfactory sprawling devel-
achieve growth through higher densities, opment.” It also noted that “if a satisfactory
and produce sustainable urban urban structure is to be developed…
environments. various forms of residential development
will have to be considered.”
These strategies reverse longstanding pref-
erences for suburban expansion at low The Auckland City Council’s first opera-
density. Similar policies to impose spatial tive District Planning Scheme (Auckland
limits on suburban growth are established City Council, 1958) attempted to foster
Introduction 7
such variety through the use of residential housing, produced as a part of the Regional
1
zoning. However, increasing maximum Master Plan by the Auckland Regional
6
density controls in order to stimulate inno- Authority (1967):
vative approaches to housing design has, in
the Auckland area, been largely unsuc- “Higher density housing types
cessful. Subdivision standards, with regu- should be located: within or near
lations controlling design decisions main commercial centres…”
concerning site coverage, setbacks and
height to boundary dimensions, have “Subdivisional standards for a
stifled much creative endeavour and variety of residential zones should be
favoured the development of ‘standard formulated to permit the provision of
solutions’. a greater range of housing types of
suitable design.”
One such is the ‘sausage’ flat block, intro-
duced in the 1960s, and associated in the and
2
public mind with increased density. Such
attitudes, together with the folk–memory “Medium density housing types
of the ‘slums’ in Newton Gully (5 room, should be designed and built compre-
single storey cottages at approximately 40 hensively and where at all possible
dwellings per hectare, abbreviated to “dph” permit separate legal title after
in this report) reinforce the public development.”
(mis)conception of what constitutes
Since the reorganisation of Local Govern-
medium and high density development,
ment in 1989 and the replacement of plan-
and of the existence of a causal link
ning legislation by the Resource
between increased density and decreased
3 Management Act in 1991 the four new
environmental standards.
cities of the Auckland region have devel-
Conversely, the proponents of urban inten- oped their own coordinated District Plans.
sification use the concept of density as a In the most recent editions, these each
readily identifiable criterion of ‘good qual- address the issue of higher density housing,
ity’ urban environments; with low density and at the same time engage with matters
signalling an unsustainable design relating to sustainability, as the 1991 Act
4
approach. requires.7
In addition, recognition of the interrela- Other cities in New Zealand, particularly
tionship between housing density and Christchurch and Wellington, have also
urban design is evident in local town plan- recognised the need for higher density
ning literature, including the City of housing design to be regulated separately
Auckland District Scheme (Auckland City from subdivision rules.
5
Council, 1968), which notes that:
The District Plans in all cases are rein-
“New concepts of residential design
forced by Design Guides advising devel-
will be encouraged; e.g. new
opers and designers on a variety of ‘best
concepts of housing and comprehen-
practice’ solutions to an unfamiliar
sive developments where a number
typology, these often illustrating regional
of different types of residential build-
and local variations. Together, they repre-
ings are located in a well planned
sent much research effort, and provide an
relationship to one another and to the
effective platform for the generality of new
adjoining development.”
medium density housing. The various
Similar sentiments were espoused in the District Plan sections relevant to this report
conclusions of the preliminary report into are summarised in Appendix A.
ENDNOTES
1 Residential zones covered 3963 hectares 1730 persons per hectare (Muthesius, 1982).
(almost 90% of the zoned area of the city) and (Muthesius notes that this is only half of the
were categorised in terms of site density as density of Berlin’s city blocks of the same
Residential B (125 persons per hectare), period.) At the 1821 figure of 5.75 persons per
Residential C (250 persons per hectare), and dwelling this equals 300 dwellings per hectare
Residential D (500 persons per hectare). At (although contemporary reports of
the 1956 figure of 3.8 persons per dwelling overcrowding may equate this figure with that
this produces 33 dwellings per hectare (dph), for habitable rooms). London’s late nineteenth
65dph and 130 dph respectively. (The century outer–urban suburbs were built at net
occupancy rate has since declined to 2.8 densities of 150–500 persons per hectare
persons per dwelling in 2003 (Statistics New (Muthesius, 1982); at 1881 figures of 5.38 p/d
Zealand, 2004)). It should be noted, however, this provides figures of 28–93 dph. The
that the lower density zone B accounted for Garden Cities of the early twentieth century,
3611 of the 3963 hectares, zone C 228 associated in the public mind with the ‘ideal’
hectares, and zone D only 38 hectares (with of low–density living are, at a net residential
the Freeman’s Bay Transitional Zone density of 218 persons per hectare—at 1900
occupying the remaining 86 hectares), and that figures of 5.20 persons per dwelling
the District Scheme stated that “it is producing 42 dph (Tetlow & Goss, 1965)—
unlikely…that this site density will be reached directly comparable with the ‘high–density
on more than a small proportion of the total slums’ of Newton.
number of available residential sites”
(Auckland City Council, 1958). Nonetheless, 4 The Auckland Regional Authority’s Planning
the figures show a marked correspondence Division (1967) stated that “present
with those proposed in Sir Patrick uneconomic densities of up to 50–60 persons
Abercrombie’s County of London Plan of per hectare cannot be sustained, and in fact do
1944, which recommended net residential not produce the choice either of housing type
densities of 250–500 persons per hectare for or environment demanded by a large and
improved post–war living standards, and complex urban society.” Noting that
indicate that both the Auckland City Council Auckland’s density, “in all sections of the
and the Auckland Metropolitan Planning city”, falls within the definition of low density
Organisation (who acknowledged their debt to at under 54 persons per hectare net, the report
Abercrombie in the formulation of their suggested that the optimum range of net
proposals for ‘flexible zoning’) were well residential density is 100–225 persons per
aware of international trends. hectare, where, in terms of land conservation,
capital cost, and flexibility and variety,
2 A study of housing density in the Auckland “moderate increases in density achieved by
suburb of Sandringham (Auckland Regional the provision of a variety of dwelling types
Authority, 1976) notes that the construction of would be most economic…” (Auckland
such blocks has contributed to an increase in Regional Authority, 1967).
net residential density from 10–15 dph in 1956
to 25–35 dph in 1976, but that “the type of 5 This concern with the urban design
multi–unit development in the area rejects the implications of Auckland’s ubiquitous low
value of open, outdoor living and it is apparent density sprawl is a restatement of previous
that many potential occupiers of medium planning policies. Despite a popular
density housing are rejecting this type of conception of New Zealand as a recently
development because of this deficiency” urbanised society, Johnston (1973), notes that
(Medium density housing was defined for this “as long ago as 1926, just 86 years after the
report as 25–40 dph). It also notes that the Treaty of Waitangi was signed, 63% of New
response of the (Mt. Albert) Borough Council Zealand’s inhabitants lived in its cities and
was to seek to reduce the maximum permitted towns, and of these 62% were in the five
residential density (Auckland Regional largest urban areas—Auckland, Christchurch,
Authority, 1976). Dunedin, Hutt and Wellington.” Figures for
the Auckland urban area in 1926 show a
3 The image of the British slums that the early population of 192,000, with an average family
European settlers wished to avoid recreating size of 4.2 persons and 92 dwellings per 100
may be exemplified by the Liverpool ‘courts’ families (Auckland Metropolitan Planning
(mainly back–to–back and basement Organisation, 1951). This net housing
dwellings) of the early nineteenth century, shortage was attributed to the fact that “we
which reached a net residential density of have few if any examples of satisfactorily and
Introduction 9
comprehensively designed housing schemes local planners to instil what they consider to be
other than those incorporating single unit essential urban qualities into the amorphous
house development for three or more urban mass of Auckland, only to be repeatedly
persons”, resulting in “a large percentage of rebuffed by an at best apathetic, and at worst
the area being developed for streets with antipathetic, public and its elected
monotonous similarity in the form of representatives. After a half–century of
development.” Thus, from the time of the first reiterating the advantages of vibrant urban and
attempts to develop comprehensive town suburban centres, and of variety and flexibility
planning guidelines for Auckland’s projected in living environments made possible through
growth, it has been recognised that “all types residential intensification, the recent inclusion
of residential development have their place in of the Residential 8 Zone (Strategic Growth
a large modern urban structure…” (Auckland Management Areas) in the Auckland City
Metropolitan Planning Organisation, 1951). District Plan is receiving a predictable public
response. This time, however, the familiar
6 Further extracts from this document include: promotion of “sustainable urban
environments which provide opportunities for
“Residential development will be
medium to high density housing within
closely related to the availability and
walking distance of town centres…” coincides
most efficient use of public services
with an increase in the status of urban design.
and facilities…”
All members of the local building culture—
“The urban and suburban commercial clients, developers, planners, designers,
centres will contain the most widely builders and managers—are currently
used services. Therefore the higher espousing the added–value of design, and the
residential densities will be located publication of The Residential Design Guide
near these centres where services may for Developments in Residential Zones in
be most conveniently obtained.” Strategic Growth Management Areas
(Auckland City Council, 2001), is a well–
“Residential development will be
timed and executed addition to the Council’s
diversified to provide for a wide range
range of persuasive powers.
of different kinds of housing and
physical groupings to meet the varying “The Residential Design Guide is a
needs of the community.” statement of what is considered to be
good urban design practice…
“A greater variety of housing is
(and)…has been introduced to promote
needed…”
and encourage well designed
“The provision of this greater variety residential developments within
will result in land savings, due to the SGMAs.”
consequent increase in overall
Auckland City Council, 2001
density…”
The focus of SGMAs is generally beyond the
“The variety of housing needed can be levels of density covered in this study. The
met with predominantly low rise acknowledgement that “design quality, rather
construction (i.e. up to 4 storeys.)” than density, is the predominant factor in
Auckland Regional Authority, 1967 maintaining amenity for both residents of a
development and its neighbours” (Auckland
7 A clear pattern may be seen to emerge from City Council, 2001) has, however,
the above synopsis: of repeated attempts by fundamental significance.
2
Literature
Review
LITERATURE REVIEW design a solution that overcomes all

these trade–offs.”
The literature review in this section is
selective, and is summarised on a country Auckland Regional Council, 2000a p21
by country basis. The material covered The report to the Christchurch City
includes social studies, design literature, Council entitled The Effects of Infill
and policy publications. Housing on Neighbours in Christchurch
(Vallance, Perkins and Moore, 2002)
New Zealand generally confirms the widely–held atti-
tude of the New Zealand public to medium
Medium density housing is a product of the
density housing. Statements reflect much
strategic planning policies in place in most
of the social research in the field:
New Zealand cities, and in the Auckland
region particularly, to contain future popu- “Over two-thirds also believed that
lation growth in an intensified urban form. infill housing would bring social
Recent research relevant to this report problems later.” (p5)
includes studies conducted by the
Auckland Regional Council.
1 “...figures imply that peri-urban, low
density development is still the
There is evidence from these studies that a popular choice …” (p9)
perception of impending ‘slums’ is normal
in public attitudes, and that the most effec- “...consolidated urban living is not
tive process for intensification involves presenting them [residents of
housing development on a reasonably large medium density housing] with any
scale to ‘provide a sense of community for benefits …” (p43)
residents’ (Auckland Regional Council, Vallance, Perkins and Moore, 2002
2000a p12).
The Briefing Paper to the Auckland
After recognising the universal problem of Regional Council Forum on Affordable
assembling sites for larger developments, Housing (Portal Consulting, 2000) identi-
the Auckland Regional Council’s urban fies the principal demographic trends in
design review goes on to identify the stan- New Zealand as far as they affect the issue
dard lot dimensions in Auckland (based on of affordability. These include the growth
the 55m x 18m quarter acre section) as one of sole–parent families, which tend “to be
of the impediments to higher density devel- embedded within an extended family
2
opment. household”, rather than independent
“A further barrier to good design is households, the trend in Auckland towards
that in many cases rules and proce- middle–class couples delaying family
dures developed for traditional low formation, and the impact of Asian immi-
3
density housing are now being gration during the 1990s.
applied to medium density The quality of the built environment in
developments.” medium density housing is discussed in the
and context of the large-scale development at
Ambrico Place, in New Lynn, in “Urban
“...intensive developments involve a Intensification in Auckland, New Zealand:
number of trade–offs. The developer A Challenge for New Urbanism” (Dixon &
wants density, the neighbour wants Dupuis, 2003). This study is a rare example
privacy, the resident wants a good of social and physical planning research
view and aspect, while the commu- conducted in the field. The paper considers
nity wants a good relationship to the the relationship of the strategic planning
street. It is not always possible to systems that provide the legislative
framework for medium density housing, selection along with good practice for site
and the social and community effects, in a layout design, using examples from the
study of approximately one-fifth of the history of urban housing to reinforce the
Ambrico Place households. principles discussed.
The characteristics of occupancy of The New Zealand literature reviewed also
medium density housing (high levels of includes reference to regular features on
tenanted property, and relatively high medium density housing in the general
percentages of recent immigrant families) print media, particularly the New Zealand
are confirmed in this study. In the area of Herald, the Dominion Post, and the
physical planning it comments on the Christchurch Press newspapers, and maga-
impact of New Urbanism in this housing zines such as Metro and North & South.
typology. These publications normally engage expert
opinion in their feature articles.
In broad terms, the development is
regarded as a success by its residents: Contributions to the debate in the print
media frequently take the form of detailed,
“There were high levels of satisfac-
edited summaries of reports of Council
tion with privacy, with almost all
deliberations on changes to development
respondents saying that privacy was
policy, for instance, the Report to the
important to them and more than
Auckland City Council on proposed Resi-
four-fifths reporting that their indoor
dential 8 Zone changes. In others, public
space was private.”
concerns about ‘slums’, ‘ghettos’, and
Dixon & Dupuis, 2003 similar supposed consequences of intensi-
fication are discussed.
The residents were more critical, however,
of the planning process, which did not Typical of such journalism is the feature
make public the whole strategy for the article “Security Issues” by Bob Dey
development of the scheme. (Metro, May 2003), in part a discussion of
the trend towards gated communities, and
The Ambrico Place development is the by the same journalist, “Dense City: The
subject of four case studies in Section 5 of Incredible Shrinking Section”, (Metro,
this report: numbers 7, 8, 29, and 32, and is November 2003), reviewing declining lot
described further in Endnotes to Section 4. sizes in Manukau City. Useful insights and
The Auckland Regional Affordable comment are often found in this material;
Housing Strategy (Regional Growth for instance, reservations felt by developers
Forum, 2003) emphasises the need for about the three storey townhouse model
affordable higher density housing to which in one project has been modified (by
achieve high standards of design, to raising the rear patio level to the first floor)
achieve integration in neighbourhoods, and to enable direct access to the space for
to be responsive to cultural and age–related barbeque use, to suit social habits.
issues, avoiding at the same time the penal- The impact of views expressed in news-
ties associated with higher building costs, paper and magazine journalism is consid-
which can affect security of settlement. ered to have significant influence on public
An important factor in the typology is the attitudes to intensification.
choice of house type, and its relationship to
layout. At different densities this decision Australia
becomes a critical indicator of the residen-
tial environment. The HNZC Housing Medium density housing is a common
Design Guide (undated), published for form of urban housing in Australia. Litera-
internal use, deals with house type ture from 1975 to the present has
documented the evolution of the typology Designed for Urban Living includes 21
in detail. Professional journals also feature case studies from all the principal Austra-
medium density housing developments at lian urban centres, illustrating develop-
regular intervals. ments that represent good practice in the
period up to 1993, at densities ranging
Medium Density Housing in Australia from 20dph to 67dph.
(Judd & Dean, 1983) is a general descrip-
tion of the typology; parts of this text The study Medium Density Housing 1990
present the case for medium density (Victorian Department of Planning and
housing as a solution to urban housing in Urban Growth, 1990) includes nine exam-
general (Newman, in Judd & Dean, 1983 ples of lower density range developments,
p68); others discuss the process of develop- none over 26dph, and all drawn from the
ment, effective management systems, and private housing sector; coverage of
practical house types for the genre. consumer and neighbourhood attitudes is
valuable, however. The objective in this
This comprehensive study includes a study was to address the issues of declining
summary by John Byrne of medium interest in Melbourne in medium density
density housing in the public sector, based housing as a choice for buyers and devel-
on experience in South Australia. Byrne’s opers. Included in the recommendations
comments on the public sector deal with are recognition of the potential of the
the social, economic, and political issues, typology in terms of sustainability, and
as well as design, which needs to “give affordability.
rental housing some of the external trap-
Site Planning in Australia (King, Rudder,
pings of owner–occupied housing, such as
Prasad and Ballinger, 1996) is a compre-
territorial control, some freedom to person-
hensive summary of good housing layout
alise, and indeed the ability to purchase.”
planning principles with sustainability,
He observes that:
urban design, and higher density housing
“The narrower the (street) frontage, as a focus. The text relates to housing
the better the yield, but potentially design in the Commonwealth of Australia
the greater the problems of noise (rather than a particular State) which has,
interaction and privacy invasion.” for more than a decade, been controlled by
the Australian Model for Residential
Byrne, in Judd & Dean 1983 p99 Development (AMCORD), published in
4
1990, 1992, and revised in 1995.
Five detailed case study examples are used
to illustrate public sector housing at densi- Following the Victorian Code for Urban
ties between 26 and 83 dph (dwellings per Residential Design (Victoria Department
hectare). of Planning and Housing, 1992) more
recent publications refer to the above texts
A second Australian review, Designed for as primary sources for medium density
Urban Living (Judd, 1993) extended the housing design. These include the New
relevant design area to include environ- South Wales Urban Design Advisory
mental issues, ecologically sustainable Service handbooks Better Urban Living
design, and a section dealing with commu- (1998), Residential Densities (1998), Resi-
nity attitudes. Judd identifies key design dential Flat Design Pattern Book (2001),
issues as follows: urban and neighbour- and the Residential Flat Design Code
hood design; environmental fit; pedestrian (2002), between them providing the plat-
access and way–finding; vehicular access form for all new medium and higher
and parking; identity; privacy; security; density development in Sydney,
dwelling layout; climate control and Woolongong, and other urban centres in
energy conservation; and marketability. New South Wales. Evolution of an urban
housing typology in Melbourne and well designed medium density

Sydney has seen a shift to densities higher housing for low/medium income
than those in the range considered in this families and (that) in the private
report. In other cities (Adelaide, Brisbane, sector.”
and Perth) low rise housing at medium
density continues to be the preferred form. The paper recognises the fundamentals of
medium density housing set out in Judd
In the development of higher density 1993, and reviews the principal issues of
housing, generally apartments, new regula- parking, internal spatial design and fitting
tions do not recognise density in any of the out, security and privacy, as well as devel-
AMCORD definitions as a primary development process and building costs, adding
opment control tool. Rather, use is made of references to the Melbourne study Medium
Floor Space Ratios and a building envelope Density Housing under the Good Design
device (described as a “three dimensional Guide (King, 1999), and others. The study
zone that limits the extent of building in confirms that medium density housing was
any direction”) to “inform decisions about defined in earlier research and writings
appropriate density for a site and its with relatively minor adjustments neces-
context.” Building envelopes, height, sary for current applications.
depth, separation, and side and rear
setbacks are of equal importance in the North America
design and control process to the Floor
Space Ratio. The focus of the New South Since 1990, housing design in North
Wales Residential Flat Design Code, in America has acknowledged the parallel
particular, is on the urban design issues needs of containing ‘sprawl’, for economic
relating to development, and has applica- and environmental reasons, and the chal-
tions in the New Zealand context for the lenge faced by US cities to achieve higher
Residential 8 Zone category of the standards of urban design, in a “search for
Auckland City Council’s planning meaning in our physical environment”
document. (Fader, 2000 p2). Density has been at the
core of the debate about city form since
Two further texts are significant contribu- Stein, Mumford, and others, writing in the
tors to the literature: The Medium Density 1930s, and Jacobs (1961) began a critique
Housing Kit (Marcus & Sarkissian, 1983) of urban and suburban development and
and Housing as if People Mattered (Marcus the consequent deterioration/decline of the
& Sarkissian, 1986). Both extend the detail quality of urban life.
of design advice in the area, with emphasis
on children, domesticity, site planning, Literature is diverse and regional, with a
parking, and landscaping. current emphasis on defeating suburban
sprawl, and with the most valuable contri-
In addition, the paper entitled “Trends and butions tending to be aligned to New
Strategies in the Design of Medium Urbanism. Privatisation philosophies have
Density Urban Housing” (Radford & lead to a broad literature of critiques of the
Sarris, 2003), extracted from the Final standards of housing, particularly for
Report to AHURI (Southern) on the subsidised accommodation (Garreau,
subject of affordable medium density 1991; Plunz & Sheriden, 1999, etc.).
housing solutions for Adelaide, refers to
literature dating from 1983–1993 (covered Density by Design (Fader, 2000) is the
above) as the primary research in the field second publication by the Urban Land
5
in Australia. The paper concludes: Institute of America under this title. Fader
identifies the issue of ‘urban liveability’ as
“There is essentially little difference a key element in urban housing, seeking
in the design of built form between typologies that reverse the trend in the US
of fortress–like gated developments, and developments density is often much higher

