EXPERIMENT NO.

3
Aim: Study and verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Scope: Useful in analysis of electrical and amplifier circuits.

Equipments required: Digital multimeter , 2 mm patch cords.

Theory:

The Maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the source's
internal

resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most low voltage DC power supplies have a
very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less) great difficulty would result in trying to affect this condition
under actual laboratory experiments. If one wire to connect a low value resistor across the terminals of a 10
volt supply, high power ratings would be required, and the resulting current would probably cause the
supply's current rating to be exceeded. In this experiment, therefore, the student will simulate a higher
internal resistance by purposely connecting a high value of resistance in series with the DC voltage supply's
terminal. Refer to figure 1. The terminals (a & b) will be considered as the power supply's output voltage
terminals. The student will use a potentiometer as a variable size of load resistance. For various settings of the
potentiometer representing RL, the load current and load voltage will be measured. The power dissipated by
the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of RL = Ri, the student will verify by
measurement that maximum power is developed in the load resistor.

In other words, the maximum amount of power

will be dissipated by a load resistance when load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of
the network supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton
resistance of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.

This is essentially what is aimed for in stereo

system design, where speaker “impedance” is matched to amplifier “impedance” for maximum sound power
output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to resistance, and must be
equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be transferred to the load. Load
impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is too low will not only result
in low power output, but possibly overheating of the amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal
(Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
Taking our Thevenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells us that the load
resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to the Thevenin resistance (in this case, 680 W)

Figure 1

With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be maximum. This theorem is used to ensure
that a load receives maximum power from the source. (For example, transferring the maximum power from
the stereo amplifier to the speakers or from the antenna to the amplifier.) In words, it states that a
load receives maximum power when its terminal resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance of the source. In
the Thevenin example we just did, RL should be 680W in order for the maximum power to be transferred to it
from the rest of the circuit.

In general, for maximum power delivered to the load when:

RL = RTH

Figure 2

In figure 2, where RL = RTH, we find that

IL = VTH/(RL+RTH);

IL = VTH/2RTH;
FORMULAE:

PL = IL²RL ;

RL = VL/RL;

Always keep in mind that the power that does not reach a load is lost across the Thevenin
resistance (in theform of heat) and serves no useful purpose. Also, if you do some mathematical examples, you
will find thatmatching the load resistance to the Thevenin resistance will produce a significant loss (50%) in the
voltagelevel. In the last example we looked at, if we replace RL with a 680 W resistor we will get the
maximumpower delivered to the load, but the voltage across the load will be only 5 volts. Sometimes it is
important to maintain a voltage level. Other times it’s most important to maintain a given current. In either of
these cases, it may be necessary to sacrifice efficiency in order to achieve a particular goal. It is only in the case
when we are concerned with maximum efficiency that we need to employ the Maximum power transfer
theorem principles.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
PROCEDURE:

1) Connect +12V, DC power supplies at their indicated position using patch cords.
2) Measure voltage between terminals 2 & 4 using voltmeter, for this connect terminal 2
to the + terminal of DC Voltmeter and 4 to –ve terminal. It is the required value of
Thevenin's equivalent voltage (VTH).
3) Disconnect the patch cord between terminals 1 to +12V and Gnd to Gnd.
4) Connect test point 1 & Gnd (of circuit) so as to replace source by its internal
resistance (assuming it negligible).
5) Measure resistance between terminals 2 & 4 using multimeter. It is the required value of
Thevenin's equivalent resistance RTH.
6) Switch off the kit and set the value of RL less than RTH by connecting ohmmeter
(multimeter) between terminals 2 and 3.
7) Now connect ammeter (multimeter) between terminals 2 and 3, voltmeter between
terminals 3 and 4 and measure value of IL and VL. Also calculate RL and power for this
reading.
8) Now increase RL such that it should become more than what we calculated in step 7 but
less than RTH, this is going to be second reading. Once again read values of VL and IL
from multimeter and calculate RL and power.
9) Now set RL = RTH with the help of multimeter. And measure value of VL and IL and also
calculate power for this reading.
10) Increase RL now it will become greater than RTH, note down reading of VL and IL
and calculate RL and power for this reading.
 11) Further Increase RL , note down reading of VL and IL and calculate RL and power
for this reading.
12) Find out value of RL at which maximum power is getting transferred to load.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESULT AND CONCLUSION:

Aim: Study and verification of the Norton’s Theorem.
Equipments Needed : 1. Digital multimeter.

2. 2 mm patch cords.

Circuit Diagram :

Circuits used to study Norton’s theorem is shown in figure above.

Theory:

Norton’s Theorem :
Norton Theorem is converse of Thevenin’s Theorem. It consists of
equivalent current source instead of equivalent voltage source as we do in Thevenin’s
theorem .The determination of internal resistance of the source network is identical in
both the theorems. However, in final stage, i.e., in the Norton equivalent circuit, the
current generator is placed in parallel to the internal resistance unlike to that in
Thevenin’s theorem where the equivalent voltage source was placed in series with the
internal resistance.
Statement of Norton’s Theorem :

A linear active network consists of independent and dependant voltage and current
sources and linear bilateral network elements can be replaced by an equivalent circuit,
consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance. The current source being the short
circuited current across the load terminal and the resistance being the internal resistance
of the source network, looking through the open circuited load terminals.

