Nature, Meaning and Scope of Copyright

Table of Contents
Particulars Page Number

1. Introduction 1

2. Meaning of Copyright 1-2

3. Definition of Copyright 2-3

4. Characteristics of Copyright 3-4

5. Object of Copyright 4

6. Nature and scope of Copyright 4-7

7. Content and duration of Copyright 7-8

8. Works in which Copyright subsists 8-12

9. Author and ownership of Copyright 13-14

10.Assignment and Licensing of Copyright 15-19

11.International character of Copyright 19-22

12.Copyright Laws in US, UK and India- A Comparison 22-23

13.Conclusion 23-24

14.Bibliography 25

1
Introduction
The scope of intellectual property is expanding very fast and attempts are

being made by persons who create new creative ideas to seek protection under

the umbrella of intellectual property rights. Copyright is a kind of intellectual

property the importance of which has increased enormously in recent times due

to the rapid technological development in the field of printing, music,

communication, entertainment and computer industries.1

In India the first Copyright Act was passed in 1914. It was a replica of

the English Copyright Act of 1911. The Act, presently in force was legislated

in the year 1957 and is known as Copyright Act, 1957, as amended by

Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999. Consequent upon India signing the GATT

and entering the global market economy, a number of changes have been made

in the Copyright Act of 1957 by the Amending Act of 1999, to give effect to

the obligations arising from the signing of the GATT and to make Indian Law

more in line with the present law in many developed countries.

Meaning of Copyright
The word ‘copyright’ is derived from the expression ‘copier of words’

first used in the context, according to Oxford Dictionary, in 1586.

Word ‘copy’ according to Black’s Law Dictionary means ‘transcript,

imitation, reproduction of an original writing, painting, instrument or the like”

1
Intellectual Property Law, P Narayanan, Chapter 29, Pg251.

2
 Copy right according to Black’s Law Dictionary is the right in literary

property as recognized and sanctioned by positive law. An intangible

incorporeal right granted to the author or originator of certain literary or artistic

production whereby he is invested for a specific period with the sole and

exclusive privilege of multiplying copies of the same and publishing and

selling them”.

Copyright as defined in the Oxford English Dictionary is an exclusive

right given by law for a certain term of years to an author, composer etc., (or

his assignee) to print, publish and sell copies of his original work’.

Definition of Copyright
The statutory definition of copyright is as follows2

Copyright means the exclusive right to do or authorize others to do

certain acts in relation to

1) Literary, dramatic and musical works;

2) Artistic works;

3) Cinematograph film and

4) Sound recordings.

The various acts for which copyright extends is listed in section 14 of the

Act. Copyright does not extend to any right beyond the scope of section 14.

The exclusive right for doing the respective acts extends not only to the whole
2
Section 14 of the Copyright Act,1957

3
of the work but to any substantial part thereof or to any translation or

adaptation thereof, where applicable.

Characteristics of Copyright3

a) Creation of a statute

Copyright is creation of a specific statute under the present law. There

is no such thing as common law copyright.

b) Form of intellectual property :

A copyright is a form of intellectual property since the product over

which the right is granted is the result of utilization and investment of intellect.

c) Monopoly right :

Copyright is a monopoly right restraining the others from exercising

that right which has been conferred on the owner of copyright under the

provisions of the Act.

d) Negative right :

Copyright is a negative right meaning thereby that it is prohibitory in

nature. It is a right to prevent others from copying or reproducing the work.

e) Multiple rights :

3
Intellectual Property Law, B.L Wadhera, Chapter 30, Pg 282

4
 Copyright is not a single right. It consists of a bundle of different rights

in the same work. For instance, in case of a literary work copyright comprises

the right of reproduction in hard back and paper back editions, the right of

dramatic and cinematographic versions etc.,

f) Neighbouring rights

Copyright consists not merely of the right to reproduction. It also

consists of the right to works derived from the original works; rights like the

right of public performance, or the broadcasting rights. Such related rights are

termed “neighbouring rights”.

Object of Copyright4
The object of copyright law is to encourage, authors, composers, artists

and designers to create original works by rewarding them with the exclusive

right for a specified period to reproduce the works for publishing and selling

them to public. It is thus the exclusive right for a limited period to exploit the

work for monetary gain. The economic exploitation is done by licensing such

exclusive right to entrepreneurs like publishers, film producers etc., for a

monetary consideration.