that re–engage the street. The selected than the density levels of concern to this
examples used in this study “highlight report.
emerging quantitative standards for the
basic building blocks of housing and Of numerous recent publications, three are
community development: for example, lot selected here for their relevance to the
sizes, setback standards, street and alley study.
dimensions, and parking ratios.” Housing Design Quality through Policy,
In a discussion of layout design, Fader Guidance and Review (Carmona, 2001) is a
advocates rear access systems, against detailed examination of control mecha-
what are acknowledged to be additional nisms and their effects on the housing
costs, for the street-side advantage to process. The book is divided into three
parking and walkability. The study also sections, of which the second deals with
deals with mixed housing, pointing to innovations in the control process in rela-
successful developments where “inte- tion to design guides, which are commonly
grating varying market segments within used in the United Kingdom. Relevance to
small neighbourhood units (single block or the development of medium density
street, for example)” is a traditional urban housing in New Zealand lies primarily in
pattern that can continue to work in new the comparisons that can be made with the
schemes. land–use policies outlined in Appendix A.
The book represents the broad theories of Housing Design in Practice (Colquhoun &
6
the New Urbanist movement. ‘New Fauset, 1991) is a broad–based compen-
Urbanism’ is a planning and urban design dium of all aspects of housing design,
theory that emerged in the 1980s. The including references to Australian (p146)
movement has become a major influence in and New Zealand (p148) examples. The
the planning of new communities, and in book is a detailed and illustrated study of
urban regeneration, through the work of housing in Western Europe and North
Calthorpe, Duany, and others. New America, summarising twentieth century
Urbanism is endorsed by federal agencies advances in design at all levels of density. It
such as the US Department of Housing, and establishes the principle that building form
is adopted as the preferred design approach (of housing) is the determining factor in the
by the Urban Land Institute of America and development of urban quality.
many real estate organisations and State
housing authorities. The authors recognise that social and
cultural differences have a fundamental
United Kingdom impact on choices relating to housing
density, impacts that are illustrated by
Housing in the United Kingdom has been comparisons between the numerous coun-
developed at higher densities for many tries studied. In their analysis of residential
years: speculative housing in the private planning, the authors deal with detailed
sector is normally built at between 25 and strategies: for instance, of the relationship
30 dph in wholly suburban locations. Plan- of density to cost (p175), density to car
ning controls are operated in a highly regu- parking (p173), and options for layout
7
lated environment in comparison with New design (p180–193, and p237). Also
Zealand. Medium density housing gener- considered and discussed is the relation-
ally refers to urban public housing, or ship between increased densities (and the
developments carried out by the various consequential increase in development
privately managed, state–supported agen- cost), which is balanced for developers by
cies such as Housing Associations. In these decreasing site acquisition costs per unit.
In addition, the RIBA Book of 20th Century identity. The foundations of design theory
British Housing (Colquhoun, 2000), which in this area have been clarified by the influ-
includes a general summary of current ential writings of Oscar Newman,
housing finance methods in the United Rapaport, Chermayeff, and Habraken,
Kingdom, provides a useful catalogue of (dating from the 1960s, and not covered in
the achievements and processes of housing this review) dealing with the notion of
in the United Kingdom. territoriality, and of public and private
space, and continue to attract the attention
The value of housing design and layout
of contemporary theorists by contributing
(Commission for Architecture and the
to the critique rather than solutions in
Built Environment, 2003) is a report which
practice.
considers alternative layout and house type
designs in an environment where the Of the studies in detailed site planning and
Government’s policies require the private internal design in medium density housing,
housing sector to increase residential the British publications are comprehen-
densities.8 sive, founded on experience in practice,
After establishing the principle of density and have relevance to conditions in New
as a governing factor, the report also Zealand, if modified by culture, lifestyle,
develops a methodology for assessing the building practice, and climate.
relationship of density to value. It Current published material in the United
concludes that increased density of devel- Kingdom confirms the continuation of a
opment, if designed with skill and care, can strongly traditional orientation in housing
both improve development margins and design, including medium density housing.
urban living environments, and maintain The widespread preference (public, institu-
values in the marketplace. A critical tional, and political) for traditional design
threshold, at 30 dph, is identified as the is reinforced by conservation–based plan-
point at which high design standards ning controls, particularly affecting the
become an essential factor in the devel- inner urban areas most likely to be selected
oper’s calculation of density and value. 9
for redevelopment. Affordable housing is
Car ownership levels are assumed by plan- generally supplied through rental housing
ning directives and providers of housing to offered by Local Authorities and Housing
be acceptable at levels lower than those Associations.
applied in New Zealand, particularly in The review of North American practice and
larger cities, affecting both layout design literature is abbreviated by the apparent
and density. Differences between housing shortage of relevant material, although
in the private and the public sectors are there is a considerable quantity of case
identifiable by location, by external form, 10
study data. It is not thought that solutions
including the cost of facing materials, and in the North American context contribute
by differing standards of maintenance in significantly to a better understanding of
the public spaces of the site. medium density housing in New Zealand
conditions, and it is noted that, apart from
Summary and Conclusions relatively recent texts inspired by the Smart
Growth and New Urbanist movements,
A consistent feature of the literature is the neither of which relate directly to low cost
agreement that the term ‘medium density housing design, no distinct body of litera-
housing’ is characterised by complexity, ture on medium density housing appears to
and particularity of location and context. In have emerged in the USA.
the literature, density is at once a quantifi-
able ratio and a condition of quality in The Australian experience is directly rele-
design relating to privacy, security, and vant to New Zealand, though it requires
conversion of building systems, design densities than ‘medium’ density housing as

traditions, and is based on a more prescrip- defined in this report, and reliant on a
tive regulatory system. There is a large and building form that introduces common
well–regarded body of literature dating internal spaces, underground parking, and
from housing developments in the 1970s detachment from ground level access for a
and 1980s, including numerous case high proportion of units. In the most
study–based texts. This literature has common form this housing is between four
informed the evolution of the typology, and and five storeys in height, has been defined
combined with a generally more prescrip- by the most recent literature emanating
tive planning regime, and the use and appli- from the Department of Urban Affairs and
11
cation of Design Guides, has contributed Planning in New South Wales, and affects
significantly to a good quality standard in all market sectors.
the genre. Regrettably, and probably due to The four and five storey block form is now
the same prescriptive system, the diversity the prevailing form for higher density
of style seen in New Zealand is not a char- housing up to 140 dph in Sydney,
acteristic of medium density developments Melbourne, and, on a smaller scale, Bris-
in Australia. Newer urban housing appears bane. In other Australian cities where
to be shifting towards a different model population growth is lower, e.g. Adelaide,
characterised by significantly higher there are fewer examples.
ENDNOTES
(Housing New Zealand Corporation, 2002b)

1 These reports are summarised in Building a both contribute at the level of house planning
Better Future: Intensification Review– and detail, to the process of developing better
Summary of Research Findings (Auckland models, particularly but not exclusively for
Regional Council, 2000a) covering the issues Maori and Pacific Island families. Neither
of housing choice, preference, and report addresses the issue of housing at higher
demographic profiles most likely to be densities, or the medium density typology.
affected by higher density development
policy; community attitudes to it, with case 3 The paper concludes with the observation that
studies prominent in the methodology; an demographic changes are driven by
urban design review in which the impacts of compositional change (ethnicity), and
intensification on the traditional residential suggests that declining immigration will
environments of Auckland are assessed, and reduce simple growth–driven change. The
an analysis of the implications for the ‘shift–shares’, rather than numerical
Regional Growth Strategy. population growth, it is predicted, will affect
The reports taken together record the household demographics, and impact more
expectation that: directly on affordability.
“Higher density housing (has) fewer Figures used in this paper are based on the
people per dwelling reflecting the fact 1996 census; it is noted that other indicators
that higher density residents are more and current Statistics New Zealand figures do
likely to be younger, single and not fully align with the Portal summary.
without children” Some of the same issues of anticipated social
and that change are addressed in the paper entitled
“House and Home and their interaction with
“There is a common perception changes in New Zealand’s urban system,
amongst neighbours that medium households and family structures” (Perkins &
density housing attracts ‘transient’ Thorns; 1999). This analysis of demographic
people who are renting and who will change acknowledges increases in smaller
move frequently. The view is not households and the impacts of lifestyle
supported by the evidence.” choices in a discussion of the nature of place–
Auckland Regional Council. 2000a, making and suburban values in New Zealand.
p11
4 The AMCORD document, in three parts,
2 The urban design review of this research includes definitions for density,
recommends that developers should recommending the use of three terms, ‘site
collaborate with the city councils and the density’, ‘net dwelling density’, and ‘gross
Auckland Regional Council to promote dwelling density’ to describe different
innovative ‘best practice’ intensive housing conditions. AMCORD covers all aspects of
design and construction practice (Auckland urban housing, dealing with the principles of
Regional Council, 2000c p 31); this should design for traffic, site selection and layout.
involve comprehensive integrated design
codes with a focus on the encouragement of 5 The first edition (Wentling, 1988) is a source
sustainable living environments, in accord quoted in Australian literature.
with more recent policy statements from all
four councils in the Region (Auckland 6 The North American movement followed a
Regional Council, 2000c p21). revival of interest in classical origins of
The research studies from the Auckland architecture begun in Europe a decade earlier
Regional Council’s “Building a Better Future” by Leon Krier, John Simpson and others: this
programme do not deal in design detail except may be regarded as an extreme reaction to the
at the urban level: the emphasis is on social inadequacies of modernism, which, until this
attitudes and levels of acceptance, and intervention, had been the unchallenged
business and political decision–making. design reference for all but a tiny minority of
housing schemes, particularly those that
Ki Te Hau Kainga, New Perspectives on aimed to establish medium density housing as
Maori Housing Solutions, (Housing New a housing typology.
Zealand Corporation, 2002a), and the Pacific
Housing Design Guide: Guidelines for As an alternative to modernism, classical ar-
Designing Pacific Housing Solutions chitecture is unlikely to have any relevance to
higher density housing design in New Zea- floor, or split between the two floors? It
land, but two well regarded developments is generally considered that a split …
based on New Urbanism have been carried out (is) … the most inconvenient
in Sydney. A mixed scheme of low rise me- arrangement. … (the type) particularly
dium density housing combined with a group creates difficulties with … washing,
of 15 storey apartment blocks, at Raleigh Park, control of small children, and the
is the best known development in the genre; disposal of rubbish”
the Oatlands development (case study 18) Colquhoun & Fauset, 1991 p284
draws on some New Urbanist ideas for layout
design, and achieves variety of house type, 8 In case studies, the CABE research team
unit value, and a variable density across the established findings relevant to this study, as
site. The example in New Zealand nearest to follows:
New Urbanist design principles is the Harbour
View development in Te Atatu (case studies 1, (i) evidence from research indicates that
14, and 16). These developments have a den- there is no penalty attaching to higher
sity of around 40 dph, except Gunner Drive density for developers;
(case study 14). (ii) good design becomes critical above a
density threshold of 30dph;
A key strategy of New Urbanist theory is a
systematic, structured, and inclusionary meth- (iii) development values will be retained or
odology for the process of planning new de- improved at higher densities if design
velopments, involving the community techniques are sophisticated;
affected by a sequence of workshop (iv) extra development costs of higher
'charrettes' to establish a sense of ownership in density can be recovered by better unit
the generation of new (usually higher density) values if design improvements are made.
proposals. A frequent objective, based in the
movement's theory, has been to mix housing 9 In other contexts, design choices are
tenure in larger projects without making phys- constrained by prescriptive planning systems
ical or spatial distinctions between social or and design guides, such as the Essex Design
economic groups: various design and housing Guide (Stones, 1997), now extensively used as
management techniques are used to achieve a model for design in all southern areas of the
this, as: United Kingdom. These design guides are
“Some of the units are for-sale, some effective in so far as they ensure compliance
rental, some market rate, and some with good practice via prescriptive planning
subsidized housing, but the market regimes; they are co–ordinated with nationally
segments are not segregated one from directed practices for road and traffic design,
the other. In this case (Crawford heritage policies and locally drawn District
Square, Pittsburgh) the key to success Plans.
was that no visual distinctions were
made in the housing designs to signal 10 The issue of affordable urban housing appears
the type of housing tenure: a rental to be resolved by continuing use of the various
townhouse looks like a for-sale established mechanisms of low rent private
townhouse. Further, within the pool of sector, of varying quality, and very high
rental units, subsidized units are density social housing ‘projects’, with small,
rotated periodically, preventing any one–off developments, often of good quality
stigma from being attached to specific and architectural standard and at relatively
units.” high density, providing the most relevant
models. The latter variations most frequently
Fader, 2000 p13 take the form of apartment blocks with low
parking provision.
7 The merits and constraints of all multi–storey
house types are outlined in Chapter 7; 11 It is relevant to emphasise the point that
comments on three storey houses with integral following the moves to consolidate city form,
garages, for instance, include the following: higher density housing in two and three storey
“… is a housing form that has never layouts is undoubtedly successful in a large
been entirely popular in Britain. It is number of developments to be seen in
mainly used in urban areas where high Australian cities, a standard achieved through
density is necessary … The problem the influence of comprehensive studies
relates to the distribution of rooms— researched and published in the period
should all the living accommodation be between 1978 and 1993.
located on the ground floor or the first
3
A New Zealand
Definition of
Medium Density
Housing
A NEW ZEALAND DEFINITION OF The extended definition that generally

MEDIUM DENSITY HOUSING embraces examples in Britain and
Australia would suggest that the following
Introduction characteristics are also relevant:
Ground level entry from a public
This section discusses medium density
space
housing in the New Zealand context, in
A dwelling type with private
order to define the typology in contempo-
external space within the
rary urban residential conditions.
‘curtilage’, or territorial boundary
Density is discussed in this section, firstly, of ownership
as a system of measurement that references A dwelling type with direct or close
dwelling units to a given area of land, and proximity to secure parking
secondly, as a factor that influences percep- Separate legal title, including ‘unit
tions of privacy. title’ ownership.
To form a definition of medium density The word ‘curtilage’ is used in the British
housing in the New Zealand context it is literature to describe the territorial limits of
also relevant to address the issues of partic- identifiable private ownership of a property
ular concern to developers and designers: within a larger housing development. Sepa-
security, car parking, and architectural ration of titles is also a New Zealand pref-
style. erence. House types that may be included
are detached, attached or terraced, and
Density apartments in low rise blocks.
According to the Australian Model Code
The most common definition of medium for Residential Development (AMCORD),
density housing in current use in New density is:
Zealand is:
A measure of population or the
Housing at densities of more than number of dwellings per unit of
150m2/unit and less than 350m2/unit, or area;
30–66 dwellings per hectare (dph). This A measure of the form of the built
definition is used by the majority of City environment; and
Councils and the Housing New Zealand A measure of development
Corporation. potential.
Australian literature further defines the The AMCORD documents use the term
typology as “small lot subdivision, or ‘density’ to refer to a ratio describing the
multi–unit development, ... (with the char- relationship of a given number of house-
acteristics of) ‘attached, no lifts’” (Victo- hold units to an area of land. They refer to
rian Department of Planning and Urban “many different ways in which this rela-
Growth, 1990 p1), and as “horizontally tionship can be expressed” (AMCORD,
attached dwellings which… rarely exceed 1992a pp16–17), recommending three
three stories above the ground with indi- principal definitions, of which the term and
vidual access and private open space at or definition ‘site density’ is most relevant to
near ground level ...” (Judd, 1993 p8). this report.
A recurring feature of the literature The four City Councils in the Auckland
defining medium density housing is the Region, Housing New Zealand Corpora-
view that the concept of ‘density’, and the tion, and both Wellington and Christchurch
nature of ‘medium density housing’, have City Councils operate a density range on
no universal or standard application. the basis of site areas of 150m2–350m2 for
medium density housing, without using (b) density is a human perception,

absolute or pre–determined rules to govern usually of a sense of ‘crowding’, and
housing development. This practice is typi- therefore a highly variable factor in
fied by Waitakere City Council, which housing design;
applies an ‘effects–based’ process to deci-
sion–making on medium density housing It is also the case that in the analysis of built
proposals. The Auckland Regional Council housing developments, density is usually
the first point of reference in forming bases
identifies “residential intensification as
for comparisons: an ‘after the event’ posi-
developments with a net site density of
tion is created by a density calculation,
500m2 or less”, medium density at 350m2
2 even where density is not a significant
or less, and higher density at 200m or less
factor in the design. While other factors
(Auckland Regional Council, 2000 p 31).
affect the quality of outcome, a density
The practice in Britain is to define develop- calculation on some recognised basis is
ment capacity, using density as a mecha- necessary for valid comparisons to be
nism alongside other factors, in suburban made, and comparisons that do not use a
locations, with other controls relating to density indicator can function only in terms
form and site coverage in others. The of their nominated criteria (for instance,
CABE report (2003) takes a different landscaping, building type or detail, enclo-
stance, embracing the developer’s perspec- sure systems, etc.).
tive, in defining site area as the area of land To enable this comparison to be made, this
that is required for a given development report will use a simple net site area basis
(which may include significant public of calculation. This aligns with the first
works). AMCORD definition, excludes areas
Australian planning systems recognise that external to the site (public roads, reserves,
a density definition relevant to Brisbane or railway lines, and other open space) but
Darwin is different from one applicable to includes public areas within the boundary
inner suburbs in Sydney and Melbourne, of the land predominantly occupied by the
and consequently ‘density’ as a planning housing itself.
tool is not a sole arbiter of the design
process. The technique of applying a Floor Density and Privacy
Space Ratio (FAR) or a Floor Space Index
(FSI) is commonly used in development Studies have established that density and
control in central and local urban areas in privacy are interdependent and that
preference to density. achieving acceptable standards of privacy
is a key issue in the design of socially
As a method of setting maximum develop- successful higher density housing.
ment limitations, density is therefore used
In his seminal study “Towards a redefini-
as a reference or guide rather than a precise
tion of density”, Rapaport discusses the
measurement regulator, or a control mech-
nature of ‘density’ in terms of perceptions
anism that provides certainty of outcome.1
of crowding, and the socially complex
Most recent references to the concept of issue of privacy.
density confirm the relevance of two
“It is essential to consider in detail,
general points:
and to a high degree of specificity,
(a) density is not a useful mechanism for the relationship of given socio–
determining quality in residential cultural groups to traditional density
design because other factors in figures, the relationship of a partic-
various combinations impact on the ular area to the larger context, … the
outcome. detailed layout and design of the
setting in terms of privacy, .. the windows and doors, construct a passive

social rules available and used, and surveillance environment that discourages
so on…” intruders.
Rapaport, 1975 p153 As Judd says:
The connections between density and “.. criminal behaviour is related to
privacy are further analysed in the basic broader social problems and their
Australian text, Medium Density Housing geographic distribution rather than
2
in Australia (Judd & Dean, 1983), and in housing type or density per se,
Judd’s later text Designed for Urban Living medium density housing .. (has
(Judd, 1993), which notes that: tended to be) .. concentrated in mid
to inner–suburban areas or on public
“One important way of enabling housing estates, which often have
control over privacy is to provide a higher rates of burglary and personal
clearly defined hierarchy of public, crime.”
semi–private, and private outdoor
spaces which discourages intrusion Judd, 1993 p30
by outsiders and provides necessary
buffer space between dwellings and Advocates of Smart Growth in the USA
associated common access routes identify security amongst the three highest
(quoted from Marcus and Sarkissian, priorities in their intensification agendas.
1986 p39). The greater degree of Judd makes reference to the issue of ‘Secu-
control that can be given to residents rity’ related to Oscar Newman’s theory of
as to how their private territory is ‘defensible space’ which has direct rele-
defined and personalised, the greater vance to site layout design: such spaces
the likelihood that privacy will be should be “assigned to specific groups of
optimised. residents” and “good territorial definition
can help to enhance identity … and
In … housing of two or more storeys, contribute to relieving social conflict
overlooking of the private open space between residents.” (Newman’s work is
of adjacent dwellings from upper open to criticism for over–emphasis on
level rooms represents one of the “design solutions to crime”, and has
most common privacy problems.” limited application to a New Zealand defi-
nition for its focus on North American
Judd, 1993 p30
social housing, in which security and
control are more severe difficulties.)
Security and Privacy
Defensible space is thus an abstract term
Security (or its absence) has been an issue that describes a relationship of private and
associated with medium density housing public domains in perceived, as well as
since the term came into common use, but spatial, senses. There is some evidence
with little evidence to support the view that from the case studies that in pursuit of a
higher density housing generally, or well–lighted ‘defensible’ (in the sense of
medium density housing as a typology is ‘secure’) common area, the developer’s
either less safe or more susceptible to crime determination to remove the possibility of
than other housing types. It is typologically concealment results in barren, uncomfort-
characteristic that greater concentration of able spaces that also discourage
building, and proximity of public open communality. In other projects, where
space can create anonymity (and therefore security is in the form of a physical barrier,
lessen the possibility of intruders being such as a controlled entry gate, there is a
noticed) and equally, by placement of sense that anyone seen ‘inside the fence’ is
probably entitled to be there, obviating the space, and traffic in a mixed environment
3
value of passive or casual surveillance. (Colquhoun and Fauset, 1991). One of the
In so far as design solutions can achieve more successful examples in Australia
good security in an undefined community, (Moverly Green, Coogee, Sydney; not used
the ability of owners to view their car is as a case study) achieves an acceptable
significant, even when the car itself is also level of safety with narrow drives and
protected by an alarm system. As in other without footpaths.
housing forms, high standards of security In the New Zealand context the parking
fittings to doors and window openings, and issue also reflects differences between the
electronic intruder alarm systems, are a main urban centres: Auckland has a road–
normal specification in New Zealand’s
based transportation system and the typi-
medium density housing schemes.
cally car–oriented culture of a low density
city, with lower levels of use of public
Car Parking and Storage
transport than Wellington or Christchurch.
Restricted parking and storage space for In addition, climatic differences, particu-
privately owned vehicles is inherent in the larly Auckland’s high rainfall, encourage
typology of medium density housing, planning that locates the car in close prox-
representing one of the most significant imity to the house.
differences between it, and lower density Medium density housing has developed in
suburban housing. The loss of security of a other countries with localised variations
vehicle parked ‘not within the curtilage’, for parking and traffic design, usually with
and consequent loss of amenity less car dependency than observed in the
compounds the difference.
case studies included in this report.
From the literature, and the case studies
(Section 5), it is apparent that standards of External Style
parking provisions vary, reflecting a
dilemma at the heart of medium density Speculative housing development has a
layout design. Minimum ratios are required long history of modifying and adapting
through District Plans but are commonly existing architectural styles to meet
exceeded by developers, particularly in the perceptions of market preferences. The
private sector. The desire to increase both speculative industry also takes a cautious
proximity and total parking provision is approach to all aspects of housing develop-
evident in examples from all countries, and
ment, including architectural expression or
at all densities.
image, preferring a tried and trusted model
The vehicular environment has a dominant before an innovative one as a matter of
role in many examples of the typology. course. Investors as well as developers are
Low speed internal roadways are regarded risk averse, placing high value on
as preferable, with reduced street widths achieving the optimum density for the
also possible if measures are taken to perceived market, on minimising construc-
ensure pedestrian safety, (King, Rudder, tion costs, and on street or ‘kerb’ appeal.
4
Prasad and Ballinger, 1996 p66), and a

