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 Non polar Covalent Compounds

Introduction to Covalent Bonding:

Bonding between non-metals consists of two electrons shared between two atoms. In covalent
bonding, the two electrons shared by the atoms are attracted to the nucleus of both atoms.
Neither atom completely loses or gains electrons as in ionic bonding.

There are two types of covalent bonding:

1. Non-polar bonding with an equal sharing of electrons.

2. Polar bonding with an unequal sharing of electrons. The number of shared electrons depends
on the number of electrons needed to complete the octet.

NON-POLAR BONDING results when two identical non-metals equally share electrons

between them. One well known exception to the identical atom rule is the combination of
carbon and hydrogen in all organic compounds.

IODINE:

Iodine forms a diatomic non-polar covalent molecule. The graphic on the top left shows that
iodine has 7 electrons in the outer shell. Since 8 electrons are needed for an octet, two iodine
atoms EQUALLY share 2 electrons.
OXYGEN:

Molecules of oxygen, present in about 20% concentration in air are also a covalent molecules .
See the graphic on the left the Lewis symbols.

There are 6 electrons in the outer shell, therefore, 2 electrons are needed to complete the octet.
The two oxygen atoms share a total of four electrons in two separate bonds, called double
bonds.

The two oxygen atoms equally share the four electrons.

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How do you determine if a bond is non-polar covalent or polar covalent or ionic?

Given below is the difference in electronegativity of any two elements:

 0.0-0.4 = nonpolar covalent bond

 0.4-1.7 = polar covalent bond
 >1.7 = ionic bond
 For ex. Sodium and Chlorine (Na and Cl)
 Sodium's electronegativity = 0.93
 Chlorine's electronegativity = 3.16
 So, 3.16-0.93 = 2.23 which means NaCl bond is an ionic bond

Answer:
When differentiating between covalent (molecular) or ionic, the type of elements
in the compound decides which it is. Covalent bonds are between non-metals only.
Ionic bonds are between a metal and a non-metal.

Covalent bonds can either be polar or non-polar. You could determine this with the
known electronegativities of the elements. First you have to represent the molecule
by any means necessary (Lewis Dot Structure, lines, etc). This isn't nesessary for a
compound with two atoms. Once drawn, you will know which atoms are bonded to
the other atoms in the molecule. Then you look at the electronegativities for each
element in one bond. If one atom's element has a higher electronegativity value
than the other, then the bond is polar. If they are the same, then the bond is non-
polar.

The reason a bond would be polar is because one atom has a higher
electronegativity value, which means that the element has more attraction to
electrons than the other. If it is attracting electrons more than the other, then the
electrons are spending more time one one side. The disparity of electron
distribution causes one side to be slightly negative (δ-) and the other to be slightly
positive (δ+).

Diatomic molecule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A space-filling model of the diatomic molecule dinitrogen, N2.

Diatomic molecules are molecules composed only of two atoms, of either the same or different chemical elements. The prefix di- means two in Greek.

Common diatomic molecules are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide. Most elements aside from the noble gases form diatomic

molecules when heated, but high temperatures—sometimes thousands of kelvins—are often required.
 Contents

 [hide]

1 Occurrence

2 Molecular geometry

3 Historical significance

4 Energy levels

o 4.1 Translational energies

o 4.2 Rotational energies

o 4.3 Vibrational energies

o 4.4 Comparison between rotational and vibrational

energy spacings

5 Further reading

6 See also

7 Notes and references

8 External links

[edit]Occurrence

Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been characterized [1] in the terrestrial environment, laboratory, and interstellar medium. About 99% of the Earth's

atmosphere is composed of diatomic molecules, specifically oxygen and nitrogen at 21 and 78%, respectively. The natural abundance of hydrogen

(H2) in the Earth's atmosphere is only on the order of parts per million, but H 2 is, in fact, the most abundant diatomic molecule seen in nature. The

interstellar medium is, indeed, dominated by hydrogen atoms.

Elements that consist of diatomic molecules, under typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C, include hydrogen (H 2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2),

and the halogens. Relative to the other halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine), astatine is so rare, with its most stable isotope having a half-

life of only 8.3 hours, that it is usually not considered. [2] Again, many other diatomics are possible and form when elements are heated to their gaseous

states, but these diatomic species repolymerize at lower temperatures. For example, heating ("cracking") elemental phosphorus givesdiphosphorus.

In most diatomic molecules, the elements are nonidentical. Prominent examples include carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen chloride.

If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as H 2 and O2, then it is said to be homonuclear, but otherwise it is

heteronuclear, such as with CO or NO. The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar and covalent.

[edit]Molecular geometry

Main article: molecular geometry

Diatomic molecules cannot have any geometry but linear, as any two points always lie in a line. This is the simplest spatial arrangement of atoms after

the sphericity of single atoms.[3].

