Chapter 2 Evaluation of Switching System 240810new

Evolution of Switching System
Introduction :
• Telecommunication system is an important part of modern
society. In addition to public switched telephone network
(PSTN) , it plays vital role in radio and television network
and internet etc.
• The switching system provides various services to the
subscribers. The switching system is a collection of
switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way
as to setup a communication path between any two distant
points.
• The process of transferring messages from one place to
other is called switching . There are three types of
switching namely a circuit switching , message switching
and packet switching .
Evaluation of PSTN:
• Telecommunication is communication of voice or data over
long distance using public switched telephone network
(PSTN) .
• PSTN consist of transmission components , switching
components and facilities for maintaining equipment, billing
system and other internal components .
• The switching technique used in PSTN is circuit switching.
• To setup connection between subscribers , the PSTN consist
of transmission systems , switching systems and signaling
systems. The PSTN consists of :
1. Local networks which connect subscribers and local
exchanges .
2. Junction networks , which interconnect a group of local
exchanges serving and trunk exchanges .
3. Trunk network which provide long distance connections
nationally and internationally.
Classification of Switching Systems:
• In early days , manual exchanges , a human operator and
the elements like switches , plugs and sockets were used to
connect subscribers .
• Around 1890 many electromechanical switching devices
were introduced. Different electromechanical switching
systems were invented , of which Strowger switching
system and crossbar switching systems are still used in
some parts of the world.
• The later invention of electronic switching system (ESS)
which uses stored program control (SPC) and computer
controlled switching systems are widely used. . Figure 4.3
shows the classification of the switching system.
Basics of Switching System:
Functions of Switching System:
• The switching office perform the following functions
whether it is manual or electromechanical or electronic
switching system. Fig 4.4 shows the simple signal
exchange diagram.
1. Identity. The local switching center must react to a
calling signal from calling subscriber and must be able to
receive information to identify the required destination
terminal seize.
2. Addressing. The switching system must be able to
identify the called subscriber from the input information
(train of pulses or multi-frequency depend on the dialing
facility). The address may be in same local center or
some other exchange. If the terminal or trunk group is
busy , a suitable signal must be returned to the calling
subscriber.
3. Finding and Path setup. Once the calling subscriber
destination is identified and the called subscriber is
available , an accept signal is passed to the switching
system and calling subscriber. Based on the availability ,
suitable path will be selected.
4. Busy testing. If number dialed by calling subscriber is
wrong or not answering the call , a switching system has
to pass a voice message or busy tone after waiting for
some time (status).
5. Supervision. Once the path is setup between calling and
called subscriber, it should be supervised in order to
detect answer and clear down condition and recording
billing information.
6. Clear Down. When the established call is completed , the
path setup should be disconnected .
• If the calling subscriber keep the phone down first , the
clear forward signal is passed to the switching system. If
the called subscriber keeps the phone down first , a clear
backward signal is passed to the switching system. By
clear signal , switching system must disconnect the path
setup between calling and called subscriber.
7. Billing . A switching system should have a mechanism to
meter to count the number of units made during the
conversation.
Requirements of Switching System:
• All practical systems should satisfy the following
requirements for economic use of equipment of system and to
provide efficient services to subscribers. Some important
requirements are as under:
1. High Availability:
• The telephone system must be very reliable , system
reliability can be expressed as ratio of uptime to sum of
uptime and down time .
• The uptime is total time that the system is operating
satisfactory and down time that is not. In telephone switching
network , the availability or full accessibility is possible if all
of lines are equally accessible to all incoming calls .
• The full accessibility is also defined as capacity or number of
outlets of a switch to access a given route
• The availability is defined as
A= uptime (1)
uptime + downtime
Also
A= MTBT (2)
MTBF + MTTR
Where,
MTBF = Mean time between failure

MTTR = Mean time to repair .
Unavailability of system is given by
U = 1-A = MTTR
(3)
MTBF + MTTR
2. High Speed :
• The switching speed should be high enough to make use of
switching system efficiently . The speed of switching depend
how quickly the control signals are transmitted .