maximum of 30 houses are served by the Comment in the literature consistently
road. The Dutch Woonerven system (a refers to the need for affordable housing to
‘residential precinct’, in which pedestrian be indistinguishable from other housing. In
priority is assumed), although designed for particular, rental housing in the public
urban regeneration developments, sets a sector should be as similar as possible to
relevant standard for medium density private sector housing in the same
housing by combining landscaping, public neighbourhood.
With regard to design style, this study design ‘school’: Beaumont Quarter (case
recognises that New Zealand architecture study 26) is an example.
in medium density housing cannot be fully
A complete catalogue of stylistic influ-
represented by examples selected entirely
ences is beyond the scope of this report, but
from the Auckland region; other cities have
a short summary of the principal variations
developed models in the typology that add is considered useful.
significantly to the body of relevant work.
Within the limited range of examples, and The Arawa Road project (case study 10) is
geography, of this study, the developments arguably the closest design to a recognis-
illustrated therefore provide a partial but able New Zealand architecture, by form,
not complete picture of the issue of simplicity, lack of self–conscious expres-
external design. sion or reference to a foreign vernacular,
and choice of materials.
Most of the case studies in this report illus-
trate architectural forms that reflect Some of the larger developments in West
commonly held ideas of domestic building. Auckland illustrate the high degree of
Both developers and the public seem design licence possible in the typology. At
prepared to accept imported domestic the Corban Village development (case
vernacular architecture in some form, with study 4) each sub–section of the layout is
European influences most widely used. architecturally distinctive, including the
following: undecorated modernist exter-
Styles vary widely. The architectural nally plastered three storey houses differ-
variety contributes to the strategy, widely entiated by colour, with no particular
adopted, and regarded as critical to theme; two storey Breton terraced cottages
success, that seeks to disguise the differ- with quoins, window architraves and
ences between medium density housing reveals, and parapets at the party walls;
and lower density suburban housing. traditional Dutch decorated curved gables
Medium density housing is generically a and party wall profiles; and a group of Art
repetitive typology: stylistic variation Deco houses with streamlined curved
within a general theme (‘Spanish colonial’, corner windows, again using colours of the
‘French rural’, etc.) conceals repetition by style to distinguish one unit from another.
allowing building detail to be read, by use The Harbour View development exhibits,
of colour to differentiate one house from amongst other styles, many variations
the next, and by variation in form, reducing based on the Spanish Colonial style, (eg.
perceptions of mass. In the best schemes Gunner Drive, case study 14), as do St
the perception of anonymity in the ‘mass’ Georges Road (case study 12), Sacramento
of a large development is replaced by clear (case studies 17 and 27), and several of the
identity of the parts, and the single unit North Shore schemes. Others explore
within the part. A greater mix of dwelling vernacular architecture from England
types is also a perception (but not always (Melview Place, case study 8), Italy,
the reality) generated by stylistic varia- (Tuscany Towers, case study 7) or draw on
tions.5 late modernism to express complexity,
Stylistic variation occurs across all the variety, and difference (Romola Street,
layout classifications: this study found no case study 6, and Beaumont Quarter, case
apparent correlation between style and study 24).
density band, or style and market sector. In spite of the great variety of style there is
More expensive facing materials tend to be little sense of ‘theme park’ architecture in
used in the higher priced developments, these developments, and a strong sense of
which in some cases has led to an architec- free market choice. Medium density
tural style associated with a particular housing design in Australia has not
generally experimented in a comparable practice in medium density housing. This

way, preferring traditional, less exuberant section serves as a platform for the
residential styles that understate rather than following case studies which provide a
celebrate diversity. more detailed review of contemporary
6
medium density housing in New Zealand.
Summary
This section examined key design issues

based on relevant literature and current
ENDNOTES
1 In the light of the debate regarding the contemporary use of domestic space, often
usefulness or otherwise of ‘density’ as an including work from home room(s), storage
indicator, and the numerous differently for recreational equipment, and with up to date
defined bases for calculation, it is hardly services for electronic uses as well as
surprising that inconsistencies occur in the bathrooms and kitchen. A thirty year old
literature when density figures are used in house originally built for a modest market
comparisons. For instance, the Auckland price will frequently be more cheaply replaced
Regional Council publication Urban Area than modified to meet current lifestyle
Intensification (Auckland Regional Council, requirements.
2000e) referring to the AMCORD ‘net In the process, the opportunity to change the
residential density’ term, lists and illustrates architectural style is usually taken. For this to
several projects of apparent relevance to this be possible, the house itself has to be
study but states density figures that place them physically and architecturally independent of
outside the range of 30–60dph.Using the it neighbours. In medium density housing this
AMCORD methodology and revised independent condition is not usually possible.
calculations, most of these schemes do in fact For medium density housing to be part of the
coincide with the density range considered same housing market in which rapid
here. redevelopment is a regular market activity,
different, and stylistically indeterminate
2 In a chapter entitled “Concepts of Privacy”, models may need to be evolved. This tentative
Darroch refers to Altman’s six definitions of conclusion may lead to two other issues
privacy, of which two are quoted here: relevant in the New Zealand context:
“1) privacy is essentially a matter of (a) the custom in New Zealand society of
person/environment transactions, that constant do–it–yourself alteration of the
is, it is a dialectic or dynamic system— home;
it is not a static event or state;
(b) the development of a separate housing
2) complete definitions of privacy need type (medium density housing) which does
to take account of the critical role of not lend itself to alteration, either because
‘control’ in the understanding of of inflexible design, or because of the
privacy.” controls imposed by a management
Altman, 1975 (quoted by Darroch, in structure representing community
Judd & Dean, 1983) ownership.
In the process of identifying a design model
3 New housing developments in many countries for the New Zealand context, both of these
including New Zealand reflect this concern, issues may need further consideration.
opting for auto–gated compounds, (as in case
studies 13 and 24), electronic alarm systems 5 In these circumstances the extreme variety of
fitted during construction, and/or heavily external design in medium density housing in
defended ground floor openings, and New Zealand is a phenomenon for which
sometimes upper floors also. There is several explanations are offered:
evidence that insurers, having met a claim,
(i) The generic single storey, suburban
will demand higher specifications for locks, detached house is not adaptable to higher
doors, and alarm installations, as a condition densities; a different type of building has to
of re–insurance. be generated to meet the typological
requirement of medium density housing;
4 At the same time, novelty is often welcome in
the marketing process. In some instances, (ii) There is a pronounced need to
including the development of medium density distinguish between developments, in
housing, design is architecturally order to establish identity, both for the
buyers and residents, and for the
experimental, evidenced by contemporary
developers;
housing design in New Zealand.
(iii) Stylistic definition can establish
There is an increasingly common pattern of certainty of product for investors and
suburban re–development in North American funding institutions;
and Australian cities, where houses are
demolished after 25 years, to be replaced with (iv) Cost estimating, adjusted to the new
a ‘new model’, usually much larger, with a product, can be consistent and accurate;
different plan configuration reflecting
(v) A broadly open-minded, or modern- mon. Many schemes included in this review
minded public encourages more rather are affected by the problem, since the cheapest
than less experiment with external style cladding system able to gain approval from the
than the industry offers; this is in contrast central and local building authorities is attrac-
to the conservative styles seen in the same tive to developers. The monolithic systems
market in the United Kingdom, and is align readily with the stylistic preferences of
paralleled by design in Australia; developers and the buying public: various
‘European’ styles in particular the ‘Mediterra-
(vi) Evolution of the notion that housing is a
nean’ styles rely on some form of stucco-like
commodity governed by the same market
rules that apply to other commodities: finish to the external walls, and other details
housing is less short term (as a personal that suit dry hot climates.
investment) than other domestic The Building Research Association of New
‘durables’, but still a commodity Zealand (BRANZ) issued appraisal Certifi-
possession. cates for numerous proprietary cladding and
finishing systems of this type after 1994; the
6 The house building industry has been affected Building Industry Authority (BIA) accepted
by the problem called ‘leaky buildings’ since untreated timber for external and internal con-
2001 when the consequences of construction struction in 1997. The period of development
using monolithic plastered cladding systems of most medium density housing in New Zea-
fixed to untreated timber framing were first land has been subsequent to both these dates,
detected. The movement of framing timber af- thus affecting much of the housing built.
ter construction, often due to shrinkage fol-
lowing drying out, causes cracking in the The ‘leaky building’ issue is local to the New
external wall surface allowing water to enter Zealand building industry, and is considered
the cavity within the wall. If the wall has been to be a technical matter relating to construc-
built without the means by which such water tion rather than a systemic issue in medium
can drain from the cavity the untreated fram- density housing. It is, however, associated
ing starts to rot, leading, eventually to struc- with this housing type in the press, and there-
tural failure of the wall. This failure may occur fore in public perceptions of higher density
in a short period: a few months is not uncom- housing in general.
4
Case Studies:
Methodology
and Criteria
CASE STUDIES: METHODOLOGY Methodology

AND CRITERIA
A methodology to select and critique
Introduction examples was developed from Australian
and British models, some of which are
This case study examines contemporary referred to in previous sections.
medium density housing with particular
reference to the relationship of density to British literature makes frequent use of the
amenity, internal and external space stan- term ‘curtilage’, distinguishing between
dards, and access to the private car. ‘within’ the territorial boundary of a prop-
erty (curtilage), and ‘not within’ the
It is acknowledged in the literature and curtilage, specifically in relation to car
amongst design professionals in housing storage and parking. To construct a basis
that as density increases, compromises for valid comparisons different site layout
affecting the quality of the residential envi- types have been classified, following this
ronment accumulate. model, to recognise the distinctions
Density is considered to be a performance between layout amenity to householders in
indicator in all ‘after the event’ analyses of terms of car access. The methodology
housing developments. In New Zealand, as separates, therefore, layout types by vehic-
elsewhere, the proximity of the private car ular proximity, to acknowledge the
(and its security) is regarded as a secondary amenity factors of security, and access in
performance indicator, for reasons outlined use; and in the New Zealand context, to
in Sections 2 and 3. Site layouts that acknowledge the local influence of
provide similar car access validate compar- climate.
isons between schemes at different levels The layout classifications are defined as:
of density.
Type 1: front access to the house, with
House types are also directly affected by the car internally garaged within the
the density scale, reducing options for house type, or provided with a
frontage widths, access, aspect, and carport or parking space within the
internal planning as density is increased. property boundary.
The analysis therefore aims to evaluate Type 2: rear access to the house;
New Zealand examples, to: secure parking, as defined in Type 1.
In New Zealand’s relatively informal
(i) track the pattern of compromise as it
society rear access is a common
occurs for different levels of density
habit: the ‘back’ door does not
and layout types;
represent a high level of social
(ii) identify changes in the quality in the familiarity.
residential standards achieved,
Type 3: front or rear access with the
referring to internal planning and
car parked outside the property
external space standards, for
boundary: called, for convenience,
different levels of density and layout
‘remote’ parking, and including car
types;
parking adjacent to the house in a
(iii) record and establish a database of space controlled, and possibly
quantifiable evidence to represent owned, by the unit but also
key aspects of each scheme relative accessible from a public area and
to density; and, therefore not secure.
(iv) assess the physical environment of Type 4: layouts dependent on the three
medium density housing relative to storey house type with internal
lower density housing. garaging.
Site Selection ‘medium’ density (30–66 dph) were

included to provide comparisons.
Initially, 60 examples were listed for (v) Value: a significant variable
consideration, including schemes reviewed observed, described in the data chart
in other studies, without reference to layout as a ‘market level’, was seen to
type or density where known. Sites consid- impact on design options. This has
ered included composite or hybrid layouts, been recorded as a factor influencing
often combining Types 1 and 4. There are layout design, in some instances
few ‘pure’ examples of Type 2 in the indicating an explanation for the
Auckland region (where all the New choice made.
Zealand examples are located).
(vi) Affordability: a general preference is
Two storey house types dominate in the expressed for private sector
density range studied, with the three storey developments at low and middle
elevated living area house type used in ‘market levels’, in response to the
some examples; this option is considered focus in this report on affordable
sufficiently common for the case study housing. Public sector schemes are
selection to include a small number of also reviewed, for comparisons.
examples for comparisons. From the orig- (vii) Quality of environment: schemes
inal list of 60 schemes, further criteria were were selected primarily to illustrate
established to identify representative the critical relationship of density to
schemes covering the principal layout layout, rather than perceptions of
1
types. residential quality. The quality of the
(i) Size: schemes of less than nineteen environment achieved is determined
units were discounted: in smaller by density conditioned by other
projects it was considered that choices made in the scheme
variables of shape of site, location, including house types, facing
and layout to density characteristics materials, landscaping, utility and
increase significantly, and affect servicing design, and the provision
validity of comparisons. Case studies of public open space.
6, 15, 16 and 31 are included to (viii) Management: the existence and
illustrate a particular layout effectiveness of Body Corporate
characteristic, although smaller than management schemes affects many
the preferred lower limit. of the developments reviewed;
(ii) Schemes of interest for reasons of selection has not excluded such
layout type or density, with resource schemes, permitting gated examples
consents granted but not yet built, to be included for comparison of
were included: Holly Street, layout types.
Avondale (case study 22), and Mt The final list yielded 34 examples,
Taylor Drive, Glendowie (case study including four Australian schemes,
12). drawing on the Australian experience in the
(iii) Schemes previously included in typology. It would be misleading to suggest
other studies are generally excluded, that these developments are representative
with the exception of Arawa Street, of the average standards achieved in
New Lynn (case study 10), and part Australia, because they are not. They do,
of the Sacramento development, East however, demonstrate achievable stan-
Tamaki (case studies 17 and 27). dards, and are selected as examples at two
(iv) Density: schemes at densities higher different density levels, under 40dph (in the
and lower than the range identified as lower range) and above 60dph at the high
end of the medium density range. These
four developments illustrate established, details of the main house types used in each
well–regarded, and high quality housing in development. From a pilot exercise it was
which market performance has paralleled found that this data yielded sufficient mate-
or exceeded similar developments. rial to quantify density, total floor space,
floor area ratios (FAR), site coverage foot-
Location print, parking ratios, and to identify house
types as percentages of totals. The pilot
Excluding the Australian examples, half of study also revealed that small variations—
the case studies are drawn from Waitakere where extra but numerically insignificant
City. This is partly due to time limitations variations such as modified end unit plans
on the report, and to the ease of access to occurred—had little effect on density or
data (and the lower costs of retrieving data) the FAR, and were therefore not quantified
in the Waitakere City Council procedure. in the assembled database.
The process of selection also took into
account the medium density housing study All schemes selected were visited and
carried out four years ago by the Auckland photographed. The methodology used
Regional Council (2000c), which docu- included scanning scale drawings to
mented nine projects, including four on the provide data by digitally isolating built and
North Shore, only one of which (Coroglen) non–built areas, road areas, public open
is located in West Auckland. space, and private gardens and patios. Site
areas given in City Council records, or
A further justification for the use of West taken from dimensions and bearings on
Auckland examples lies in the perception survey drawings were checked by this
that many, perhaps the majority, of medium method where a simple arithmetic check
density housing projects in Waitakere are suggested the possibility of error, or where
set at a low or medium point in the market site areas given did not align with the
scale, and therefore gain relevance to a preferred base data for density calculation.
study focusing on this typology as an
affordable housing proposition. Topographical Criteria
Multi-development Sites Since severe slopes tend to distort other

factors, developments have been selected,
Three of the West Auckland examples as far as possible, to be comparable, with
(Ambrico Place, Corban Village, and flat or near flat sites taking priority. Where
Harbour View) are large sites that have slope is significant to the layout design a
been parcelled into smaller sites to attract note is made in the accompanying descrip-
commercial development: from the over- tion, but is not otherwise indicated on the
view of the study, it seems that few thumbnail plan.
commercial house builders are prepared to
take on a single project of more than 100 Value and House Types
units. These three larger developments
have yielded eight examples between them, From site observations and, in some cases,
providing opportunities for useful compar- local real estate enquiries, an assessment
isons of different layout and house type was made of market position. House types
options, within a single location, and to are described and discussed in the notes
some extent, market.2,3 with each case study to establish a generic
relationship between house type and layout
Methodology classification. This is necessary to elimi-
nate—as far as possible—disadvantage to
The methodology involved visiting very low–cost schemes and to identify
Council offices to obtain scale plans and high–cost schemes, and is recorded as an
approximate indicator of market value in although infrequent, may have to be toler-

column 19 of the data chart, on a scale from ated as an annual event, as they are, in less
1 (low market) to 5 (high market). The concentrated forms, in the suburbs.
number given on this scale is not quanti- In larger developments, with few roadside
fied, but is generated by knowledge of the entrances and collection points, the street
original property sale price, where known, impact of scores of bins, and the difficulty
or by the developer’s expectation of sale of identification, is very considerable.
prices, estimated by building detail and
location. The purpose of the scale is there- In other schemes where development has
fore to indicate the market ‘intention’, been carried out behind houses on an
which is regarded as a relevant item of existing road frontage, kerb–side collec-
information in the assessment of the tions are sometimes seen to cause unac-
quality of the environment achieved rela- ceptable weekly conditions for those
tive to levels of density and layout type. houses. A minimum requirement for back–
land sites should be a ‘compound’ roofed
Refuse Collection enclosure, with subdivisions to avoid an
excessive agglomeration of bags, located
Refuse collection is referred to in the litera- behind the front property boundary and
ture as a significant factor in determining screened from the street. For soft collection
the acceptability of higher density housing. systems based on polythene refuse sacks a
It is apparent that some developers take maximum number of units served should
care with this matter, and others do not. An be established if roadside (not internal)
unregulated refuse system, in some cases, collection is necessary. This number
severely undermines the development’s should not be more than ten.
potential, damages the locality beyond the
site itself, and supplies a strong argument Washing/drying Arrangements
to reinforce public prejudices against
increased densities. In the best schemes the Site visits were conducted in good weather
process of refuse storage and collection is in June and July 2004. Observations
virtually invisible. confirmed that external clothes–drying is a
common preference but not always a
Kerb–side collection from individual prop- straightforward option for householders. In
erties is the preferred option for a high some instances ad hoc clothes drying
quality residential environment. Storage of arrangements occupied front gardens,
refuse inside the unit curtilage needs to be using various semi–permanent lines some-
planned carefully for reasons of hygiene times fixed under balconies, while retract-
and practicality in the functioning of the able lines and collapsible racks are
household, in the best examples taking the common. Such arrangements reflect the
form of an external enclosure with an small, and often shadowed rear external
external route to the collection point. spaces (case studies 10, 13, and 24 provide
Building roads to ‘adoptable’ Local some examples).
Authority standards is expensive in Open air clothes drying is also a long–
construction costs and in site space at standing tradition in New Zealand house-
higher densities, and in some cases is not a holds, and should be provided for wherever
practical option for reasons of access. possible in all housing with ground level
Many of the schemes visited have a refuse access to private open space. Site planning
enclosure at the site entrance where refuse to ensure even small rear yards with orien-
is deposited by residents, a workable and tation to allow some solar access is
hygienic solution up to a maximum of possible up to approximately 60–70 dph,
about 25–30 houses. Inorganic collections, and at higher density levels if the
development incorporates underground

car–parking.
The case study commentaries discuss other
factors that affect the overall quality of the
residential environment including manage-
ment by body corporates, where relevant,
and communal facilities, where provided
4
by the developer.
ENDNOTES
1 The Tuscany Way site (case study 16) forms from the developer for associated infrastruc-
the southern boundary of the Edgelea block of ture costs, but the bond payment took the form
43 houses. The block is one model for of security against certificates of title on un-
greenfield medium density housing, planned sold houses in the scheme. The Waitakere City
as a perimeter of outward facing (front access) Council was not the first mortgagee on the ti-
linked, or detached houses enclosing two tles, effectively making the bond a debt to the
garage courts serving rear accessed units not Council alongside other unsecured creditors.
Mr P Brown, Waitakere City Council Re-
source Management and Buildings Service
manager said the arrangement at Tuscany
Towers was unusual, in that neither a cash
bond nor a bank guarantee was required from
the developer. Because medium density, in
this case on a large scheme of 97 units, nor-
mally cannot avoid unit titles (rather than the
standard sub-division freehold title) the devel-
oper’s contribution cannot be ‘staged’ across
the financing of the project in smaller incre-
ments; the cost of a long–serviced bank guar-
antee is high for the developer, who is
dependent on sales and contract completions
over a longer period than normal in suburban
sub–division developments.
The Edgelea block site plan
It would seem that in this instance, in order to
located on the block perimeter, in this case a encourage the development (as a landmark
courtyard type. A small semi-private ‘pocket’ medium density project, amongst the earliest
park with no vehicular access but accessible to in West Auckland) the Waitakere City Coun-
emergency traffic is defined by the frontages cil took a step back from their usual bond re-
of eighteen units occupying the core of the quirements (Western Leader, Thursday 1 Nov
block in three separate developments. 2001 p1 (Tuscany Towers, New Lynn)
“Caught in Collapse”).
A similar hybrid layout is used in the Oatlands
development (case study 18), with a similar 4 It is noted that some Body Corporate
intention: to provide variation in house type, management schemes in higher density
price range, and to gain density. developments ban external clothes drying,
requiring occupiers to use only tumble dryers.
2 Ambrico Place, New Lynn. The Ambrico The same restriction is applied in some
Place development occupies land previously medium density developments, to protect
used for industry, including a brickworks external appearance from the domestic
serving the local district of New Lynn; the site intrusion of washing. At densities between
has been re–built since 1996 as the first larger 30dph and 66dph these restrictions are not
scale medium density housing in Waitakere necessary, although at the upper end of the
City. The development now consists of ap- band, as case studies show, private open space
proximately 350 houses. There have been nine becomes increasingly difficult to achieve.
separate developers involved, all except two
using architects for the layout design.
Each parcel is different in architectural style
and there are significant differences in layout
principles, and in relational possibilities, that
are reflected in varying densities (see case
studies 25 and 29). Three of the Ambrico
Place developments have used the narrow
frontage dual aspect three-storey townhouse
plan form. One of these is reviewed (case
study 29).
3 Tuscany Towers (case study 7): Waitakere

