TOTALITARIAN and AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES Juan J. Linz2 TOTALITARIAN SYSTEMS “Toward a Definition of Totaearianism Th view ofthe central place ia the study of modern noncompetitive de hora regimes of totalitarianism it soems useful to start with some PSPs steady classical defantons ofttaiarian systems and, after resenting them, atempt to push our knowledge somewhat farther rong the ines derived fiom the criticism they have been subject f0 (anicke, 1971; Fvdrich, 1954; Feedech and Brzezinski 1965, 8 ‘Neumann, 1942; Aton, 1968; Buchheim, 19688; Schapico, 19723, 0Tzb, Seidel and Jenkner, 1968), Carl Friedich has recenly re formulated the orignal descriptive definition he and Z, K. Brzezins (0965) had formule, inthe following Way’ ‘ejsas ell as fom beteras ae nc a bec Thy 6 0 Envi nowrap gery wep oc ‘ty ted oar an the ict’) fly developed eee ToELTand ise hinds af monopoly or move prcely monepaic Poncot names at of @) uae Eommanintons, (0) operations opr nl) rns cg epi pr ‘Rane tule spicy 1 sie he eoupe nt ts ta eine py ently erp a mene sr i Sc en ee ey oe [idestendng which has seni some of he eel commenter(66 otto and attr eines find threby constitutes ts regime: (edtich, 1969, 9.126), Brzerinski has offered a more esseauslis definition emphasizing the ulimate end of such systems when he wales: ‘Totalacanism ea new form of goverment ling nt the general {itsafeation of dettotip 2 stm se whic ecology {cling a total social revolution, including the conditioning of maa of the leaderahip in an amoaphere of eoesced unanimity tthe care opaation (resi 1960) Franz Neumann (1987, pp. 233-56) has provided us witha simile set ‘Let us sess that in these definitions the terror elemeat—the le ofthe police, of courcion isnot cota, for example in the work ‘of Hannah Afcadt (1966) fa fc, coud he argoed that a oaliaran "System could be bated on the ideniiation of = very lsge pact of he Population with the roles, the population's ative involvement in po [iueal organizations contolled by them and at the service of Geir ‘goals, and use of diffused roial control bared on voluatary. manips Inted involvement and s mixtre of rewards and fears ia tlaively closed society slong a the ralers could count onthe loyalty of the Srmed forces, Ia some respects, communist Chia has approsched this ‘ype of totalitarianism, and the Khrushchev experience of & pop Fationalzation of party contra described by Paul Cacke (1970) would fi such a model, "Explicitly of implicily those definitions suggest a tendency toward the destruction ofthe line between tte and society aod the emergence ‘of “ota” politicization of society by politcal ersssizations, generally {he party nd its afites. However, this dimension that dteresstes totalitarlan systems from various types of suthoritaran regimes and particulary ffom democratic overaments is unlikely to be flly real {red and, consequently, the problsn of tension between society and po Tica system, while reduced, i fa fom disappearing wader tach tems. The shaping of the individual the iteralzaion by the mats of the cizens ofthe ideology, te realization ofthe "new mn” of which Tonto Some 67 ogists tlk are obviously even more unlikely, even when fw so- aright excep religions, have gone a farm this econ ae ‘celia ystems. "The deme that we have to ain ax necessary to characterize a syuem ar toaaran are an clogs single mass party and eter Iibiattoosl organizations nd concerted power ina aval rps cllaortors or m sal erp tat eno aecoutale to any ise conttuency and const be dished from power by instiion re, peaceful means, Each of hose clement can be found separately omer ppes of sondomocrte systems and only tee simultaneous rounce makes a sytem totalitarian. This means that otal sngle- Sy tems are (ulin, tat no sytem in wich ere exists Ear peution for power between fel ented partes can be fm frie, tad that no nondemocratc sytem withow single party, Inorespscly a active sage party, ean be considered oan. ‘Rte adits in is revved weston ie not eset that = ‘hn power orth largest mous of power shoal be found in he ty gunn, eve when sccm hight