Thus, protecting, recognizing and encouraging the labour, skill and

capital of another is the object of a copyright.

4
Ibid, Pg 283

5
Nature and scope of Copyright
The law does not permit one to appropriate to himself what has been

produced by the labour, skill and capital of another. This is the very foundation

of copyright law. The object of the copyright law is to protect the author of the

copyright work from an unlawful reproduction or exploitation of his work by

others.

The exploitation is done by entrepreneurs like publishers, film producers

etc., to whom the owner of copyright assigns or licenses the particular rights.

If the entrepreneur is to recover the capital invested and earn profits he has to

be protected from unauthorized reproduction. Otherwise a pirate would

reproduce the work at a fraction of the original cost of production and undersell

the producer.

In ancient times copying was a laborious and expensive process. The

importance of copyright protection was recognized only after the invention of

the printing. Press in the 15th century which enabled reproduction of books in

larger numbers practicable.5

Copyright is a creation of the statute. No person is entitled to copyright

or any similar right in any work except those provided under the copyright act.

It is a negative right where the author of the original work is protected from the

unauthorized reproduction or exploitation of his work. This right also extends

to prevent others, from exercising without authority any other form of right

attached to copyright. Example : In the case of literary work the scope of

5
Supra n. Chapter 30, Pg 254.

6
copyright extends to the making of a dramatic or cinematographic version of

the literary work.

Copyright is a multiple right consisting of a bundle of different rights in the

same work. There is no copyright in ideas. Copyright subsists only in the

material form in which the ideas are expressed. Thus it is not an infringement

of copyright to adopt the ideas of another. Also there is nothing in the notion

of copyright to prevent another person from providing an identical result (and

himself enjoying a copyright in that work) provided it is arrived at through on

independent process.

There is no copyright in ideas. Copyright subsists only in the material

form to which the ideas are translated. In the field of literary work the words

chosen by the author to express his ideas are peculiar to himself and no two

descriptions of the same idea or fact can be in the same words, just as no two

answers written by two different individuals to the same question can be the

same. The order and arrangement of each man’s words is as singular as his

countenance. It is the form in which a particular idea, which is translated that

is, protected. The above ratio was said down in Jaffroys v. Boorey.6

In order to secure copyright protection what is required is that the author

must have bestowed upon the work “sufficient judgement, skill and labour or

capital”. It is immaterial whether the work is wise or foolish, accurate or

6
(1854) 4 HLC 815

7
inaccurate, or whether it has or has not any literary merit as laid down in

Walter v. Lane.7

The owner of a copyright has no monopoly in the subject matter.

Others are at liberty to produce the same result provided they do so

independently and their work is ‘original’. The above ratio was laid down in

Ravencraft v. Herbert8.

There is no copyright in live events. No license is required to transmit

programmes of sporting events and news events. This is subject to the special

rights conferred on performers. Copyright protection in however not granted

where the work is grossly immoral, illegal, defamatory, seditious, irreligious or

contrary to public policy or calculated to deceive the public.9

Content and duration of Copyright

Copyright is not a single right but a bundle of rights which can be

exploited independently. Further the nature of the rights conferred on the

owner of the copyright depends upon the nature of the work. But one feature

common to all kinds of work is the ‘right to reproduction’ in a material form

and the ‘right to publication’. The owner of a copyright may exploit the work

himself or license others to exploit any one or more of the rights for a

consideration in the form of royalty or a lump sum payment.

7
(1990) AC 539
8
(1980) RPC 103
9
Supra n. 1, Chapter 30, Pg 256

8
 In the case of literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work (other than a

photograph) when published during the lifetime of the another, copyright

subsists during the lifetime of the author plus sixty years. In case of joint

authorship the sixty years period will start after the death of the author who

dies last. In the case of anonymous or pseudonymous works, posthumous

publications, photographs, cinematograph film and sound recording the term is

sixty years from the year of publication. Where the first owner of copyright is

the Government or a public undertaking or an International Organisation the

term of copyright is sixty years from the year of publication.

Works in which Copyright subsists

Section 13 of the Copyright Act, 1957 lists out the works, in which

copyright subsists or copyrightable works. Accordingly copyright subsists

throughout India in the following classes of works :

a) Original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works.

b) Cinematograph film and

c) Sound recording.