City Council required a bond of $485,000
5
Case Studies
Case Study Conventions Case Study Data
Each site is illustrated with a thumbnail On the data table (p77), case studies are
sketch plan showing the distribution and numbered and named in the left hand
orientation of buildings, the spaces columns. Columns 1 and 2 list basic data
between them, and the organisation of describing development size, with other
roads, access and parking. Where relevant data for date and place in columns
communal or public open spaces are 17 and 18. Column 20, groups schemes
significant the area is indicated by a diag- according to the four layout classifications
employed in this study (see p32). Where a
onal line. In some instances the sketch
scheme uses more than one layout type, the
plans are simplified to clarify the layout
secondary type is indicated in brackets in
type; the authors acknowledge a small
column 20.
degree of injustice to the designers in such
cases. Columns 3 and 4 then arrange the schemes
in ascending order of density within the
Case studies are presented with the layout type. Integral garages are included
following conventions: in the unit floor areas where they occur.
(i) Sketch plans are diagrammatic, to Parking: the total parking provision is
illustrate the scale and form of the given as a ratio of car spaces per unit,
scheme, with North point to the top including visitor and casual parking. In
of the sketch. The plans are not to a some instances there are variations
given scale. between approved plans and the develop-
(ii) A summary of statistics is included ment ‘as built’, resulting in under-sized
with each study. parking spaces in front of garage doors:
(iii) Architects are credited, where where this has been noted from site visits,
known. the under-sized space is not counted in the
(iv) Case studies 13, 15 and 28 are total. Columns 12–16 all quantify other
Housing New Zealand Corporation aspects of the parking and vehicular access
owned developments. arrangements.
(vi) Case studies are presented in The Floor Area Ratio (FAR) (column 5)
ascending order of density in each indicates the density of the development as
layout type; a ratio of total floor space to site area. The
(vii) Case studies 25, 26 and 28 use figure generally rises with increasing
underground garage parking, density, reflecting increasing footprint, and
indicated on the sketch plans by a balances or off–sets the variations in unit
broken line. sizes.
Where possible, the schemes reviewed Exceptional or non–standard figures are
have been selected in groups to minimise noted as follows:
the effects of differences between loca- (i) Tuscany Towers, column 6: 2.44*,
tions, particularly Glendowie (3 schemes), and column 13: 143**: figures
Botany Downs (3), and Ambrico Place, include three storey units with four
New Lynn. The numerous candidates or five parking spaces available in a
around central Auckland were reduced to lower ground floor garage/
one, Beaumont Quarter, to avoid higher– workshop, slightly raising the total
end examples that may benefit from a parking ratio for the development.
developer’s willingness to invest more in (ii) Tuscany Towers, column 8: includes
building costs in anticipation of higher the large lower ground floor in the
returns or faster sales. total site footprint.
Case Studies 41
(iii) Sacramento 1A, column 9: excludes environment and house unit, and by
carport roofs; as with similar perceptions of personal territorial
schemes (case study 24, etc). ownership.
7. method of, and arrangements for,
Case Study Evaluation collection of refuse.
The criteria that determine the quality of The case studies selected display some
the residential environment in New characteristics typical of the typology in
Zealand's medium density housing devel- relation to more than one of these summa-
opments are identified and discussed in the rised criteria. Each study is therefore
preceding sections. Although the relation- accompanied by a table of seven sections
ships between the criteria are complex, and corresponding to the criteria listed above,
vary between developments according to indicating positive, negative and neutral
specific factors, including site topography resolutions of the relevant issue.
and shape, and marketing intentions, the
principal criteria are identified as: Glossary
1. quality of the public environment Terminology or abbreviations used for

within the development, defined by convenience in the case study analysis and
function, landscaping, and the data chart include:
maintenance.
Dph: dwellings per hectare; also
2. quality of, and provision for private abbreviated in the literature as
open space defined by convenience ‘dpha’, ‘DpHa’, and ‘Du/Ha’. See
of access, privacy, and capacity for Section 4, defining density for a
extended domestic uses, including fuller explanation of the term.
out-door meals, washing, children's
FAR: Floor Area Ratio: also referred to
play area, and recreational gardening
elsewhere as Floor Space Index
activities.
(FSI), Floor Area Index (FAI); used
3. standard of privacy achieved, here as the reference for the total
defined by overlooking and by floor space built as a ratio of the total
perceptions of crowdedness. site area.
4. standard of private vehicle parking Parking ratio: the ratio of total car parking
achieved, defined by convenience of provision to the number of dwellings
proximity and access. in the development: where the ratio
5. standard of identity achieved, figure is less than 2, there are fewer
defined by perceptions of than 2 car parking spaces per
individuality within the whole dwelling in the overall development.
development.
6. standard of security achieved in the
detailed design of the physical
(1) VINOGRAD MEWS, HARBOUR VIEW,

WAITAKERE CITY
Vinograd Mews is a small development of nineteen houses

at a density of 33dph. This development employs terraced
housing but with compromised amenity in comparison
with traditional suburban housing. In this instance the site
itself is also a challenging shape.
Street frontage is an important requirement in the Harbour
View strategy, and is used to advantage in this layout. Two
storey units with integral garages address the street with
small set–backs and vehicle crossings at over–frequent
intervals: however, the street is positively defined, and
without domination by garage doors due to the recessed
plan detail.
To retain the highest possible density, the core of the site is
planned with the balance of units permitted, causing a
sense of crowding.
The ‘Z’ plan unit with a cross wall dimension of 9.7m and
an overall length of nearly 15.0m is not an efficient house
type for this purpose. Internally the planning makes
considerable effort to avoid habitable rooms on both sides
of party walls (built in 200mm concrete blockwork) at both
floor levels. Other details suggest further problems with an
unfamiliar house type: the third bedroom on the ground
floor has to have a separate bathroom, not located
practically for use as a ground floor toilet; upper floors are
windowless on the back, to reduce overlooking and satisfy
height to boundary regulations, making the rear elevation a
featureless wall; and a TV position under the stair cannot
be viewed by any practical arrangement of living room
furniture.
These compromises are reflected in the site planning, in
which the density achieved is not justified by the crowded
environment of the space between the houses. The scheme
illustrates many of the issues confronted by designers
working in the medium density housing field.
Architect: Grant Neill
open open
space space refuse
(public) (private) privacy parking identity security collection
- - +
average
parking total site unit area density 1: density 2: density 3:
2 2 2
no units ratio area (m ) (m ) m /unit dph FAR
19 2.20 5,742 179 302 33 .59

Case Studies 43
(2) ADELPHI VILLAS, EAST TAMAKI,

MANUKAU CITY
For reasons of typicality this project is included to repre-

sent a housing form that minimises the value of public
space in order to gain density and private garden area.
There are numerous developments of about this size and
type in New Zealand: at this density (two storey housing in
semi–detached units, 37 dph and a FAR of 0.52), the type
has become a standard product in the market.
The quality of the residential environment is necessarily
compromised in this layout type, a factor most apparent in
the service access. Garage doors dominate, property
boundaries are indicated by concrete strips set into the
(otherwise uniform) tarmac surface, planting is insignifi-
cant, and security measures are the dominant feature in
detailing. Parking occupies all available space adjacent to
the internal road, its appearance made more unsightly by
an irregular arrangement which conveys an impression of
haphazard use, lacking ownership or organisation. Refuse
is collected from an enclosure (not roofed) at the site
entrance, fronted by letter boxes.
Overlooking remains a problem in spite of attempts in the
planning of the site to protect privacy. The elevation to the
distributor road to the north of the site presents a wholly
suburban identity.
Architect: Alan Rolston Residential
open open
space space refuse
- -
average
2 2 2
30 2.30 8,135 142 271 37 0.52

(3) SEYMOUR ROAD, SUNNYVALE,

WAITAKERE CITY
The development occupies land not previously built on,

close to the Manui rail stop and the Parrs Park recreation
area in West Auckland. The layout is a hybrid, with the
majority of units either detached or linked detached
sharing only the party wall between garages, and front
access, dual aspect houses. This contributes to a density of
37 dph, a level at the lower end of the medium density
range. The internal road is a public street in a compacted
version of a traditional suburban layout. The development
loses most of the benefits of suburban layout design
without gain in any area. As a residential environment, this
approach has little to recommend it. No public open space
has been included, perhaps reflecting the amenities close to
the site. The scheme makes no concessions to recent good
practice in higher density design, or to New Urbanist
theory, or to the potential of urban housing to contribute
lively neighbourhoods as part of the intensification
process. A landscaping scheme, designed by Sinclair
Knight Mentz, which would improve the quality of this
development, has not been implemented.
The development has been built to attract investors in
rental property, providing an explanation for the variety of
separate house types used. To ensure market diversity a
small group of thirteen units has been arranged around a
rear access garage court, locally increasing density and
introducing a variation on the otherwise comprehensively
suburban theme.
The scheme is included in this study to provide evidence of
the need to recognise the difference between suburban (in
the Auckland and New Zealand traditions) and medium
density housing design. A compacted version of low
density housing, such as this, cannot achieve the poten-
tially excellent residential environments of either suburbia
or medium density housing.
Architect: Fuller Design
open open
space space refuse
- - + - +
average
2 2 2
89 2.08 24,600 118 273 37 0.43

Case Studies 45
(4) CORBAN VILLAGE, HENDERSON,

WAITAKERE CITY
The layout is based on two separate design principles: a

front entry type using two and three storey house types,
and rear entry predominantly with two storey house types,
and, due to adjoining public open space, no provision for
internal communal areas. The plan includes an adopted
road which provides service access and refuse collection.
All units have one secure car space, and the majority have a
second space within view from the house.
The whole development was packaged into approximately
six developments, evidenced by architectural variety that
removes any sense of uniformity or repetition, best illus-
trated in the central (rear access) group served by a private
access driveway. In this group the north–south orientation
raises the question of the inactive entrance on the south
side where recessed ‘front’doors are not in use in all cases.
Terraced three storey townhouse types as built on the
north–western boundary are not as articulated in plan as
indicated on the original drawings, but succeed in
enclosing this edge of the development and retain a lively
street elevation. The same three storey type used in short
terraces north of the internal road are detached from the
rest of the development by their own paved forecourts.
Although the house type is justified by a south–facing
slope on this site, it also generates a tarmac and car–domi-
nated environment at ground level, excessively so at this
density.
Overall, the development illustrates the quality of a resi-
dential urban environment possible at this density without
sacrificing access to and security of the car.
Architect: Various
open open
space space refuse
+ +
average
2 2 2
83 2.20 20,686 249 40

(5) FAIRHAVEN, GLEN EDEN, WAITAKERE

CITY
This scheme was started in 1999, and is now being

completed with 98 units. The layout design is comparable
to Seymour Road (case study 3), and the Corban Village
(case study 4) development.
Density depends on the use of 26 three storey townhouse
units on the perimeter of the site. These have a ground floor
room behind the garage, accessed, in this variant, by a
corridor alongside the stair leading to living accommoda-
tion on the first floor. A narrow plan is further expressed by
dividing the front elevation into two, giving a strong
vertical emphasis.
The core of the site, of two storey dual aspect units, is
developed around a public loop road providing access for
refuse collection and other services, similar to two
previous schemes. Two small areas adjoining the road
provide public open spaces, including a play area, at the
lowest levels on the site, next to a stream. Back to back
dimensions are minimal for the house type, leading to a
rear garden environment of a heavily fenced and enclosed
warren of private spaces where overlooking is a significant
issue.
Short terraces of three units have been used to maximise
side access to rear gardens, and to increase the number of
‘end’ units, seen by the market to have higher value. The
market, in this case, is likely to be sales to investors, a
factor that generally deters the dense planting which would
be necessary to both improve the public side of the devel-
opment and reduce over looking in the private garden
spaces.
Architect: Harrison Grierson Consultants
open open
space space refuse
- - + - +
average
2 2 2
98 2.30 24,728 141 252 40 .56

Case Studies 47
(6) ROMOLA STREET, GLENDOWIE,

AUCKLAND CITY
This small development is part of the regeneration of the

Madelaine Avenue area of Glendowie, where new residen-
tial property is replacing dilapidated housing stock and at
the same time lifting density levels. (See also Mt Taylor
Drive—case study 11). The project stands at the top of the
market value scale in this study.
The site plan illustrates two relevant points:
(a) an architectural intention to propose higher density
housing without loss of a modern tradition to treat each
building as an object of design quality in its own right;
(b) the extreme reduction of space outside the separated
houses, a consequence of pursuing a market goal of
building detached houses, and planning the development at
this density.
Two pairs of houses, shown as attached in the plans, also
appear to have been built as single units. All the buildings
are strongly articulated by form and by facing materials
used, to such a degree that the site plan sketch is highly
simplified. Access is from private culs de sac serving up to
five units, dimensionally minimal so that the shared access
function is only possible if rigorous discipline in use is
maintained; power steering, and medium size rather than
large cars are necessary.
Internal planning of the houses is conventional and also
reflects new domestic uses of space by layout and spatial
diversity. The total average floor area, including the
2
garages, at 176m indicates a relatively large unit size. The
FAR is 0.73, also a high figure for this layout type, contrib-
uting to perceptions of a crowded plan. Privacy between
house units is inevitably very poor, particularly between
external private spaces, and upper floor rooms look
directly into opposite units. At this density a different
layout type would resolve these and the access problems,
but would not permit a detached unit design.
Architect: Powley Architects
open open
space space refuse
- - +
average
2 2 2
13 2.10 3,140 176 242 41 0.73

(7) TUSCANY TOWERS, AMBRICO PLACE, NEW

LYNN, WAITAKERE CITY
Tuscany Towers was the first and largest stage of the devel-
opment in Ambrico Place. The scheme of 97 units includes
a tennis court and a public ‘square’/community space,
marked by a tower, which also houses the communal tele-
vision aerial. The internal streets are also public spaces,
providing extra non–allocated parking: the public domain
is thus represented at several hierarchical levels. The
public areas are included in the density calculation.
The architecture is uniformly ‘tuscan–suburban’,
including details of ornament, colour palette, and varia-
tions of height forming a coherent, consistent, and knowl-
edgeable example of the genre. The majority of houses are
two storey three bedroom terraced units with garages
accessed internally, the layout and the street articulated by
three storey four bedroom houses at corners and junctions,
using a plan form that provides accommodation at ground
floor level for living or business use.
A storey–height step inherited from former use of the site
on the east site boundary introduces a third variation of
larger units on a platform over a four car garage, offering
live/work options to some residents. Access to these units
from street level is via an ornate tiled stair shared by two
adjacent houses, and also from the external public road by
a second ‘front’ door.
The development aims at a high standard of urban public
space, reinforced by controlled rather than abundant land-
scaping, careful detailing of paths, fences and walls, and
achieves good standards of privacy between units. The
layout also achieves a high level of car proximity and secu-
rity; consequently, the urban environment is vehicle–
oriented rather than pedestrian–oriented and in this respect
simulates suburban models.
These are standards of amenity that are possible at this
density level, and progressively more difficult to maintain
at higher points in the density range for this layout type.
Architect: not known
open open
space space refuse
+ + - +
average
2 2 2
97 2.44* 23,017 130* 237 42 0.61

Case Studies 49
(8) MELVIEW, AMBRICO PLACE, NEW LYNN,

WAITAKERE CITY
This variation is the only semi–courtyard house type

included in the survey, and one of the few recent develop-
ments of the type in the Auckland region. The layout
design involves agreement from the controlling Territorial
Authority to a high FAR, in this case calculated as 1.0, and
use of a house type generally considered to be expensive
for medium density housing, in this case a wide–frontage
two or three bedroom unit with a double garage connected
to it. In this description there is a clear implication of an
experimental type. Diagonal cross–over garden walls
divide rear gardens, and blank rear walls to the garages
form the ends of the small courtyard gardens which are
also accessible through the house. Essentially, a single
storey design has been used, with two ‘attic’ bedrooms to
reduce roofline heights for minimum back to back
dimensions.
The design identifies by materials and scale with the brick
and tile suburban model bungalow, with an attached
garage.
On the public side the ‘mews’ access ways are shared by
six dwellings, one more than would currently be permitted
under regulations in another part of the Auckland region.
Planting in these accessways succeeds in softening the
otherwise entirely hard surface. The minimised vehicular
space requires disciplined use by residents.
The design achieves a high level of security and privacy—
there is minimal overlooking between units, or into units
from the public side—and consequently little contribution
to the sense of community in the neighbourhood. At a
density of 44dph, however, the layout achieves a higher
standard of privacy than most comparable schemes.
Comparisons can be made with Rowena Crescent (case
study 15).
The high standard of private open space achieved by the
courtyard house type is severely affected by a later devel-
opment on an adjoining site, illustrated in the bottom
photograph, underlining the need for co–ordination of the
whole site strategy from an early stage if higher density
housing is to be successful.
open open
space space refuse
- + +
average
2 2 2
22 2.18 2,768 126 227 44 1.00

(9) ALBION VALE, SUNNYVALE, WAITAKERE

CITY
The majority of units in this scheme are two storey three

bedroom houses in terraced or detached type, with front
access and attached garages. In this layout (see also
Seymour Road, case study 3) the influence of the devel-
oper’s interest in building for investment is apparent, repre-
sented by the variety of detached, semi–detached, and
short terraces built. The scheme is included in the survey to
illustrate the impact this variety can have on the resulting
environment. Overall site density is increased by the inclu-
sion of a three storey, narrow fronted, dual aspect house
type. This interrupts and varies the street terrace and forms
a larger block at the entrance to the site. Numerous mate-
rials are used, including metal sheet, board and batten,
plaster finishes, and facing brick. Details of shutters,
screens and entrances introduce variety to the street eleva-
tions. This diversity is reinforced by the site planning,
which, unusually in this typology, uses curved roads to
avoid repetitive and tedious views.
Seven two storey detached houses with remote parking in
carports opposite, and space between the units of less than
1.5m, add a further option to the investment market.
The site plan includes two small pocket parks towards the
north end of the site, a better solution to space necessary
for light and privacy distances between buildings than
privately owned back gardens, which are minimised. The
development is not close to shopping or transport other
than bus routes, but is adjacent to the West Auckland
Marae, and the major public recreation space in the district.
The high parking ratio may be partly explained by the
location.
open open
space space refuse
- +
average
2 2 2
94 2.23 20,800 115 221 45 0.52

