Unit 1

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Syllabus Topic Pages

Physical Quantities 3-5

Standard Form 6-7
Density 8-9
1-3 Uniform motion 10-19
4 Projectiles 20-24
5-8 Vectors 25-29
9 Newton‟s 1st&2nd laws 30-35
10 Acceleration due to gravity 36-40
11 Force pairs 41-45
12-17 Energy 46-51
18-21 Fluids 52-56
22-27 Solid materials 57-70

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 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics is a fascinating science. It deals with times that range from less than 10-20 s,
the half-life of helium 5 years to 1.4 x1010 years, the probable ‟age‟ of our Universe.
Physicists study temperatures from within a millionth of a degree above absolute zero
to almost 200 million degrees, the temperature in the plasma in a fusion reactor. An
investigation of the mass of a quantum of FM radio radiation (2.3x10-42 kg) and the
„size‟ of a proton (1.3x10-15 m) all fall within the World of Physics!

It is vital to realise that all the quantities mentioned above contain a number and then
a unit of measurement.

Without one or other the measurement would be meaningless. Imagine saying that
the world record for the long jump was 8.95 (missing out the metres) or that the mass
of an apple was kilograms (missing out the 0.30)!

All units used in Physics are based on the International System (SI) of units which is
based on the following seven base units.

Mass - measured in kilograms

The kilogram (kg): this is the mass equal to that of the international prototype
kilogram kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres, France.

Length - measured in metres

The metre (m): this is the distance travelled by electromagnetic waves in free space in
1/299 792 458 s.

Time - measured in seconds

The second: this is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
caesium 137 atom.

Electric current - measured in amperes.

The ampere: this is that constant current which, if maintained in two parallel straight
conductors of infinite length and of negligible circular cross section placed 1 metre
apart in a vacuum would produce a force between them of 2 x 10 -7 N.

Temperature - measured in Kelvin

The Kelvin: this is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water.

Angle – measured in radian

The radian: 2 radian = 360

Amount of substance - measured in moles

The mole: this is the amount of substance of a system that contains as any elementary
particles as there are in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

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It is most important to realise that these units are for separate measurements – you
can‟t add together quantities with different units. For example five kilograms plus
twenty-five metres has no meaning. It is rather similar to having a field in which
there are 30 sheep, twelve cows and 25 pigs and asking how many there are? How
many of what? It's simply a collection of different animals - you cannot add them
together!

This can be summarised by saying

a valid equation must be HOMOGENEOUS

However not all homogeneous equations are necessarily valid.

6  distance
e.g. The equation speed  is a homogeneous equation (the units on both
time
distance
sides are m s-1) but the equation is wrong (the correct equation is speed  ).
time

Units.swf

1 Complete the table to show the missing physical quantity for each unit.

Unit Physical Quantity

m s-1 Velocity
m s-2
kg m-3
Nm
N m s-1

2 Listed below are five physical quantities:

energy force power velocity displacement
Select from this list the quantity or quantities fitting each description below. You may
use each quantity once, more than once or not at all.
A quantity that equals the rate of change of another quantity in the list.
A quantity that equals the product of two other quantities in the list.
A quantity with base units kg m2 s-3.

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3 What are the units of the following quantities?

Quantity Formula Units

Velocity velocity = displacement/time m/s or ms-1
Acceleration
Force
Work
kinetic energy
Pressure
Density
Frequency
wavelength ()
wave speed speed = frequency × wavelength

4 For each of the four concepts listed in the left hand column, place a tick by
the correct example of that concept in the appropriate box.
Concept
A base quantity mole length kilogram
A base unit coulomb ampere volt
A scalar quantity force velocity kinetic energy
A vector quantity mass weight density

Page 5 of 69
 Standard form
Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily and
without using lots of zeros. We sometimes call it scientific notation.
We write 1000 as 103, 10 000 as 104 and so on.
Small numbers can also be written in standard form. However, instead of the index of
the power being positive it will be negative.
So 0.001 is written as 10-3.
5000 would be 5 x 103
0.005 would be 5 x 10-3
5200 would be written as 5.2 x 103
0.0052 would be written as 5.2 x 10-3

Rules for the use of standard form

Addition or subtraction
5000 + 3000 = 5 x 103 + 3 x 103 = 8 x 103
0.001 + 0.002 = 1 x 10-3 + 2 x 10-3 = 3 x 10-3
Don‟t forget here that 103 is actually 1 x 103.
5000 + 400 = 5 x 103 + 4 x 102 = 5 x 103 + 0.4 x 103 = 5.4 x 103
Notice what we have done to the 400 to make both terms raised to 10 to the power 3.
3000 - 2400 = 3 x 103 - 2.4 x 103 = 0.6 x 103 = 6 x 102 = 600
Multiplication or division
(add or subtract the indices)
5000 x 3000 = 5 x 103 x 3 x 103 = 15 x 106 = 1.5 x 107
50000/300 = [5x104]/[3x102] = 1.67x102 = 167
Standard form is very useful when you are dealing with numbers like the charge on an
electron (1.6x10-19 C) or even worse Planck's constant (6.63x10-34 Js).
Imagine having to write these as:
Electron charge = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 16 C
Planck's constant = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 663 Js

Powers of 10.SWF
We live in a world of about 10-2 m (1 cm) to 10 m (101 m) or „-2 to 1‟.
How big is the world of the following?

The Universe Galaxies Stars the Earth

Continents Cities Cambridge Tutors College

This room a hair a cell an atom

Atomic nucleus proton electron

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  pico (p) 10-12
 nano (n) 10-9
 micro () 10-6
 centi (c) 10-2
 deci (d) 10-1
 kilo (k) 103
 mega (M) 106
 giga (G) 109
 tera (T) 1012

Q1 Write the following out in full:

(a) 10kJ (b) 2.56 kV (c) 10cm (d) 100 g

(e) 5 MJ (f) 1.234 TW (g) 4.56 nm (h) 12 pA

Q2 Convert the following to the nearest power of ten symbols:

(a) 10000 m (b) 0.00004 A (c) 1.2 x 107 C

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 DENSITY
The mass of individual atoms and how closely they are packed together can be "felt" on
an every day level - it is called the density of the material.

Mass
Density 
Volume
and the units are kg m-3.

Density is important in every day life, for example if this page was made of solid gold it
would have a mass of about 100g! The same applies to power cables, they are made of
aluminium as it is lighter than steel and so the pylons are strong enough to hold them up.
The table below shows the density of some common materials.

Material Density/ kg m-3

Gold 19300 Water 1000
Uranium 19050 Methyl alcohol 792
Mercury 13546 Chlorine 3.2
Copper 8930 Carbon Dioxide 1.98
Iron 7870 Air 1.3
Steel 7860 Helium 0.18
Marble 2600
Concrete 2400
Brick 2300
Wood (oak) 650

In an extreme case we could work out the density of a proton! It has a mass of roughly
1.66 x 10-27 kg and a "radius" of about 10-15 m. This gives it a "volume" of about
4 x 10-45 m-3 and a density of just under 4 x 1017 kgm-3.

States of matter.SWF

http://www.media.pearson.com.au/schools/cw/au_sch_whalley_sf1_1/int/matter.html

1 Use the data in the table to calculate the mass of a steel ball bearing of radius
0.3mm.

2 3 mg of gas are injected into the vacuum chamber of a fusion reactor. The
volume of the chamber containing the gas is 3.75 m3. What is the density of the
gas under these conditions?

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3 Complete the following table:

material mass/kg volume/m3 density/kg m-3

aluminium 160 0.060
lead 0.032 11x103
steel 60 7.7x103

4 The average radius of the Earth is 6.4x106 m. Its mass is 6.0x1024 kg. What is
its average density?
5 Calculate the mass of air in a room whose dimensions are 4 m x 5 m x 2.5 m.
6 A neutron star is a dead star consisting entirely of neutrons. Its mass may be
about the same as that of the Sun (2 x 1030 kg). A typical diameter is 18 km.
(a) Calculate the density of the material.
(b) Neutron stars are formed from stars which have masses that are less
than three times the mass of the Sun. Dying stars with more than this
mass collapse to form black holes. Assuming that these have the same
density as neutron stars, what is the diameter of a black hole that has
20 times the mass of the Sun?