[edit]Historical significance

Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the

most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules. John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that

all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For

example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of

about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.

As early as 1805, Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, and by

1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the

assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860. Part of this rejection was due to the belief that

atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity towards atoms of the same element, and part was due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law

that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules.

At the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress on atomic weights, Cannizzaro resurrected Avogadro's ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic

weights, which mostly agree with modern values. These weights were an important pre-requisite for the discovery of the periodic law by Dmitri

Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer.[4]

[edit]Energy levels

It is convenient, and common, to represent a diatomic molecule as two point masses (the two atoms) connected by a massless spring. The energies

involved in the various motions of the molecule can then be broken down into three categories.

 The translational energies

 The rotational energies

 The vibrational energies

[edit]Translational energies

The translational energy of the molecule is simply given by the kinetic energy expression:

where m is the mass of the molecule and v is its velocity.

[edit]Rotational energies

Classically, the kinetic energy of rotation is

where

 is the angular momentum

  is the moment of inertia of the molecule

For microscopic, atomic-level systems like a molecule, angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by

where l is a non-negative integer and   is Planck's reduced constant.

Also, for a diatomic molecule the moment of inertia is

where

 is the reduced mass of the molecule and

 is the average distance between the two atoms in the molecule.

So, substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into E rot, the rotational energy

levels of a diatomic molecule are given by:

[edit]Vibrational energies

Another way a diatomic molecule can move is to have each atom oscillate - or vibrate -

along a line (the bond) connecting the two atoms. The vibrational energy is

approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator:

where

n is an integer

h is Planck's constant and

f is the frequency of the vibration.

[edit]Comparison between rotational and vibrational

energy spacings

The lowest rotational energy level of a diatomic molecule occurs for l =

0 and gives Erot = 0. For O2, the next highest quantum level (l = 1) has an

energy of roughly:
 This spacing between the lowest two rotational energy levels of

O2 is comparable to that of a photon in the microwave region of

the electromagnetic spectrum.

The lowest vibrational energy level occurs for n = 0, and a typical

vibration frequency is 5 x 1013 Hz. Doing a calculation similar to

that above gives:

So the spacing, and the energy of a typical spectroscopic

transition, between vibrational energy levels is about 100

times greater than that of a typical transition

between rotational energy levels.

The simplest molecule possible is the H2+ molecular ion.  It consists of two

protons and one electron.  Assume that you could arbitrarily fix the distance
between the protons.  When the distance between the protons goes to
infinity then they do no longer interact.  The ground state energy of the
system will be -13.6 eV, when the electron forms a hydrogen atom with one
of the protons.  When the distance between the protons is on the order of
nuclear dimensions then the electron will see a nucleus of charge Z=2.  The
binding energy of the electron in the ground state will be -54.4 eV, the
binding energy of the electron in the He+ ion.  The electron will be more
strongly bound, but the protons will also repel each other strongly, so that
the total energy of the system will be positive.  As the distance between the
protons is varied, the total energy of the ground state reaches a minimum
for a certain value of the distance.  This explains the stability of the
H2+ molecular ion.

In order to treat the problem exactly, one must solve the eigenvalue
equation of the three particle system.  However, it is possible to simplify
the problem by using the Born-Oppenheimer approximation.  The mass of
the electron is much smaller than the mass of the protons, therefore the
electron moves much more quickly than the protons.  The electronic
wavefunction adapts itself nearly instantaneously to any change in the inter-
nuclear distance r.  At any inter-nuclear distance r the Hamiltonian
describing the nuclear motion therefore contains the terms associated with
the kinetic energy of the nuclei, the nucleus-nucleus interaction, and the
total energy of the electron at that inter-nuclear distance.  The nuclei move
in an effective potential

   .

To find Eelectron(r) the eigenvalue equation of the Hamiltonian of the electron,

subject to the attraction of two fixed protons, must be solved.  The
distance r between the protons is treated as a parameter, not as a quantum
mechanical variable.  For the H2+ molecular ion this eigenvalue equation can
be solved exactly by choosing appropriate coordinates.  If the inter-nuclear
axis is the z-axis, then we have already shown that Lz and the parity are
good quantum numbers, but that L2 is not a good quantum number for the
energy eigenstates. (Seenotes.)  For other diatomic molecules with more
than one electron, approximation methods must be used.  But for all stable
diatomic molecules we find that  has a minimum at
a certain value of the inter-nuclear distance r.  Veff(r) for is H2+ shown in the
figure below.
In stable equilibrium position, the two atoms in a diatomic molecule are separated by a certain distance r0. This distance is called intermolecular distance or bond
length.
Let us imagine the diatomic molecule as a system of two tiny spheres at either end of a thin weightless rod.
Let C be the centre of mass of the molecule. Let r1 and r2 be the distances of the two atoms from the centre of mass C of the molecule.