Case Studies 51
(10) ARAWA STREET, NEW LYNN, WAITAKERE

CITY
The development is one of the early new generation

medium density housing schemes in West Auckland, made
possible by the assembly of under–used land at the rear of
several properties fronting onto Arawa Street. Medium
density classification is justified by proximity to New Lynn
and the Fruitvale rail station, to which it is linked by a foot-
path at the bottom of the rail embankment on the southern
edge of the site. Proposals to double up the western rail link
and increase rail traffic will affect the quiet environment of
this development in the future.
3m wide driveways in and out of the site operate on a strict
one–way basis. Most units have good orientation, good
access and parking, and a reasonable outlook. The layout is
compromised by the tapered shape of the site at the west
end, reducing the space the road needs clear of building,
and also by the decision to provide a second exit at the east
end. This compresses the site area available for four north
facing units, resulting in private space on the south side
that is unacceptably small at 1.5m wide, and overshad-
owed. Carports behind this group reduce natural light to
kitchen windows (which could have been placed on the
gable walls) and front gardens tend to be dominated by
washing lines. Bagged refuse is collected from the road-
side at the exits onto Arawa Street. The refuse bags form an
unsightly weekly event at the site entrance, and affect the
outlook from other properties on the street. This significant
design flaw could have been avoided by provision of a
boxed compound at each exit.
A slightly smaller development of seventeen units at a
density of 41dph, and a better site services solution would
have relieved most of the problems, in an otherwise
pleasant, quiet residential environment.
All units are clad in timber products and thus avoid associ-
ation with ‘leaky building’ external finishes; one recent re–
sale suggests that invested values are in line with other
property values in the area, and not stigmatised by the type
of house offered.
Architect: Insite Architecture
open open
space space refuse
- + -
average
2 2 2
19 1.70 4,168 112 219 46 0.51

(11) OATES ROAD, GLEN EDEN, WAITAKERE

CITY
The density at 51dph and a FAR of 0.55 places the layout in

the middle of the density range, and at a high point for the
layout type. This is partly due to the regular shape and
dimensions of the site, and partly to the use of a hybridised
layout design resolving the main street frontage access to
seven units by the use of rear garaging. In other respects it
is an unremarkable scheme of two storey three bedroom
houses, the majority (18 of 25) with attached single
garages not accessed from inside the units.
The Oates Road frontage on the south boundary is estab-
lished by a terrace of seven houses with front doors and
kitchen windows facing the road (south), and rear access
from open–sided garages within the curtilage approached
from the two–way internal driveway. From observation, it
is apparent that not all the residents use the front door
access onto Oates Road, despite its convenience for access
to local amenities, and to visitors parking on the street.
The site includes a combined park and children’s play-
ground on the west section of the front terrace, apparently
well–used, and adding the important dimension of space to
an otherwise compact development. All properties, and the
small park, have metal ‘pool’ fencing 1.2m high, giving a
slightly defensive impression but also clear definition,
transparency to pedestrians, and excellent security. The
street form is a successful contribution to a more urban
identity in Glen Eden.
Refuse is collected from both Oates Road entrances (no
enclosures: informal on–street arrangement), while mail
delivery is to individual properties. Rear gardens are, at
this density, inevitably small, but adequate for their
purpose, including washing lines. The seven frontage units
are less practical in this respect, the private garden space
dominated by the back wall of the garage, and the small
private area adjacent to the front door not apparently func-
tioning as a garden in all cases. The internal street also
suffers from the garage doors, which diminish the quality
of the streetscape.
Architect: Tse Group Architects [for HNZC]
open open
space space refuse
+ +
average
2 2 2
25 2.00 4,941 108 198 51 0.55

Case Studies 53
(12) MT TAYLOR DRIVE, GLENDOWIE

(PROJECT), AUCKLAND CITY
Redevelopment in the area around Madeleine Avenue in

Glendowie has included several experimental housing
schemes, proposed as “innovative” solutions to urban
housing at higher densities. The project (not built) is
included in the survey to illustrate the potential for mixed
housing and architecturally complex design in this process.
The proposal consists of two and three storey terraces in
linear form on a narrow site, with a group of twelve one and
two bedroomed apartment units closing the site plan at the
north end. This group has a local density of 96dph, which,
in two storeys proved not to be capable of providing an
acceptable residential environment: all external space, and
some ground level areas are required for parking and
manoeuvring of cars. The balance of the layout has a
density of 53dph, and a high FAR at 0.78, reflecting
minimal private open space proposed. The FAR figure is
close to that of the Romola Street project designed by the
same architects (case study 6).
In the Mt Taylor layout, two wedge shaped landscaped
spaces articulate the site plan, providing small open park
areas perhaps in compensation for under–sized private
gardens. Some house plans show single width garages with
stacked parking plus one external visitor parking space,
possibly anticipating later conversion to supplementary
living space, which, if effected, would reduce the parking
ratio.
This and the Romola Street scheme represent a distinctive
and lively architecture characteristic of contemporary
Auckland design. They also propose housing at moder-
ately high density with minimal external space, over-
looking between houses in this instance controlled by care
in site planning, and variation in unit design to prevent
repetitive streetscape.
average
2 2 2
30 2.70 5,658 148 187 53 0.78

(13) ST GEORGE’S TERRACE, AVONDALE,

AUCKLAND CITY
The site lies between the edge of the Western Rail Link
south of the Avondale Town Centre, and the back wall of
the Lansford Crescent industrial area, previously not
developed. This is typical of land in the Auckland region
now being considered for housing use. In this context and
the configuration of the site itself, there would appear to be
minimal opportunity to achieve a reasonable residential
environment.
The accommodation is standardised around a two bedroom
plus study, single bathroom, single garage formula, in an
2
average size of 116m per unit, with some variations. A
version of the three storey townhouse type has been used in
two short groups to screen the 6m high concrete block wall
on the east boundary from the bulk of the site. The twelve
units in these two blocks are penalised by this strategy: rear
patio yards are heavily shadowed, too small to have prac-
tical value, with poor natural light on the east side of the
house. Compensation is provided for the units affected by
the use of a modified single aspect plan variant, balconied
decks on the west elevation and 5.0m frontages; the smaller
2
of two bedrooms has 9.2m floor area.
The benefit to the remaining 33 two storey houses is
considerable. These are planned in short terraces following
a curved central access road. Casual parking spaces occur
intermittently along the road without dominating the
space, which is further enhanced by moderately dense and
well maintained landscaping. Garage doors are recessed
behind the front elevation line, and although details such as
meter boxes, refuse bins, and steps to entrances are not all
resolved, the public side of the terraces generally produces
a satisfactory urban housing environment.
Because of the linear site and terraced housing form, over-
looking is not a significant problem except for two short
groups in the centre of the plan, where back to back dimen-
sions are too small.
The scheme is entirely built in timber framing with a plas-
tered cladding system. There is a body corporate respon-
sible for maintenance, with a manager resident on site. The
project was built as an open development, and is now
gated.
open open
space space refuse
- - + -
average
Architect: Tse Group Architects no units ratio area (m )
2 2
(m )
2
m /unit dph FAR
45 2.30 8,427 116 187 53 0.62

Case Studies 55
(14) GUNNER DRIVE, HARBOUR VIEW,

WAITAKERE CITY
The third site selected in the Harbour View development

consists of 31 houses in a rectilinear plan form, repre-
senting a conventional arrangement of medium density
housing on a straightforward flat rectangular land parcel.
The high density achieved is partly the result of small floor
areas (allowing for integral garages, the net habitable space
2
averages 95m for three bedroom houses), and the use of
narrow fronted deep–planned house types.
These have a single aspect configuration at first floor made
possible by the third bedroom being accessed from the
living room on the ground floor.
Consequently, an internal ground floor bathroom is neces-
sary with access from the living room and headroom partly
restricted by the stair. According to approved drawings a
sliding door unit is used between the garage and the living
room. Sliding doors are not supplied as self–closing, or
air–tight fittings.
Kitchens are placed next to the front entrance in this plan,
maintaining an active street elevation.
Rear gardens are only accessible through the house in most
cases: the site plan, at this density, does not permit rear
footpaths.
Overlooking is contained by the mix of types, the excep-
tion being in the use of the ‘C’ variation (a dual aspect
narrow front type) used for the group of three in the centre
of the block—the single aspect unit would have overcome
back to back overlooking, but would also have reduced the
total number of units. The ‘C’ type is a two bedroom plus
‘study’ on the upper floor, with a poorly planned ground
floor internal kitchen and under–sized living room.
This scheme achieves minimum standards of private and
public space without providing any degree of separation
between pedestrian and vehicular space.
Architect: Snell Kaiser Hale Ltd Designers
open open
space space refuse
- - -
average
2 2 2
31 1.90 5,076 114 164 61 0.70 Type C: Ground floor plan

(15) ROWENA CRESCENT, GLENDOWIE,

AUCKLAND CITY
The section of the development reviewed in this study is

limited to the rear access terrace of sixteen units. Low
density housing in the immediate vicinity determines a
relatively low density layout on this site (24 dph), rather
than housing at medium density; the inclusion of this
development in the study is justified by an experimental
site design.
Rear access from semi–private or private rear lanes is
endorsed by many housing designers overseas, particularly
the New Urbanist group in the USA. The rear access layout
type is discussed further in Section 6. The garage is
normally separated from the house, as in this scheme, but
remains within the property curtilage. Private garden or
patio space between the two, and separation of the
extended function of the garage from the house promises a
diversity in practical use that usually cannot be offered by
the attached garage model. The removal of the garage to
the back ‘liberates’ the street frontage by separating the
main public elevation and the front door from the main car
access, thus creating the possibility of an urban street
dominated by active and continuous facades.
In this instance, site dimensions have allowed an extended
garden area and thus a distance between garage and house
that would appear to be too great. At this density other
layout types could have been considered, including court-
yard housing with equal private open space and garaging
amenity. This comment does not, however, suggest criti-
cism of the scheme, but recognises the experiment
undertaken.
The street side of the houses, with casual parking, some
landscaping, and front doors, windows, and the stepped
terrace elevation, is a successful and welcome variation in
a typical low–density Auckland suburb, and appears to
satisfy the objectives of the design. Some detail of the units
themselves, such as patio doors to the garden side serving
the rear access determined by the layout, are less
satisfactory.
Architect: Architectus Architects [for HNZC]
open open
space space refuse
+ + +
average
2 2 2
16 2.01 6,570 116 410 24 0.28

Case Studies 57
(16) TUSCANY WAY, HARBOUR VIEW,

WAITAKERE CITY
The first phase of this group, four two storey three

bedroom terraced houses was built as an experiment in
layout typology, adopting the principle of rear access from
a private lane, with the formal house frontage facing a
public street. The site is adjacent to a small commercial
area. The house type used succeeds in bridging the transi-
tion to the residential character of new housing to the north
and west.
In this development the front street is the boundary of a
small public park. Orientation places the garden at the back
on the northerly side of the terrace.
Internally the house type used in the first stage is conven-
tional in plan, without significant recognition of the
connection to the garden and garage, or use likely to be
made of the ‘back’ door. In the second stage, not yet
completed, and delayed for several years after the first
block was occupied, the plan arrangement is modified to
form a small courtyard between a large double garage and
the house, with a corridor connection between the two
parts. The internal wall of the garage is fitted with glazed
doors opening into the courtyard. The design has the
potential to offer live/work accommodation.
Ground floor plan: North Block
Benefits to the public street side (both stages) include full

use of the frontage without the interruptions of garage
doors or vehicular pavement crossings, and improved
pedestrian safety creating a wholly pedestrian environ-
ment. The rear access lane is entirely hard surfaced, and is
inevitably a low quality space, with insufficient allowance
in the planning for planting or variation to the aesthetic of
continuous metal doors. The lane is separated from the
adjoining garage court (serving another development) by a
robust fence, which reinforces perceptions of high security
but also regrettably doubles the driveway surface.
Architect: Richard Lambourne
open open
space space refuse
+ + +
average
2 2 2
13 2.00 3,539 157 272 37 0.58

(17) SACRAMENTO 1A, BOTANY DOWNS,

MANUKAU CITY
Two stages of this scheme are included in this review to

offer a comparison of densities achievable in hybrid
layouts with mixed house types. There are few such exam-
ples in recent Auckland medium density developments; in
other respects, particularly for perimeter buildings
enclosing a communal space, and for lower market posi-
tioning, this scheme also provides a comparison with case
studies 20 and 21.
The site is close to the Botany Downs shopping centre. A
communal pool with a changing pavilion, and a tennis
court, provide public space in the centre of the layout,
which is also traversed by a public footpath from the
perimeter road.
The development has a density of 34dph, relatively low for
a terraced housing layout. However, this figure includes a
2
large public open space of 2900m . If the public space is
deducted the density calculation increases to 44dph, closer
to a representative figure for two storey mixed housing.
Density is determined by use of two main house types:
(i) dual aspect/dual access two storey two bedroom unit,
of 76m2, with no integral garage. This type can be used in
either principal (north, or east–west) orientation, entered
from either side with parking either side or more distant
(40% of the total). All units have a rear accessed carport or
car parking space, plus visitor space.
(ii) a dual aspect front access three bedroom type, with an
integral single garage, and approximately 138m2 floor area
(60% of the total). The majority of units are accessed from
the site boundary and there are two variations, with off–set
or stepped plans used at corners, some of which do not
have attached garaging.
Private gardens are very small, and overlooking in the
corner sites is pronounced, but the generous central space
provides some compensation, perceptions of spaciousness
and good distance between terraces. The frontage to the
external streets, with reduced numbers of crossings and
few garage doors, succeeds in providing a good interface
with the public realm.
open open
space space refuse
+ - -
average
2 2 2
46 2.40 13,440 113 292 34 0.36
Case Studies 59
(18) OATLANDS DEVELOPMENT, PENNANT

HILLS ROAD, SYDNEY
This project is an example of a commercial mixed density

sub–division that combines three separate layout
principles:
(a) a perimeter access road serving a lower density
2
detached unit house type, on approximately 500m lots.
This strategy provides the development as a whole with a
reducing scale of lot sizes to form a boundary to
surrounding low density housing, and also retains 27 high
value houses to sell.
(b) A core area of the site contains 50 detached and
2
terraced units on smaller lots varying from 300m to
2
160m . All units front either the perimeter road or the
central ‘village green’ public open space and are accessed
from a privately owned rear service lane. Partly because of
the narrow lot widths (minimum 4.5m) the lane is domi-
nated by garage doors with variation provided by open
sided carports and seventeen further accommodation units
in the form of studio apartments built over double garages,
the studios accessed from external stairs entered from the
service lane. A three storey block of 24 apartments with
underground parking encloses the central public space, but
with an inactive east façade to the park. The average
density of the development is approximately 22dph, while
the core density reaches approximately 37 dph.
(c) The whole development is planned in accordance
with some of the New Urbanist principles: pedestrian
systems, axes, landscaping organised in geometric
patterns, and formal architectural detail responding to
order in rank and position in the site layout.
The layout includes two small parks, an ‘activity’ area, and
a ‘passive’ recreation space, which includes a children’s
playground.
The development succeeds in generating a strong sense of
communality in the central area, while the character of the
perimeter road is not distinguishable from any average
suburban street in the area. Oatlands is a sophisticated,
carefully planned mixed unit housing scheme that
combines suburban and urban streetscapes.
Architect: Stanton Dahl Haysom Spender
open open
space space refuse
+ + +
average
2 2 2
140 - 64,800 - 277 37 -

(19) FONTENOY ROAD, MACQUARIE PARK,

SYDNEY
Fontenoy Road is the oldest example reviewed in the study,

included, along with Ewenton Street (case study 25) to
reflect the greater familiarity of Australian housing
designers with the design of medium density housing, and
to illustrate a twenty year old design that has matured and
improved as a living environment, without alteration or
significant re–investment over the period.
The site was the first of several stages of medium density
development carried out by Lend Lease Homes in the area
around Macquarie Park, all of which have been completed
at similar densities to Fontenoy Road.
On this site, a difficult boundary configuration and a steep
slope to the north east have resulted in some units being
disadvantaged for access from the higher driveway in the
centre of the plan. Others have direct access from parking
or temporary unloading space: garages and carports are
generally a short walking distance from the house unit.
All units are two storey, the majority (25 of 35) with two
large bedrooms and a ground floor bathroom in addition to
a ‘two–way entry’ bathroom on the upper floor. Three
bedroom units are designed with a second bathroom on the
bedroom floor. As in the case of the Ewenton Street
scheme, the house areas are small, and reflect the space
standards applicable at the time rather than current Austra-
lian standards.
A high standard of privacy is achieved by pedestrian–only
access to most units, a large central space occupied by the
driveway, and by dense landscaping. The terraces are
connected by steps responding to a sloping site, and the
efforts made by the designers to articulate the otherwise
uniform elevations to the public side. All houses in the
scheme have small private gardens or patios on both sides
of the unit, seen in this analysis as the product of density of
less than 40dph, and the acceptance of separate car storage
and parking.
Architect: Lend Lease Homes (Architects) 1983
open open
space space refuse
+ + +
average
2 2 2
35 1.5 8,900 107 254 39 0.44

Case Studies 61
(20) CAROLINA PLACE, ALBANY, NORTH

SHORE CITY
The scheme designed for this rectangular site consists of a

two stage development, of which the first, with 33 units, is
considered here. The site plan shows both phases of the
development to clarify the planning strategy, of two “U”
shaped courtyards with parking to each side. This is a small
unit development in a two and three storey building form.
All parking is outside the property curtilage, that is, remote
from the dwelling. The central public open space is land-
scaped, forming a pocket park with a pool and
2
poolhouse/gym of 80m for common use.
To break down the repetitive character of the building
blocks, identity of individual units is sought through the
frequently used device of small pitched gables added deco-
ratively to front and back terrace elevations. Units vary in
size and (presumably) market level, from two bedroom
2
duplexes, to one and two bedroom apartments of 50m .
Internal planning is conventional with all units having
views onto the central space; included in the conventions
of this type of unit are one bedroom units with a combined
entry space/kitchen/bathroom access located on the south
side of the unit. Shared external stairs provide access to
upper units.
Parking is one covered carport for each unit, plus one open
parking space, with each double sided parking block
located adjacent to the dwellings served. Internally, the
layout has consistency, but at the expense of back spaces
heavily dominated by vehicle parking, which create a
barrier between this scheme and adjoining housing. The
cause of the problem is the concentration of similar house
types and a high parking ratio for this size of unit: a mix of
types and a lower density would offer other and better
layout options.
The scheme is compared with the adjoining development
accessed from Bush Road (case study 21).
Architect: Sigma Planners, Architects & Designers
open open
space space refuse
- - -
average
2 2 2
33 1.97 6,300 59 191 52 .31 Ground floor plan: Typical 1-bedroom unit
(21) BUSH ROAD, ALBANY, NORTH SHORE

CITY
The Bush Road development is similar to the Carolina

Place scheme in density, and for the focus on small unit
sizes; it is included to provide a comparison, alongside the
Sacramento development (Stage B). Each of these projects
has been designed to address layout issues generated by
large numbers of small units, market price expectations at
lower levels, and high parking ratios demanded by the
developer.
2
The average unit size in this project is 59m , similar to
2
Carolina Place (60m ). The layout strategy is different,
with a comparable parking standard and FAR (0.31 and
0.33). This scheme has building and active elevations on its
boundaries rather than tarmac and vehicles. This is
achieved without sacrifice of public open space, which, for
projects aiming to provide low cost housing for younger
buyers, has social significance. As with the Carolina
scheme, the central public space has a tennis court and a
pool, surrounded by gardens.
Parking is remote from the dwelling curtilage, reducing
security and the practical value of attached garaging. Inevi-
tably the internal road is entirely dominated by parking and
carports.
The central public space is, curiously, overlooked by no
more than half of all units, because of a cross–over plan
type used in the two storey apartment planning, which
reverses lower to upper plans, placing living rooms at first
floor over bedrooms (in a separate title) below. This
arrangement raises problems of sound transmission, and
orientation on the north–south blocks; it is necessary to
avoid lower floor living rooms on the same side looking
directly into the carports lining the internal road. In addi-
tion, on the east–west facing blocks private open space is
possible at ground level, and upper floor balconies over-
look rear patio gardens to bedroom windows. Upper units
are arranged in pairs sharing a staircase. The stair, at
ground level, occupies a small courtyard which also
provides access to the two lower units. A three bedroom
ground floor unit (type C) has one bedroom looking into
this courtyard. Density achieved in a two–storey develop-
ment is 56 dph. A lower parking ratio and a wider mix of
unit types would improve the residential environment.
open open
space space refuse

+ - -
average
2 2 2
105 1.86 18,750 60 178 56 0.33

Case Studies 63
(22) HOLLY STREET, AVONDALE (PROJECT),

AUCKLAND CITY
This is a proposed development of 80 houses on disused

industrial land adjacent to Avondale College sports
grounds with access from Holly Street, in an area of low
density quarter acre section housing. The scheme was
granted consent in 2001 as an ‘innovative housing’ devel-
opment under the terms of the Auckland City Council
District Plan.
The site has a deep hollow in the central section affecting
the outlook of fourteen of the units proposed. The layout
proposes terraced housing spaced 15m apart with parking
on one or both sides of the private access driveway, at a
density of 62 dph and a FAR of .55. Part of the internal
roading is proposed as a public road, as far into the site as
necessary for collection, from a central amenity, of refuse.
Characteristically in this layout type the house entrance is
separated from the parking space or carport by a public
footpath, and the public side of all dwellings is thus domi-
nated by vehicles, despite a parking ratio of only 1.6.
House types vary, the majority proposed two or three
bedroomed two storey terraced type with an average floor
2
area of 89m . At the site entrance five semi–detached units
with double garages add another house type variation.
Public spaces are indicated in three positions on the perim-
eter of the site plan, without nominated recreational uses or
children’s play areas.
Architect: Andrew J MacGregor Architect
average
2 2 2
80 1.60 12,870 89 161 62 0.55

