STS51C-143-0027 Mississippi River Delta and Coastal Louisiana, U.S.A.

January 1985

NASA PHOTO
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A.
October 1985
N

20 mi
NASA PHOTO
78
Outline
 Petroleum systems
 Geologic principles and geologic time
 Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
 Hydrocarbon origin, migration and accumulation
 Sedimentary environments; stratigraphic traps
 Plate tectonics, structural geology
 Structural traps
 Geophysical methods
 Importance to Schlumberger

2
 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play

R Reservoir

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Elements Seal or Cap[Rock

Basin Fill
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (R)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

4
 Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence
of certain geologic factors and geologic events.

These Include:
Seal or cap rock
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock
Petroleum Geology
•Law of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure above, the
igneous dike (F) is younger than layers A-E but older than layer
G, because a geologic feature is younger than any other
geologic feature that it cuts. This is an important law for
determining the relative ages of geologic features.
• According to the “Law of Superposition,” layer “I” is older than
layer “J,” and the rocks beneath the unconformity are older from
right to left. From the “Principle of Original Horizonality,” we
infer that layers “A” through “F” have been deformed.
•Sedimentary rock are deposited in successive layers that record
the history of their time, much like the pages in history book.
However, the rock record is never complete. Missing layers
(gaps in time) result in unconformities.
• An unconformity is a surface of non-deposition or erosion that
separates younger rocks from older rocks. The slide shows an
angular unconformity. A nonconformity is an unconformity in
which younger sedimentary rocks overlie older metamorphic or
intrusive igneous rocks
The following are basic principles or laws are used to
evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock
layers.

Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to the past.” By

studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past
geologic events and rock-forming processes.
Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are deposited in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal position.” If sedimentary layers
are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming
stresses.
Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of
older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted.”
Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature that cuts
another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it
cuts.”
Cross-Cutting Relationships

K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
l Dike
S il
s
e ou
Ign A

6
 Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago

Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1
Miocene

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600
7
Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy
Triassic period
Permian period
Jurassic period

Pennsylvanian period

Mississippian period

208 m.y 245 m.y 290 m.y

146 m.y 323 m.y
363 m.y
vonian period
409 m.y

rian period
439 m.y

65 m.y 1 b.y

57 m.y
510 m.y

570 m.y
Evolution of cells
with nucleus
35 m.y

23 m.y
2 b.y

5 m.y
Oldest
fossil
3 b.y cells
0.01 million
years ago

4.6 billion
4 b.y
years ago

Oldest rocks
dated on Earth
ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
Holocene
epoch
Basic Geologic Principles
 Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to the
past.”
 Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.”
 Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds occur on
top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or
faulted.”
 Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature that
cuts another geologic feature is younger than the
feature that it cuts.”

5
 Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high

material

Molten materials in Weathering and

temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization due to
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

10
 The Rock Cycle

Magma Co
g So oling
in ( C r lid i
ys fic a

t
el
ta
liz at

nd
M
a

io n)
n
t io
Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous
Rock We
Rock
ath
or phism)

eri

A d
T ransportai ng,
n
an g, T

n
ure
A nd

W eat her
d D ran
ep spo

D
Press

osi
tion rtatio

e
H e at

p
et am

n,

osi ti o
t i on
(M

Weathering,

n
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
Cem
entation and
Compaction
(Lithification)
 Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.
Originated from the solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
•Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
•Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

12
 Igneous Rocks and

Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
 Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the world.
 Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.

Example: Granite Wash - Elk City, Okla., Northern Alberta,CA 13

 Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance
Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

17
 Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be:
 Shallow or deep water.

 Marine (sea) and lake or continental.

 This environment determines many of the reservoir

characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

18
 Depositional Environments
 Continental deposits are usually dunes.
 A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain
sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
 A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

19
Clastic Reservoirs
 Consolidated and unconsolidate sands

 Porosity
• Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of grains.

 Permeability
• Determined mainly by grain size and packing, connectivity
and shale content.

 Fractures may be present.

21
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Example

Sandstone Shale
•Some sedimentary rock types
•Breccia - Coarse-grained, angular fragments - little
transport;
•Conglomerate - Coarse-grained, mixture of rounded
pebbles and sand ranging widely in size; well rounded
pebbles imply some transport in a high energy system
•Sandstone - commonly quartz, feldspar, or rock
fragments; deposited in many environments
•Shale - very fine grained; composed primarily of clay;
deposited in low-energy environments such as lakes, bays,
lagoons, of deep marine settings
Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales.
The difference is in the size of the grains.