Literary work includes computer programmes, tables, compilations

including computer databases. Copyright also subsists in the original

adaptation of another literary work, because the adaptation itself can be a

literary work Adaptation in relation to literary work means the conversion of

the work into a dramatic work. A genuine abridgement of a literary work is an

9
original work and can be subject of copyright. An abridgement is entitled to

copyright if it is new and original. Similarly a translation of a literary work is

itself a literary work and is entitled to copyright protection if it is original. The

head notes of law reports containing in clear and concise language, the

principles of law deduced from the court decision are original literary works

entitled to copyright protection. Copyright subsists in private letters,

commercial letters and government letters as they are original literary works.

The preparation of a questionnaire, catalogue and dictionaries involves

considerable amount of labour, skill and judgement. Copyright subsists in

dictionaries because they are compilations which are included in the definition

of literary work.

The judgement or the order of court, tribunal or other judicial authority

is exempted from copyright protection. Historical facts are not copyrightable

per se. A lecture will be entitled to copyright only if it is reduced to writing

before it is delivered. A lecture delivered extempore, which has not been

reduced to writing, can be protected by an action of breach of confidence. As a

general rule, titles of books or literary articles are not protected under copyright

law. They can be protected under the law of passing off.

Copyright subsists in original dramatic work and its adaptation.

According to section 2(h) a dramatic work includes any piece of recitation,

choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show, the scenic arrangement or

acting form of which is fixed in writing or otherwise but does not include a

cinematograph film.
10
 Adaptation in relation to dramatic work means, 1) the conversion of the

work into a non-dramatic work, 2) the abridgement of the work in which the

story is conveyed by means of pictures in a form suitable for reproduction in a

book, or in a newspaper, magazine or periodical.

Choreography is the art of arranging or designing of ballet or stage

dance in symbolic language. In order to qualify for copyright protection it

must be reduced to writing usually in the form of some notation and notes.

Copyright subsists in original musical work. According to section 2(p),

musical work means a work consisting of music and includes any graphical

notation of such work, but does not include any word or any action, intended to

be sung or spoken or performed with the music. An original adaptation of a

musical work is usually called arrangements. E.g., an orchestral work arranged

for piano. The remix songs are within the definition of adaptation of a musical

work.

There is no copyright in a song as such because a song has its words

written by one man and its music by another. These two copyrights are entirely

different and cannot be merged.

According to section 2( c) Artistic work means

i) a painting, a sculpture, a drawing (including a diagram, map, chart or

plan), an engraving or a photograph whether or not any such work

possesses artistic quality.

11
ii) a work of architecture and

iii) any other work of architecture craftsmanship.

Adaptation of an artistic work means the conversion of the work into a

dramatic work by way of performance in public or otherwise.

As in the case of other works, to qualify for copyright protection an

artistic work must be original, i.e. it must originate from the author. In respect

of painting, sculpture, drawing, engraving or photograph the work need not

possess any artistic quality. A work of architecture must however have artistic

quality. The artistic quality of the work is to be determined on the merits of

each piece of architecture.

A work of architecture means any building or structure having an

artistic character or design. The building or structure which constitutes a work

of architecture is built on the basis of a plan which enjoys a separate copyright

apart from the copyright in the building. This is in contrast with engineering

drawings where the machines built on the basis of the drawings do not have a

separate copyright. Copyright also subsists in original works of artistic

craftsmanship. The purpose is to protect a person who creates a product by his

own handicraft from unauthorized reproduction whether by hand, machine or

otherwise. It has been held that prototype furniture does not qualify for

copyright; some higher level of, artistic interest or attainment is necessary.

12
 A cinematograph film is a work capable of acquiring copyright.

According to section 2(f), “cinematograph firm” means any work of visual

recording on any medium produced through a process from which a moving

image may be produced by any means and includes a sound recording

accompanying such visual recording and cinematograph shall be construed as

including any work produced by any process analogous to cinematograph

including video films.

A cinematograph film is a film which by rapid projection through an

apparatus called cinematograph projector produces the illusion of motion on a

screen of many photographs taken successfully on a long film. For the purpose

of copyright, the producer is considered to be the author of cinematograph film.

The artists working in a film are not protected by copyright. Their rights are

protected as ‘performer’s rights’ under section 38 of the copyright act.

Copyright subsists in a sound recording. According to section 2 (xx) a

sound recording means a recording of sounds from which such sounds may be

produced regardless of the medium on which such recording is made or the

method by which the sounds are reproduced.