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 Speed and Velocity

Racing balls.SWF

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time and if the object
travels a small distance s in a time t then its velocity v is given by the equation:

change in displacement s
velocity  
time taken t
and if this is constant the body is said to move with uniform velocity.
Notice that we use the word displacement instead of distance, since displacement is
the distance measured in a particular direction.
The difference between displacement and distance is B
shown by Figure 1. An object moves from A to B along Y
the line AXYB. The distance travelled from A to B is
shown by the line AXYB while the displacement is shown
by the vector AB.
X
Notice that since velocity is a vector, uniform velocity
requires there to be no change in either the magnitude A Figure 1
(size) or direction of the velocity.
v
For a body moving with uniform velocity a graph of
velocity against time will look like this. It should be
clear that the distance travelled is equal to the area
under the line on the velocity-time graph. Area = displacement

t
Velocity measurement
The measurement of velocity normally requires the measurement of two quantities
(displacement and time) but it can be found directly as follows:-

The ticker timer

A simple method of calculating the velocity of an object
is to use a ticker timer (shown in Figure 4). This makes a
series of dots on a length of tape, usually 50 per second.
This means that there is 1/50 s between one dot and the
next. A section of tape with 5 spaces on it has therefore 

passed through the timer in 5/50 or 0.1 s and if this length 


is measured the average velocity of the tape may be 


found. 
Figure 4 


s
average velocity  . . . . . . .
t
s

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This method has now been superseded by using light gate(s) and computer.
Average speed for a journey
 Light gates

Light gate.SWF AB
average speed from A to B 
t

 Single light gate and an „interrupt card‟

Average speed.SWF length of card

average speed at A 
t

 Motion Sensor

Motion sensor.SWF

The Motion Sensor is a device that emits a pulse of ultrasound which travels through
the air at 330 ms-1 before rebounding off a target. The distance of the reflecting object
from the sensor can be found by measuring the time interval between the emitted and
reflected pulses.

How long will a pulse of ultrasound take to travel from the emitter to the trolley if the
trolley is 1.65 m away from the motion sensor?
(Speed of sound  330 m s-1).
1.65 m
t  0.005 s
330 ms 1
What is the approximate delay between emitted and reflected pulses when the
trolley is 1.65 m away from the emitter?
t  2  0.005  0.010 s

1 (a) During a 1500 m race an athlete completes the first 800 m in 2 minutes and
10 seconds. Calculate her average speed for 800 m.

(b) She completes the race in 4 minutes. How long does it take her to run the
remainder of the race?
(c) Calculate her average speed for the remainder of the race.

(d) Decide whether her average speed for the final 700 m is greater or less than
her average speed for the first 800 m.
(e) Calculate her average speed for the entire race.

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2 A student making notes about velocity writes down the following statements.
Decide whether they are true or false.
(a) Velocity is a vector quantity.
(b) To state a velocity value properly you must indicate the direction.
(c) Velocity is the rate of change of distance.
(d) Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

3 A sports scientist tries to model the motion of a pitch in a game of softball.

She assumes that the pitcher delivers a fast ball at a speed of 30 ms−1 and that
the ball travels horizontally throughout its flight. The batter stands 15 m from
the pitcher.

(a) How long does it take the ball to travel from the pitcher to the batter?
(b) It takes the batter 0.22 s to react to the pitcher's throw. How long does
the batter have to swing the bat to hit the ball?
(c) The swinging bat travels 1.4 m before hitting the ball. Calculate the
speed with which the bat hits the ball.

4 A van driver makes an average of 8 deliveries per day. In a normal working

week of 5 days the driver covers a total distance of 800 km.
(a) Calculate the average distance travelled for each delivery.
(b) The fuel consumption of the van is 7.5 km per litre. Calculate the
volume of fuel used by the van in a week.

5 Which of the following has the highest average speed?

(a) A cyclist who completes a 15 km race in a time of 2 hours and 15
minutes.
(b) A runner completing an 800 m race in 1 minute and 57 seconds.
(c) A swimmer completing a 50 m swim in 48 s.
(d) A yacht sailing 7 km of a race in 1 hour 10 minutes.
(e) A windsurfer travelling 1.2 km in 6 minutes.

6 A robot in the production line at a car factory moves north (000) for 1.2 m. It
turns right and travels a further 1.6 m. Finally, it turns right again and travels
another 1.2 m.
(a) How far has the robot travelled during this operation?
(b) What is the robot's final displacement from its starting position?

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Equations of Motion

Constant velocity

Constant positive velocity.GIF

The gradient shows how quickly the distance travelled is changing with time. In this
example the distance is changing at a rate of about 12 m every 2 seconds.

distance velocity acceleration

time time time

Changing velocity

Instantaneous velocity.SWF

 The gradient of a distance – time graph is the instantaneous velocity.

Velocity-time graphs
A car is travelling at 28 ms-1 and the driver takes 2 s to react to an incident on the road
in front before applying the brakes. The deceleration of the car is -5.6 ms-2.

velocity

time
How far does the car travel whilst
the driver is reacting?
the brakes are applied?

Distance from velocity time graph.SWF

 The area under a velocity-time graph is the distance travelled.

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The set of graphs in Figure 1 show how the velocity varies with time for several
different situations.

v v v constant retardation

constant velocity
constant acceleration

t t t

v v v irregular motion
one bounce
object thrown
upwards

t t t

Figure 1

 The area below the line in each graph still represents the distance travelled in a
certain time, whether the acceleration is uniform or not.
 dv 
 The slope of the line at any point   gives the instantaneous acceleration.
 dt 

Interpret graph.SWF

How far north does the object move in the first 2 seconds?
Calculate the average speed of the moving object during the first 3 seconds.
Three seconds after the beginning of the motion of the object is travelling due
…………..

How far is the object away from its starting position six seconds after the start of its
motion?

Calculate the average speed for

(a) the first 2s,
(b) the last 4s,
(c) the whole journey.

Matching Graphs

Match the graphs.SWF

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Equations of motion for uniform acceleration

Motion graphs.SWF

If the acceleration of a particle is uniform the following equations apply to its motion:

vu
average velocity 
2
vu
accelerati on a 
t
distance x  ut  12 at 2
v 2  u 2  2ax

where u = initial velocity

v = final velocity
a = acceleration
t = time taken
s = displacement
In any problem concerning these equations you would be given three quantities and
asked to work out the fourth

7 A ball is dropped from a high window onto a concrete floor. The velocity-time
graph for part of its motion is shown.

(a) Calculate the gradient from the origin to A.

Comment on the significance of your answer.
(b) What happened to the ball at point A?
(c) Calculate the height of the window above the ground.

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8 An athlete runs a 100 m race. The idealised graph below shows how the
athlete's velocity v changes with time t for a 100 m sprint.

(a) By considering the area under the graph, calculate the maximum velocity
v max of the athlete.

(b) Using the axes below, sketch a graph showing how the acceleration of this
athlete changes with time during this race. Mark any significant values on
the axes.

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9 The diagram below shows a trolley running down a slope.

(a) Complete the diagram to show an experimental arrangement you could use to
determine how the trolley's position varies with time.
The data is used to produce a velocity-time graph for the trolley. Below is the
graph for the motion from point A to point B. Time is taken to be zero as the trolley
passes A, and the trolley passes B 0.70 s later.

(b) The motion shown on the graph can be described by the equation
v  u  at .
Use information from the graph to determine values for u and a.
u=
a=

(c) Determine the distance AB.

(d) On the axes below sketch a graph to show how the displacement x of the
trolley from point A varies with time t. Add a scale to each axis.
x/
m

t/s

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10 The diagram shows a spade being held above a flat area of soil.

(a) The spade is released and falls vertically. It takes 0.29 s for the blade to
reach the soil.

(i) Show that the speed of the spade at this instant is

approximately 3 m s-1.

(ii) The spade penetrates 50 mm into the soil. Calculate the

average acceleration of the spade in the soil.

(c) A heavier spade of identical shape is now dropped from the same height
into the same patch of soil. Underline the correct phrase in the brackets to
describe what difference, if any, there would be in the speed at impact and
the acceleration in the soil compared to the lighter spade. Assume the
resistive forces on both spades are the same.

The heavier spade would have {a higher/a lower/the same} speed at impact
as the lighter spade.

The heavier spade would have { a higher / a lower / the same} acceleration in
the soil as the lighter spade.

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11 The graph shows the variation of velocity with time for a body moving in a
straight line.

Calculate

(a) the total distance travelled,

(b) the average speed over the 20 seconds.

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 Projectiles

BallTossOut.mov

Consider an object projected horizontally from a cliff with a velocity u. The problem
is to find out where this object will be after a time t and how fast it will be travelling.

The important thing to remember is that you can consider the motion in two parts:-
 Motion in the horizontal direction - this is uniform velocity since no forces act
in this direction
 Motion in the vertical direction - this is uniformly accelerated motion due to
the gravitational pull of the Earth, the vertical acceleration being the strength
of the Earth's field (g = 9.81 ms-2). Remember that this always acts vertically
downwards.
We will ignore air resistance for the time being.
u
Figure 1
y

vx = u

vy
x

 The time taken for the object to reach the ground along the parabolic path is
the same as if it were dropped vertically.

 Notice that if air resistance is ignored the vertical height of the object at given
times after the start is the same no matter what horizontal velocity it had at the
moment of release.

Projectiles 3.SWF Projectiles 1.SWF

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 25 50 100
0 m/s m/s m/s
5
Height 20
fallen
(m) 45

80

125

180

245

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

320

Range
(m)

Monkey & Hunter.SWF Truck & ball.GIF Motor bike jump.SWF

Microsoft Office
Falling from a helicopter.SWF Excel 97-2003 Worksheet shoot.exe

Bouncing Ball.mdl

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Projection at an angle

Projectile motion.SWF

Complete the following statements to summarize how the vertical component of the
velocity changes during the flight.