Size ??
24
Average Detrital Mineral Composition of
Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)

23
Sedimentation

25
Clastic Sedimentary Environments
Environment Agent Of Transportation
Sediments
Deposition

Alluvial Rivers Sand, gravel, mud

Lake Lake currents, waves Sand, mud
Desert Wind Sand, dust
Glacial Ice Sand, gravel, mud
Delta River + waves, tides Sand, mud
Beach Waves, tides Sand, gravel
Shallow shelf Waves, tides Sand, mud
Deep sea Ocean currents, settling Sand, Mud

Organic Material =
27
Depositional Environment - Delta
 Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
 A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties into the sea.
 A good example of this is the Mississippi (Miocene and Oligocene sands)

28
 Rivers

 Some types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars.

 The river forms a channel where sands are deposited in
layers. Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains
which is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood
plains at either side.
 Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be
overlain with a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
29
Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains

Matrix

Qtz
Quartz
Framework

Qtz
Quartz

Pores
Qtz
Qtz

Qtz
Quartz
Ankerite

Cement
31
Porosity in Sandstone

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict

Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

32
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

33
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

34
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
35
Effects of Clays on Reservoir
Quality

Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite

100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
36
Carbonate Reservoirs
 Carbonates (limestone and dolomite) normally have a very
irregular structure.

 Porosity:
• Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional
and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).

 Permeability:
• Determined by deposition and post-deposition events,
fractures.

 Fractures can be very important in carbonate reservoirs.

37
 Carbonate types
 Chalk is a special form of limestone (CaCO3) and is
formed from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths).

 Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is formed by the replacement

of some of the calcium by a lesser volume of
magnesium in limestone. Magnesium is smaller than
calcium, hence the matrix becomes smaller and more
porosity is created.
• ???

 Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite

(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.
• ??
38
Depositional Environment
Carbonates

 Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features such as:

• Reefs.
• Lagoons.
• Shore-bars.

39
 Diagenesis
 The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
• Chemical changes.
• Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.

• Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

40
 Source Rocks
 Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments.
 These "muds" are in a reducing environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon.
 The sediments are compacted to form organic-rich rocks with
very low permeability.
 The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original formation water.

42
 Hydrocarbon Migration

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:

Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock.

This is a complex process and not fully understood.

It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.

Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.

This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics

through a continuous water-filled pore system.
It can take place over large distances.
43
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the

best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal 44
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0
- 0.5 0.0
- 0.2

Fair 0.5
- 1.0 0.2
- 0.5

Good 1.0
- 2.0 0.5
- 1.0

Very Good 2.0

- 5.0 1.0
- 2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0

45
 Basic Elements of Plate Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY: CONVERGENT BOUNDARY:

Seafloor spreading Plate subduction
Mid-ocean ridge Continental crust
Oceanic crust Volcanism

Mountain building
Lithosphere

Magma rising

Asthenosphere
Magma
forming

• Distribution of
earthquakes
 Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries

Rift Related Basin

(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault
Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)

Thrust fault

Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)

Wrench fault

48
Folded Structures
Convex upward

?? Age

Anticline Syncline

50
• Definitions
–A fold is a bend in the strata.
–An anticline is a fold that is convex upward. The
oldest beds occur in the center of an anticline.
–A syncline is a fold that is concave upward. The
youngest beds occur in the center of a syncline.
–A monocline (not shown) is composed of strata
that dip in one direction and are not known to form
a flank of an anticline.
 Fold Terminology
N

b
m
Li
Li

b
m

m
Li
b

Anticline

Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)

51
Faulting
 Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)

e
Dip Angle

rik
St

Fault Plane
54
Faults

Normal Fault Reverse Fault

Strike direction Strike direction

Up
Fault scarp
th
Fa

row

Upth
ult

Dow
Do

Sc

n
arp
wn

rown
nthr
thr
ow

own
n

Key bed F.W. Dip

F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane

Fracture: Joint and Fault 52

Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity

56
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well
Determined
Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell

Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m

100's m

1-10's
10-100's
Well-Bore

m
10-100's mm
µm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
57
Hydrocarbon Traps

 Structural traps

 Stratigraphic traps

 Combination traps

58
 Traps General

Ghawar Oilfield - Saudi Arabia- Ls - 145 mi x 13 mi wide x260 ft

produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls
Gasharan Oilfield - Iran - Ls - 6000ft. Net pay total 8.5 B bbls 59
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

60
 Fault Traps
 Faults occur when the rock shears due to stresses. Reservoirs
often form in these fault zones.
 A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids due to its location
alongside an impermeable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an
impermeable bed.
 Faults are found in conjunction with other structures such as
Normal
anticlines, domes and salt or Reverse Fault???
domes.

