CE 1022 Fluid Mechanics

Buoyancy
- Lecture Note -
BUOYANCY

1. 1 Introduction

A fluid exerts a force on any object submerged in it. Such a

force due to a fluid in equilibrium is known as the buoyancy or
the upthrust. It is often necessary to determine buoyancy in
many engineering applications as in the design of ships, boats,
buoys etc.

The buoyancy has a magnitude equal to the weight of the

displaced volume of fluid. It acts upwards through the centre of
gravity of the displaced volume of fluid which is known as the
centre of buoyancy.

This result is often known as the Archimedes principle and can

be proved as follows:
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When an object is submerged in a fluid in equilibrium an equal
volume of fluid is displaced. This volume of fluid was in equilibrium
under the action of its own weight and the resultant thrust exerted
on it by the surrounding fluid which is the same as the buoyancy
on the submerged object. Hence the buoyancy should be equal in
magnitude to the weight of the displaced volume of fluid and act
upwards through its centre of gravity.
Alternatively, considering the object ABCD submerged in a fluid
in equilibrium as shown in Figure 1,
F E
Horizontal thrust on surface ABC A
= Thrust on left hand side of AC
= (say) B D

surface ADC= Thrust on right hand side of AC

C
= F (say) 
Figure 1

Total horizontal thrust on ABCD =0 3

Downward thrust on surface BAD = Weight of fluid volume BADEF
Upward thrust on surface BCD = Weight of fluid volume BCDEF

Total upward thrust on ABCD

= Weight of fluid volume (BCDEF-BADEF)
= Weight of fluid volume ABCD
= Weight of the displaced volume of fluid

F E
A

This result is not restricted

B D

to a fluid of uniform density.

C
Figure 1 4
On a body of volume V, submerged in a fluid of density ρ in
equilibrium, the buoyancy U = Vρg, where g = Acceleration
due to gravity, and acts through the centre of buoyancy B as
shown in Figure 2.

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The position of the center of buoyancy B depends on the
shape of the displaced volume of fluid. For a fluid of uniform
density, it is at the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid. It
should be distinguished from the centre of gravity G of the
submerged object, the position of which depends on the way
its weight W is distributed as illustrated in Figure 3.

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1.2 Bodies Submerged in Two Immiscible Fluids

A body submerged in two immiscible fluids of densities ρ1 and ρ2

(>ρ1) is shown in Figure 4. The buoyancy U1 on the volume V1
submerged in the upper fluid acts through its centre of buoyancy
B1 and the buoyancy U2 on the volume V2 submerged in the lower
fluid acts through its centre of buoyancy B2 as shown in Figure 4.
Total buoyancy U = U1+U2
= V1ρ1g + V2ρ2g

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U does not pass through the centroid of the volume V1+V2.

If the upper fluid is a gas and the lower fluid is a liquid, the
buoyancy due to the gas is neglected in many engineering
applications. Also, when a body is weighed, the buoyancy due to
atmospheric air is usually neglected.

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1.3 Equilibrium of Submerged Bodies

1.3.1 Fully Submerged Bodies

The forces acting on a fully submerged body are the weight W
acting through the centre of gravity G and the buoyancy U acting
through the centre of buoyancy B as shown in Figure 5.
If U = W, the body will be in equilibrium.
If U > W, the body will rise until its average
density becomes equal to that of the
surrounding fluid or it reaches a floating
position on the free surface of the fluid.

If U < W, the body will move downwards in

the fluid. 9
1.3.2 Floating Bodies
For a floating body to be in vertical equilibrium, the buoyancy U
on the submerged volume should be equal to the weight W of
the body and B and G should be on the same vertical line as
shown in Figure 6.

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1.4 Stability of Submerged Bodies

Stability or the type of equilibrium is of major importance to a

floating body.