Now, r1 + r2 = r0 ---------- (1)

and m1r1 = m2r2 ---------- (2)
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two atoms.
From equation (1)
r2 = r0 - r1
From equation (2)
m1r1 = m2 (r0- r1) or m1r1 = m2r0 - m2r1

Let I be the moment of inertia of the diatomic molecule about an axis passing through the centre of mass of the molecule and perpendicular to bond length.

Therefore, moment of inertia of a diatomic molecule about an axis passing through the centre of the diatomic molecule and perpendicular to bond length, is the
product of reduced mass of the molecule and the square of bond length.

The standard hydrogen

electrode
has hydrogen gas bubbling into a solution containing
hydrogen ions. 
More exactly, the standard hydrogen electrode is:
Pt|H2(p = 1 atm) | H+(a = 1.00)
The pressure of the hydrogen gas bubbling over the platinum back foil is 1
atm.
Although we speak of a 1.00 mol L−1 H+ soln, it is more exact to speak of a
H+ soln with an activity of 1.00

By convention, the potential of the hydrogen electrode is assigned a value

of 0.000 V at all temperatures.

Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

Arbitrary reference system: 

Standard Conditions :
H+(aq) 1 mol·l-1 (pH = 0)

H2 (g) 1atm E0 = : 0 (per definition)

T = 25°C

Symbolism : 

In the hydrogen electrode, hydrogen gas is bubbled over metallic platinum immersed in an
aqueous solution containing hydronium cations. Platinum is a noble metal which is inert and
which only serves to establish the electric contact with the solution. The redox couple in question
is only H+/H2. In order to ensure a saturated layer of hydrogen adsorbed at the platinum surface, a
continuous flow of molecular hydrogen is maintained around the electrode. The gas pressure is
maintained at 1 atmosphere, and the concentration of the H+ cations (in reality H3O+) at 1 mol l-
1
 (pH = 0). The temperature is fixed at 25°C, in order to respect standard conditions.
Consequently, the potential of this electrode is the standard potential, and this potential is taken
as a reference and defined to be equal to zero volt.
If this electrode is paired with another electrode (also under standard conditions), the standard
redox potential of the redox couple constituting the second electrode can be determined.

   
The Hydrogen Electrode Home

The hydrogen electrode is easy to build. All that is What's New?

required is to bubble hydrogen through an acid solution
of known pH so that it is saturated with hydrogen.  An Electrochemistry
(ideal) noble metal electrode is placed into the solution. Resources
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this information?

Platinized platinum is generally used to insure a large

electrochemical surface area and rapid equilibrium
conditions. The pressure of the hydrogen must also be
known. Fairly detailed construction details are given ( Ref
1, Ref 2 ) in several texts.

The potential is given by the Nernst equation:

2 H+ + 2e- --> H2
   
E = Eo - RT/2F ln P(H2) / a(H+)2
SHE - Thermodynamically sound! But . . .

The Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is officially the 0.0V

thermodynamic reference point for all potential measurements
at all temperatures. It is easy to define, but not convenient to
implement rigorously.

How much acid do you need to make a solution with a=1? 

Compton & Sanders ( 3 ) suggest [H+] = 1.18M, but that
number will be different for sulfuric and hydrochloric acids since
the activity coefficients are different.

Things are not much better when you think about the partial
pressure of hydrogen. The vapor pressure of water is about 25
mm Hg at room temperature. So, even if the barometric
pressure is 760 mm Hg, the partial pressure of water saturated
hydrogen is only 735 mm Hg!

Using 1M H+ and using a total pressure of one atmosphere each

only contribute about 5mV error.  The errors are in opposite
directions, so they tend to cancel.

NHE - A Synonym?

The SHE is also sometimes called the NHE,

for Normal Hydrogen Electrode. "Normal" makes me think of
the NCE, "Normal Calomel Electrode," which is filled with
1N KCl. I suspect that many have made that association. 
Luckily, the potential difference between 1M ( or 1N ) HCl and
HCl @ a=1 is small.

In the tables on this web site, I have used NHE because that is

the way the majority of the references cited have listed the
potentials.

RHE - A Practical Reference!

The Reversible Hydrogen Electrode (RHE) is a fairly practical

and reproducible electrode "standard."  The term refers to a
hydrogen electrode immersed in the electrolyte solution
actually used. I would assume that the total pressure
(notpartial pressure of hydrogen) is one atmosphere. This
electrode is the favorite of those who study hydrogen UPD on Pt
electrodes in H2SO4. No extraneous ions are introduced, and the
hydrogen has to be there anyway!

A Reversible Hydrogen Electrode is available commercially

from Gaskatel.  This clever design fills the inside of the
electrode body with hydrogen. They use a carbon supported
platinum catalyst as a gas diffusion electrode that is in contact
with the fixed pressure hydrogen atmosphere on the inside and
the solution on the outside. Contact the manufacturer for more
details.