Drag Faults - Wyoming,

most Rocky Mountains
Normal Faults - Nigeria,
Hibenia (E. Canada), Vicksburg
61
Trends (Victoria, TX)
 Stratigraphic Traps
Michigan - Belle River Mills
Devonian reefs (Barriers and Atolls) -
Alberta CA. (Leduc & Redwater)
Midland Basin &Delaware Basin of
West TX - Barrier Reefs

Point Bars - Powder River Basin, WY, Clinton SS in Western Ok,

62
Petroleum Exploration-
Geophysical Methods

 Gravity methods

 Magnetic surveys

 Seismic surveys

64
Principle of Gravity Surveys
Uncorrected
Gravity

+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
Corrected Gravity -2
-3
(Bouguer Anomaly)

Meter

Salt
Clastics 2.1 gm/cm3
2.4 gm/cm3

65
Principle of Magnetic Surveys

Sedimentary Basin

Basement

+
Magnetization
Measured
-
(from xxx, 19xx)
66
Seismic Surveys
 The seismic tools commonly used in the oil
and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic
data
 Seismic data are used to:
– Define and map structural folds and faults
– Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary
facies
– Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

67
 Pre-Drilling Knowledge
Exploration
 Structural information obtained from surface seismic data.
 Rough geological information can be provided by nearby
wells or outcrops.
 Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.

68
 Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface

Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones

Incident
Reflected
waves
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers

69
Crossline 470 (East)

N S
Seal (unconformity)
Reservoirs

Source

70
Applications of Seismic Data

 Make a structural model of the reservoir

 Delineate and map reservoir-quality rocks
 Establish gas/water contacts

71
 Structural Map, VLE 196 Field

0 0
- 12 6
0
0
6
2
-1

00

0 0
30

28
-1

-1
- 12600

Structural interpretation

0 0
-1 2 4
based on 3-D seismic

O
4 0 0
0
0

W
and well log data

22

-1 2
-1

-1
0
0

26
4
2

00
-1

-1 1 6 0 0
-1

1400
0

24
80

00
12
-

-1
Top Misoa C-4 Sand

-12
0
00

00
28

Elevation (ft) N

- 1
- 11 60 0
Sea-level datum
11,400

- 11800
-11,600
- 11 6 0 0

-11,600
-12,000 V L E
-12,000

- 12400
4 0 0

N
-12,400

00
W
-12,400

26
F a u l

-1
-12,800
t

-12,800

00
30
-1
-13,200 0
40
12
-

0 3000 ft
O
W

0 1000 m
0
0

60
40

2
2

- 1
-1

72
00
- 128
Channels
Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoir-
quality,channel-fill
sand deposits

Modified from Brown, 1996 73

Fluid Level Boundaries on 3-D
Data
Not Interpreted Interpreted

Flat spot on seismic line indicates Fault

petroleum / water contact
Modified from Brown, 1996 74
 Exercise 1
1. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______
2.The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superpos
ition) states that, in a normal
sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of olders.layer
3.The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period,
epoch).
4.Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimen
tary) rocks.
5. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F__
____
6. Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs
A. _____________________ B.____________________ C. _________ ___________
7. Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks
the by
actions of
erosion,
transportation
and __________________.
8. Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____
9. Name two non
-clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________
10. Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make
he best
t reservoirs
T_______ F_______
Exercise 2
1. 1. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. T___ F ___
2. (Magnesium, Iron, or Sulfate) must be in the formation water in order to convert
limestone to dolomite.
3. Limestone is (CaCO3 or Ca(CO3)2).
4. Dolomite is MgCaCO3 or MgCa(CO3)2.
5. Reef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedimentary rocks.
6. The source rock must contain (organic material, coal, methane).
7. Fault and anticline traps occur only in gas wells. T___ F___
8. The oil water contact can be observed using seismic T___ F___
9. (Historical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of
smaller scale deformational features, such as folds and faults, that may be
involved in hydrocarbon migration or which may form structural hydrocarbon traps.
10. Good quality sandstone reservoirs normally contain ~(1-10 or 25-30% silt and
clay).