When a body is given a small displacement and then released,

if it returns to its initial equilibrium position, it is said to be in
stable equilibrium. If it moves further away from the initial
equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium. If it
remains at the displaced position, it is said to be in neutral
equilibrium. The three types of equilibrium of a body are
illustrated in Figure 7.

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1.4.1 Stability of Fully Submerged Bodies

The equilibrium position of a fully submerged body in which the

centre of buoyancy B is above the centre of gravity G is shown
in Figure 8(a). The buoyancy U acts through B and the weight
W ( = U ) acts through G.

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As B and G remain at fixed positions relative to the body, an
angular displacement θ, as shown in Figure 8(b), produces a
restoring moment MR which tends to restore the body at its initial
equilibrium position. Hence the body is in stable equilibrium.
MR = W(GB)sinθ
= W(GB)θ for small values of θ.

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When B is below G, the equilibrium and displaced positions of the
body are shown in Figure 9.

An overturning moment Mo is produced at the displaced position

as shown in Figure 9(b) which tends to move the body further
away from the initial equilibrium position. Hence the body is in
unstable equilibrium.

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When B  G , the equilibrium and displaced positions of the body
are shown in Figure 10.

As no unbalanced moment is produced when the body is

displaced, it remains in equilibrium at the displaced position.
Hence the body is in neutral equilibrium.

It can be concluded that the stability

of a fully submerged body depends
on the relative positions of B and G
as summarized below:

Stable equilibrium: B above G

Unstable equilibrium: B below G

Neutral equilibrium BG

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1.4.2 Stability of Floating Bodies
The equilibrium position of a floating body of weight W acting
through the centre of gravity G is shown in Figure 11(a). The
buoyancy U (=W) acts through the centre of buoyancy B.
The displaced position of the body, when it undergoes a small
angular displacement θ is shown in Figure 11(b). The submerged
volume remains unchanged but its shape changes during
displacement and as a result the centre of buoyancy moves from
B to B’. The centre of gravity G usually remains fixed relative to
the body.

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The line of action of U through B’ intersects the axis BG at point M
which is defined as the metacentre. It has been found that, for
small displacements M is fixed in position relative to the body. The
distance GM, measured upwards from G, is known as the
metacentric height.
For the body shown in Figure 11(b), M is above G (or GM > 0) and
a restoring moment MR is produced at the displaced position.
Hence the body is in stable equilibrium.
MR = W (GM) Sinθ = W (GM)θ for small θ and hence GM is a
measure of the stability of a floating body.

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For the floating body shown in Figure 11(c), M is below G or GM <
0 and an overturning moment Mo is produced at the displaced
position. Hence the body is in unstable equilibrium.

If M coincides with G or GM = 0, in a floating body, no unbalanced

moment is produced when it is given an angular displacement as
shown in Figure 14 and hence the body is in neutral equilibrium.

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It can be concluded that the stability of a floating body depends
on the relative positions of the metacentre M and the centre of
gravity G or the metacentric height GM.

Stable equilibrium M above G GM > 0

Unstable equilibrium M below G GM < 0
Neutral equilibrium M  G GM = 0

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1.5 Determination of Metacentric Height
1.5.1 Experimental Value

The metacentric height of a floating body can be determined

experimentally by shifting a known weight by a known distance
and measuring the angle of tilt.

The initial equilibrium position of a floating body of total weight W

acting through the centre of gravity G is shown in Figure 12(a). It
contains a movable weight P at G1. The buoyancy U (=W) acts
through the centre of buoyancy B.

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When P is shifted by a distance x, the tilted equilibrium position of
the body is shown in Figure 12(b). The new centre of gravity G’
and the centre of buoyancy B’ are shown in Figure 12(b).

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1.5.2 Theoretical value
It is often necessary to determine the metacentric height of a
floating body before it is constructed. If the shape of the
submerged volume is known, the metacentric height can
theoretically be determined.
A floating body is shown in Figure 13. The buoyancy U acts
through the centre of buoyancy B as shown in Figure 13(a). B has
shifted to B’ at the displaced position shown in Figure 13(b). The
metacentre M is also shown in Figure 13(b).