mpeobeble that teh a Tinie sass ary’ andthe bureasreey ontlling shoul wot be meng the mo powec nations f the society, at Teas in ela “Tuy ts members and othe common een “Tire are ceranly Scators—Cactars lenders, seal olga hic ike stay unas, orcolins of ets within feat nst- {clonal ells ne ssountble othe members of het organizations tnd nsutons-hose power we would mo al totlarian. Unless Iie power i exariced in the name of an deology guided toa greater rer depecby some cone! ea, o Weltonrchawung and ves they ue seme frm of ms orgatestio and prpation of members tr the sotety beyond the sed forces and» police to pow thelr fale, we cannot speak of toaitarian system ut as we shall se later, Sr suortaran regimes. Whatever tnt, fighting might exis the tp leadership sound and unde he top Tender and etween re ‘Shans eteate bythe top leadership. Such group pois does aot Serge for the stlty or take pce between Insttations o rg sous ha exited before taking of power The conflicting em fac~ Tomo oeanantions do not drive tse power fom stectres of the souk tare not csly pica, even when hove engaged in sich Masules for power might ave closer link ith Some sectors soe iy tan wt bers. Tt sone sms possible to speak of last oufiet n'a Marxist tense in totalitarian systems, The fil power(65 Tesaren on Aurion Regimes positon from which the competitors stempt to expand thes bas by linking wih the diversity of interests inthe Socey are pat of the po. iia! system—pllcal organizations like te par.d asso fanizations eplonal ogasleation of the pay, te party mili or {overeat and police bureacraie. tn abe toaitaran syste ‘recxstingInstitions ike busines organizations the church, or even {he army ply secondary ole inthe srogle for foes nd tothe es tent tha they patipate they ate brought into support one or ants leader or group within the poll ele Ter Indership isnt we slime ontender for plea pone: ba oly Tor iene on Particular cisions and rely capable of veto power. ths rope the subordination of the military authory Is one ofthe distietve ‘characteristics of tala systems in contrast fooler nondermocre te systems, To this day no totalitarian system hasbeen overthrown of ‘hanged fundemetally by the intervention of he ane Tones, ven ‘wen in esis momenta one or another factlon might have reinforced Is power by the report ofthe aay ‘Only th higy pita! People's Lierton Army (PLA) in China (ote, 1965, 1971 Pllck, 197; Schumann, 1968 pp. 12-13 Git tings 1967) andthe any fa Cabs (Domingues, 1974; Bement, 1970) inghi have played woch ole sony in ver elaine sense that we an speak of parca lenders factions o arencrsis wa th power sructte a representing the manages the farmer: ng Eur group, the ltellecteae, and 0 om, Whenever lenders oF troup presen to some degree the interests of such sector ofthe {ety they ate not sscountble tos constcncy. do not dese Dele power bate fndamentaly fom general are noted fom End often are not even coped ae leaders oeging rom soch Sok foups. The desc oat let essve weaken of al tei Istions,orgsniations, and intrest groups enstng before new ele lakes polldcal power an organist ew pole structure sone of the asinguishing characters of ofan tems compared wit cher noemocate stems Inti sens We can spe of monopoly ‘of power, monism, bt ft wuld be a gest mistake o take this concen tration of power inthe poll sphere snd inthe haads ofthe people sd the orfanizaton erst bythe plies lene» monolae The pluralism of tla stems Ts not socal puss Bo poll, <2 pluralism within th ruling pola ei To eve one cxamples the ternal conformity of bureaerat, “The nature and role of the single party is obviously the most im- portnt variable when we come to analyze in tehevioral tems the im Pact of totalitarian systems on diferent societies The importance a $pned othe party organization, the specialized polit! organizations merging from the party, andthe mass organizations linked with It ac ‘oun for many ofthe Bose characteristics of such system. Foremost, their capacity to penetrate the society, tobe present and infleatial in ‘any inteatonal realms, to mailize people for lage-raletarks on 2 voluntary