The speed in the vertical direction _________ until the projectile reaches its
_______ _____ .
This is because, if we ignore air resistance, the only force acting on the projectile is
______ downwards.
At the top of its motion its vertical speed is 0 ms-1. As it starts to fall again, the
downwards speed _______ .
Because there is no force acting on the projectile in the horizontal direction the speed
in the horizontal direction is ______ .

Taking downwards as positive complete the following graphs for

(a) The vertical motion

distance velocity acceleration

time time time

(b) The horizontal motion

distance velocity acceleration

time time time

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1 A crate is released from an aircraft that is flying horizontally at a steady speed
of 200 ms-1 at a height 1500 m above the ground:
(a) What is its horizontal velocity?
(i) 2 s after it was released
(ii) 5 s after it was released
(b) What is its vertical velocity:?
(i) 2 s after it was released
(ii) 5 s after it was released
(c) What is its velocity 5s after it was released?
(d) How long will it take to reach the ground?
(e) How far horizontally from the place where it was released will it hit the
ground?

2 If you had taken air resistance into account how would this have affected your
answers to (c) and (e)?

3 A stone is dropped from a balloon which is floating at a height of 50m above

the ground. At the same instant another stone is thrown horizontally from the
balloon at 8 ms-1.
(a) Which one will hit the ground first?
(b) How fast will each stone be travelling when it hits the ground?

4 Draw an accurate graph to show the parabolic path of a projectile projected

horizontally from a cliff.

5 A coin is flicked off a table so that it initially leaves the table travelling in a
horizontal direction with a speed of 1.5 m s-1. The diagram shows the coin at
the instant it leaves the table. Air resistance can be assumed to have a
negligible effect throughout this question.

(a) Add to the diagram the path followed by the coin to the floor.
(b) (i) The table is 0.70 m high. Show that the coin takes approximately 0.4 s
to reach the floor.
(ii) Hence calculate the horizontal distance the coin travels in the time it
takes to fall to the floor.
(c) A coin of greater mass is flicked with the same horizontal speed of 1.5 m s-1.
Compare the path of this coin with that of the coin in the first part of the
question. Explain your answer. You may be awarded a mark for the clarity of
your answer.

Page 23 of 69
6 A cricketer bowls a ball from a height of 2.3 m. The ball leaves the hand
horizontally with a velocity u. After bouncing once, it passes just over the
stumps at the top of its bounce. The stumps are 0.71 m high and are situated
20 m from where the bowler releases the ball.

(a) Show that from the moment it is released, the ball takes about 0.7 s to
fall 2.3 m.

(b) How long does it take the ball to rise 0.71 m after bouncing?

(c) Use your answers to parts (a) and (b) to calculate the initial horizontal
velocity u of the ball. You may assume that the horizontal velocity has
remained constant.

(d) In reality the horizontal velocity would not be constant. State one
reason why.

Page 24 of 69
 Vectors in equilibrium – general principles for forces
For an object to be in equilibrium it must not have a tendency to:
(a) translate – i.e. move from one place to another
(b) rotate – i.e. turn

In order to satisfy these conditions the following must apply:

The sum of the moments of the forces on the object about any point must be zero
The resultant of the forces on the object in any direction must be zero

ONE FORCE
If there is only one force acting on the body it cannot be in equilibrium. It
may not rotate (if the force passes through the object‟s centre of mass) but
it is bound to move.

TWO FORCES
If two forces act on the body it can only be in equilibrium if the
two forces are equal and opposite and lie in the same line. If they
are equal and opposite but not in the same line they form a couple
and the object will rotate. (See the space station in Figure 2)

Figure 2

If they are in the same line as well as being equal and opposite then the object will be
in equilibrium (See the tug of war or a glass on a table in Figures 3(a) and (b)).

Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)

THREE FORCES
If three forces act on a body it can be in
equilibrium if they are parallel or not and
in the same line or not.
The simplest case is where the sum of the
two forces acting in one direction is equal
to the third force acting in the opposite Figure 4
direction (Figure 4).

Page 25 of 69
A case where the three forces are in parallel but not acting through the same point is
shown by the see saw in Figure 5. The resultant moment must be zero. Notice that
the downward forces (the weights of the two people) are balanced by an upward force
(R) at the pivot.

Figure 5
W1 W2

Finally consider the case of three forces that are not in

parallel.

From the first condition for equilibrium it follows that if

d
three non-parallel forces act on an object that is in P
equilibrium then the lines of action of these three forces
must pass through one point.
Figure 6

If this were not true then taking moments about the point (P) where two of the forces
cross (i.e. their total moment is zero) would still leave a resultant moment due to the
third force.
(See Figure 6).

A simple example of this is a ladder leaning against a wall.

(See Figure 7).

Figure 7

The vectors (in this case the forces) can be represented in magnitude and direction by
the three sides of a triangle – the vectors must be drawn so that their direction follows
round the figure. See the example set of forces for the ladder shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8

forces.exe

Page 26 of 69
Resolving vectors into COMPONENTS
F cos (90 - )
F


F cos 

Unit Vectors.SWF Vector Maths.SWF Add components.SWF

Add two vectors.SWF Equilibrium.HTM Car on a slope.SWF

How big is the resultant force that acts on the car?

1 A gymnast of weight 720 N is holding himself in the cross position on the high
rings. He is quite still. A free-body force diagram for the gymnast shows the
two upward pulls of the rings on his hands, each of size 380 N.
Calculate the angle between the wires supporting the rings and the vertical.

2 A very heavy sack is hung from a rope and pushed sideways. When the
sideways push is 220 N the rope supporting the sack is inclined at 18° to the
vertical.
(a) Calculate the tension in the rope.
(b) Hence find the mass of the sack.

3 The wireless mast shown in the diagram is 500 N

held by two cables and at the bottom by a
frictionless pivot. (This means that the contact
force exerted by the base is at right angles to
the ground). 30o
T
If the mast has a weight of 5000 N and the
tension in the horizontal cable is 500 N
calculate:
(a) The tension (T) in the left hand cable.
(b) The contact force exerted (R) by the base.

4 A gymnast of mass 65 kg hangs between two parallel bars so that their arms
each make an angle of 15o with the vertical. What is the tension in each arm?

Page 27 of 69
5 The diagram below shows a drop-down table attached to a wall. The table
is supported horizontally by two side arms attached to the mid-points of the
sides of the table.

(a) The table surface is 80 cm long, 50 cm deep and 1.8 cm thick. It is made from
wood of density 0.70 g cm-3. Show that its weight is about 50 N.

(b) The free-body force diagram below shows two of the three forces acting on the
table top.

(i) Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the 83 N force.

Horizontal component:
Vertical component:

(ii) Add appropriately labelled arrows to the free-body force diagram to

show these components.

(iii) Hence find the magnitude of the horizontal force that the hinge applies
to the table top and state its direction.

Page 28 of 69
6 The diagram shows two forces acting on a body.

On the grid below draw a scale diagram to determine the resultant force acting
on the body. Use a scale of 1 major division to 1 N.

Page 29 of 69
 Newton's 1st Law and Inertia
We can state Newton‟s Laws of motion simply as:

A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant

force.

Also we define inertia as:

The inertia of a body is its reluctance to change its state of motion

The more massive the body is the more inertia it has. The astronauts in the Space
Shuttle had trouble with large pieces of equipment since although they were
"weightless" they still had inertia and were difficult to stop once they were moving.
The astronauts themselves also experienced a problem on the lunar surface. They had
a much smaller weight and therefore lower friction between themselves and the
surface but their mass and therefore inertia was the same as on Earth. Stopping was
difficult due to the lower frictional force.

The period of vibration of a body is also affected by its inertia. Large, heavy objects
will vibrate slowly. One simple way of testing this is to use a ruler loaded with a
lump of plasticene - the greater the load the longer the period of the motion.
Therefore the rate of vibration can be used to compare the masses of two objects since
the rate of vibration depends on inertia (mass) and not weight.

Newton's First Law

Aristotle thought that a force was needed to keep
an object moving and that if this force was
removed the object would naturally come to rest.
Galileo - not being totally happy with this idea
thought about motion in terms of what might
happen to a ball rolling down one side of a U
shaped slope. He reasoned that if there was no
friction the ball would go down one side and then up the other until it reached the
same height as that from which it started (think about this in the design of big
dippers). Now if the other side of the U is steadily lowered the ball will have to go
further before it reaches its original height. Logically if the slope is flattened out the
ball will roll on for every - never getting to its original height. So no force is needed to
keep it going.
Newton expressed this idea in his first law of motion.