81
Exercise 3
N
4 3 4
Well
4
3
2
1
a b

Well

c d

82
• Circle the correct answer or label the drawing as directed.

• 1. Figure “a” is a (normal, strike-slip, lateral) fault.

• 2. If a well is drilled as shown on block “a” the target
sandstone will most likely be missing. T ___ F ___
• 3. Figure “b” is a(n) (lateral fold, anticline, syncline).
• 4. In Figure “b,” layer 1 = salt, 2 = sandstone, 3 = shale, and
4=limestone. On the figure, indicate the layer that is most
likely have trapped hydrocarbon.
• 5. Figure “c” is a(n) (right, left) lateral fault.
• 6. On Figure “d,” the structure is a (normal fault, reverse,
strike-slip) fault.
• 7. A well drilled at the location shown on Figure “d” will find
strata (repeated, missing).
 Exercise 4
1. Hydrocarbons reservoirs are normally in (igneous, metamorphic,
sedimentary) rocks.
2. Fluorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, water) is
present.
3. Reservoir traps are (very impermeable, highly permeable).
3. What are 2 uses of seismic data in petroleum exploration and
development?
1. ________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________
4. In inclined reservoir rocks, what is the significance of a “flat spot”
in seismic sections?
5. What is a 4-D seismic evaluation?

83
Basic Geologic Principles
 Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to the
past.”
 Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.”
 Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds occur on
top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or
faulted.”
 Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature that
cuts another geologic feature is younger than the
feature that it cuts.”

5
•The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the
relative ages and the relations among rock layers.

•Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to the past.” By studying

modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and
rock-forming processes.
•Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are deposited in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal position.” If sedimentary layers are tilted
or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses.
•Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older
beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted.”
•Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature that cuts another
geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.”
 KLASIFIKASI BATUAN
Batuan merupakan agregat padat yang terdiri dari
mineral atau mineraloid, kebanyakan batuan terdiri
atas beberapa jenis mineral (mineral, gelas,
ubahan mineral organik, dan kombinasi dari
komponen-komponen tersebut) (Ernest G. Ehlers &
Harvey Blatt, 1980).

Batuan didefinisikan juga sebagai kumpulan

mineral alamiah yang terkristalkan oleh ‘proses
pembentukan batuan’ (Huckenholz, 1982).
• BERDASARKAN GENESA DAN
KOMPOSISI
– Batuan Beku
– Batuan Piroklastik
– Batuan Sedimen
– Batuan Metamorf
 Distribusi batuan di bumi :

• Batuan beku  di kerak bumi bagian atas

• Batuan sedimen  di permukaan
• Batuan metamorf  di inti dalam, mantel,
kerak bumi bagian bawah
 BATUAN BEKU
• Batuan beku adalah batuan yang terbentuk
akibat membekunya magma pada waktu
perjalannya menuju ke permukaan bumi.

• Hasil dari pembekuan magma tersebut

membentuk berbagai jenis mineral yang
mengikuti aturan tingkat diferensiasi dari
magma.

• Magma adalah cairan silikat yang panas dan

pijar yang terdiri atas unsur-unsur O, Si, Al, Fe,
Mg, Ca, Na, K dan sebagainya.
• Komposisi batuan beku dapat dibedakan
dari komposisi secara mineralogi.:

– Mineral utama (olivin, piroksen, felspar,

kuarsa, plagioklas, dsb)
– Mineral tambahan: mineral yang terbentuj dari
kristalisasi magma tapi kehadirannya sedikit
(contoh: apatit, rutil, mineral bijih, dsb)
– Mineral sekunder: mineral hasil ubahan dari
mineral-mineral primer (contoh: klorit, epidot,
dll)
 Kimiawi

• Unsur utama (major element): seperti

unsur oksoda SiO2, Al2O3, dll.
• Unsur jejak (trace element): seperti Sr,
Rb, Ba, dll.
• Unsur tanah jarang (rare earth element):
seperti La, Ce, Pr, dll.
 Klasifikasi batuan beku:
Pada dasarnya klasifikasi batuan beku didasarkan pada
tekstur dan mineralogi.