or pseudo voluntzy basis rather than just for material i Centves and rewards allows such systems to cory ut mportant ‘changes with mite resources and therefore to Serve as iastuments Teen Sots 73 © foc ceti yes of economics socal development. Iain gv then Stun drow carci in the sense of fering to tose wing {puicipt Gceeptng te basi gone ofthe leadership rater han 9 ‘ting steratie goals) chance fr acs participation and» sense MTinnevemen: Dest the Burcsurat harcter ofthe sate and of ‘funy organizations and ewe te pry the mass membership he and need sponsored organizations can pve meaning, purpose [a sms of pariiation to may zen In hs respect tuiacan Systems every different from many eter dondemocrate systems ‘Rihortartanrepimesin whch he ee ey fondamently ona tat ‘bureaus cnpers, nd policemen, distinct and separate rm he {est ofthe people hve lite ge no chance to fel a ete pati ams inthe suit polity Beyond ei ptsonal ie an thee work, “The pa) enganiaion sn he many minor lenerstip positions in it give mony peopl a hance to exele some share in power, some en over people who i other herarehier ofthe society sould be ther superset Tie vious introduces a element of equality une ‘Semining ur stile suc of the aocety wie introducing Stor and ferent typeof inequity. An active pay organization th embers involved ini actte is incense enormosl the pos bis of contol and latent coercion of those who ae ning to oun rare exsloed Many of th energies that na democrat soe Uv chante nt poli! fe, bt lv ios mia of vant a Socinons tha taken interest collecdve goods are wed by foal thn systems, Much ofthe eslism salted wit olletiveonen thon ater tan self ontton Galt that nthe past went into ‘ioe erganizalons and now a ibeal democratic soit goes In up) is ikely to be fou nthe party an sponsored raaniratonyfopeter, obviously ih tbe opportunism of those at tut by evant of fear and accesso power or the hope of has Inge This mobilvationa! especie seta ttle systems and tbsen in many if ot mot, ber sndemocete systems Some of Ie tind ot people wo na totitaran stm become velo cis on sanyo the tasks anigned to thm bythe leadership in ores now emocatc systems wold be pssvembjects ony interested in thelr private narow gol or alent in ew ofthe lack of opportunis Foray pecan In effore dete changing her occ. C= nly mach ofthe ataction tat he altar model Ra ome rom {his patspatoy mobitestonal dimension ofthe party and the mas ganizations Be sls ch ofthe aionstion and negative feelings14 Tt nd ura ages bout such system ate dito the absence of choice forthe average cit ‘zen between alterative goals forthe society and the limited freedom lor ack of freedom in choosing the leadership of such rpunzations due {6 the bureaucratic characier derived from norm lke the leadership Principle or demoeratic centralise, ‘Other characteristics often noted in deseribing totalitarian systems, ike their expansionist tendencies, are much more dificult to derive from their more cena eharactriatics. There is obviously an indirect relationship, sine the emphars on an exclusive ideology makes the Detsstence of alerative ideologies and belil systems latent tea However, much will depend on the content ofthe Ideology, and o=t= tainly the chatneter and sirection ofthe expansionism wil be shapet ‘more by that than by other structural features. ‘A search for conformity,» proscription of most forms of diss dence, paticulay those that an reach larger sopments ofthe popula tion and that invotve any attempt of copaniation, a reduction of the vate realm, and consdecsbe amount of hale if not enfored pa Ueipation are altos inevitable in totalitarian systems, The massive Inder arbitrary ue of error as we find in he concentration carps, the Purges the show trl, he collective punishments of groups oF com> ‘can say that 1 a not secidental tht some of those Tore spp ‘under Hitler and Stalin, that they were dauactive und widespread as {hey have not been in any democratic system and tat they should have ‘been qualitatively tnd quantitatively different fom other nondemno tate systems, excep in their periods of consolidation in power ether