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This result is restricted to small angular displacements-usually up
to about 80 and the restriction is particularly important when the
sides of the floating body are not vertical.

As the position of B can be determined for known shapes of

submerged volume, the above expression for BM can be used to
determine the metacentric height GM. For known positions of G,
GM is given by,
GM = BM – BG

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The tilting of a floating body about longitudinal and transverse
axes are known as rolling and pitching respectively. For a typical
cross section of a floating body, as shown in Figure 14, the
second moment of area for rolling is smaller than that for pitching.

Thus the metacentric height for rolling is less than that for pitching
and it is important to check the stability considering the rolling of
the floating body.

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1.6 Time Period of Oscillation
When a floating body in stable equilibrium is given an angular
displacement, it tends to oscillate about its equilibrium position.
A floating body in stable equilibrium is shown in Figure 15(a). The
buoyancy U acts through the centre of buoyancy B and the weight
W acts through the centre of gravity G. As it is in stable
equilibrium, the metacentre is above M. When it is oscillating, a
displaced position is shown in Figure 15(b) at which the centre of
buoyancy has shifted to B’.

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As there is no resultant horizontal force acting on the body, G
does not move horizontally during oscillations. The buoyancy and
hence submerged volume remains constant during oscillations
and therefore O does not move vertically. Thus the body oscillates
about A (instantaneous centre of rotation). For small oscillations, A
is close to G and it can be assumed that the body oscillates about
G.

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As the oscillations describe a simple harmonic motion, the time
period of oscillation T can be expressed as,

W (GM)
T  2 /
IG

W = Mg and IG is usually expressed as IG=Mk2 where M =Total

mass and k = Radius of gyration

2k
 T 
g (GM )

It has been found that there is better agreement between the

theoretical and experimental values of T for rolling than for
pitching of floating vessels. In practice, the viscosity of the liquid
introduces damping action which suppresses oscillations unless
further disturbances cause new angular displacements. 32
Increasing the metacentric height gives greater stability but
reduces the time period of oscillation. Thus a floating vessel is
less comfortable for passengers and is subjected to high stresses
which may damage its structure. Typical values of metacentric
height of a floating vessel may be in the range 0.3 m to 1.2 m.

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1.7. Effect of Liquid Cargo
The stability of a floating vessel carrying liquid with a free surface
is adversely affected by the movement of the centre of gravity of
the vessel when it undergoes an angular displacement.

1.7.1. Liquid Cargo in a Single Compartment

A vessel floating in a liquid of density ρ is shown in Figure 16(a). It
carries a liquid of density ρ1 in a single compartment. The total
weight W acts through the centre of gravity G and the weight of
liquid cargo acts through G1. When the vessel tilts by an angle θ,
as shown in Figure 16(b).

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The (restoring) moment produced at the displaced position
MR = W(NM)Sinθ

Hence NM can be considered as the effective metacentric height.

Reduction of metacentic height = GN
NM = GM – GN
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CE 1022 Fluid Mechanics
Buoyancy
Relative Equilibrium

- Lecture Note -
 Conception of equipotential surface
• Surface at any point of which force potential U is
constant, i.e. :
dU=0
1
is called equipotential surface. From dU  dp follows
that for equipotential surface: 
1
U  const ; dU  0; dp  0

or
p=const.
•Thus equipotential surface simultaneously is surface of constant
pressure. Such surface is of great interest for many engineering problems
of hydrostatics, when pressure action to surfaces of structures are
analyzed.
 Absolute equilibrium
• Absolute equilibrium is called equilibrium case, when
fluid is acted by gravity forces only.