(23) COTTONTREE, BRISBANE
This development is a type of cluster layout, but can be

classified here as a hybrid remote parking type since six of
the nineteen units are entered directly from the site bound-
aries rather than from within the site. It is also noted that
the layout is governed by climatic considerations
(emphasising shade, and cross ventilation for summer
cooling) appropriate to the tropical location rather than
Auckland’s temperate climate.
The site planning, however, illustrates a layout that
achieves high standards of privacy, private open space, and
identity of individual units at a high point on the medium
density scale. The project demonstrates the possibilities, in
a small development, that originate in a brief that required
diversity in accommodation, variety in unit value, and
good environmental amenity. Fourteen of the nineteen
units are entered at ground level, have small patio gardens
and secure parking adjacent to their entrances. The
2
smallest units (one bedroom, approx. 55m ) are placed on
the second floor along the southern edge of the site;
building heights taper down from three storeys on this
boundary to single storey units on the northern frontage.
The project has received awards for design.
Architect: Clare Design, Architects
Photographs by Richard Stringer, published in

Architecture Australia, 85(4); 1996.
open open
space space refuse
+ +
average
2 2 2
19 1.18 3,572 197 63

Case Studies 65
(24) SOLJAK PLACE, MOUNT ALBERT,

AUCKLAND CITY
The development was completed in 2001, on a site next to

the western rail corridor, one of five such sites in this study.
Apart from a small recreation space in the north corner, the
layout is a dedicated, monotype development of two
bedroomed terraced houses with carport parking adjacent
to the unit, and a small front or rear private garden. All the
terraces are oriented (by the site boundaries) to face north-
west or northeast.
The principal variation is the house type used on the
southern boundary for twenty units, which provides a front
patio garden in addition to space behind the terrace. The
internal plan is not, however, modified for this condition,
except for front entry to the living room. The remaining 41
units are planned with entrance through a hallway/kitchen
with side access to the stair, and a laundry space but no
ground floor toilet.
The scheme is included to demonstrate the limitations of
the layout type in which density of development in two
storeys does not permit garaging within the individual
property curtilage. To preserve privacy to ground floor
public side rooms, in this case the kitchen, the front eleva-
tion includes a glazed door (the ‘front’ or main entry door)
2
and a ventilating window of 0.25m for the laundry, but no
Ground floor plan: Typical unit
window to the kitchen area, which is consequently both
dark and unventilated.
The first floor is conventionally planned with two
bedrooms and a central mechanically ventilated bathroom.
Considerable effort has been made in this project to soften
the internal street, by butterfly roofs to carports, small off–
sets in the road layout, and heavy landscaping and
planting, which achieves its objectives to form a pleasant,
but uncompromisingly car dominated public space. Refuse
collection has been well designed and planned, with a
container discreetly located at the front of the develop-
ment, emptied by vehicle mounted hoist. The scheme is
gated.
open open
space space refuse
- +
average
2 2 2
61 2.00 9,350 75 153 65 0.49

(25) EWENTON ST, BALMAIN, SYDNEY
This two storey development is located in an inner suburb

where regeneration is occurring by a process of infilling
and small scale redevelopment in accordance with an
intensification policy. The high density figure and the high
quality of the residential environment is achieved by the
inclusion of a naturally ventilated single storey under-
ground garage providing all parking for the 38 units on the
site (shown broken line on plan).
The layout consists of a perimeter two storey terrace of
housing enclosing an internal public courtyard defined by
225mm brick screen walls and planters. The central land-
scaped areas, in two courtyards are surrounded by private
patio gardens accessed from the units. Houses facing onto
the two street frontages (Ewenton and Darling Streets) are
two storey square plan two bedroomed townhouses with
rooms on the upper floors contained in roof space with
dormer windows, to satisfy the heritage context. Only
seven of the houses in the development have three
2
bedrooms, reflected in the low average size of 107m . Unit
dimensions are not available for a more detailed footprint
calculation.
Judd (1993) comments that the position of the garage
favours some units over others: there is a considerable walk
required for some householders, including a stair. Refuse
collection is from a single point in the development, a
walled, gated compound adjoining the Ewenton Street
footpath entrance. The majority of the mesh–enclosed
garage lock–ups are not used for cars but for storage, work-
shops, and hobby activities, reflecting the high accessi-
bility of public transport available in Sydney.
Fifteen years after construction it is observed (2004) that
the development has matured into a comfortable, high
quality environment. Evidence of current resale prices
suggests parity with other property in the area.
Architect: Philip Cox Richardson Taylor and Partners
open open
space space refuse
+ + - + +
average
2 2 2
38 1.50 5,669 107 150 66 0.71

Case Studies 67
(26) BEAUMONT QUARTER, AUCKLAND CITY
The first stage of this development occupies formerly

commercial land near the city centre. Later stages will alter
the density (achieved in this stage by adopting under-
ground remote parking strategies) for a high class urban
housing solution.
The scheme is included to provide a comparison with
others at a similar density. Density at 69dph is aided by the
inclusion of eight apartments in a central block also
containing a small area of lettable commercial floor space,
and by the use of five main variations in the house type.
Privacy and security, expressed in the external detailing of
louvres, are paramount concerns partly explained by the
scheme being an early intervention in this part of the city.
The louvres also provide solar control. The majority of the
house types used are without internal garaging: cars are
parked in front of units with security provided by surveil-
lance from the house and the street, by individual elec-
tronic alarms, or, for the majority, in an underground
garage. Small courtyards, patios and rear yards separate
house fronts from public spaces which vary in character
and planting.
A range of facing materials, including pressed aluminium,
zincalume, painted brickwork and stained timber, provide
diversity and identity.
Finishes are of uniformly high quality, without being
ostentatious or expensive, both internally and externally.
The scheme includes a gym/pool reflecting the market
standard, and has high annual maintenance charges levied
through the body corporate.
The scheme demonstrates some of the potential of medium
density housing by the mixed development strategy, secure
remote parking, and the standard of urban space achieved.
Developer contributions were negotiated against the
benefit to the city of some aspects of the development,
preventing a later move to enclose the public areas.
Architect: Studio of Pacific Architecture & S333
open open
space space refuse
- +
average
2 2 2
70 1.10 10,150 n/a 145 69 n/a

(27) SACRAMENTO 1B, EAST TAMAKI,

MANUKAU CITY
[See general notes: case study 17]

The second phase of this scheme re–uses three of the
previous house types, but adds another, smaller unit type: a
one bedroom apartment in a two storey block: “Arizona”,
2
approximately 44m . This small unit, and the omission of
public space, increases the net density to 72 dph; the
2
average unit size is reduced from 113 to 74m , and the
parking ratio from 2.4 to 1.64; calculating the
bedspace/hectare ratio also increases the effective density
(163 maximum in Stage 1 to 191 maximum in Stage 2).
The apartment unit does, however, add an entry–level
market option for first time buyers.
More critically, in terms of the residential environment
achieved, the second stage necessitates the majority of
parking for the small units to be located off the main access
through the site, rather than contained in the garage court
as in Stage 1. Some ground level enclosed space is used for
covered parking.
The one bedroom units are entered from external stairs
located between units. The stairs lead to balconies shared
between two upper units, which are oriented north or west,
with living room over living room (compare to case studies
20, 21). This causes upper decks to overlook ground level
garden areas (bottom photo, left). Ground floor external
spaces—patios between the apartment and the rear carport
enclosure—generally lack sun and privacy.
The central spaces within the site are entirely car–domi-
nated, with parking on both sides of the roadway, despite
the lower ratio. Façade design provides variation, along-
side set–backs, and a colour scheme based on traditional
mexican shades reinforces the chosen style. Identity is
secured by these methods, without offering a convincing
demonstration of the typology at this density.
open open
space space refuse
- -
average
2 2 2
50 1.64 6,900 74 138 72 0.53

Case Studies 69
(28) HILLSBOROUGH ROAD, LYNFIELD,

AUCKLAND CITY
This development is located next to the large and

expanding shopping facility serving the Lynfield District.
The site context consists of an arterial road frontage domi-
nated by commercial uses. The project is included because
it illustrates innovative site planning and the quality of a
housing environment possible where larger schemes are
undertaken and are driven by a singular design philosophy,
suggesting that a critical mass factor has potential in the
typology. The scheme has been reviewed in the Architec-
ture NZ journal, and other media, where details have been
fairly widely publicised.
The decision to separate the bulk of parking in a lower level
naturally ventilated garage has had the effect of liberating
internal site space at ground level to produce a landscape–
dominated environment. Topography and access dictated
the position of the garage on the west boundary. This
distances the parking from accommodation on the east side
of the site, necessitating the 12 centrally placed carports
and their access through the centre of the layout.
The west elevation consequently exposes the basement
garage to external views of the development, including
those from Hillsborough Road, and is reminiscent of a
form, typically commercial, of unenclosed, non–secure
parking cavities beneath a larger building mass.
Despite this compromise, and the retaining wall over–
shadowing north facing units on the eastern corner, the
development is able to exploit the low parking ratio
required in housing for the elderly to achieve a high quality
and relaxed example of housing at higher densities. All
units are spacious by comparison with private sector apart-
ments, and planned with care and consideration for elderly
residents.
Architect: Woodhams Meikle Architects [for HNZC]
open open
space space refuse
+
average
2 2 2
51 1.00 6,175 79 118 85 0.66

(29) 2 AMBRICO PLACE, NEW LYNN,

WAITAKERE CITY
This development is included in the review to provide a

comparison with projects 22 and 24. Unit sizes are similar,
2
in this case a two storey two bedroomed 77m plan, and the
site is classified by parking layout as a comparable scheme.
The density is over 30% higher than the two most similar
schemes, partly because of a regular site boundary, but
mostly the result of ruthlessly efficient use of land.
The scheme borders the Tuscany Towers development,
which it post–dates. Accepting the principle of market
variety, it offers a lower priced alternative to the earlier
scheme but at the cost of a severe reduction in quality of the
residential environment. Density is considered to be the
primary explanation for this low standard.
The two terraces of housing enclose a 16.0m wide
concreted access roadway and parking space (the dimen-
sion recommended in the Waitakere City Council design
guide). The blocks are articulated on alternate party walls
by small set-backs and steps which are intended to provide
some visual relief to an otherwise monotonous elevation.
A few of the householders have erected car ports which
contribute a small element of variation in a barren public
space, in which landscaping is entirely absent.
Internal planning of the units is conventional, with a
ground floor kitchen on the street or public side of the
block overlooking parking on both sides of the central
space.
The scheme exceeds the density limits compatible with
good residential design for this layout type. The site domi-
nates the entrance to Ambrico Place, an unfortunate loca-
tion in that it affects perceptions of quality in the rest of the
development.
open open
space space refuse
- - -
average
2 2 2
22 2.00 2,538 77 115 87 0.67

Case Studies 71
(30) MOKOIA ROAD, BIRKENHEAD, NORTH

SHORE CITY
The site is adjacent to commercial developments, justi-

fying higher density housing by location, with a slope of
5m to the south west; there are views of Auckland City and
the upper Waitemata Harbour. The three storey house type
used is a deep plan version aligned in east–west blocks to
maximise solar access; all units have a double stack garage
plus a parking space. Three variations of the townhouse
plan type are used, to offer different unit sizes and accom-
modation packages. Allowing all parking indicated on the
site plan, the development provides a high ratio of three
spaces per unit and three additional visitor spaces. Two
refuse collection compounds are provided.
Turning and access driveways between the two higher
blocks is landscaped to form an acceptable, but car–domi-
nated area, sufficient to use the dual aspect plan. An unusu-
ally high percentage of the site area is not privately owned,
and is maintained to a high standard.
Blocks are stepped and decorated at parapet level to articu-
late, minimally, the length of the façade, but a repetitive
and unvaried elevation is not significantly affected by this
move. The spectacular prospect of the upper harbour bene-
fits only the lowest rank of the three blocks, since views
from both other blocks are obstructed.
The small park between Blocks B and C is a tapered plan,
and is equipped with a pergola and a petanque court
The centre block (Block B) uses a variation of the three
storey townhouse type that illustrates an aspect of the
evolution of the type in recent local examples: the ground
level plan provides a double length (stacked) garage
connected to an entrance hallway by a sliding door. The
original drawings indicated a rear room at this level,
accessed from the garage, which appears to have been
deleted on the first and third blocks.
Architect: Hornby Architects
open open
space space refuse
+ - +
average
2 2 2
24 2.95 4358 141 182 55 0.77

(31) GALWAY STREET, ONEHUNGA,

AUCKLAND CITY
This development is included to represent numerous exam-

ples of small housing schemes in this and other parts of the
region. Infill developments, not tied to normal residential
regulations by location on Business zoned sites, have
occurred in a fairly piecemeal pattern. These are under-
stood by most to be typical of the medium density housing
typology.
In this instance, the diagrammatic and barrack–like site
layout seeks no advantage from the slope of the site, and
where mixed uses might have produced a better design for
the developer as well as the wider community, two rows of
more or less identical three storey blocks, the second
looking at the back of the first, have been permitted. The
forward (northern) block at least has a half level connec-
tion from the first floor living spaces to the garden, using a
step in the land slope.
Front entrances are adjacent to the garage double door at
road level, approached from the vehicular access, which is
tarmac. The internal planning is extremely confused and
impractical, affected by height to boundary regulations on
the south side. The scheme is an instructive example of the
internal difficulties in planning three storey house types.
Refuse is collected from wheeled bins parked at the site
entrances.
There is little to say in defence of development of this
quality; public doubt about higher density housing is likely
to be reinforced by such schemes.
Architect: Anthony Davis Architects
open open
space space refuse
- - -
average
2 2 2
16 2.00 2,620 172 163 61 1.05

Case Studies 73
(32) KRISLEY COURT, AMBRICO PLACE, NEW

LYNN, WAITAKERE CITY
This site, part of the Ambrico Place development, uses a

version of the three storey townhouse type and is planned
at a lower density than the two storey project opposite.
Street level entrances with deep north or west facing first
floor decks provide weather protection to one third of the
houses.
The triangular site has a boundary to the Western Rail
Corridor on the northwest side. On–site car parking is
limited to 1.12 vehicles per unit, supplemented by the
public street in front of the development. This strategy
sacrifices higher parking provision to achieve higher
density and results in a congested ground level space
lacking any significant pedestrian domain.
A tilt slab construction system has been used, with internal
structures in timber framing, ensuring good standards of
sound and fire insulation. The floor plans vary between
2
blocks, averaging 134m per unit including a single garage
and a ground floor rear bedroom, similar to others of this
type in recent Auckland developments. With few excep-
tions (case study 30 is one) these schemes demonstrate the
limitations of the house type: all developments of this type
are characterised by poor standards of privacy, car-domi-
nated access, poor or non-existent public space, and
impractical internal planning.
At the time of development these houses were the lowest
priced new units in the area.
open open
space space refuse
- - -
average
2 2 2
25 1.12 3,389 134 135 74 1.01

(33) KEELING ROAD, HENDERSON,

WAITAKERE CITY
The Keeling Road development is a variation on the three

storey townhouse type, in this case with a density of 94dph
made possible by a two bedroom top floor plan based on
2
floor plate areas of approximately 31m , and a low parking
ratio of 1.5. Although housing at this density falls outside
the density range, this scheme illustrates a number of
points useful to the study.
The dimension between party walls is 3.85m, producing an
internal garage width of less than 3.0m, requiring a sliding
door between the hall and the garage. All internal habitable
spaces are under–sized for practical or comfortable use:
2 2
the top floor bedrooms are 9.0m and 6.7m respectively,
with short dimensions of under 2.0m. A rear room at
ground floor level, entered through the garage, also has a
minimum dimension of less than 2.0m, while the garage
2
itself is less than 5.2m long. The total floor area of 88m
including the garage is not adequate for a three bedroom
townhouse unit. Market prices at the time of sale were the
lowest for new houses in the area.
Public space on the site is principally the roadway, open on
one side for the western block, and with a 7.6m wide space
between the other two blocks. Overlooking is unavoidable.
Private external space is accessible only through the garage
and the back room, which includes a toilet accessed from
the room. Laundry facilities are on the first floor.
Ground floor plan: Typical unit This scheme demonstrates both the shortcomings of the
type of house used, and the constraints this type imposes
on site planning.
Architect: ADC Architects
open open
space space refuse
- - - +
average
2 2 2
22 1.50 2,330 88 106 94 0.83

Case Studies 75
(34) EDEN 1, MT EDEN, AUCKLAND CITY
Eden 1, on Enfield Street in Mt Eden, is an early example

of the advantage taken of ‘Business’ zoning in Auckland
City Council, to build high density housing without need
of compliance with standard residential design controls.
This loophole has been exploited by several development
companies in the past decade. At 125 dph, the density
places the scheme well outside the remit for this study, but
it is included to illustrate the limitations of the three storey
timber–framed townhouse option for medium density
housing.
Eden 1 also exhibits many of the problems associated with
higher density urban housing: apart from construction
defects relating to the monolithic cladding system, there
has been criticism of errors including balconies over-
hanging public footpaths on the perimeter, bedroom
windows on the back pavement line at street level—all
typical and symptomatic of detail design issues in the
typology of medium density housing. Internal semi–public
streets are no more than continuous walls of facing garage
doors separated by a 6m wide driveway of tarmac. Use of
this access is necessarily highly disciplined. Entry to units
from this street are unceremoniously industrial in their
presentation. The development would not have been
permitted in any Australian city or in the UK at the time it
was built.
The FAR at Eden 1, at 1.36, is the highest in the survey,
which indicates a need for a building form of at least four
storeys, and with underground parking a necessary corol-
lary of good design for public and/or private open space
within the layout, as well as solar access, privacy distances,
and acceptable relationships to the surrounding
neighbourhood.
Architect: Richard Priest Architects.
open open
space space refuse
- - - - - -
average
2 2 2
83 1.90 6,641 109 80 125 1.36