• a. Berdasarkan tekstur:
• IUGS (International Union of Geological
Sciences) membagi batuan beku berdasarkan
pada besar butir:
• Batuan fanerik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan plutonik,
dimana butirannya kasar, sehingga secara individu dapat
dibedakan, berbutir kasar-sedang (> 1 mm). Kristal-krital
yang lebih besar (fenokris) tertanam dalam masa dasar yang
lebih halus (Gambar 2). Klasifikasi batuan fanerik dilakukan
oleh IUGS, 1973 (Gambar 3).
• Batuan afanitik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan vulkanik,
dimana ukuran mineralnya terlalu kecil untuk dibedakan,
umumnya berbutir haus (< 1mm). Klasifikasi batuan ini dapat
dilihat pada Gambar 4.
• Berdasarkan mineralogi (Gambar 5)
• Dasar klasifikasi:
• Komposisi (%) mineral utama
• Kimiawi:
• silika (% SiO2) : ultrabasa (SiO2 < 45%)
• basa (SiO2 45 – 52%)
• intermediate (SiO2 52 – 66%)
• asam (SiO2 > 66%)
• alumina saturation
– peralumina : jenuh terhadap alumina (Al2O3 > Na2O + K2O +CaO)
– peralkaline : oksida alkalin > oksida alumina
– subalumina : oksida alumina =/> oksida alkalin (Na2O + K2O)
– metalumina : oksida alumina =/> Na2O + K2O +CaO
• color index  proporsi mineral felsik dan mafik
• Batuan Piroklastik adalah batuan hasil letusan
gunungapi. Terdiri atas material-material
piroklastik, yaitu pecahan gelas/abu/debu
gunungapi, kristal, lithik.
• Klasifikasi batuan piroklastik:
• Pada dasarnya pembagian batuan piroklastik
didasarkan pada ukuran butir. Penamaan: tuf, tuf
lapili, breksi piroklastik atau breksi vulkanik
(Gambar 6). Untuk yang berbutir halus (<4 mm):
tuff gelas, tuf kristal, tuf lithik (Tabel 1).
 UKURAN PIROKLAS ENDAPAN NAMA BATUAN
CLAST PIROKLASTIK
(PECAHAN)
> 64 mm Bomb Lapisan Aglomerat, breksi
Block bom/blok atau piroklastik
tefra bom/blok
2 - 64 mm Lapillus / Lapili Lapisan lapili Lapillitone / tuf
atau tefra lapili lapili
< 2 – 1/16 mm Butiran debu Debu kasar Tuf debu kasar
kasar
< 1/16 mm Butiran debu Debu halus Tuf debu halus
halus
• Selain batuan piroklastik ini juga dikenal
batuan epiklastik, yaitu batuan yang
terbentuk dari campuran atau rombakan
material-material batuan piroklastik
(vulkanik) (Gambar 7). Contoh: batupasir
vulkanik, tuf pasiran, dll.
 BATUAN SEDIMEN
• Batuan sedimen adalah batuan yang
berasal dari rombakan batuan yang telah
ada yang telah mengalami siklus
sedimentasi (pelapukan-transportasi-
sedimentasi-diagenesa) (Gambar 9).
• Komposisi batuan sedimen:
– Fragmen mineral/batuan hasil rombakan (terigen)
– Material hasil proses kimiawi (material auttigenik), contoh:
karbonat, fosfat.
– Material allochem (rombakan hasil presipitasi terdahulu),
contoh: fosil, mineral organik, dll.
• Penggolongan batuan sedimen
• Batuan sedimen dapat diklasifikasikan
berdasarkan beberapa cara:
» Berdasarkan proses pembentukannya (Gambar 10):
» Sedimentasi mekanis, contoh batulanau,
batulempung, batupasir, dll.
» Sedimentasi organis, contoh batubara, batugamping
terumbu, batugamping bioklastik, dll
» Sedimentasi kimiawi, contoh batugamping kristalin,
dolomit, batugamping oolith, gips, anhidrit, dll.
? Berdasarkan asal-usulnya:

Klastik terigenous Endapan biokimia – Pengendapan Volkaniklastik

biogenik – organik kimia
Rudit, arenit, lutit Batugamping, Ironstones, Tufa, aglomerat
dolomit, rijang, evaporit
fosfat, batubara
 Batuan Sedimen Berdasarkan
Tekstur
• Berdasarkan teksturnya dibagi menjadi
dua, yaitu yang bertekstur klastik
(berdasarkan mekanisme
pengendapan), dan batuan yang
bertekstur non klastik (kristalin).
 • Batuan Sedimen Klastik
• Terdiri atas material detritus (hasil
rombakan / pecahan), memperlihatkan
tekstur klastik. Ukuran butir halus –
kasar (Gambar 11), dibagi berdasarkan
skala yang dinyatakan oleh Wentworth
(Gambar 12).
 Unsur-unsur tekstur batuan sedimen klastik:

• Butiran (grain) : klastik yang tertransport yang disebut sebagai fragmen.

• Matriks (masa dasar) : lebih halus dari fragmen/butiran, mengisi rongga antar fragmen,
diendapkan bersama-sama dengan fragmen.
• Semen : berukuran halus, mengikat butiran/fragmen dan matriks, diendapkan ditempat
sedimentasi setelah fragmen dan matriks.
• Pemilahan (sorting) : derajat kesamaan atau keseragaman butir. Dinyatakan dalam skala baik,
sedang, atau buruk.
• Porositas : perbandingan volume pori terhadap volume batuan secara keseluruhan. Biasanya
dinyatakan dalam % atau dalam kualitas (baik, sedang atau buruk). Batuan dengan butir yang
seragam (terpilah baik) akan mempunyai porositas yang relatif lebih besar dari batuan dengan
pemilahan buruk. Clay memiliki porositas yang paing besar, lalu batupasir dan kemudian breksi
atau konglomerat.
• Kebundaran : menyatakan kebundaran atau ktajaman butiran yang mencerminkan tingkat abrasi
selama transportasi. Merupakan sifat permukaan dari butiran yang disebabkan oleh pengaruh
transportasi terhadap butiran.
• Kemas (fabric) : merupakan sifat hubungan antar butir sebagai fungsi orientasi atau packing.
Dinyatakan dalam skala terbuka (kontak antar butiran tidak bersentuhan) dan tertutup (kontak
antar butiran saling bersentuhan).
• Permeabilitas : kemampuan batuan meloloskan fluida, yang mencerminkan poriyang saling
berhubungan. Batupasir merupakan batuan dengan permeabilitas yang baik, sedangkan clay
walaupun memiliki porositas baik tapi permeabilitasnya yang buruk. Karena mineral dalam clay
termasuk kedalam minera pirosilika yang bersifat konduktif, sehingga clay ini mengikat kation
yang akan mengikat OH. Oleh karena itu clay memiliki sifat swelling (dapat mengembang bila
terkena air), yang menyebabkan resistivity dari clay ini sangat rendah (Gambar 13).
• Struktur sedimen : penyimpangan dari bidang perlapisan. Struktur sedimen ini mencerminkan
mekanisme yang mempengaruhi pengendapan batuan sedimen. Contoh: strutur sedimen pada
mekanisme arus turbidit yang dinyatakan oleh Bouma dalam Sikuen Bouma.
 Batuan Sedimen Non-Klastik
• Umumnya tersusun atas mineral autigenik
(terbentuk di tempat sedimentasi). Pada P dan
T tertentu seringkali memperlihatkan gejala
diagenesa, akibatnya porositas batuan
menjadi sangat rendah atau bakhan tidak ada.
Porositas primer rendah dan memperlihatkan
tekstur mozaik (contoh batugamping). Kadang-
kadang terdapat butiran yang amorf (seperti
kalsedon dan opal) sebagai semen.
 Batuan Sedimen Kimiawi
• Terbentuk akibat peranan/pengaruh
proses-proses kimia dari larutan. Terdiri
atas batuan karbonat dan batuan
evaporit.
 Batuan Karbonat
• Batuan karbonat adalah batuan sedimen yang