If axis x is director upward, components of gravity forces

acceleration would have magnitudes: ax=ay=0 and az=-g.
Applying them in (3.13) it obtains such shape:

-gdz=0

Solution of received differential equation gives result:

-gz =const
or
z=const.
The last equality means equation of horizontal surface, at
any point of which pressure is of the same magnitude
(Fig. 1). Free surface of liquid (plane A) is horizontal,
therefore it is one of infinite large number of equipotential
surfaces (planes B, C). At all points of these surfaces
pressure is of the same magnitude, i.e. p1=p6, p2=p5, p3=p4
1 6
A   A

2 5
B   B

3 4
C   C

Fig. 1 Example of absolute equilibrium

 Relative equilibrium of horizontally moving liquid
• Liquid in vessel moving in horizontal direction with
acceleration (see Fig. 2) is acted by gravity and inertial
forces, characterised by accelerations ax and g and also
by surface forces.
Z

po

ax X

Fig. 2 Relative
g u
equilibrium of a liquid
moving with acceleration
in horizontal direction
If axis Z is directed upward and axis X – in vessel motion
direction, in expression of (3.12) ax=-ax, ay=0 and az=-g.
From it follows such equation of equipotential surface

dU=-axdx-gdz=0,
or
-xax-zg=const.

x=0 when y=0, from what follows const=0. Thus

equipotential surface equation receives such expression:
ax
z   x.
g
• It is equation of inclined plane. Free surface of liquid
represent one of equipotential surfaces and has shape of
 ax 
plane, inclined by angle   arctang   (see Fig. 3).
 g 

The main law of hydrostatics (3.9) for this case receives

shape
1
a x dx - gdz  dp,

or
1
xa x - zg  p  const.

 Constant of integration may be received from
condition:
p=po when x=z=0.
1
From there follows const  - p0 and

1 1
xa x -zg  p p0 .
 
Solution the equation with respect to p gives result:
 ax 
p  p o  g  z  x .
 g 
Received formula suits for computation of pressure of
liquid acted simultaneously by gravity and inertial forces.
 Relative equilibrium of rotating liquid
• Liquid in rotating vessel is acted by centrifugal and
gravity forces (Fig. 3). Centrifugal force may be
characterised by centrifugal acceleration ac=r2,
components of which along axis x and y are ax=x2 and
ay=y2. The liquid is acted also by gravity force, which
is characterised by gravity acceleration along axis z, i.e.
az=-g.
Equation of equipotential surface (Fig. 3) in this
case obtains expression:
2xdx+2ydy—gdz=0
solution of which leads to:
1 2 2 1 2 2
 x   y  gz  const.
2 2
 Z

po

Fig. 3 Relative
equilibrium of fluid
X
X rotated around
zo
vertical axis
Y
Rotation of a fluid element in
a rotating tank of fluid
(solid body rotation)

p = 0 gives free surface

For point on axis on free surface of the liquid x=y=0 and
z=zo (Fig. 3) and const=-gzo. Now equipotential surface
obtains shape:

2 ( x 2  y 2 )
 gz   gzo
2
 x  y .
or
2 2 2
z  z0
2g
It is equation of parabolic. Free surface of the liquid being
one of equipotential surfaces has shape of concave
meniscus with the lowest point in the middle and the
highest in periphery.
 • Applying indicated acceleration components to the
main law of hydrostatics leads to:

1
 xdx   ydy  gdz 
2 2
dp

or

1 2 2 1 2 2 p
 x   y  gz   const,
2 2 
p0
where for x=y=0, z=zo and p=poconst   gz  .

• Using this constant in (3.15) and solving it with
respect to p leads to:


p  p 0  g  z 0  z 
 x y 
,
2
 2 2
 (3.16)
 2g 

where
x 2
y 2
 r 2 and 2 r2 = u2. Here r

is radius or distance from revolution axis, u is linear

velocity of revolution.
Finally :

 2
u 

p  po  g z o  z 
 2 g 
 

Received formula is used for computation of pressure in

rotating vessel and design of vane type hydraulic
machines.
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Then...
Additional reading....
Additional examples/exercises ....
Self learning/life-long learning ....

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