A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant

force

Newton's ist law.GIF

Page 30 of 69
Think about the law in two parts:
 at rest
The word resultant really ought to go in because clearly someone sitting on a stool
may be at rest but they are acted on by two forces - their weight and the contact force
of the stool. It is because these two forces are balanced and there is no resultant force
they stay still - i.e. at rest.

 uniform motion
This means no change of velocity - and since velocity is a vector this means at a
steady speed in a straight line. Think about a sky diver, as they fall out of the plane
their speed increases - their weight is bigger than the drag - there is a net force and
Newton's first law does not apply. However as the drag increases the two forces on
them become equal and the sky diver falls with a constant velocity - a state of uniform
motion!

Drag.mdl

1 A lift of mass 1200 kg is pulled vertically upwards at a steady speed of

(i) 1.0 m s-1, (ii) 2.0 m s-1.
(It will help if you draw a free body force diagram for the lift.)
(a) What is the tension in the cable in each case?
(b) Does it make any difference to your answers if the lift is descending
at a steady speed?

2 An object falls through the air and its motion is affected by two forces. One of
these is constant (weight) and the other increases (viscous drag). The drag
force may be expressed as k v2, where v is the speed of the object and k is a
factor that depends on the viscous properties of the air and also on the shape of
the object.

(a) Draw a free body force diagram of the falling ball when it is moving at
speed v.

(b) Sketch a speed – time graph of its motion.

(c) Derive an expression for the terminal velocity vT in terms of the

object‟s mass m, the acceleration due to gravity g and the drag factor k.

Page 31 of 69
3 Figure 1 shows a box resting on the floor of a stationary lift. Figure 2 is a free-
body force diagram showing the forces A and B that act on the box.

For each of the following situations, tick the appropriate boxes to show how the
magnitude of the forces A and B change, if at all, compared with when the lift is
stationary.

Force A Force B
Situation no no
increases decreases increases decreases
change change
Lift
accelerating
upwards
Lift moving
with
constant
speed
upwards
Lift
accelerating
downwards
Lift moving
with
constant
speed
downwards

Page 32 of 69
Newton's Second Law
This law is all about the situation when there is a resultant force and therefore there is
also a resulting acceleration.

You need a resultant force to change the motion of a body. The bigger the resultant
(net) force the greater the acceleration. (Remember that force is a vector and the
direction of the forces acting on a body need to be considered).

Aristotle thought that the force was in the same direction as the motion (i.e. the
velocity). This is not true - the force is in the same direction as the acceleration if you
don't follow this think of a basket ball being thrown into a net. The ball follows a
curving path in the air but the force - and therefore the acceleration is always in one
direction - vertically downwards.
You can investigate the law practically by using a friction-compensated track and
measuring the acceleration of the truck for a variety of accelerating forces and truck
masses.

It is also important to remember that the mass being accelerated is the total mass of
the truck plus the mass of the accelerating weight although this is not significant if the
truck is very heavy in comparison.
The results can be analysed by plotting two graphs
 acceleration against the accelerating force (a v F)
 acceleration against the inverse of the mass of the truck (a v 1/m)
1
This should show you that a  F and a
m
Combining these two results gives
F  ma
The units are
force N
mass kg
acceleration ms-2
This law also gives us a good definition of the Newton as a unit of force.

1 N is the force that will give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s-2

newton.exe
Although we may think of the second law as “Force equals Mass times Acceleration”
Newton actually stated his famous law as follows:-

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied

force and in the direction of that force.

Page 33 of 69
4 A student is provided with a trolley and a track as shown in the diagram
below. He is required to apply different forces to the trolley, measure the
corresponding accelerations and hence demonstrate the relationship between
the two. Any additional normal school laboratory equipment is available for
him to use.

(a) Describe how he could

(i) apply a constant measurable force;

(ii) measure the velocity of the trolley at a point on the track as the trolley
moves under the action of this applied force. List any additional
apparatus that would be required. You may add to the diagram above
to help your description.

(b) Assuming the velocity has been measured at one point, what additional
measurements are required to determine the acceleration?

(c) How could the student demonstrate the expected relationship between the
force and the acceleration?

(d) In such an experiment, the track is given a slight tilt to compensate for friction.
Why is this necessary if the relationship suggested by Newton's second law is
to be successfully demonstrated?

5 Determine the resultant force on the object below.

What can be deduced about the motion of an object

(i) when the resultant force on it is zero,

(ii) when the resultant force on it is vertically upwards,

(iii) when the resultant force on it is in the opposite direction to its motion?

Page 34 of 69
6 A lorry is travelling at 25 m s-1 down a mountain road when the driver
discovers that the brakes have failed. She notices that an escape lane covered
with sand is ahead and stops her lorry by steering it on to the sand.

(a) The lorry is brought to a halt in 40 m. Calculate the average deceleration

of the lorry.
(b) Suggest how the depth of the sand affects the stopping distance. Justify
your answer.

7 A student performs an experiment to study the motion of a trolley on a

horizontal bench. The trolley is pulled by a horizontal string which runs over
a pulley to a suspended mass.

Initially the trolley is held at rest at position A. It is then released. When it has
moved some distance, but before the suspended mass hits the floor, a card attached to
the trolley passes through a light gate. A clock controlled by the gate records how
long the card blocks the light beam.
The card, which is 0.130 m long, takes 0.070 s to pass through the beam.

(a) Calculate the average velocity of the trolley as it passes through the light gate.
(b) The light gate is 0.600 m from the start. Show that the acceleration of the
trolley is approximately 3 m s-2.
(c) The mass of the trolley is 0.950 kg. Calculate the tension in the string pulling
it, stating any assumption which you make.
(d) The tension in the string must be less than the weight of the 0.400 kg mass
Suspended from it. Explain why.

Page 35 of 69
 Acceleration due to Gravity/Free Fall

Free fall.mdl

s  ut  12 at 2
 12 at 2 if u  0

distance distance

time time2

Free fall.SWF Free fall 2.SWF

 
Diagram of apparatus used to measure g due to freefall / s  12 at 2 method

Graph s

Gradient = ?
g=
velocity2

v 2  u 2  2as
 2as if u  0

v squared.SWF distance

Page 36 of 69
What does the graph look like if the object is s
dropped from a great height and we also take
account of air resistance?

Free fall.mdl
?

distance velocity acceleration

time time time

Sometimes a falling object can accelerate at an increasing rate

(e.g. a chain sliding off a smooth table)

Microsoft Office
PowerPoint 97-2003 Presentation

distance velocity acceleration

time time time

1 The acceleration of free fall g can be measured by timing an object falling

from rest through a known distance.

(a) Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of making this

distance as large as possible.

(b) In a typical laboratory measurement of g, a steel sphere is

dropped through a distance of the order of one metre. With the
help of a labelled diagram, describe and explain an experimental
method of measuring the time it takes the sphere to fall.

(c) At any given place, the weight of a body is proportional to its

mass. Explain how measurements of g support this statement.

Page 37 of 69
2 A hot-air balloon is rising vertically at a speed of 10 m s–1. An object is
released from the balloon. The graph shows how the velocity of the object
varies with time from when it leaves the balloon to when it reaches the ground
four seconds later. It is assumed that the air resistance is negligible.
velocity 15
/m s –1
10

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 time/s
5

–10

–15

–20

–25

–30

–35
(a) Use the graph to

(i) show that the object continues to rise for a further 5 m after it
is released.

(ii) determine the total distance travelled by the object from when
it is released from the balloon to when it reaches the ground.

(b) Hence determine the object‟s final displacement from its point of
release from the balloon.

(c) Using the axes below, sketch a graph showing how the acceleration
of the object changes during the time from when it leaves the
balloon to when it hits the ground.
Mark any significant values on the axes.

acceleration
/m s –1

0
-

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 time/s

Page 38 of 69
3 An astronaut on the moon drops a hammer. The gravitational acceleration
is 1.6 m s–2.

(a) How long does the hammer take to fall 1.0 m from rest?

(b) Calculate the velocity of the hammer just before it hits the ground.

4 A student is working on a spreadsheet to model the fall of a golf ball from

rest from the window of a tall building.
(a) He assumes that the acceleration remains constant at 9.81 m s–2 for
the first two seconds of the fall. Comment on whether this is a
reasonable assumption.

A B C D
velocity reached/ distance fallen total distance
time from
–1 during 0.20 s time from the start
start / s ms
1 interval / m /m
2
3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 0.20 1.96 0.20 0.20
5 0.40 3.92 0.59 0.78
6 0.60 5.89 0.98 1.77
7 0.80 7.85 1.37 3.14
8 1.00 9.81 1.77 4.91
9 1.20 11.77 2.16 7.06
10 1.40 13.73 2.55 9.61
11 1.60 15.70 2.94 12.56
12 1.80 17.66 3.34 15.89
13 2.00 19.62 3.73 19.62

(b) Cell B6 is calculated using the formula B6 = 9.81*A6. Explain why

this is appropriate.

(c) Cell C7 is calculated using the formula C7 = ((B6+B7)/2)*0.20.

(i) Explain what (B6+B7)/2 represents.
(ii) Why is this fraction multiplied by 0.20?
(d) Give an appropriate spreadsheet formula that uses cell D9 to
calculate cell D10.