mempunyai komposisi garam-garam karbonat
yang dominan (> 50%). Proses
pembentukannya dapat secara insitu, berasal
dari larutan yang mengalami proses kimiawi
maupun biokimiawi.
• Komposisi kimia dan mineralogi batuan
karbonat:
» Aragonit (CaCO3 orthorombik)
» Kalsit (CaCO3 hexagonal)
» Dolomit (CaMg(CO3)2)
» Magnesit (Mg CO3)
 Porositas batuan karbonat:
• Ada dua macam klasifikasi porositas dalam
batuan karbonat:
• menurut Murray (1960)  merupakan klasifikasi
berdasarkan pada genesa, dibagi menjadi:
– Porositas primer : terbentuk pada saat sedimentasi
berlangsung. Terdiri atas porositas kerangka frame-
work porosity), porositas lumpur (mud porosity), dan
porositas pasir (sand porosity).
– Porositas sekunder : terbentuk setelah pengendapan,
akibat pelarutan, rekahan atau perubahan yang
terjadi setelah proses sedimentasi.
– Sucrose dolomite porosity : terbentuk sebagai akibat
adanya penggantian kalsit oleh dolomit.
• menurut Choquette anfd Pray (1970) 
merupakan klasifikasi deskriptif dan
genetik. Unsur-0unsurnya terdiri atas:
– Basic porosity types:
• fabric selective : interpartikel, intrapartikel,
interkristalin, moldic, fenestral, shelter, growth
framework.
• Non fabric selective : fracture, channel, vuggy,
cavern
• Fabric selective or not : breccia, boring, burrow,
shrinkage.
– Modifying terms : genetic modifiers, size
modifiers, abundance modifiers.
 Klasifikasi batuan karbonat
• Klasifikasi dalam batuan karbonat antara lain
dikemukakan oleh Grabau (1913), Folk (1953),
Pettijohn (1957), Dunham (1962), Embry and
Klovan (1972), dll.
• Klasifikasi yang banyak digunakan dalam
penggolongan batuan karbonat adalah
klasifikasi menurut Dunham, dan Embry and
Klovan, karena klasifikasi ini cukup sederhana
dan mudah dalam pemnakaiannya.
 Klasifikasi Dunham (1962)
• Klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada tekstur
pengendapan (Gambar 17). Faktor yang
penting dalam klasifikasi ini adalah:
• Butiran didukung lumpur (mud supported)
• Butiran saling menyangga (grain
supported)
• Sebagian butiran didukung lumpur,
sebagian butiran saling menyangga
(parteil)
 Klasifikasi Embry and Klovan
(1972)
• Merupakan modifikasi dari klasifikasi
Dunham, didasarkan pada terdapatnya
lumpur diantara kerangka atau pecahan
kerangka (Gambar 14).
 Batuan Evaporit
• Merupakan batuan garam yang terbentuj
jarena evaporasi air laut.. Mineral
penyusunnya bersifat monomineralik,
antara lain: garam (CaSO4 2H2O),
anhidrit (CaSO4), dan halit (NaCl)
 BATUAN METAMORF
• Batuan metamorf adalah batuan yang
terbentuk akibat proses perubahan
tekanan (P) dan temperatur (T) atau
keduanya, dimana batuan memasuki
kesetimbangan baru tanpa adanya
perubahan komposisi kimia (isokimia)
dan tanpa melalui fasa cair (dalam
keadaan padat) dengan temperatur
berkisar 200-800º C.
 Perubahan yang terjadi dalam proses
metamorfosa: perubahan tekstur dan struktur
(yang merefleksikan sejarah pembentukkannya);
dan asosiasi mineral.
Struktur batuan metamorf:
• Struktur foliasi (schistosity)  struktur paralel
yang ditimbulkan oleh mineral pipih/mineral
prismatik, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa
regional dan metamorfosa kataklastik.
• Struktur non foliasi  struktur yang dibentuk
oleh mineral-mineral yang equidimensional,
seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa termal.
 Beberapa struktur batuan
metamorf:
Yang bersifat foliasi:

• Slaty cleavage  planar, dijumpai bidang belah batu sabak/slate.

• Filitik  rekristalisasi lebih kasar dari slaty cleavage.
• Shistose  struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral
granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya menerus (tidak terputus).
• Gneisose  struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral
granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya terputus, sering disebut
close schistosity.
• Milonitik  menunjukan goresan-goresan akibat penggerusan yang
kuat.
• Filonitik  gejala dan kenampakan sama dengan milonitik, hanya
disini butirannya lebih halus.
Yang bersifat non foliasi:

• Granulose  terdiri atas mineral granular

• Hornfelsik  identik dengan granoblastik, tapi mineral
equidimensional. Lepidoblastik  terdiri atas mineral
pipih/tabular
• Nematoblastik  terdiri atas mineral prismatik
• Granoblastik  terdiri atas mineral granular
• Homeoblastik  terdiri atas satu tekstur saja
• Heteroblastik  terdiri atas beberapa tekstur
• Relic (sisa)  tekstur sisa yang terbentuk sebelum
metamorfosa
• Kristaloblastik  setiap tekstur yang terbentuk pada saat
metamorfosa
• Awalan “meta”  bila masih dikenali sifat batuan
asalnya, seperti metasedimen, metavolkanik, dll.
 CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
Copyright  1998 Pamela J. W. Gore
ALLUVIAL FAN FLUVIAL LACUSTRINE DESERT (DUNES) PALUDAL

Rock Type Breccia, Conglomerate, Siltstone, shale, limestone, or Quartz arenite Peat, coal,
conglomerate, sandstone, evaporites (gypsum) (sandstone) or black shale,
arkose siltstone, shale gypsum siltstone

Composition Terrigenous Terrigenous Terrigenous, carbonate, or Terrigenous or Terrigenous

evaporite evaporite

Color Brown or red Brown or red Black, brown, gray, green Yellow, red, tan, Black, gray,
white or brown

Grain Size Clay to gravel Clay to gravel Clay to silt or sand Sand Clay to silt
(Fining upward) (Coarsening upward)

Grain Shape Angular Rounded to --- Rounded ---

angular

Sorting Poor Variable Variable Good Variable

Inorganic Cross-bedding and Asymmetrical Symmetrical ripples, Cross-bedding Laminated

Sedimentary graded bedding ripples, cross- lamination, cross-bedding, to massive
Structures bedding, graded graded bedding, mudcracks,
bedding, tool raindrop prints
marks

Organic or --- Tracks, Tracks, trails, burrows, rare Tracks, trails Root
Biogenic trails,burrows stromatolites marks,
Sedimentary burrows
Structures

Fossils --- Rare freshwater Freshwater shells, fish, --- Plant

shells, bones, plant bones, plant fragments fossils, rare
fragments freshwater
shells,
bones, fish
 MARINE SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
Copyright  1998 Pamela J. W. Gore
REEF CONTINENTAL CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND ABYSSAL PLAIN
SHELF RISE

Rock Type Fossiliferous Sandstone, shale, Litharenite, siltstone, and shale (or Shale, chert, micrite,
limestone siltstone, fossiliferous limestone) chalk, diatomite
limestone, oolitic
limestone

Composition Carbonate Terrigenous or Terrigenous or carbonate Terrigenous or

carbonate carbonate

Color Gray to white Gray to brown Gray, green, brown Black, white red

Grain Size Variable, Clay to sand Clay to sand Clay

frameworks, few to
no grains

Grain Shape --- --- --- ---

Sorting --- Poor to good Poor Good

Inorganic --- Lamination, cross- Graded bedding, cross-bedding, Lamination

Sedimentary bedding lamination, flute marks, tool marks
Structures (turbidites)

Organic or --- Trails, burrows Trails, burrows Trails, burrows

Biogenic
Sedimentary
Structures

Fossils Corals, marine Marine shells Marine shells, rare plant fragments Marine shells
shells (mostly microscopic)
 TRANSITIONAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
Copyright  1998 Pamela J. W. Gore
DELTA BARRIER BEACH LAGOON TIDAL FLAT

Rock Type Sandstone, siltstone, Quartz arenite, coquina Siltstone, shale, limestone, Siltstone, shale,
shale, coal oolitic limestone or gypsum calcilutite, dolostone or
gypsum

Composition Terrigenous Terrigenous or Terrigenous, carbonate, or Terrigenous,

carbonate evaporite carbonate, or evaporite

Color Brown, black, gray, White to tan Dark gray to black Gray, brown, tan
green, red

Grain Size Clay to sand Sand Clay to silt Clay to silt

(Coarsening upward

Grain Shape --- Rounded to angular --- ---

Sorting Poor Good Poor Variable

Inorganic Cross-bedding, graded Cross-bedding, Lamination, ripples, cross- Lamination,

Sedimentary bedding symmetrical ripples bedding mudcracks, ripples,
Structures cross-bedding

Organic or Trails, burrows Tracks, trails, burrows Trails, burrows Stromatolites, trails,
Biogenic tracks, burrows
Sedimentary
Structures

Fossils Plant fragments, shells Marine shells Marine shells Marine shells