Figure 1

The Norton’s equivalent circuit provides equivalence at the terminals only the internal
construction and characteristics of the original network and the Norton equivalent are usually
quite different.

This theorem achieves two important objectives :

1. Provide a way to find any particular voltage or current in a linear network with one, two, or
any other number of sources.

2. We can concentrate on a specific portion of a network by replacing the remaining

network with an equivalent circuit.

Procedure :

1. Connect a 2mm patch cord between +5V supply and terminal 1, and ground to Ground.
2. Measure current between terminals 2 and ground, for this, connect 2 and ground to + ve
and –ve terminals of the ammeter respectively provided on the board. It is the required
practical value of Norton current IN.

3. Disconnect the 2 mm patch cord between terminals 1 and supply.

4. Connect terminals 1 and ground so as to replace source by its internal resistance (assuming
it negligible).

5. Measure resistance between terminals 2 and ground using multimeter. It is the required
practical value of Norton's equivalent resistance RN.

6. Now set the value of RL at one fixed value in both original and norton’s equivalent network
same and equal.

7. Connect a 2mm patch cord between terminals 1 and supply and Gnd to Gnd socket.

8. Connect an ammeter between terminals 2 and 3 to measure load current IL flowing

through load resistance of original circuit.

9. Connect an ammeter between terminals 4 and 5 and examine the value. This current
is same as IN of the Norton circuit.

10. Connect a 2 mm patch cord between terminals 4 and 5 and between terminals 8 and 9.

11. Connect an ammeter between terminals 6 and 7 to measure load current (IL) flowing
through load resistance of Norton’s equivalent circuit.

12. Compare load current (IL) flowing through both of the load resistances and also with the
theoretical values of IL calculated.

OBSERVATIONS:
1) Practical value of RN = __________
2) Practical value of IN = __________
3) Value of RL set in original and norton’s equivalent network = ________
4) Practical value of IL measured from original network = ___________
5) Practical value of IL measured from norton’s equivalent network = ___________
6) Theoretical value of RN = ________
7) Theoretical value of IN = ________
 8) RL set = _______
9) Theoretical value of IL = ________

Result :
Theoretical value of Norton’s current IN = …………..

Practical value of Norton’s current IN =……………...

Theoretical value of Norton’s equivalent resistance RN = ………

Practical value of Norton's equivalent resistance RN = ………….

_________ (Yes/No), the value of current flowing through the load resistance in both of the
cases is approximately equal. Hence Norton’s theorem is verified.
Aim: Verification of the Thevenin’s Theorem
Equipments Needed : 1. Digital multimeter.

2. 2 mm patch cords.

Theory :

Thevenin’s Theorem :

This theorem is possibly the most extensively used network theorem. It is applicable where it is
desired to determine the current through or voltage across any one element in a
network without going through the rigorous method of solving a set of network equations.

Statement of Thevenin’s Theorem :

Any two-terminal bilateral linear DC circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source and a series resistor.

Figure 1

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit provides equivalence at the terminals only - the internal
construction and characteristics of the original network and the Thevenin’s equivalent are
usually quite different.

This theorem achieves two important objectives :

Provide a way to find any particular voltage or current in a linear network with one,
two, or any other number of sources. We can concentrate on a specific portion of a
network by replacing the remaining network with an equivalent circuit.
Procedure :

1. Connect +12V, DC power supplies at their indicated position using patch cords.

2. Measure voltage between terminals 2 & 4 using voltmeter, for this connect terminal 2 to the
+ terminal of DC Voltmeter and 4 to –ve terminal. It is the required value of Thevenin's
equivalent voltage (VTH).

3. To measure theoretical value of Thevenin's equivalent voltage VTH of given circuit, proceed
as follows:

4. Determine the value of current I flowing through 511E resistor with the help of basic current
laws.

5. Multiply the current I with the resistance value 511E. The product is required theoretical
value of VTH.

6. Compare theoretical and practical values of Thevenin’s equivalent voltage VTH.

7. Disconnect the patch cord between terminals 1 to +12V and Gnd to Gnd.

8. Connect test point 1 & Gnd (of circuit) so as to replace source by its internal resistance
(assuming it negligible).

9. Measure resistance between terminals 2 & 4 using multimeter. It is the required value of
Thevenin's equivalent resistance RTH.

10. Now measure theoretical value of Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTH between terminals
2 & 4 of the given circuit by using fundamentals of resistances in series and parallel.

11. Compare theoretical and practical value of Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTH and
find the (Error = Theoretical value – Measured value).

12. First disconnect all the connections.

13. Now, connect patch cords between terminals 1 to +12V terminal and Gnd to Gnd.

14. Set the value of load resistance of both given circuit and its equivalent circuit equal to
700W.
15. Connect an ammeter between terminals 2 & 3, for this connect terminal 2 to + of DC
ammeter and 3 to its – terminals.

16. Observe the value of current in ammeter.

17. Connect +5V DC Power Supply to terminal 5 and Gnd to Gnd which is indicated above.

18. Connect an ammeter between terminals 6 & 7, for this connect terminal 6 to + of DC
Ammeter and 3 to its – terminals.

19. Observe the value of current in ammeter, which is the current flowing through the load
resistance (RL).

20. Compare current flowing through both of the load resistance and find the (Error =
Theoretical value – Measured value).