Page 39 of 69
5 Some people think that all raindrops fall at the same speed; others think
that their speed depends on their size.

(a) Calculate the speed of a raindrop after it has fallen freely from
rest for 0.2 s.

(b) The raindrop falls for longer than 0.2 s. Explain why its
acceleration does not remain uniform for the whole of its fall.

(c) Sketch a graph to show how the raindrop‟s velocity increases

from rest to terminal velocity.

Page 40 of 69
 Forces
Forces always come in pairs called a force pair.
(This is Newton's 3rd law of motion)
F1 F2
+ +
A B
magnitude of F1  magnitude of F2 

F1 and F2 are both electrostatic forces  Similarities
F1 acts on object A, F2 acts on object B
F1 and F2 act in oppositedirections


Differences

Moonlander 2.SWF Load Lab.SWF

Gravitational forces exist between bodies on account of their mass.
When you are standing on the Earth, the Earth pulls you towards it and provides your
weight.
You pull the Earth with an equal and opposite force.

Gravity & star collapse.SWF

Fred Hoyle Jocelyn Burnell

Microsoft Office
Word 97 - 2003 Document
Supernova
Electrostatic forces act between objects which are charged.
They can be forces of attraction or repulsion, depending on the sign of the charges.
Electromagnetic forces act between
(a) a magnet and another magnet
(b) a magnet and a magnetic material,
(c) magnets and current-carrying conductors.
In (a) the forces may be attraction or repulsion. It depends on the polarity of the
magnets.
In (b) the forces are always of attraction.
In (c) the force is at right angles to both the current and the magnetic field.
Nuclear Forces act inside the nucleus of an atom which are neither gravitational or
electromagnetic.
Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together (electrostatic forces alone would cause the
positively charged protons to fly apart).

Gluons & the strong force.SWF

Page 41 of 69
Contact forces act between bodies when they are very close together.
They are, in fact, electrostatic forces acting over very short distances. They are caused
by forces between the outer layers of electrons of the two bodies in contact.
Frictional forces on solid bodies moving over each other or on bodies moving through
fluids (Viscous Drag) are all contact forces.
Viscous drag forces act on an object which is moving through a fluid.
Viscous drag forces always oppose the motion of the object.
Viscous drag increases with the speed of the object.

Parachute game.SWF
Tension forces exist when a body has a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on it.
The top of the spring is pulled up by the support.
The bottom of the spring is pulled down by the hanging object.
The spring is in a state of tension.

Tension forces.SWF

1
Q
sphere S P and Q are forces
S acting on the sphere
table
P

(a) On which body does the force which pairs with force P act?
Give its direction.

(b) On which body does the force which pairs with force Q act?
Give its direction.

2 A child sits at rest on a swing. The figure shows free-body force diagrams for
(i) the child, (ii) the swing seat.

Page 42 of 69
(a) For each of the forces P, W, T, w and P', identify the body that is producing
the force. [ P' is not produced by the Earth.]

Body that exerts the force Body that the force acts on
P swing seat child
W
T
w
P‟
(b) Write a phrase describing each force as
the push or pull exerted on the ………….. by the ……………
P is the upward push exerted by the swing seat on the child
W
T
w
P‟
(c) In this situation P = W; T = w + P' and P = P'.
Explain each equation in terms of Newton's laws.

3 A man checks the weight of a bag of potatoes with a newtonmeter. Two of the
forces acting are shown in the diagram.

The table below gives these forces. For each force there is a corresponding force, the
„Newton‟s third law pair force‟. In each case state

 the body that the Newton‟s third law pair force acts upon
 the type of force (one has been done for you)
 the direction of the Newton‟s third law pair force.

Page 43 of 69
4 The diagram shows two magnets, M1 and M2, on a wooden stand. Their faces
are magnetised as shown so that the magnets repel each other.

(a) Draw a fully labelled free-body force diagram for the magnet M1.

(b) The table gives the three forces acting on the magnet M2. For each force on
M2 there is a corresponding force known as its „Newton‟s third law pair‟.
In each case state
(i) the body on which this corresponding force acts,
(ii) the direction of this corresponding force.

Page 44 of 69
 Energy
There are about 20 million households in Britain alone and on average each one of
these uses some 21 000 kW h of energy annually! The study of energy is therefore of
vital importance in our lives.

World energy use

An account of the growth in world energy consumption makes sobering reading. If
we define a quantity of energy (W) as 1021J then in the 2000 years up to 1850 the
world is thought to have used between 6 and 9 Q. In the following hundred years up
to 1950 it had burned a further 6 Q and from then on we have been using at least 1Q
every ten years. Fortunately in recent years this rate of increase has slowed down
considerably, partly because of the high cost of energy.
Energy conservation is also important. Some 5 per cent of the total energy bill of the
western world can be saved by conservation measures such as the proper use of
insulation!
To give you some idea of the value of energy, the table below shows the energy used
in a number of situations.

Typical energy values (J)

Moonlight on face for 1 s 10-3
Pressing down a typewriter key 1
House brick raised to shoulder height 30
Burning a march 1000
Potential energy of a person at the top of the stairs 1500
Kinetic energy of a car travelling at 70 mph 500000
Electrical energy in a fully charged car battery 2 000 000
Chemical energy in a day's food intake 11000000
Chemical energy in one litre of petrol 35 000 000
First atomic bomb 1013
Very severe earthquake 1020
World energy consumption (1964) 1.4 x 1021
Earth's annual share of the Sun's heat 1025
Rotational kinetic energy of the Earth 1029

Present rate of total energy use

USA 10 000W per person 24 hours a day
Japan and Europe 4000W
Less developed countries 100-1000W
World average 2000W

Annual energy consumption

Total = 5 x 109 people x 2000W x 86400 x 365 = 315 x 1018 = 3.15 x 1020 J

Renewable energy explained.SWF

Page 45 of 69
Conservation of energy
You should notice that we talk about the transformation or conversion of energy from
one form to another and not its use. This is because although we may use up energy
in one form it always reappears as another. This is a most important principle of
Physics: that of the conservation of energy. The principle states that:

Energy is never created or destroyed but only changed from one form to
another.

Bungee jump.mov

http://jersey.uoregon.edu/Work/index.html (Cost of Energy)

Force, work energy and power

Work is done when a body exerts a force and moves a distance in the direction of the
force.

Work = force x displacement in the direction of the force

(This is an example of two vectors being multiplied together to give a scalar)

½ mv2
Car braking to a F 0

stop s

1
2
mv 2  F s

Microsoft Office Microsoft Office

Word 97 - 2003 Document Word 97 - 2003 Document

Braking distances Toy car experiment

Page 46 of 69
Making use of kinetic energy

Launching a plane.SWF

http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/~mmp/kap5/work/work.htm
(Force and work animation)

Making use of potential energy

Traction Trebuchet
Used people power to haul down the shorter end of the beam, which in turn flipped up a sling
that was connected to the longer end. As the longer end reached its apex, the sling opened
releasing a large stone or other object.

Ballista
The oldest form of catapult used in siege warfare. The Ballista is
best described as a giant crossbow which fired spears instead of
arrows. There were many types of Ballista that were popular with
the Greeks and Romans, but the one thing they have in common is
that they were all powered by twisted sinew ropes.
The ballista was accurate and could fire spears a great distance but
they were difficult to build and they were limited to hitting only
what they could see.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/qt/energy/coastwin.html
(Roller coaster)

Electromagnetic potential energy depends on the arrangement of charges.

It is responsible for the energy stored in
batteries
capacitors
magnets which are pushed together
compressed springs
energy released in chemical reactions.

Conservation of energy
In any system isolated from its surroundings the total amount of energy in that system
remains constant.

Page 47 of 69
1 (a) A car is travelling along a horizontal road. The driver applies the
brakes and the car comes to rest. Describe the principal energy
transformation which occurs as the car comes to rest.

(b) On another occasion, the same car is travelling with the same speed, but
down a hill. The driver applies the brakes, which produce the same average
braking force as before. With reference to the energy transformations which
occur, explain why the braking distance will be greater on the hill than on the
horizontal road.

2 The diagram shows a small vehicle which is free to move in a vertical plane along a
curved track.

The vehicle of mass m is released from rest from point A. It runs down to point B, a
distance h vertically below A. Its speed at point B is v.
Write down expressions for
(a) the gravitational potential energy lost by the vehicle as it runs from A to B,
(b) the kinetic energy of the vehicle at B.
(c) Hence derive an expression for the speed v.
(d) State one assumption you have made in your derivation.
(e) Would you expect the vehicle to pass point C? Explain your answer.

3 A lift has a mass of 400 kg. A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing

machine fixed to the floor of the lift. Four seconds after starting from rest the
lift has reached its maximum speed and has risen 5 m.
(a) What will be the reading on the weighing machine during the period of
acceleration?
(b) How may it be decided whether the acceleration was uniform?
(c) How much energy will be used by the lift motor in
(i) the first four seconds,
(ii) the next four seconds?