uring or immediately after a civil wax. Teor either a neccesary nor sufficient chaactestic of totalitarian systems, bt thee seems 10 be a greater probability that t should appear under soch systems than tinder others and certain ofits forms soem to be distinctive of eet 'ypes of txts systems. Some authors have righly spoken of to- taltarianim without ter avy studies of totalitarianism, particularly Sigmund Neomana’s (1942) Permanent Revolution, enphasized the role ofa leader The fs cist comment to the Fahrerprinlp and the exaltation ofthe Dace, {opeter withthe cult of personality around Stalin, ceraily made this sn obvious element ina definition of totalitarian systems However, in fecent years wo have seen system that on many counts are still otal farian in Which we do not find such an undisputed leader atthe top oF 4 compatable clt or personification of leadership. On the oer hand there ae many nondemocratic systems that would ot fit mo the type tte have delineated above im which a sigle lender occupies compa [Mble place and the cul of personality has gone as far Therefore we ‘Can lepitmately say tht the appearance ofa single leader who con ourte vast amounts of power in his person, isthe object of a eal of fersonaliy, and claime a charismatic suthorty and to a greater of Keser extent enjoys it among the party members andthe poplace at lunge is highly probable in lotalaran systems but not inevitable or necessary for their stability. Succession eraes that some schoats ty and even survival of such regimes have tot edt their downfall or breakdown even when they have been ery ‘ritical for them." Te could be argued thatthe emphasis on personal Ieadersip is characteristic of totalitarian system of the farce type, nd thi certainly tue of Hy and Germany aswell eof rome of the Iior fascist regimes, bat the role of Stalin inthe Soviet Union shows hari wae nota feature exclusive to fait regimes, Obviously if we ‘should argue, es some dissident communist and some let fascists do, ‘hat Stalin was the Rusian functional equivalent to fascism, the i cally would disappeat. But this seems a sophisti solution. AC this point ‘re can say only that thee is higher probability that such leadership wl appear in ttaitaran systems than in other nondemocratie 5) tems. Changes inthe relaonship between leadership, ideology, and [Pnived participation are the variables likely to offer the best cae for the construction ofthe typology of totalitarian systems snd fran us erstanding of he processes of consolidation stability, and change-— nd perhaps breakiowe—o such systems. Itmight be overambiions to tempt to formulate some propositions about those interelationships fmoag those relatively independent variables for any totalitarian sys tem; and certaily only a theoretical-empirieal analysis of particular types and even unique caes wil faite sacha theoretical lf at Iigher eel of sbstracdoa. With all the sks svolved, we sal tempt to sketch some directions in which such an analyse might move Let us ‘rest fom the beginning tat the relationship ae likey ta be two wy fare ofthe sytem nd bring into question the independent character of each ofthe vt Shes, but also thatthe flow of influence ofthe variables might be front in one or snot direton.leotogy and Totalitarianism [As some of the scholars have noted, totalitarian systems might be con ‘sted ideocraies ot logoseaies, and Inkeles (1954) has developed the notion of totalitarian mystique t contey the importance of Scat: ‘ty a8 a powefel independent variable in such systems There can be to doubt tha totalitarian Leaders, indsiduls oF groups in contrast 0 ‘ther sondemocrati euler, derive mich oftheir ens of mision. heir Tegitimation, and often very specie polices fom thee commitment 0 some holistic soseption of tan and society. Ideologies vary mach 9 the richnese and complexity of ther content and inthe degre 1 which {hey are closed, fixed, and can be atin-telated. The stay of deol flee ar systems offen, of meanings, aod ofthe interallogieal motional connections between those ideas is obviously essential to Snderstanding diferent otalitaran