Best practice in medium density housing design Case Studies 77
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
average unit site coverage driveway area outdoor car

total site area density 1: density 2: density 3: total floor area area building car parks - car parks - incl. footpath parking area hard surface date of market site layout
No. site and street name no. units (m†) m2/unit dph FAR parking ratio (m†) (m†) footprint (m†) 2 storeys (%) 3 storeys (%) outdoor indoor (m†) (m†) area (m†) city approval indicator classification
1 Vinograd D r 19 5,742 302 33 0.59 2.20 3,400 179 2,439 100 - 22 19 655 286 941 WCC 1998 4 1
2 Adelphi Villa s 30 8,135 271 37 0.52 2.30 4,248 142 2,770 100 - 13 56 1,360 169 1,516 MCC 2002 4 1
3 Seymour Rd 89 24,600 273 37 0.43 2.08 10,652 118 6,181 100 - 98 77 1,274 WCC 2004 2 1
4 Corban Village 83 20,686 249 40 2.20 8,707 4,443 69 31 99 83 5,501 612 6,113 WCC 2003 3 1
5 Fairhaven 98 24,728 252 40 0.56 2.30 13,783 141 6,163 68 32 130 98 9,233 1,717 10,950 WCC 2001 2 1
6 Romola S t 13 3,140 242 41 0.73 2.10 2,292 176 1,252 69 31 2 26 392 26 418 ACC 2002 5 1
7 Tuscany Tower s 97 23,017 237 42 0.61 2.44* 12,651 130* 6,660 72 28 114 143** n/a - - WCC 1998 3 1
8 Melvie w 22 2,768 227 44 1.00 2.18 2,772 126 1,958 100 - 4 44 52 WCC 1998 3 1
9 Albion Vale 94 20,800 221 45 0.52 2.23 10,850 115 4,881 64 36 116 94 1,508 WCC 2004 3 1
10 Arawa St 19 4,168 219 46 0.51 1.70 2,127 112 1,155 100 - 16 17 1,090 234 1,324 WCC 1996 2 1
11 Oates Rd 25 4,941 198 51 0,55 2.00 2,693 108 1,609 100 - 25 25 325 WCC 2002 3 1
12 Mt Taylor D r 30 5,658 187 53 0.78 2.70 4,433 148 2,086 50 50 26 56 1,394 338 1,732 ACC 2001 5 1
13 St George s Terrac e 45 8,427 187 53 0.62 2.30 5,220 116 2,393 60 40 59 45 2,042 791 2,833 ACC 2000 3 1
14 Gunner Dr 31 5,076 164 61 0.70 1.90 3,536 114 1,790 100 - 27 31 553 351 904 WCC 1999 3 1
15 Rowena Cres 16 6,570 410 24 0.28 2.01 1,856 116 1,072 100 - 17 16 221 ACC 2001 2 2
16 Tuscany Wa y 13 3,539 272 37 0.58 2.00 2,042 157 1,430 100 - 3 23 720 39 759 WCC 1998 4 2
17 Sacramento 1 A 46 13,440 292 34 0.36 2.40 5,198 113 2,599 100 - 63 47 756 ACC 2001 3 3
18 Oatland s 140 64,800 277 37 - - - - 83 17 n/a - - - - (Aus) 2003 4 3
19 Fontenoy Rd 35 8,900 254 39 0.44 1.5 3,955 107 100 0 57 (Aus) 1983 3
20 Carolina Pl 33 6,300 191 52 0.31 1.97 1,936 59 1,452 62 38 33 32 192 NSCC 1999 2 3
21 Bush Rd 105 18,750 178 56 0.33 1.86 6,312 60 3,821 100 - 144 51 1,728 NSCC 1999 2 3
22 Holly S t 80 12,870 161 62 0.55 1.60 7,080 89 4,140 100 - 115 10 3,477 1,495 4,972 ACC 2001 3 3
23 Cottontree 19 3,572 197 63 1.18 (Aus) 1995 3 3
24 Soljak Pl 61 9,350 153 65 0.49 2.00 4,574 75 2,287 100 - 124 - 1,667 1,612 3,279 ACC 2000 3 3
25 Ewenton S t 38 5,669 150 66 0.71 1.5 4,039 107 2,211 100 0 56 (Aus) 1990 3
26 Beaumont Quarte r 70 10,150 145 69 n/a 1.10 n/a n/a 82 18 21 56 ACC 2002 5 3
27 Sacramento 1B 50 6,900 138 72 0.53 1.64 3,675 74 2,418 100 - 30 52 390 MCC 1999 3 3
28 Hillsborough Rd 51 6,175 118 85 0.66 1.00 4,108 79 1,799 72 28 13 38 168 ACC 2001 4 3
29 2 Ambrico Pl 22 2,538 115 87 0.67 2.00 1,690 77 971 100 - 44 0 631 572 1,203 WCC 1997 1 3
30 Mokoia Rd 24 4,358 182 55 0.77 2.95 3,376 141 1,287 - 100 27 48 351 NSCC 2002 3 4
31 Galway S t 16 2,620 163 61 1.05 2.00 2,752 172 1,166 - 100 - 32 641 - ACC 1997 1 4
32 Krisley Cour t 25 3,389 135 74 1.01 1.12 3,352 134 1,139 4 96 3 25 1,619 39 1,619 WCC 1997 1 4
33 Keeling Road 22 2,330 106 94 0.83 1.50 1,934 88 839 18 82 12 22 590 162 778 WCC 2000 1 4
34 Eden 1 83 6,641 80 125 1.36 1.90 9,024 109 3,770 12 88 2 159 2,085 26 2,170 ACC 1997 3 4
6
Discussion and
Conclusions
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS crowding in some of the case studies gener-

ates the perception that privacy is reduced
Introduction or lost altogether, in turn suggesting that
personal security and individual identity
The case study review indicates that are also reduced. This leads to a progres-
medium density housing in New Zealand is sively higher level of discomfort in the
highly varied, wide–ranging in quality, and environment as a whole, which is associ-
evolving within a relatively de–regulated ated with ‘density’.
environment. This section discusses the
issues that emerge from the case studies, Different developments exhibit these char-
and develops a profile for a New Zealand acteristics of medium density housing to
model for medium density housing design different degrees, sometimes at very
at different levels of density. similar (quantified) densities. Variations in
the type of layout used are considered to
Three clear points from the context and partly account for such differences.
literature review (Sections 2 and 3) provide
the platform for this section: Secondary indicators are landscaping,
building detail, diversity (apparent or
(i) Medium density housing has actual) in built form and mix, arrangements
developed in the last decade as a for refuse collection, exposure of private
common housing typology, but is not open space to overlooking, and evidence of
foreign to the urban culture of New care taken in the maintenance of public
Zealand; space.
(ii) Planning strategies to consolidate
urban growth pre–suppose a higher By classifying all case studies according to
density housing form that, at this the four principal layout types, compari-
stage, lacks any clear definition or sons can be made between developments
preferred model; and with the same layout type at similar densi-
(iii) Research and other literature on ties, and different layout types at similar
medium density housing in New densities (where overlaps occur in density
Zealand is limited in scope, quality, levels). The layout types are therefore
and quantity. discussed in order, and as summarised in
the data chart.
In all medium density housing there is an
element of compromise relating to house Layout Type 1: Case studies 1–14
type, car access, external private space, the
public domain, and construction costs. For At the lower end of the density scale two
this reason the case study comments and schemes of similar size and layout type,
some of the discussion in this section Seymour Rd (caser study 3) and Fairhaven
necessarily focus on areas in which the (case study 5) offer a comparison based on
most significant compromises are identi- density: Seymour Rd uses rear access
fied, thereby constructing a critical parking for part of the layout, while Fair-
template for the analysis. Most of the haven achieves a slightly higher density by
examples included in the study have some use of the three storey house type. Both
merits in at least one area. devices are trade–offs against the stand
alone house type preferred by most of the
Density and Layout Type housing market.
Density has been taken in this study as the A larger and more positive use of the same
principal quantifiable ‘indicator of differ- devices occurs in the Fontenoy Rd scheme
ence’ between housing developments that (case study 19; a Type 2 layout), at about
are similar in other respects. The sense of the same density, where most units do not
have attached garages. The amenity loss and therefore casual surveillance, with
(represented by refuse collected from the living rooms and kitchens at first floor
site entrance, remote parking affecting level. To reduce overlooking some of the
55% of the residents and a relatively low hybrid mixed type schemes locate the three
parking ratio) is balanced by a quiet, high storey type on the boundary (Corban
quality internal site environment with very Village (case study 4), Fairhaven (case
high standards of privacy, and good land- study 5), Albion Vale (case study 9)) effec-
scaping in the public areas. tively enclosing the development, although
the higher buildings on the perimeter may
At the same density, case studies 3 and 5 sometimes adversely affect neighbourhood
achieve high levels of direct car access, and relationships.
public service refuse collection from about
80% of the units, but at the expense of poor At the high end of the scale, examples of
public space, and low standards of indi- two storey terraced housing include Oates
vidual unit privacy. The strong sense of Road (case study 11; 51dph.) and Gunner
crowding in both these developments is Drive (case study 14; 61dph.).
entirely absent at Fontenoy Road. The Gunner Drive project was revisited
Detached and attached (i.e. paired) house twice to observe different conditions in
types occur at the lower ends of the density use. A large public park adjoins the devel-
scale; they generally fail to provide work- opment of 31 terraced houses, justifying
able layouts at any point in the range the lack of public space within the site. The
between 30dph and 66dph; a not unex- very high density, approximately 20%
pected conclusion. Romola Street (case more than the next highest figure in the
study 6) demonstrates the limitations, as a layout type, is reflected in the high FAR
development that only succeeds at all by figure (0.7) and partly explained by the
voluntary restrictions on car size, power parking ratio of 1.9, one of only two exam-
steering, and permanently curtained ples in this layout type with a ratio of less
windows. However, this project, and case than 2. On street parking adjacent to the
studies 1 and 2, suggest that density is a site is used by residents at night and week-
market choice and not an index of social ends, but is not included in the data
standing. recorded. Privacy between units is
minimal, with overlooking from first floor
Short two storey terraces are often windows affecting all houses and particu-
favoured by developers. In a block of three larly the three in the centre of the layout;
(for example, Fairhaven (case study 5), there is much evidence of domestic activity
only the centre unit has two inter–tenancy over–flowing to the public side of houses
walls, which are expensive to build, and due to small or shadowed rear gardens.
end units are perceived in the private sector Comments on the internal planning of
market to be worth more than middle house types, which also explain the trade–
terrace units. offs involved in achieving the density, have
been made in the case study notes (p55).
Three storey house types are used in
schemes with densities as low as 40dph for In the Oates Road scheme (case study 11),
the amenity value of front access. The mix a small park is important spatially, along
of two and three storeys helps to produce with street frontages varied in height by
diversity in built form, and identity in the single storey garages alternating with two
street, (Albion Vale, case study 9), a quality storey houses, in that it relieves the sense of
less easily achieved in two storey terraced crowding, and reduces bulk and
layouts. This strategy, however, results in perceptions of density. The row of six units
loss of privacy to adjoining two storey on the north side are over–shadowed by a
units, and loss of the active street frontage, 5m high back wall to adjacent retail
buildings, and face towards garage doors

on the internal street. This contributes to
the car–dominated environment that
establishes the street, not as a community
space (able to serve unspecified but
implied communal activities) but as the
service conduit between them:
relationships of houses are based on tarmac
rather than a shared public space, offset
only by the park area.
The most unusual, and perhaps experi-
mental, scheme in the lower range of Tuscany Way (case study 16) in the
density is the terraced front access develop- Edgelea block context.
ment at Melview Place (case study 8;
44dph) based on a courtyard house type,
The principal contemporary merit in the
one of only two examples in the study
New Zealand context is that the garage can
(Tuscany Way, case study 16, is the other).
function independently of the house and
This design prioritises privacy and security,
the public street for domestic or other
as well as preferred front access and close
purposes, including home business. An
connections between the car and house; the
example is provided by the Oatlands devel-
only apparent trade–off is in the under–
opment, where the ‘mews’ rear access
sized access ways on the public side.
private roadway is lined with garage doors,
relieved, as an urban space, by studio units
Layout Type 2 (Rear Access): Case built above double garages (see text, p59).
studies 15–19 The additional studio unit that is sold with
the house provides passive surveillance of
Several examples of hybrid layouts use the the mews, and offers a live–work option, or
rear access system to provide parking separately lettable accommodation. (The
within the curtilage, including Seymour seventeen studios in this scheme are not
Road (case study 3), Sacramento 1A (case recorded as separate household units in the
study 17), Oatlands (case study18), Oates density figure of 37dph).
Road (case study 11), and Corban Village
(case study 4), in each case to locally The 32 units in two groups at the Edgelea
increase density and resolve site planning development are accessed from three sepa-
problems caused by the preferred front rate lanes linking garage courts to the
access type. public street network. The rear access
system is developed to the most sophisti-
Only two examples are planned to exploit cated standard seen in the case studies
the full advantages of the rear access type, reviewed. Reasons for the relative absence
Rowena Crescent (case study 15), and of this type in medium density develop-
Tuscany Way (case study 16). Rear access ments in New Zealand include:
alters the relationship of the car and garage
to the house, placing the working entrance i) density over about 40dph is difficult
on the ‘back’, and removing the vehicular to achieve because of the site space
access from the front, thus relieving the required for the rear lane;
street of traffic crossings for each house. ii) the cost of construction and
The layout type is strongly endorsed by maintenance of the rear lane;
New Urbanist planners, and many others, iii) the house type, which is expensive to
and attracts equal criticism from some build because of the necessarily high
medium density housing advocates. external wall to floor ratio and
additional internal space required for range in density from 52dph to 87dph (2
dual entry planning; Ambrico Place, case study 29). Type 1
iv) the non–traditional ground floor in layouts are displaced at a density of about
which the back door serves as the 50dph, with the exception of Gunner Drive
principal entrance from the garage; (case study 14; 61dph), which is an unsatis-
and factory housing environment in numerous
v) the unresolved dilemma of locating respects.
the kitchen and laundry. Examples The characteristics of Type 3 layouts are
include all possible variations of relatively low Floor Area Ratios, lower
kitchen location, the preference parking ratios, and significantly smaller
generally being for a location on the average unit sizes. With Type 3 layouts it is
garage side of the house for direct common to find moderately large projects
access to refuse disposal and use of with little or no variation of house type, for
the private rear garden for washing. example, Soljak Place (case study 24) and
Where the formal front elevation faces onto Holly Street (case study 22).
a pedestrian–oriented public space as at The layout type is therefore considered to
Oatlands, the front door, which tends to be be an option that suits higher density devel-
redundant in layouts without access to a opment in the private sector, where lower
public space, (for instance, Corban Village market expectations are established by
(case study 4) and Oates Road (case study location, and where little variation is
11)) can come into more frequent use. intended, and where the urban potential of
Short walking distances, and pedestrian the typology is not a priority.
routes to shops, schools and other services,
also help to justify the arrangement. The Layout Type 4: Case studies 30–34
advantages are in the formal relationship of
the house to the wider community, the The three storey house type, and its effect
urban qualities achievable, and the flexi- on site planning, has been discussed in the
bility of the house type. context of its role in predominantly two
storey front access layouts, as a device to
Three schemes reviewed, (case studies 17,
increase density, and variation in built
18 and 19) all at densities of less than
form. The five examples included here are
40dph, are hybrid layouts mixing front and
a small representative selection from a
rear access with integral and remote
large number of similar developments in
parking.
the Auckland area.
Layout Type 3: Case studies 20–29 From densities listed in the data chart it is
clear that this house type relates to high
Parking and car storage detached from the density rather than medium density
curtilage is regarded by developers and housing. The internal limitations of the
householders as a less convenient and less type have been considered in Section 3 and
secure arrangement. It is apparent from this commented on in case study notes, particu-
study that such sacrifices are justified by larly when the type has been used to
the developer as a trade–off against the increase density. In all such examples the
higher density achieved, and is acceptable position of first floor living spaces imposes
to some purchasers in terms of value and overlooking and reduced privacy on adja-
the quality of the housing environment cent two storey units. The ground level
offered. environment is invariably car–oriented,
unless the layout and density objectives
From the data chart it is apparent that the allow enough space for separate pedestrian
Type 3 (dedicated remote parking) layouts movement, as at Mokoia Road (case study
30); at this density (55dph) however, other house types include duplex or vertically
layout and house types are also options. arranged units, in a multi–storey develop-
On sloping sites the construction of ment with low parking ratios.
retaining walls for garaging, as at Mokoia
Road and Galway Street (case study 31), Vehicle Planning and Parking
introduces the principle of underground, or
part underground parking. At the highest The distinction between ‘building–domi-
density in the schemes reviewed, (Eden 1, nant’ and ‘landscape–dominant’ design
case study 34; 125dph), also on a sloping made originally by the Essex Design Guide
site, access and garaging are in effect (Stones, 1997) needs to be revisited in the
entirely underground, but not enclosed. context of New Zealand and Australian
Type 4 layouts are not considered useful in medium density housing to include a third
site planning for affordable housing at category, that of a ‘car–dominated’ envi-
densities of less than 66dph. It is also ronment. By observations from case
apparent from the examples of this layout studies, planning for the manoeuvring and
type reviewed that establishing any signifi- storage of, and access to the car, and the
cant public open space—the prerequisite domestic value of the garage as an exten-
for the development of a community—is sion of routine household activity are
not achievable at any level of density. considered to be central to the analysis of
the typology.
Summary
Many aspects of this issue have been dealt
The most successful developments with with in previous sections and the case study
Type 1 layouts are all at densities of less commentaries. Further points, of general
than 46dph. The terraced housing form in value, are made as follows:
New Zealand is an acceptable house type in i) Underground garaging: cars in
this density range, but works most effec- underground parking spaces relieve
tively in shorter terrace lengths of 6–8 the ground level environment of the
units, beyond which the tradition (in New presence of the car, and can
Zealand) of greater individual identity is transform the quality of the
difficult to retain. The long straight blocks residential environment. Case
at Tuscany Towers (case study 7) and studies 25, 26, 28 and 30 illustrate
Sacramento (case study 17) reflect Euro- this; all have achieved good
pean and British design rather than the standards of public space and privacy
developing local custom. The shorter rows at densities between 55dph and
at St Georges Terrace (case study 13), or 85dph. Progressive under–grounding
Arawa St (case study 10), and elevations as density increases is shown, by
varied in detail are examples of this recom- these developments, to be necessary,
mended local practice. from approximately 60dph in two
Small, secure garage courts are justified at storey housing.
all densities, and particularly above 45dph, ii) The Dutch ‘Woonerven’ integrated
in two storey layouts where density begins traffic and pedestrian design system
to require remote parking if good residen- may have some application in two
tial standards are to be retained. This may storey housing where a Type 2 layout
suggest rear access for some units. is used. There is a moderately high
Progressive undergrounding of parking is a maintenance penalty to consider with
consideration at densities over 55dph, and this design. The nearest examples
for the most satisfactory environments, a found in this study (to the model
requirement at densities over 60dph, unless developed in Holland) are Fontenoy
Road (case study 19), and variation of building style at Corban

Hillsborough Road (case study 28). Village (case study 4), the Harbour View
iii) Four wheel drive vehicles are in development (case studies 1, 14 and 16),
evidence on many sites investigated. and others.
These vehicles, which cannot usually
be accommodated in standard height Some of the schemes that embrace diver-
garages, tend to be parked outside sity of household type, and variations in
houses, where they block views, and external design, also, perhaps predictably,
dominate by bulky ‘presence’, and generate a lively, vibrant community,
by noise. Four wheel drive vehicles visible even from relatively brief site visits.
now represent 8% of private cars in
New Zealand (198,000 in total), are Comments on internal details are limited to
increasing in popularity, and present a small number of examples where access
a particular problem in medium was available, and cannot be regarded as
density housing design. Similar comprehensive in this study. Comments
remarks apply to ‘people–mover’ noted in the case studies are summarised as
vehicles based on one–tonne vans follows:
(Toyota Hiace, etc.), and the vans i) garages and ground floor toilets
themselves, owned and used for should not be accessed from living
commercial purposes. rooms or kitchens;
ii) internal routes for laundry and refuse
Mixed Development and Internal Design
need to be planned to avoid passing
A broad preference for a development through living rooms;
monoculture is evidenced by a large iii) kitchens should be ventilated and
majority of the schemes reviewed in the able to receive natural light by
private sector: there is an apparent reluc- location on external walls;
tance to experiment with mixing of house- iv) ground floor toilets in two–
hold sizes or types. In developments where bedroomed four person units are
a mix of types has applied, there is a desirable;
tendency to restrict the range to adjacent v) rear garden access should include
socio–economic groups, with no more than external pathways wherever
one or two steps between groups. Of the possible;
minority in the mixed category, Sacra- vi) more use should be made of first
mento (case studies 17 and 27), and floor single aspect house types to
Tuscany Towers (case study 7) are typical control overlooking;
of schemes offering housing to a narrow vii) single aspect two storey house types
social range. In smaller schemes the mono- based on courtyard front access plans
culture of a single house type is more should be considered;
pronounced (Soljak Place (case study 24),
viii) the actual higher building cost of
2 Ambrico Place (case study 29), Rowena
medium density housing needs to be
Crescent (case study 15), etc.). Repetition
recognised, particularly where
of house types, creating monotonous envi-
density exceeds 45dph.
ronments in some of these schemes, helps
to build the sense of crowdedness that char- In addition, the regular appearance of small
acterises the typology in the public mind. extra spaces within a house plan for
This perception occurs at all density levels, ‘study/office/sitting’ uses, including power
for instance Adelphi Villas (case study 2: points, telephone connections and
33dph) and 2 Ambrico Place (case study television aerials often in quiet corners or
29; 87dph), but is diverted by the constant first floor landing areas, is noted as a
reflection of changing domestic the upper end of the present scale: research
requirements. is needed to examine the costs and benefits
In several developments, semi–commer- of this option.
cial activities were observed during visits. iii) Technical aspects of sustainable
These generally consist of garages in use as
design, particularly energy consumption,
workshops with doors open for light and
air, and in one case several people working but also water services, in medium density
at sewing machines on tables and benches developments, needs further research to
set up for out–work or ‘work from home’ establish criteria for cost–effective insula-
business operations. Sub–letting of rooms tion methods, orientation, and construction
or garages is another common form of use, materials.
reflecting demographic change and new
patterns of work in New Zealand’s urban iv) Retained capital value is consid-
centres. Activities of this type are invisible ered to be a vital indicator in sustainable
in the suburbs, but are often conspicuous in medium density housing; a long–term
medium density housing. study that tracks re–sale prices relative to
local property values is needed to establish
Further Research similarities and differences.
This study has been restricted to the density v) Public acceptance of the typology
band between 30 and 66dph, in which the is known to be linked to the widespread
standard form of construction is two and ‘leaky homes’ problem, originating from
three storey housing using timber frames as the housing construction industry gener-
the primary structure. Medium density ally. A study to identify this issue in the
housing in other countries is now moving context of medium density housing would
towards multi–storey development at
aim to recommend design practices to
densities up to 120dph. In the context of
overcome the effects of association with
these two observations, the report has iden-
tified several areas that need further study: this problem.
i) Research is needed to relate costs vi) A more detailed study of internal

of construction to density to determine design of components and fittings is
steps in the density scale that are critical in needed to identify durable specifications in
the process of medium density affordable the context of medium density housing.
housing design. Access to as–built plans and construction
ii) Increasing density will require details would be necessary for such a study
consideration of underground garaging at to be effective.
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Canberra: RAIA Education Division. Terraced House. New Haven: Yale
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NSW, Sydney: Department of Urban
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Elizabeth Plater Zyberk: Towns and Department of Urban Affairs and
Town Making Principles. New York: Planning.
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New South Wales Urban Design Advisory
Kunstler, J. H. (1994). The Geography of Service (2001). The Residential Flat
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Towns and Traffic. London: Faber
North Shore City Council (2001). Good and Faber.
Solutions Guide for Intensive Resi-
dential Developments, North Shore Vallance, S., Perkins, H. and Moore, K.
City: North Shore City Council. (2003). The Effects of Infill Housing
on Neighbours in Christchurch,
Perkins, H. and Thorns, D. (1999). “House Christchurch: Lincoln University.
and Home and Their Interaction with
Changes in New Zealand’s Urban Victoria Department of Planning and
System, Households and Family Housing (1992). Victorian Code for
Structures”. Housing, Theory and Residential Development—Multi–
Society 16 pp124–135. Dwellings, Melbourne: Victorian
Department of Planning and
Plunz, R. and Sheridan, M. (1999). “Dead- Housing.
lock Plus 50; on Public Housing in
New York”. Harvard Design Maga- Victorian Department of Planning and
zine, Summer 1999. Urban Growth (1990). Medium
Density Housing 1990, by Tract
Radford, A. and Sarris, T. (2003). “Trends Consultants, Swinburne Centre for
and Strategies in the Design of Urban and Social Research and
Medium Density Urban Housing”. Sarkissian Associates. Melbourne:
Victorian Department of Planning &
Radford, A. and Sarris, T. (2003). Afford-
Urban Growth.
able Medium Density Housing Solu-
tions for Adelaide, Adelaide: Yates, J. (2003). A Distributional Analysis
Australian Housing and Urban of the Impact of Indirect Housing
Research Institute, Southern Assistance, Sydney: Australian
Research Centre. Housing and Urban Research
Institute.
Rapoport, A. (1975). “Towards a Redefini-
tion of Density”. Environment and
Behaviour 7(2), pp7–32.
Rapoport, A. (1985). “Designing for Diver-
sity”. In D. Brown, B. Judd, and J.
Dean, (eds) Design for Diversifica-
tion. RAIA, Education Division:
Canberra; Portland, OR. pp30–42.
Regional Growth Forum (2003). Auckland
Regional Affordable Housing
Strategy, Auckland: Auckland
Regional Council.
Stones, A., Ed. (1997). Essex Design Guide
for Residential and Mixed Use Areas.
Chelmsford: Essex County Council;
see also editions of this Guide from
the original publication dated 1973.
General Media References