The author of the sound recording is the producer. Musical works and

sound recordings embodying the music are considered separate subject-matter

for copyright. The copyright in the recording of the music is separate from the

copyright in the music. Copyright in the music vests in the composer and the

copyright in the music recorded vests in the producer of the sound recording.

13
Author and Ownership of Copyright

The concept of ‘author’ and ‘ownership’ are vital when the question of

propriety over the copyright arises. The originator of an idea is not the owner

of the copyright. According to section 17 the author of the work is the first

owner of the copyright in the work.

An author may create a work on his own behalf or at the instance of

another person for valuable consideration or in the course of employment by

another person. In the first case the author is the owner of the copyright in the

work. Authors who write books or compose music come under this category.

In the second category, the person at whose instance the work is made is the

owner of the copyright work. In the case of the third category, the ownership

depends upon the nature of employment.

The author of a work depends upon the nature of the work. In the case

of literary or dramatic work the author of the work is the person who creates

the work. The author of a musical work is the composer. In respect of an

artistic work the author is the artist. The author of a photograph is the person

who takes the photograph. In the case of a cinematograph film the author is the

producer of the film at the time of completion. The author of a sound recording

is the producer. In the case of any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work

which is computer – generated, the person who creates the work is the author.

14
 In the case of literary, dramatic and artistic works where the work is

made by an employee in the course of employment by the proprietor of a

newspaper, magazine or similar periodical under a contract of service or

apprenticeship the said proprietor, in the absence of any agreement to the

contrary, will be the first owner of the copyright. The copyright in a work done

by an employee on his own time and not in the course of his employment

belongs to the employee.

Where the work is first published in India there is no nationality

requirement for subsistence of the copyright. If the work is first published

outside India the author must be a citizen of India at the time of publication or

if dead at the time of death. In the case of unpublished work the author must be

a citizen of India or domiciled in India at the time of making the work.

Copyright in an architectural work will subsist only if the work is located in

India irrespective of the nationality of the author.

Ownership of the copyright in a work is not the same as ownership in

the material object in which the copyright work is embodied. Thus a person

who buys a painting may be the owner of the canvas in which the painting is

drawn but the copyright in the work may vest in the artist who has drawn the

painting. Similarly when a person buys a book he is the owner of the book but

not the owner of the copyright in the book.

Assignment and License of Copyright

15
 It is seldom that the author of a copyright work himself exploits the

work for monetary benefit. Ordinarily he either assigns the whole or part of his

rights to others to exploit economically for a lump sum consideration. In the

alternative he may license some or all of his rights to others usually on the

basis of a royalty payment. An assignment may be general, i.e. without

limitations, or subject to limitations. It may be for the whole term of the

copyright or for any part thereof. It may be for a particular territory or country.

While assignment is a transfer of ownership in rights to the assignee, a

license is a permission to do something in respect of the work.

Sections 18, 19 and 19A of the Copyright Act deal with the assignment

of copyright. Section 19 elaborates the mode of assignment in the following

manner:

1. Assignment of a copyright is valid only if it is in writing and signed by

the assignor or by his duly authorized agent. Registration is not

necessary for its validity.

2. The deed of assignment shall identify the work and specify the rights

assigned and the duration and territorial extent of such assignment. It

should also specify the royalty payable to the author or his legal heirs, if

any.

3. If the assignee does not exercise the rights assigned to him within one

year from the date of assignment, the assignment in respect of such

16
 rights shall be deemed to have lapsed after the expiry of the said period

unless otherwise specified in the assignment instrument.

4. When the period of assignment is not stated, the period shall be deemed

to be five years from the date of assignment. If the territorial extent of

the rights is not specified, it shall be presumed to extend within India.

An assignee, to whom certain rights have been assigned by the assignor

can restrain the author from exercising those rights which have already been

assigned to him by moving court of competent jurisdiction for infringement.

Section 18 provides that copyright can be assigned even in respect of future

works.

According to section 21, the author of a work may relinquish all or any

of the rights comprised in the copyright in the work by giving notice to the

Registrar of Copyright.

Licensing of a Copyright : A license is an authorization to do certain

acts which, without such authorization, would be an infringement. The owner

of a copyright may grant a license to do any of the acts in respect of which he

has an exclusive right to do. Licensing usually involves only some of the rights

and not the whole. Also unlike an assignment where the assignee becomes the

owner of the right assigned a licensee only gets the right to exercise particular

rights subject to the condition of the license and does not become the owner of

that right.