Page 48 of 69
4 (a) A car of mass m is travelling in a straight line along a horizontal road
at a speed u when the driver applies the brakes. They exert a constant force F
on the car to bring the car to rest after a distance d.
(i) Write down expressions for the initial kinetic energy of the car and
the work done by the brakes in bringing the car to rest.
Kinetic energy
Work done
(ii) Show that the base units for your expressions for kinetic energy and
work done are the same.
(b) A car is travelling at 13.4 m s-1. The driver applies the brakes to decelerate
the car at 6.5 m s-2. Show that the car travels about 14 m before coming to
rest.
(c) On another occasion, the same car is travelling at twice the speed. The driver
again applies the brakes and the car decelerates at 6.5 m s-2. The car travels
just over 55 m before coming to rest. Explain why the braking distance has
more than doubled

5 A dummy is used in a test crash to test the suitability of a seat belt. If the
dummy had a mass of 65 kg and it was brought to rest in a distance of 65 cm
from a velocity of 12 ms-1 calculate
(a) The mean deceleration during the crash
(b) The average force exerted on the dummy during the crash.
(c) The loss of k.e. of the dummy.

Power

Work done F s
Power  
time taken t

e.g. A car travelling at a constant speed v has to overcome a resistance force F and the power
of the engine is
Power  F v .

6 (a) A car travelling at 30 ms-1 along a level road is brought to rest in a

distance of 35 m by its brakes. If the car has a mass of 900 kg
calculate the average force exerted by the brakes.
(b) If the same car travels up a slope of 1 in 15 at a constant speed of
25 ms-1 what power does the engine develop if the total frictional
resistance is 120 N?

7 A weightlifter raised a bar of mass of 110 kg through a height of 2.22 m. The

bar was then dropped and fell freely to the floor.

(i) Show that the work done in raising the bar was about 2400 J.
(ii) It took 3.0 s to raise the bar. Calculate the average power used.

Page 49 of 69
8 A certain power station generates electricity from falling water. The diagram
shows a simplified sketch of the system.

(a) (i) In what form is the energy of the water initially stored?
(ii) What energy form is this transformed into in order to drive the
turbine?

(b) State the principle of conservation of energy.

(c) The force of the water at the turbine is 3.5 x 108 N and the output power
generated is 1.7 x 109 W. Use this data to calculate the minimum speed at
which the water must enter the turbine.

(d) Explain why, in practice, the speed at which the water enters the turbine is
much greater than this.

(e) When working at this output power, 390 m3 of water flows through the
turbine each second. The top reservoir holds 7.0 x 106 m3 of water. For how
long will electricity be generated?

(f) This power station is used at peak periods, after which the water is pumped
back to the top reservoir. The water has to be raised by
500 m. How much work is done to return all the water to the top reservoir?
(The density of water is 1000 kg m-3.)

Page 50 of 69
 Fluids
The rate at which fluid flows through a tube is likely to depend on
(a) the viscosity of the fluid
(Oil pipelines in Siberia have to be shut down in winter because the oil
viscosity increases and the oil will not flow)

(b) the dimensions of the tube, and

(c) the pressure difference between its ends.

This flow rate is of great importance in our lives since it governs things like the flow
of blood round our bodies and the transmission of gas, water or oil through long
distances in pipelines.

Laminar and turbulent flow

In the nineteenth century Reynolds investigated the conditions that would give
turbulence in the flow of a fluid. The streamlining of bodies is most important in the
design of cars, submarines and the nose cones of aircraft and rockets since a reduction
in drag can reduce vibration and also save large amounts of fuel.

 In laminar flow the particles in the fluid follow streamlines, and the motion of
particles in the fluid is predictable.

 If the flow rate is very large, or if objects obstruct the flow, the fluid starts to
swirl in an erratic motion. No longer can one predict the exact path a particle
on the fluid will follow. This region of constantly changing flow lines is said
to consist of turbulent flow.

Laminar flow.GIF Turbulent flow 2.GIF Turbulent flow in a pipe.flv

Turbulent flow.flv

Page 51 of 69
Upthrust
The buoyancy (upthrust) force that you experience in a swimming pool is a
consequence of the greater pressure below an immersed object than above it.

p1
h1

h2
Liquid of density 

P2

The upthrust is due to the difference between the force due to water pressure at the
bottom of the cylinder, F2, and that at the top F1.

F1  p1 A  h1  g  A
F2  p1 A  h2  g  A
U  F2  F1  h2  h1   g A  V  g  m g

The upthrust equals the weight of the displaced fluid.

This is Archimedes’ Principle.

An object will float in a fluid if the upthrust  the weight of the object.

The apparent weight of an object = weight – upthrust.

Page 52 of 69
Data:
Density of brine = 1 150 kgm-3 Density of meths = 800 kgm-3
Density of water = 1000 kgm-3 Density of sea water = 1020 kgm-3
Density of mercury = 13600 kgm-3 Density of ice = 950 kgm-3
Density of platinum = 21000 kgm-3 Density of gold = 19000 kgm-3
Density of iron = 7800 kgm-3 Density of copper = 8930 kgm-3
Density of air = 1.2 kgm-3

1 Calculate the apparent weight in the following cases:

(a) 12 kg of iron immersed in water
(b) 3 kg of gold immersed in meths
(c) 5 kg of copper immersed in brine
(d) 8 kg of platinum immersed in mercury

2 A wooden rod, density 650 kgm-3 and one metre long floats upright in a liquid.
If the cross sectional area of the rod is 4 cm2 calculate the depth to which it sinks
in:
(a) water (b) meths (c) brine

3 A pure water ice cube with sides 2 cm long floats in a liquid in a glass beaker.
What volume will be below the liquid surface if the liquid is:
(a) pure water
(b) brine
(c) What happens to the level of the water in the beaker if the ice cube
melts and why?

4 A hot air balloon with a volume of 250 m3 hangs in the air. If the density of
the hot air is 0.8 kgm-3 and that of the cool air outside the balloon is 1.2 kgm-3
what is the biggest load it can support if the fabric of the balloon and the
basket have a total mass of 50 kg.

5 Calculate the total pressure:

(a) 2.5 m below the surface of water
(b) 0.5 m below the surface of mercury
(c) 3.5 m below the surface of brine
(Take the atmospheric pressure to be 105 Pa)

6 Calculate the difference if pressure between the top and bottom of a diving
bell 2.5 m long immersed in water.

7 If the atmosphere was uniform and with the same density as that at sea level
how high would it be? (Height of a mercury barometer = 0.76 m)

Page 53 of 69
Stokes’ law (Viscous Drag Force F  6rv )

Consider a sphere falling through a viscous fluid. As the sphere falls so its velocity
increases until it reaches a velocity known as the terminal velocity. At this velocity
the frictional drag due to viscous forces is just balanced by the gravitational force and
the velocity is constant (shown by Figure 2).

At this speed:

Viscous drag = 6πrv = mg - upthrust

Viscous drag (6rv)
If the density of the material of the sphere is  and
that of the liquid , then
m Velocity v
4
weight – upthrust = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 𝜌 − 𝜍

Gravitational pull (weight) mg

Therefore we have for the viscosity 
2𝑟 2 𝑔 𝜌 − 𝜍
𝜂= Figure 2
9𝑣

where v is the terminal velocity of the sphere.

From the formula it can be seen that the frictional drag is smaller for large spheres
than for small ones, and therefore the terminal velocity of a large sphere is greater
than that for a small sphere of the same material.

2r 2 g    
v
9

Stokes' law is important in Millikan's experiment for the measurement of the charge
on an electron, and it also explains why large raindrops hurt much more than small
ones when they fall on you - it's not just that they are heavier, they are actually falling
faster.

Velocity of
falling sphere
Terminal velocity

Figure 2

Page 54 of 69
8 Calculate the terminal velocities of the following raindrops falling through air:
(a) one with a diameter of 0.3 cm,
(b) one with a diameter of 0.01 mm.
(Take the density of water to be 1000 kg m-3 and the viscosity of air to be
1.8x10-5 Pas. The buoyancy effect of the air may be ignored.)

9 Calculate the viscous drag on a drop of oil of 0.1 mm radius falling through air
at its terminal velocity. (Viscosity of air = 1.8 x 10-5 Pas; density of oil = 850
kg m-3)

10 Discuss the following statements:

(a) Large ball-bearings fall through glycerol faster than do smaller ones of
the same material.
(b) The acceleration of a sphere falling through a fluid varies with the
distance that it has fallen in the fluid.
(c) The viscosity of a liquid could be used to measure temperature.

11 Compare the speed at which a steel ball (density 7800 kg m-3) of radius 2 mm
will fall through treacle, with that at which an air bubble (density 1.3 kg m-3)
of radius 1 mm will rise through the same liquid. (Take the density of treacle
to be 1600 kg m-3.)

12 Two spherical raindrops of equal size are falling through air at a velocity of
0.08 ms-1. If the drops join together forming a large spherical drop, what will
the new terminal velocity be?