Gibson, A. (2003). “Dream of an Urban
Barton, C. (2004). “Escape from the Paradise”. New Zealand Herald.
Ghetto”. New Zealand Herald. Auckland.
Auckland. Gibson, A. (2004). “Housing Market under
Berry, R. (2004). “Govt Calls for Councils Scrutiny”. New Zealand Herald.
to Introduce Low–Cost Zones”. New Auckland.
Zealand Herald. Auckland. Gibson, A. (2004). “End of the Quarter
Beston, A. (2003). “Snapshot of Life in the Acre Paradise”. New Zealand
Big City”. New Zealand Herald. Herald. Auckland.
Auckland. Gibson, A. (2004). “Auckland’s Growing
Chapman–Smith (1993). “The Future Style Pains”. New Zealand Herald.
of Infill Housing”. Architecture NZ, Auckland.
May–June 1993, pp77–78. Hawley, J. (2003). “Humungous”. Good
Chapple, I. (2001). “Developers Have Cafe Weekend. Sydney.
Set Firmly in Their Sights”. New Jacques, R. (1999). “Co–Housing—the
Zealand Herald. Auckland. New Suburbia?” Build. Wellington.
Cumming, G. (2003). “The Big Squeeze”. Johnston, A. (2003). “Setting up Your
New Zealand Herald. Auckland. 01– Body Corporate”. Build, April/May
02/11/2003. 2003, pp60–61.
Dey, B. (2003). “Security Issues: The Rise Kohler, A. (2004). “Land of Confusion”.
of the Gated Community”. Metro Progressive Building,
(NZ). Auckland. February/March 2004, pp24–25.
du Chateau, C. (2001). “Little Boxes”. New Ledbury, M. (2003). “Reviving Our Urban
Zealand Herald. Auckland. Centres”. NZ Environment, 39, pp6–
Editorial (2003). “Act Now to Halt Urban 8.
Free–for–All”. New Zealand Herald. McLeister, D. (1999). “Consumers Favour
Auckland. Growth, Oppose Density”. Profes-
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References 93
Turner, D. (2001). “Better Design, Layout,

Vital for High–Density Housing”.
New Zealand Herald. Auckland.
Turner, D. (2003). “In Defence of
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Australian. Melbourne.
Appendix A
Local Authority
Intensive
Housing Policies
in Metropolitan
Auckland
NORTH SHORE CITY COUNCIL Generally it is two–storeyed, though three

storeys are also possible. Densities will not
2
District Plan & Plan Change 1 exceed one unit per 150m of land area.
Plan Change 1 updates policies dealing Intensive housing developments must be

with intensive housing. The location of on sites that are capable of providing the
medium density housing is required to be desired environmental outcomes, bearing
within easy walking distance of shops in mind their shape, size and location rela-
including proposed shops, (defined as tive to other public facilities. Because less
offering a “wide range of goods and open space is usually a concomitant of
services”); public transport (defined as intensive housing, the design detail is of
four or more trips/hour at peak periods); greater significance, as well as the shape
and public open space for recreation. Easy and size of the site proposed for
walking distance includes some recogni- development.
tion of topography, while public open Section 2 of Plan Change 1 deals with
spaces may vary in character and not all improving subdivision processes.
reserves provide all recreational opportuni-
ties. It is noted that existing retail benefits Referring to Area ‘D’ applications, (for
from greater density of population. ‘varied residential and mixed use overlay
areas’) Plan Change 1 requires a Concept
Roads serving new medium density Plan that addresses all aspects of macro
housing must provide the opportunity for planning of roads, parking, and public open
“significant” visitor parking, community space in relation to new housing proposals.
services, and essential public infrastruc- On–street parking must be provided at the
ture, including refuse collection. There are, rate of 0.5 per unit proposed, and by the
in addition, a series of urban design objec- arrangement of indented bays that do not
tives listed in the Plan Change, item 1.1.3. effectively widen the street when not in
Amongst these, and continued in paragraph use. The following section (including
1.1.4, is the stipulation that medium amended Table 17A.1) provides for varia-
density housing sites should enable “all tions to previous District Plan(s) to revise
residential units to face or relate closely to categories for sizes of unit lots and recog-
public streets”, and be capable of forming nising smaller areas. This results in a revi-
relationships with “nearby properties and sion to Table 17A.3 which now stipulates
public areas.” This requirement is to “Density” defined as minimum net site
prevent spatial separation of new neigh- area per residential unit of 1 unit per 250m
2
bourhoods, even if built at higher densities, in Area D, and 1 unit per 250m in the
2
from existing ones; to “facilitate the inte- previous category of mixed use overlay
gration of the development.” area, in place of nil. The definition of
Plan Change 1 observes that: density is determined as “the net site area
of the site being developed divided by the
“Quite significant adverse effects, number of units proposed.”
both immediate and cumulative, can
arise, and accordingly intensive resi- Further amendments allow for redistribu-
dential development warrants a tion of public and private open space, to
distinct objective and associated permit communal space in lieu of, but not
policies.” wholly in place of, private open space: this
allows for and encourages the development
Plan Change 1 defines “intensive housing” of medium density housing with commu-
as terraced housing and other forms of nally owned, and useful, park areas sepa-
multi–unit development generally rate from traffic spaces. A minimum area
2
involving more than five units on a site. of 200m is accepted, at a minimum rate per
2
dwelling of 25m ; design and management and 1999 would meet the criteria now
of the public space is to be approved in the established in this Plan Change 1
process of consent. document.
Regarding vehicle access, Plan Change 1 Privacy, in particular, is relevant to any
replaces previous regulations with a rule study of medium density housing design.
that not more than five units will be Other authorities, and commentators,
permitted access from a single private measure privacy by fixed minimum
driveway, defining at the same time (4.2: distance, as well as by other means. North
rule 17A.5.1.10(d)) requirements for Shore City Council define acceptable stan-
pedestrian access, street frontages (at least dards of privacy in general terms, referring
two habitable rooms facing directly onto only to “acceptable” levels, as in
the street), and reinforcing urban design
intentions inherent in the intensive housing “...private outdoor spaces should be
development process. located, designed and screened to
maximise privacy for unit
Thus, in explanation, occupants.”
“...units fronting the street contribute All designers will acknowledge the value
to the liveability of the principal of this intention, and the difficulty of
public space in a residential area. achieving a good standard in these terms
They foster a sense of ownership of when the most common block form is a
the street, and where doors and terraced plan of connected units, of what-
windows face or front the street, resi- ever height, and at whatever density.
dents can observe and overlook the
street, thereby enhancing the North Shore City Council also notes the
personal security of people in the significance of refuse and recycling collec-
street.” tion systems, and requires a “well inte-
grated” provision, which is readily
Additional criteria for assessing all inten- accessible by service vehicles, and which
sive housing development include the will not “detract visually or generate health
following: risks in the area.”
Streetscape and neighbourhood
character and amenity MANUKAU CITY COUNCIL
Building form
Outlook and outdoor spaces Operative District Plan 2002: Chapter
Privacy 13: Residential Areas
Landform, vegetation and
landscaping Six issues relating to Manukau City Coun-
Traffic, parking, access and cil’s residential areas have been identified
pedestrian amenity for further discussion, including:
Each of these headings is explained in Issue 13.2.2:
greater detail. Together they demonstrate
North Shore City Council’s determination “Intensified residential development
to bring high standards to the environment can enhance the efficient use of the
of future medium density housing or inten- City’s infrastructure … and create
sive housing proposals. energy savings, but it also has the
potential to cause adverse effects on
Testing some of the individual develop- residential amenity values.”
ments studied in the case study section of
this Report, it can be stated that few of the Discussion advises that it is difficult to
schemes built in the period between 1995 determine the cumulative effect of
intensification on residential amenity. Density rules are also used in the Main
Referring to the Victorian Code for Multi– Residential Zone (MR) so that “residents
dwellings (Nov. 1993), the discussion have certainty about the potential of devel-
concludes that reasonable levels of amenity opment on any adjoining site.”
can be provided by appropriate design
In higher density areas, the Council
input: design quality is the critical factor.
reserves rights over the following:
Intensification also alters the existing char- (a) Neighbourhood design, street
acter of an area, and is widely resisted by layout, street frontages, vehicle access,
existing communities. public open space, and parking and land-
Issue 13.2.6 scaping provision.
This relates to the (current) lack of diver- (b) Site design including front yards,
sity in residential environments, which front doors, back yards, balconies, building
limits different lifestyle options for current envelope and frontages, landscape &
and future generations. Manukau City vehicular access.
Council’s population is becoming increas- (c) Servicing.
ingly diverse. The present patterns of tradi-
tional subdivision, albeit at slightly higher In all these developments the Council will
densities, may be market lead, but may also have regard to all elements of the intensive
be encouraged by current development housing code (App. 1)(p51).
standards and policies. These policies Appendix 1 covers two sections, A and B,
appear to limit choice in housing, as well as dealing with Neighbourhood Design, and
limiting choices for a culturally and Site Design respectively (as listed above,
socially diversified population, and choices and p80–102). The Design Code outlines a
in terms of transport options other than the comprehensive set of urban design princi-
private car. ples including street design, street front-
ages, development interfaces (with
In outlining the Residential Strategy, the
existing: height to boundary regulations),
document quotes from studies referred to
and general rules for traffic management
in the AMCORD Urban 1 1992 in which:
within larger sites. Typically, Public Open
“...no single form can achieve all Space is described as needing to protect
environmental, social justice, significant landscape features, to protect
economic and lifestyle privacy of dwellings, and to be designed to
requirements...” ensure a high degree of public surveillance
of the space proposed (p90). Public Open
and that Space should therefore be adjacent to
public streets (rather than tucked behind
“...the most acceptable approach housing), and should avoid back yards
seems to be selectively making cities adjacent to it. In the same vein, public
more compact, to increase housing parking is endorsed on secondary streets,
variety (and) access.” (p13). and in positions where security is provided
by overlooking.
In a strategy to moderate the impact of
higher density housing on existing low Streets must not be dominated by parking
density suburbs, Manukau City Council or by garage doors, “to conserve and
uses a “special policy zone” applied to very enhance neighbourhood landscape visual
small pockets of land around the Botany amenity values.” (p92). Privacy is deter-
Centre (only), requiring net site areas of mined by sections B3 and B4, where details
2
400m . A special design code applies to such as fences and balconies are recom-
these areas. mended, and privacy distances between
buildings are proposed: 12m between Residential 8 zone, introduced in 2003, is

facing frontages, and 20m between backs applicable to Strategic Growth Manage-
of dwellings set around a 10m radius circle ment Areas (SGMA’s). (pA17). This zone
determining acceptable relationships. applies to sites of 1 ha. or more, and antici-
Where two separate dwellings meet at a pates 2 and 3 storey buildings in the 8(a)
corner and at an angle of 135 deg. or less, a areas, and 3–4 storeys in the 8(b) areas
4m distance is required between windows. which will generally be within five minutes
Side yards are reduced to nil metres in this walking distance of a town centre or major
code. transport centre. Development controls are
Section B7 deals with car parking, limited to overshadowing, overlooking,
including dimensions for shared driveways visual domination and loss of privacy. The
for horizontal and vertical standards of Residential Design Guide applies to this
amenity. zone in order to achieve quality medium to
high density development.
AUCKLAND CITY COUNCIL Density limitations included in zone 8(a)
and (b) propose a minimum of 150m2 of
District Plan operative 1999 gross site area per unit (8a) and 100m2 in
zone 8(b); in all areas a minimum of 40m2
The Plan acknowledges that there are few of floor space is required per unit. (pB25).
sites left in the city for traditional subdivi- This lower limit is supported by regulations
sion, and therefore addresses the need for dealing with Maximum Building
residential growth in terms of infrastruc- Coverage, para. 7.8.1.4 (pC8); allowing
ture limitation, and the concerns of the 55% coverage for sites up to 200m2, and a
community to preserve and enhance the sliding scale reducing to 35% for sites
existing character of residential areas. between 200– 499m2. Further controls are
(pA4). exercised through the Maximum Height
regulations, para 7.8.2.2 (pC13), as
Residential zones 1–5 are either special outlined above.
character or low density areas, although
some higher density development may be Visual privacy is ensured at a minimal level
permitted in Zone 5. Zones 6–8 are of operational usefulness by off set dimen-
medium and high density areas. Zone 6(b) sions for windows facing each other less
2
provides for sites down to 300m per resi- than 6m apart by 1m vertical or horizontal
dential unit, with 2 height limits applied to re–alignment, or other devices including
differing contexts. cill heights and glazing options. Acoustic
privacy is addressed in similarly minimal
Residential 7 is called “High Intensity”, the
policy providing for regulations, including external traffic
noise. (pC18–19). Parking standards are
“minimal development controls … similar to those elsewhere in the Auckland
while affording appropriate protec- region, allowing 1 space per unit up to
tion on the interface with lower 75m2, and 2 spaces + 0.2 visitor spaces per
intensity .. zones.” unit for all larger dwellings. Up to 100m
distance is permitted for visitor spaces.
Two height limits, of 10m and 12.5m
presuppose 3 and 4 storey developments, Innovative housing development is antici-
respectively, in order to “facilitate more pated on large sites, and in combination
intensive development in areas near major with mixed uses including housing other
public transport routes, … commercial than standard use types (elderly persons
centres, ” (etc.). housing, etc). (7.7.4., pB11).
Interpretations and Definitions explains with the proposal that “a reasonable degree
Floor Area Ratio (FAR), as the gross floor of privacy in … dwellings” can be achieved
area of building proposed, divided by the by back to back dimensions of 16m
site area defined as exclusive of adjoining between upper level windows and 10m
roads (that is, area to site boundary rather between ground floor windows; in other
than the net residential calculation used by details, the Waitakere City Council guide
AMCORD), and Gross Floor Area details. adopts identical separating dimensions
between adjacent houses as the Manukau
WAITAKERE CITY COUNCIL City Council guide.
In addition, the Waitakere City Council
The principal documents relating to the
recommendations include the advice that
Waitakere City Council’s policy on
windows of kitchens and living rooms
Medium Density Housing are:
should not overlook adjacent private open
1) WCC medium density housing criteria: space, which is also defined as minimum
an 18 page sub–section of the District Plan areas for different sized houses and units.
setting out criteria designed to ensure that
such housing developments “provide a Parking and garaging are advised with a
positive contribution to the character and view to ensuring safety of vehicle move-
amenity of residential areas”, and dealing ment and to enhance street quality. In this
with 8 separately headed areas of design; section, the Guide considers rear service
lanes as a “last resort”, particularly
2) WCC developers’ design guide for resi- “through” lanes which are seen as a secu-
dential subdivision and medium density rity hazard, and are required to have front
housing, (1998), a 59 page illustrated door access and visitor parking on the
recommended practice guide intended to street side of the dwelling if used in
advise developers, residents, and designers medium density housing layouts. The clear
on matters relating both to subdivision and objection in the Guide to rear access
the urban qualities attainable through the reflects a legitimate concern for street
process of higher density housing. design where access is reversed in such a
This Guide has 3 sections covering (i) way that the street itself is a back lane space
subdivision design; (ii) design elements for lacking interest, casual surveillance, and
medium density housing; (iii) house types. active frontage.
The Guide makes recommendations in In the third section the Guide House Types
considerable detail for narrow lot widths, are outlined in detail, covering varying
living room surveillance of the street, and orientation of types, mixed use types, and
active street frontages. It advises lot widths corner lot design preferences. There is no
for single and double garages, and allows attempt to relate house types to layout vari-
upper level living rooms where views are ations, or to density.
possible, and minimum lot depths (22m)
The Waitakere City Council approach to
for north and west facing sites, and 18m for
medium density housing is an “effects–
south or east facing sites (entrance side).
based” one, in accordance with the inten-
The Guide refers, with the same diagram- tions and principles of the Resource
matic control detail as used in the North Management Act. Density is not used by
Shore City Council’s Guide (see above), to the policy–making group of the City Coun-
height to boundary requirements for cil’s planning section as a regulating tool
adjoining pre–existing developments, for judgements or guidance in the
anticipating the difficulty of stitching processing of housing developments, other
medium density housing into the existing than as a rough estimating device at an
suburban landscape. Privacy is addressed early stage, here based on square metres
per unit proposed rather than in dwellings

per hectare.
The guide is a comprehensive and detailed
handbook for good design in this housing
typology, recognising the essentially urban
character of higher density housing, and
addressing the principal differences
between medium density housing and
traditional suburban layout.

Medium Density Housing

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Medium Density Housing

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Best practice in medium

density housing design

Best practice in medium

(19) Fontenoy Road, Macquarie Park, Sydney 60

MEDIUM DENSITY HOUSING:  development values will be retained

diverse, socially active community, Medium density housing in New

more positively in the medium den-

10. Medium density housing in New

In future, increasing numbers of New

INTRODUCTION in countries comparable to New Zealand,

LITERATURE REVIEW design a solution that overcomes all

housing typology in Melbourne and well designed medium density

of fortress–like gated developments, and developments density is often much higher

conversion of building systems, design densities than ‘medium’ density housing as

(Housing New Zealand Corporation, 2002b)

A NEW ZEALAND DEFINITION OF The extended definition that generally

medium density housing, without using (b) density is a human perception,

setting in terms of privacy, .. the windows and doors, construct a passive

Prasad and Ballinger, 1996 p66), and a

generally experimented in a comparable practice in medium density housing. This

This section examined key design issues

CASE STUDIES: METHODOLOGY Methodology

Site Selection ‘medium’ density (30–66 dph) were

Multi-development Sites Since severe slopes tend to distort other

approximate indicator of market value in although infrequent, may have to be toler-

development incorporates underground

3 Tuscany Towers (case study 7): Waitakere

Case Study Conventions Case Study Data

1. quality of the public environment Terminology or abbreviations used for

(1) VINOGRAD MEWS, HARBOUR VIEW,

Vinograd Mews is a small development of nineteen houses

19 2.20 5,742 179 302 33 .59

(2) ADELPHI VILLAS, EAST TAMAKI,

For reasons of typicality this project is included to repre-

30 2.30 8,135 142 271 37 0.52

(3) SEYMOUR ROAD, SUNNYVALE,

The development occupies land not previously built on,

89 2.08 24,600 118 273 37 0.43

(4) CORBAN VILLAGE, HENDERSON,

The layout is based on two separate design principles: a

83 2.20 20,686 249 40

(5) FAIRHAVEN, GLEN EDEN, WAITAKERE

This scheme was started in 1999, and is now being

98 2.30 24,728 141 252 40 .56

(6) ROMOLA STREET, GLENDOWIE,

This small development is part of the regeneration of the

13 2.10 3,140 176 242 41 0.73

(7) TUSCANY TOWERS, AMBRICO PLACE, NEW

97 2.44* 23,017 130* 237 42 0.61

(8) MELVIEW, AMBRICO PLACE, NEW LYNN,

This variation is the only semi–courtyard house type

22 2.18 2,768 126 227 44 1.00

(9) ALBION VALE, SUNNYVALE, WAITAKERE

The majority of units in this scheme are two storey three

94 2.23 20,800 115 221 45 0.52

(10) ARAWA STREET, NEW LYNN, WAITAKERE

The development is one of the early new generation

19 1.70 4,168 112 219 46 0.51

(11) OATES ROAD, GLEN EDEN, WAITAKERE

The density at 51dph and a FAR of 0.55 places the layout in

25 2.00 4,941 108 198 51 0.55

(12) MT TAYLOR DRIVE, GLENDOWIE

Redevelopment in the area around Madeleine Avenue in

MEDIUM DENSITY HOUSING: development values will be retained