systems. Such «study canbe done {rom difeeat perspectives: nelletoa-csiturl history, sociology of knowledge and sctlpeycholog. The ints commitment ofa rler Fling prop to an ieolony imposes consrants, excluding a greater oF fmaller umber of alternative values, goals, and ties of hiking, and fete a framework limiting the range of altative policies. There can tena question tat an intellectually elaborte ideology like Marxism providers more complex and heterogenous as well eatinal starting point for ideological aboration than the moce simple, emotional, and Ten datelloctally fixed elements of farce ideslogy. Some of those ‘sho question the usefulness ofthe oalitarianapprosc to the study of fascist repimer and of Nasi do ro because they question the lor Togical character of thove movements reducing their deat those of es Founders and rules and engaging In porely pragmatic power ck Ing. and opportanist manipolation of symbols. The existence of = Print and fred apd to rome degree unambiguous corpus of wring of Marz Engel, and Lenin, which can be doctored, partly suppressed, nd reterpeeod but ot fully abundone, erally aifers fom tose regimes in which the leadec or group in power claims identification tith mach less elaborate ideas or i nthe proses of ving ieolos- {al content to his rele. The autonomy or heteronomy inthe contol of ‘deological formulation is obviously a key wo the autonomy and stabi- ly of difereat totalitarian systems and Is one ofthe sources of enti. ‘between them when they seme to derive their legitimacy from ides ‘fieation with en ideolopieal corpus. The hypothens may be advanced ‘hata flly autonomous totalitarian system cannot exist without almost Tena Stone 7 F sat coool over the formelaton or interpretation of the ideological etuage or content, In thie rexpoct different fascist regimes found ‘ocives in beter positon i elation tothe hgeronic power a ‘Ber camp thn di he Eastern European communis, andthe regimes 7 Chna sod Cabs found themselves ins beter poston than hose of ‘Sher minor communist ses, The heterenomous contra ofthe eo cal content of Catholic though by a universal church and spec ‘Blity the Pope one ofthe most serious obstacles tothe eration oF ‘Stuy tontaan sytem by nondemocratc toler lang to pie treat Catholic socal doctine in heir sates. Among other factor this Fone tha has prevented the Austrian “clrieal-taciat” and the fegimes of Fanct snd Salar fim pursuing further fhe path toward feltariansm (Line 196, p. 303) Tivologie in totalitarian systome are source ofleginsey. « source ofthe sense of miston of leader ota rling group ad ts Sot surprising that one shoud speak of charizma ofthe leader othe rf fora eas inportant segments of hie societies, onthe basi oF Ta clement Many ofthe difrenesbetwoon systems or within te Same sytem verti art be ndertood interme of he lationship ‘ot ponte in those positon tote ideology However, while the Mea 5) imposes some constant more or las arrow onthe ults and the actions the relaonsbip isnot one-sided, and amc ofthe effort in such systems gos Ino the manipsaton, adaption, and sleeve iterprection ofthe ideological hentage, prticlry in the second fcoctuton ofr: Only» compote change he raionshp tothe [ScSogy st sobaation by pagina policy formulation ad the 2 ‘epee of heteronomous sooo for fen snd contr! police. of = ladac clearly and explity in confit withthe deology—vil ead © ‘hanges aay from te ftataran model. Te ruling group might very Srellscach te Conchita ed ideology limits choices 00 Tboch and hats scholat caerpretation of the tots ci go ony 0 fr, bu thé fact hat a simplified and yelgareed version of the idole fics has been central fo the indoctination of the mide levels of {res of the single mass party and even the membership will certain stake i dict to abandon certain plicls and sometimes cree real ‘Shes of legacy. Te autonomy th ingotanceof he par rea Stton compared othe personal power ofthe lender or mal iar ito some extent a function of te importance ofthe commniment othe cology inverey theconstaining character of the ieologial com Intent or he ling group I elt be dee rele tthe active