Page 55 of 69
 Solid Materials
Structure
In a liquid or a gas the atoms and/or molecules are relatively free and can move round
at will. In solids, however, they are almost completely lacking mobility; all they can
do is to vibrate about a mean position when energy is added to the solid. This lack of
mobility gives a solid it‟s most characteristic property - that of retaining whatever
shape it is given.

The way in which a solid behaves depends on its internal structure and there are three
main types of solid:

 crystalline solids such as sugar,

 amorphous solids such as glass,
 polymeric solids such as rubber.

Crystalline solids
A crystalline solid is one where the internal structure is regular in nature, the atoms
within it being set in well-defined patterns. Some crystals are isotropic - that is, their
physical properties are the same in whichever direction they are measured, while
others are anisotropic - their properties are different in different directions.

Metals are generally polycrystalline materials, being composed of a large number of

small crystals or grains aligned in a variety of different directions. In metals the atoms
are held together by a cloud of free electrons that move between the atoms.

Alloys are solid mixtures of two or more metals. An alloy will usually have properties
that are very different from those of the constituent metals. For example the melting
point of solder (50% lead and 50% tin) is 490 K while that of lead is 600 K and that of
tin is 505 K.

Figure 1 shows the structures of the four most common types of crystal (for the
moment we will assume that they are perfect and contain no impurities or
dislocations).

The four types are listed below together with one example of each:

(i) face-centred cube - sodium chloride (FCC)

(ii) hexagonal close-packed – zinc (HCP)
(iii) body-centred cube – potassium (BCC)
(iv) tetrahedral – silicon (T)

Page 56 of 69
 Body centred cubic Face centred cubic

Hexagonal close-packed

Tetrahedral

Figure 1

Note: The tetrahedral structure is shown in plan view and then as a solid. The individual
molecules have been shown different colours to make it easier to distinguish between
molecular plains.

The characteristics of each structure can be investigated using the techniques of X-ray
diffraction. In general, if the solid exhibits a regular structure as shown by the first three
crystalline states mentioned the X-ray diffraction pattern will show a series of dots. If it
is irregular, however, as in graphite in which the layers are free to slide one over the
other, a series of rings will result. (This can also be seen by the electron diffraction
through graphite).

The face-centred cube and the hexagonal close-packed crystals are the most closely
packed structures, and 60 per cent of all metals exist in one or other of these forms.

Page 57 of 69
Amorphous solids
An amorphous solid exhibits no regular internal structure; glass, plastic and soot are
examples. In a way such a solid is like an instantaneous snapshot of a liquid, although
one with an enormously great viscosity. An amorphous material has the density of a
solid but the internal structure of a liquid. They are considered to be super-cooled
liquids in which the molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to that of the
liquid state. Amorphous solids are also unlike crystalline solids in that they do not
have definite melting points.

Polymeric solids
In these solids the molecules form long chains which may contain anything between
1000 and 10 000 molecules. Many are natural organic materials such as plant
constituents but there are many synthetic polymers, one example being polythene. The
precise properties of the polymer depend on just how tightly these chains of molecules
are bound together. They may be tangled together in a haphazard way or lie side by
side.

Figure 2

Any cross-chain linking will enormously increase the strength of the material and the
vulcanising of rubber, for example, eventually produces the hard material ebonite: this
is the result of cross-chain linking by sulphur atoms. Below a critical temperature
polymers behave much like glass (but with a greater degree of ductility) but above it
they are more rubber-like. Cooling rubber in liquid nitrogen strikingly illustrates this
change of properties.

Deforming a Solid - Hooke’s Law

The simplest form of variation of the extension of
Force

an object when a force is applied is known as

Hooke‟s Law, proposed by Robert Hooke, the
founder of the Royal Society, in 1676. He showed
that:
Figure 1
Force  extension
Fx
F kx Extension

Page 58 of 69
This shows that the extension is directly proportional to the applied force – doubling
the force will double the extension. If a graph of force is plotted against extension a
straight line will be obtained (Figure 1).

This is the kind of graph that you would get if you loaded a helical spring or a copper
wire as long as you kept the loads fairly small. Where F  k x a molecule displaced
from its original position (by squashing or stretching the material) will try and return
to its original position.
The constant k is known as the elastic constant for the material and is defined as F .
x
The units for k are N m-1.

1 Two tug-of-war teams each pull on a rope with a force of 5000 N. The rope is
horizontal. What is the tension in the rope at its mid-point?

2 State Hooke‟s Law. If a spring extends by 0.02 m when a force of 25 N is

applied to it what is the spring constant?

3 A spring has an unstretched length of 12 cm and a stiffness of 50 N m-1. What

is the force needed to
(a) double its length
(b) treble its length?

Rubber
Rubber is a polymer and so consists of many long chain molecules. When the rubber
is in an unstretched (relaxed) state these molecules are tangled up as shown in Figure
1(a). As a steadily increasing force is applied these molecules begin to straighten out
(Figure 1(b)) – the bonds between adjacent chains are broken. These bonds are
relatively weak compared with the bonds along each chain molecule. During this
untangling and while the bonds are breaking the rubber warms.

Chain molecules

Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b) Figure 1(c)

Eventually all the molecules have been straightened (Figure.1(c). Up to this point it is
quite easy to extend the rubber because all that was being done was to untangle the
chains and break the weak bonds between them. However when the molecules are
straightened it becomes much more difficult. This state can be noticed easily by using
a rubber band since when this point is reached the surface of the rubber becomes
whiter and rougher.

Page 59 of 69
As the rubber is allowed to relax by
slowly removing the force the chains
of molecules intertwine again but the Force B
cross links do not completely reform.
The heat energy produced during
stretching is not recovered. Plotting a
graph of force against extension the
amount of energy converted to heat
within the specimen can be found. A
(Figure 2).

Area:
OABDO energy given to band during C
D
stretching O
PCBD energy released from band P
extension
during contraction
OABCPO energy converted to heat Figure 2
within the band
OP permanent extension of band

Using a rubber band about 2mm wide and 20cm long and a maximum load of 15N the
energy converted to heat is of the order of 0.5 - 1 J.

4 In an experiment to measure the extension of a rubber band the following

graph was obtained. The line represents the extension during loading and
unloading.

12
Force / N
10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Extension / mm

(a) Label the two lines to indicate which represents loading and which
represents unloading.

Page 60 of 69
 (b) What is the name for the characteristic behaviour shown by the
shape of this graph?
(c) If the rubber band has a cross-sectional area of 6.0 × 10–6 m2
calculate the stress produced in the elastic band when it is fully
loaded.
(d) Estimate how much work is done on the rubber band as it is fully
loaded.
(e) Hence show that the energy dissipated during the loading and
unloading process is approximately 1 J.
(f) When the rubber band has a load placed on it a new reading is taken.
Over the next minute this reading increases by a few millimetres. If
a material deforms plastically in this way when stress is applied,
what is the name of this mechanism?
(g) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus that could be used to
produce a force-extension graph for a rubber band, for loads up to
12 N.

5 (a) The sap from a rubber tree may flow like thick treacle or thick
oil. State one word that describes this flow behaviour.

(b) The sap is treated to produce a lump of rubber. Choose two words
from the list below and explain the meaning of each as it applies to
rubber.

Elastic, brittle, hard, durable, stiff

(c) The solid line on the following force-extension graph is obtained

when a rubber band is stretched.

1.4
Force / N
1.2

1.0 Curve obtained on

loading
0.8

0.6
Curve obtained
unloading
0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Extension / m × 10 –2

Use the graph to estimate the work done in stretching the rubber band to a
tension of 1.0 N.

Page 61 of 69
(d) When the force is reduced gradually, the force-extension graph follows
the dotted line. What does the graph tell you about the work done by the
rubber band when it returns to its original length?

(e) Rubber tyres are constantly being compressed and released as a car travels
along a road. Explain why the tyres become quite hot.

It is useful to have a property of a material that is independent of the size of the

sample and can be use to compare its elastic properties with another - this is called the
Modulus of Elasticity for the material. The modulus of elasticity is defined as:

Stress
Modulus of Elasticity 
Strain

There are three types of moduli

 Young Modulus - tensile and compression longitudinal stress
 Shear modulus - a shearing stress
 Bulk modulus - volume changes of the specimen

Young Modulus
This is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. This is the
modulus we need if we want to investigate the change of length of an object - more
accurately any linear dimension (width, length or height).

A Figure 1
F
L e

Force (F)
Longitudin al Stress 
Cross- sec tional Are a (A)
Extension (Δ)
Longitudin al Strain 
Original length ( )
Stress
Young Modulus 
Strain

Page 62 of 69
The values for the Young modulus for some common materials are given in the
following table.