17
 There is no prescribed form for a license deed. But it should be in

writing signed by the owner of the copyright or his duly authorized agent. The

license deed shall identify the work and specify the rights licensed and the

duration and territorial extent of such license. It must also specify the quantum

of royalty payable and the terms regarding revision, extension and termination

of the license. The provision of section 19 shall, with any necessary adaptation

and modifications, apply in relation to a license under section 30 as they apply

in relation to assignment of copyright in a work.

A license should be distinguished from a consent. Thus, for example,

inserting quotations from a copyright work in another work or printing the

photograph for a specified purpose may not require a license but only a

consent.

There are different kinds of licenses. A license may be exclusive or

non-exclusive; it may be granted by the owner (voluntary) or granted by the

Copyright Board as a compulsory license. It may be limited to a specific

period of time, to a territory within the jurisdiction or to part of the interest

where possible or to a particular country.

Exclusive license means a license which confers on the licensee to the

exclusion of all other persons including the owner of the copyright any right

comprised in the copyright in a work. In the case of a non-exclusive license,

the owner of the copyright retains, the right to grant licenses to more than one

person or to exercise it himself. An exclusive license should be distinguished

18
from a sole license. In the case of a sole license the licensee can exclude all

others except the owner of the copyright.

Licenses are generally granted by the owner of the copyright on

payment of some royalty. When they are granted in the above manner they are

called as voluntary licenses. Licenses may also be non-voluntary or

compulsory.

Section 31 of the Copyright Act deals with compulsory license of an

Indian work. Accordingly the copyright Board is empowered to grant

compulsory licenses under certain circumstances. The circumstances necessary

for grant of such compulsory licenses are as follows :

a) The work must have been published or performed in public.

b) The author must have refused to republish or allow republication of the

work or must have refused to allow the performance of the work in

public.

c) That by reason of such refusal the work is withheld from public, or

d) The author must have refused to allow communication to the public of

such work by broadcast, or in the case of a sound recording the work

recorded in such record, on reasonable terms.

Section 31 A deals with compulsory license in respect of unpublished

works.

19
International Character of Copyright

The enormous technological development of transport and

communications has resulted in the globalization of trade and commerce. This

has its impact on intellectual property which is becoming international in

character.

Intellectual property can travel effortlessly from one country to another.

Piracy of intellectual property has become international in character. This is

particularly important in the case of copyright. Piracy of copyright work has

become extremely easy and inexpensive owing to the availability of gadgets

like tape recorder, video, magnetic tape, machines and so on.

The importance of intellectual property in India is well established at all

levels-statutory, administrative and judicial. India ratified the agreement

establishing the W.T.O. This agreement, inter-alia, contains an agreement on

TRIPS which came into force from 1 January 1995. It lays down minimum

standards for protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights in

member countries which are required to promote effective and adequate

protection of Intellectual property rights with a view to reducing distortions and

impediments to international trade.10

Part II of the TRIPS Agreement deals with the standards concerning the

availability, scope and use of intellectual property rights. Section 1 of Part II

deals with copyright and related rights. Articles 9 to 14 contain provisions

10
Encyclopaedia of IPR, Dr Priyaranjan Trivedi, Vol VI, Preface.

20
regarding copyright and related rights. Article 9 says that members shall

comply with Articles 1-21 and the Appendix of the Berne Convention (1971)

and copyright shall extend only to expressions and not to ideas. Article 10

recognises computer programs as a literary work which is a subject matter of

copyright. Similarly compilations of data is recognized as intellectual property.

Article 11 says that a member shall provide authors of computer programs and

cinematographic works commercial rental rights with respect to their copyright

works. Article 12 says that where term of protection is accorded considering

the date of publication, it shall not be less than 50 years from the end of the

calendar year of authorized publication. Article 13 says that members shall

confine limitations or exceptions to special cases not conflicting with normal

exploitation of the work. Article 14 contains provisions regarding protection of

performers, producers of phonograms (Sound Recordings) and Broadcasting

Organisations. India as a developing country had a transition period of 5 years

(From 1 January, 1995 to 1 January 2000) to apply the provisions of the

agreement. An additional transition period of 5 years is available for extending

product patent protection.