• For example the seize signal from calling terminal must be
identified quickly by system to realize the need of path set up
by subscriber.
• Common control should be used to effectively to identify the
called terminal or free trunk to setup path .
• The switching system must have facility of quick access of
switching equipment and network.
3 Low Downtime :
• The downtime is total time the switching system is not
operating satisfactory . The downtime is low enough to
have high availability.
• The unavailability of switching system may be due to
failure of equipment ,trouble in transmission media etc.
4 Good Facilities :
• A switching system must various facilities to serve the
subscriber., Foe example wakeup callas , address
identification on phone number or phone number
identification, quick service for emergency numbers ,
good accessibility etc.
• It should have good servicing facilities in case of repair
of equipment , skilled technicians , standby systems etc.
• Good facilities should be available for any switching
system whether it is rural or town or in city , the
exchange should not be overloaded during busy hours.
5 High Security :
• To ensure correct operation ( providing path and
supervising the entire calls to pass necessary call signals )
should be provided in switching system .
• Duplicated common control , registers, processors and
standby systems are used to provide high security.
Simple Human Exchange
• In the manual exchange (until 1892) , the control was
provided by a human operator and the elements of the
switch assemblies are plugs and jacks . All the local
exchange hardware are duplicated except the ring
generator ,operator headset and battery .
• If a subscriber A generates a call to the subscriber B , A
lifts the telephone handset from the cradle . This closes the
subscriber loop which includes transmitter and receiver of
the handset. The closing circuit causes a DC current from
battery to the flow through line relay and aluminates the
lamp of the subscriber A. By seeing the light , the human
operator closes the speak key and ask the subscriber
“number please” . By knowing the called subscriber is B .
The operator throws ring key B to the ring generator .
• The ringing generator provides a DC current to alert the
subscriber B. If B does not pickup the phone after
reasonable time , the operator informs to A that call
cannot be connected.
• If lifts handset from its cradle , the lamp of B glows , the
operator then connect jack A to jack B and the say to A go
ahead please. Both lights of A and B are “ON” till their
conversation . If any one or both lamps goes off , the
operator will disconnect the jacks.
Limitations of Manual Exchanges
1. Language dependent. The operator of human exchange is
language dependent as the subscriber needs to
communicate with the operator . In multilingual areas (big
towns and cities ), this language dependency poses severe
problems.
2. Lack of privacy . As a human operator is involving in
connecting two subscribers , he may be willing to hear
the conversation of two persons and record the messages
. So in human exchange privacy is not possible.
3. Switching delay . Before setting path between two
subscribers , the operator has to monitor various
signaling and if operator is not active , the delay in
switching is high .
4. Limited service. An exchange can provide service only
to minimum number of subscribers . If subscriber rate
increases , overload and congestion are not avoided. To
avoid congestion more hardware should be duplicated
and more operators are necessary. These all will results
in overhead for the exchange.
The Strowger Step BY Step Switching System
• Several electromechanical systems were developed around
1880 to 1890 to eliminate the limitations of manual
exchanges and to establish automatic exchanges to improve
the speed and carry more subscribers.
• Among those electromechanical switches , Strowger step
by step system was most popular and widely used and even
now in some part of the world.
• The 1st electromechanical was developed by Almon B
Strowger , an undertaker in Kansas city ,USA.
Basic Elements of Strowger Switching System:
• There are two types of basic elements which perform most
of the functions of the strowger switching system
(a) Uniselectors and (b) Two motion selectors
1. Uniselectors. A uniselector is one which has single rotary
switch with a bank of contacts. Depending upon the
number of switching contacts uniselectors are identified as
10 outlets or 24 outlets uniselectors .
• A single 10 or 24 outlets uniselector can be used as
switching elements for 10 or 24 subscribers.
• Several uniselectors can be graded together so that
multiple incoming circuits can be connected to multiple
outgoing circuits. Fig 4.5 shows the simple uniselector , the
contact arm (wiper ) moves across a fix set of switch
contacts .