Material Young Material Young

modulus/GPa modulus/GPa
Diamond 1200
Mild steel 210 Bone 18
Copper 120 Concrete 16.5
Cast iron 110 Beech wood 15
Bronze 96-120 Oak 11-12
Slate 110 Pine 11-14
Aluminium 70 Sandstone 6.3
Granite 40-70 Plastic 2.0
Lead 18 Nylon 2.0
Titanium 116 Rubber 0.02

Nylon fishing line extension

Fishing line behaves in an odd way - the initial extension is not static - it increases as
the creep continues! Fishing lines are designed to not only support a static load they
must cope with the sharp shock of the rod being flipped back or the fish jerking the
line.

6 Express these stresses in N m-2, giving the number in standard form:

(a) 101 kPa (b) 0.27 MPa (c) 35 MPa (d) 2.8 GPa (e) 235 GPa.

7 Complete the following table:

Cross-sectional
Force Stress
area
6.0 N 0.10 mm2
12 kN 2.0 mm2
3.4 mm2 6.0 x 106 N m-2
 (0.50 mm)2 6.4 MPa
0.11 kN 0.22 GPa

8 A steel wire has a diameter of 0.36 mm.

(a) What is its radius?
(b) What is its cross-sectional area in m2?
(c) It is pulled by a force of 3.5 N. What is the tensile stress in the wire?

9 What is the tensile strain when

(a) A copper wire of length 2.0 m has an extension of 0.10 mm
(b) A rubber band of length 50 mm is stretched to a length of 150 mm?

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10 Complete the following table:

stress strain Young Modulus E

50 MPa 6.0 x 10-4
0.10 GPa 5.0 x 10-4
0.054 0.22 GPa
0.30 GPa 300 GPa
1.8 GPa 180 GPa

11 A copper wire of length 1.2 m and cross-sectional area 0.10 mm2 is hung
vertically; for copper E = 130 GPa. A steadily increasing force is applied to
its lower end to stretch it. When the force has reached a value of 10 N
(a) What is the stress in the wire
(b) What is the strain in the wire
(c) What is the extension in the wire?

Elastic Energy
When a person jumps up and down on a trampoline it is clear that the bed of the
trampoline stores energy when it is in a state of tension. This energy is converted to
kinetic and potential energy of the jumper when the tension is removed.

Similarly, when a piece of elastic in a catapult is stretched energy is stored in it, and
when the catapult is fired this energy is convened into the kinetic energy of the
projectile.

What actually happens within some of the materials mentioned in the examples may
be quite complex, but we can calculate the energy stored in a stretched metal wire
where Hooke‟s law is obeyed as follows.

Force Force

F
F2

F1
l
e1 e2 extension
extension

Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b)

Let the wire be of unstretched length  and let a force F produce an extension x.
(Assume that the elastic limit of the wire has not been exceeded and that no energy is
lost as heat.)
Consider Figure 1(a). The work done by the force is Fs but in this case the force
varies from 0 at the start to F at the end when the wire is stretched by an x.

Page 64 of 69
Therefore:
1
Work done on the wire during stretching  Fx
2
F
Remember E  A  F , hence F  EAx
x Ax 

1 1 EAx 2
Therefore Work done on the wire during stretching  Fx
2 2 

And this energy is the shaded area of the graph.

If the extension is increased from e1 to e2 then the extra energy stored is given by

extra energy stored  1


EA e2  e1
2 2

2 
This is the shaded area on the graph in Figure 1(b).

If the wire has been extended beyond the elastic

Force B
limit and then the force removed the extension is
only partially recoverable. Energy is therefore lost
due to heat and this phenomenon is known as
hysteresis. The force-extension curve for the wire
will follow the line OAB on the graph in Figure 2, A
where the area OABDO is the energy input, OCBD
the recoverable energy and the shaded area
OABCO represents the energy converted to heat
within the specimen. The larger this area is the C D
bigger the energy loss due to hysteresis. O extension

The effect of hysteresis is usually very small for Figure 2

metals, but is noticeable for polythene, glass and
rubber. You can easily investigate this using a rubber band. By simply stretching it
and then holding it against your lips you can detect a rise in temperature.

12 (a) Sketch a graph of force F (on the y-axis) against extension

(on the x-axis) for spring of stiffness 50 N m-1 for values of x from 0 to
1.0 m. Assume that the spring obeys Hooke‟s law.

(b) Use your graph to find the increase in energy stored in the spring
when its extension increases from
(i) 0 to 0.20 m (ii) 0.20 m to 0.40 m(iii) 0.80 to 1.00 m

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13 Show that the units on both sides of the equation W  12 kx2 are the same.

14 A copper wire is stretched with a steadily increasing force: Hooke‟s law

ceases to be obeyed when the force reaches 80 N. The extension is 5.0 mm
when the force is 20 N. How much elastic potential energy is stored in the
wire when the force is (a) 20 N (b) 40 N (c) 60 N?

15 The table below gives the corresponding values of load and extension when
masses were hung on a wire of length 2.0 m and diameter 0.40 mm.

Load/kg 0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.10 1.12

Extension/mm 0 1.0 2.1 3.1 4.2 5.4 7.3 9.0

(a) Plot a graph of load (on the y-axis) against extension (on the x-axis).
(b) From the straight part of the graph, where Hooke‟s law is obeyed, calculate the
gradient of the graph (express the answer in units N m-1).
(c) Estimate the work done in stretching the wire up to the point where the load is
1.12 kg.
(d) Estimate how much of this energy has become internal energy, and how much
is stored as elastic potential energy (energy that is recoverable).

16 This question is about the design of a car seat belt. The seat belt has to
restrain a passenger when the car is involved in an accident.

(a) Use definitions of stress and strain to show that stress × strain
has the same units as energy stored per unit volume of seat belt.

The graph shows how stress varies with strain for the seat belt material.

10

Stress/GPa

0
0 10 20
–3
Strain/ 10

Page 66 of 69
 (b) Use the graph to show that the energy stored per unit volume of seat
belt material when the strain is 20 × 10–3 is about 1 × l08 Jm–3.

The car is travelling at 20 m s–1 carrying a 60 kg passenger who is

wearing a seat belt.

(c) (i) Show that the kinetic energy of the passenger is 12 000 J.

(ii) Calculate the volume of seat belt material which would be

required to stop the passenger when the car stops suddenly.

Assume that the maximum strain in the seat belt is 20 × 10–3.

(iii) Use your answer to part (ii) to suggest a suitable width

and thickness of seat belt for this situation, assuming its
length is 2.0 m.

Page 67 of 69
Ductile Brittle, Tough and Hard Materials

 A ductile material is one such as copper which shows plastic deformation, e.g.
it may be drawn out into a wire.
 A brittle material (e.g. glass) is one that will break or crack with little
deformation. The opposite of brittle is tough. Tough materials (e.g.
polythene) are able to withstand impact forces without breaking. A lot of
energy is required to break a tough material.
 Hard materials resist plastic deformation usually by denting, scratching or
cutting.

If a ductile material such as copper is stretched until it breaks and its stress and strain
measured and plotted, a graph like that in Figure 1 may be obtained.

There are a number of important points about such a graph:

 OP is a straight line - in this region

Hooke's law is obeyed. B
Stress
 P is the limit of proportionality – up Y Z
to P strain is proportional to stress. E
 E is the elastic limit - up to E, if the P
load is removed the material will return
to its original length (although the stress
may not be proportional to the strain up Figure 1

to this point).
 Y is the yield point - between E and Y
the material becomes plastic, that is, if O
S Strain
the load is removed the material will
contract but all the extension is not recoverable. The material follows the
dotted line YS on the graph during contraction and the remaining extension is
known as a permanent set.
 Z - after this point none of the extension is recoverable.
 B - this is the breaking stress beyond which the material will break.

A material like copper is known as ductile -

that is, it will flow, and can be drawn out into Stress breaks
a wire without fracture.

Materials such as glass that can be extended

but do not show plastic deformation and will
easily fracture are known as brittle materials.
Figure 2

The repeated bending, heating and beating

known as work hardening increases the Strain
strength of metals and is used in the
manufacture of swords.
If the steel is heated and then rapidly cooled it will become more brittle but by heating
a sample of steel and then slow cooling it the effect can be reversed.

Page 68 of 69
17 Control of high volume manufacturing production, such as in the steel
industry, is achieved through regular sampling and testing of the product.

The picture below shows a machine called a tensile tester. It is stretching a

sample at a constant rate. The test sample is a rod of steel approximately
the size of a pencil.

The results below were from a test on a sample of steel of 1.3 × 10–4 m2
cross-sectional area and 6.5 × 10–2 m length. The tension T applied to the
sample and its resulting extension x were measured until the sample
failed.

T/103 N 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x/10–6 m 0 12 24 36 48 60 74 100

(a) Plot these values and draw the graph on the grid below.

(b) Indicate on the graph with the letter P the limit of proportionality.
(c) Calculate the stress applied to the specimen at this point.
(d) Calculate the strain in the sample at point P.
(e) Calculate the Young modulus for this steel.
(f) A second sample of exactly the same size is stiffer, weaker and brittle.
Sketch a line on your graph predicting the results for the sample.
Label this line X.

Page 69 of 69