India’s copyright law, laid down in the India Copyright Act, 1957 as

amended by Copyright (Amendment) Act, 1999, fully reflects the Berne

Convention on copyrights to which India is a party. Additionally, India is a

party to the Geneva Convention for the protection of rights of producers of

phonograms and to the Universal Copyright Convention. India is also an active

member of the WIPO, Geneva Convention and UNESCO.

21
 The Berne Convention for the protection of literary and Artistic Works

(1886) speaks of fair use (limitations and exceptions relating to different types

of works under various provisions). The convention rests on three basic

principles :

a) Works originating in one of the contracting state must be given the same

protection in each of the other contracting states as the latter grants to

the works of its own nationals.

b) Such protection must not be conditional upon compliance with any

formality (principle of automatic protection).

c) Such protection is independent of the existence of protection in the

country of origin of the work (Principle of ‘Independence’ of

Protection).

The Universal Copyright Convention, 1952 was adopted in Geneva on

6th September 1952 by the Intergovernmental Copyright conference convened

by UNESCO. The purpose of the Universal Convention is to establish a basis

for conciliation between countries which have widely differing civilizations,

cultures, legal systems and administrative practices and sometimes conflicting

interests and to prescribe measures for achieving it”11 The Rome Convention

of 1961 contains provisions for the protection of performers, producers of

phonograms and broadcasting organizations.

11
Ibid , Vol III, Pg 33

22
Copyright laws in U.K., U.S. and India – A
Comparison
The subject matter of copyright is more or less similar in India, USA

and UK. When it comes to the Idea – Expression dichotomy, UK copyright

law follows the Berne convention where protection goes only to the particular

expression of ideas. India to a great extent follows the UK concept. In the US

the idea-expression dichotomy has been enacted in Section 102 of the statute

itself. It states that there is no copyright for an original work that extends to an

idea regardless of the form in which it is described. When it comes to the

question of originality / creativity, where the work originates from the author

and is not a copied work, it gets protected under the UK and the Indian laws.

The US laws are more stringent on the originality aspect and expects a spark of

creativity to be present apart from originality aspect. Originality and creativity

is a constitutional requirement and has been given under section 102. It

explicitly states that originality / creativity and fixation in tangible form are the

two fundamental creations of copyright protection. In U.S.A. an extremely

low, even a slight amount of originality will suffice.12

Recently the legal battle between Warner Bros and Mirchi Movies, the

makers of Hari Puttar – A comedy of Terrors for infringement of copyright

caught the attention of the world media. The Delhi High Court dismissed the

suit filed by Warner Bros which contended that the film’s title sought to

confuse customers and benefit unfairly from the Harry Potter brand, the rights

to which the United States based entertainment behemoth owns for movies and
12
NLSIU, Pg 80-82.

23
merchandise. The paradox is that hugely successful series of Barry Trotter

books and other books like ‘Hairy Potter and the Marijuana Stone’ and ‘Hairy

Potty and the underwear of Justice’ have escaped litigation on similar grounds.

The answer to this paradox lies in western intellectual property law where the

right to free speech is a defence against copyright and trademark violations in

relation to such things as parodies (a comic imitation). Ironically the problem

with the Puttar film is that it bears no resemblance at all to the Potter Saga, and

therefore audience could confuse it with a Harry Patter film. The Delhi High

Court however rightly concluded that the audience in India and else where is

more than capable of discerning one from the other.

Conclusion
The Principle of copyright protection in India is “What is worth

copying is prima facie worth protecting”. In the rapidly changing technological

environment, copyright protection is being extended to many areas of creative

work particularly in the computer industry. This has found recognition in the

1994 Amendment Act. Computer software piracy and video piracy is a world

wide phenomenon. To act as a deterrent against such piracy, the provisions

relating to protection of computers software have been tightened by

substantially enhancing the punishment for infringement of software and

increasing the scope of such infringement. Further certain special rights have

been introduced for the first time for the benefit of performers like musicians,

actors, acrobats, jugglers, snake charmers and so on.

24
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Narayanan.P,
Intellectual Property Law,

25
 Eastern Law House,
Third Edition,2007.

2. Priyaranjan Trivedi,
Encyclopaedia of IPR,
Volume III.

3. Basic Principles and Acquisition of

Intellectual Property Rights,
NLSIU, Bangalore.

4. Wadhera B.L,
Law Relating toIntellectual Property,
Universal Law Publishing Company,
Fourth Edition 2007.

26
27