• In case of single uniselector each contact is connected to
outgoing channel , so a caller can choose to connect to
any of 10 subscribers by dialing any digit from 1 to 10 .
• As this uniselector moves in just only one plan , this
selector is known as uniselector. An uniselector is
operated by (wiper movement ) is performed by a drive
mechanism of rotary switch.
2 Two Motion Switch : Two motion selector is a selector in
which a set of wipes is moved in two different planes by
means of separate vertical and horizontal mechanism.
• Wipers are required to move both horizontally and
vertically to move around that bank to required outlet ,
such selector is known as two motion selector . As shown
in fig 4.6 shows two motion selectors.
• Outlets are arranged in banks of 10 rows each . A given
outlet may be reached between one and ten vertical steps
followed by one to ten horizontal steps. Thus the wiper in a
two motion selector has access to 100 switching contacts.
• It has two rotary switches one for vertical and other one
horizontal movement of wiper.
• Actually there are 11 vertical positions and 11 horizontal
positions . The lowest vertical position and first horizontal
position are home position.
Step by Step Switching
• The Strowger switching system consist of subscribers line circuit
, line finder and allotter circuit , group selector and final
selector.
• Fig 4.7 shows the block diagram of Strowger switching system ,
which is process of connecting calling subscriber to called
subscriber.
1 Subscriber Line Circuit (SLC):
Every subscriber is connected to his local exchange by one pair
of wires. This single pair carries the voice in both direction and
ring current to ring the bell when a call is received .
• At the exchange every subscriber line terminates in subscriber
line circuit (SLC) . This consist of pair of relays dedicated to
that subscriber. Another function of the SLC is to 'mark' the
caller's line as 'busy' so that incoming calls will detect that the
line is in use.
• If there are 1000 subscribers exchange , then there are 1000
SLCs , all other equipment onwards in the chain is shared
between all subscribers .
• When a subscriber lifts his handset , loop closed and
current start to flow on the line , this detected by SLC.
2 Line Finder and Allotter : There are many subscribers ,but
only few selectors for finding a free selector and to connect
calling subscriber to that selector . To find a free selector
allotter switch is used to connect calling subscriber to
selector line.
• When subscriber lifts his handset , the seize is identified by
interrupt mechanism . Through the allotter switch , free
line finder is identified . It get activated and its wiper steps
forward to reach the subscriber contact. Now the
corresponding 1st selector sends dial tone and then ready to
receive dialed pulses from subscriber.
• Thereafter it acts as a simple electrical path between
calling subscriber and group selector.
• Dialing of the digits causes selectors to step up or round
the corresponding number of pulses. As there are many
subscribers, but only a few selectors, there has to be a
method for (1) Finding a free (available) selector and (2)
Connecting the calling subscriber to that selector. Step (1)
is done by the Allotter. Step (2) is done by the Line finder.
• Although the line finder is shown looking like a Uniselector
in the diagram it is in fact normally a two-motion selector
which means that it can serve up to 100 or 200 subscribers.
• The Allotter, on the other hand is usually a uniselector,
with 25 or 50 outlets, thus allowing access to 25 or 50 first
group selectors.
• There after 1st selector provides only electrical path
between calling and called subscriber.
• Fig 4.8 shows routing of local call in Strowger switching
system.
3 Group Selector : Depending on subscriber number , the
group selector may comprises of one or two selectors ,
referred as 1st and 2nd selectors .
• For three digit subscriber number only one selector is
required , for four digit number two selectors are required.
• Let the called number is 5345 . When the subscriber dial
the 1st digit 5 , the voltage level corresponding to 5 is
represented by sequence of 5 pulses shown in fig 4.9.
• The response of 1st selector to these “5” pulses is to
advance vertically one step for each pulse , so that it
arrives at 5th row of two motion switch . Now this 1st
selector must connect incoming line to 2nd selector
which response to 2nd digit. The wiper on row 5 of 1st
selector rotates to find the free 2nd selector .
• This 2nd selector response to 2nd digit 3 . As per dialed
number “3” the wiper moves to 3rd row of two motion
switch . This indicate that subscriber with 1st two digits of
“5” and “3” is selected.
4 Final Selector : The final selector dials two digits , as last
two digits being 4 & 5 . The dialing of 4 advances the
switch to row 4 and then dialing 5 rotates switch to 5th
column .
• If called subscriber is free , path setup is completed ,
otherwise busy tone is extended to the caller . Final selector
act as expander , to connect heavy load trunks to large
number of lightly loaded subscriber lines.
• Step by step switching may be constructed using uniselector or

two motion switch.
• The wiper contacts of these selectors move in direct response to
the dial pulses or other signals, like off hook.
• The wiper steps forward one contact at a time and moves as
many contacts as number of dial pulses received, the name step
by step switching is given to this method.
• Most of the control circuits are built in as an integral part of the
switch, thus enabling them to receive and response directly to
user signaling directly.
• The step by step switching has three major parts
1 The line equipment part consist of selector hunter or line finder.
The selector hunter searches and seizes a selector from
switching matrix part. Usually 24 outlet uniselectors are used as
selector hunters .
2 Switching part: The switching part consist of one or more
set of two motion selectors known as 1st group selector ,2nd
group selectors ,3rd group selectors.
• The larger the exchange size the larger the number of
group selectors.
3 Connector part: The connector part consist of one set of
two motion selector known as final selector.
• When subscriber lift his hand set , the interrupter
mechanism in selector hunter get activated and wiper steps
till 1st free group selector is free or busy is known by a
signal in one of bank contact of selector hunter.
• Once a free 1st selector is found , the selector is marked
busy , then 1st selector send dial tone to subscriber.
If calling party dial 5831
• When caller goes off hook, current is detected in sub loop
and pre selector switch becomes active. The pre selector
switch advance to a level that seizes an idle line and sends a
dial tone to the caller.
• When no. 5 is dialed, the resulting electrical impulses cause
electromechanical relay of a selector switch to step in the
vertical direction to a level equal to 5.
• An 8 is dialed, procedure repeated with next selector switch.
• Final selector is capable of handling last two digits 3&1.
Configuration of step-by-step switching system
From calling To called

subscriber subscriber
Selector hunters
Group selector Final
or
stage selector
Line finders
Line equipment Switching network Connector

parts parts parts
step-by-step switching
• Step by step switching has three major parts as shown in
previous diagram.
1 The line equipment side : It consist of selector hunter or
line finder.
• The subscriber gets access to common control resources
through line finder.
• A selector hunter searches and seizes a selector from
switching matrix part, usually 24 uniselectors are used as
selector hunter
• Line finders are associated with first set of selectors in
switching matrix , there is line finder for each selector.
2 The switching matrix part: It consist of one or more set of
two motion selectors known as first group selector , 2nd
group selector etc. The larger the exchange size , larger
the number of group selectors
• When subscriber lift hand set , the interrupter mechanism in his
selector hunter activated and wiper steps until free group selector
is found . Once free group selector is found , interrupter is disable
and 1st group selector is marked busy
• Then 1st GS send dial tone to the subscriber.
• The 1st GS is ready to receive dial pulses from subscriber
• It is possible that two selectors two selector hunter land on same
free 1st selector , this is resolved by suitable seizure circuit.
• At the line finder off-hook signal is sensed by all line finders, then
interrupter mechanism of one of line finder whose associated 1st
selector is free , gets activated and line finder wiper steps till it
reaches the contact on to which subscriber is terminated.
3 Connector part: the connector consist of one set of two motion
switch known as final selector. The last two digits are dialed at
this selector.
Common Control System
Principle of Common Control
• Common control system was first introduced in crossbar
exchanges. The common control can be traced in director
system facilitate the uniform numbering of subscribers in
multi-exchange area.
• Uniform numbering is that to call a particular subscriber ,the
same number is dialed ,no matter from which exchange the
call is originated.
• Consider multi-exchange network shown in fig 3.1 , it is not
fully connected network . If a subscriber in exchange A wants
to call a subscriber F , the call is routed at least three
exchanges. Two routes are possible
A – B – C – J - F and A – I – H – G - F
Multi-exchange
E F
01 network
JI 02
D 03 G
01
H
C 05
04
02 I
01 Fig 3.1
B A
• The ten levels can be connected to 10 different exchanges.
From Exchange Outlet To Exchange
A 01 B
A 02 I
B 04 C
C 03 J
I 05 H
H 01 G
G 02 F
J 01 F
• Let 1457 be subscriber to be called in exchange F from
exchange A . The called subs can be reached by dialing
either of following sequence .
For route A – B- C- J- F 01-04-03-01 1457
For route A-I-H-G-F 02-05-01-02 1457
• If routing is done by exchange and uniform numbering
scheme is presented as for as user is concerned , the
numbering may consist of
1. An exchange identifier.
2. Subscriber line identifier within the exchange.
• The exchange must have capable of receiving and storing
the dialed digits ,translating the exchange identifier in
the routing digits and transmitting the routing and subs
line identifier digits to switching network. This function
is perform by director system in Strowger Exchange.
• As soon as the translated digits are transmitted , the director
is free to process an other call and is not involve in
maintaining the circuit for conversation.
• Call processing is independent of switching network.
• Functional diagram of common control system is shown in
fig.3.2 , the control functions in switching system placed in
four broad categories.
1. Event Monitoring
2. Call Processing
3. Charging
4. Operation and Maintenance.
Data or Information Path
Calling Control Path
Susbs. Called
Switching Line unit Susb.
Line Unit Network
Register Common
Finder control system
Call processing sub system
Digit Receiver Register Operation
and Storage Charging
Sender Circuit Control
Register
Initial Final Maintenance Event

Translator Translator Circuit Monitor
Event Monitoring
• Event occurring outside the exchange at the line units ,trunks
, junctors and inter exchange signaling sender/receiver units
are all monitoring by the control system.
• Typical events include call request and call release signals at
line units.
• The occurrence of events are signaled by operating relays
which initiate control action. The control subsystem may
operates relays in the junctors senders /receivers and line
units and command these units to perform certain functions.
• Event monitoring may be distributed . The line unit may
initiate control action on occurrence of certain line events.
When subs goes off hook .the event is sensed , the calling
location is determined and dial tone is extended and register
finder is activated to find free register .
• Identity of calling line is used to determine the category
and class of service to which subscriber belongs .
Call Processing
• A register is chosen which send out dial tone to
concerned subscriber .
• As soon as initial digits (usually 2 to 5 ) which identify
the exchange are received in the register , they are
passed on to initial translator for processing ,similarly
the register continue to receive the remaining digits .
• The initial translator determine the route for call
through network and decide whether call should put
through or not. It also determine charging method and
rates applicable to subscriber.
Decision such as service information of subscriber as follow :
1. Call barring : A subscriber may be barred from making
certain calls e.g. STD or ISD barring.
2. Call Priority: When exchange or network is overloaded,
only calls from subscribers identified as priority calls
may be put through.
3. Call Charging : It is possible to define different charging
rules for different subscribers in same exchange.
4. Origin based Charging : Routing or destination of
certain calls may depend on geographical location of
calling subscribers.
5. No. dialing calls: These calls are routed to
predetermined number without calling party to dial e.g.
hot line connection.
• If the call is destined to a subscribers within the same
exchange, the digits are processed by final translator .
• The translation to directory number to equipment number
take place at that stage .
• The final translator may determine line unit to which call
must be connected and category of called line, for example
there may be no charge for emergency numbers or fault
repair service line.
Administration of Telephone Exchange
• involves activities such as new subs line and trunk into
service .
• Modifying subscriber service entitlement and changing
routing plans based on network status. Control subsystem
may facilitates such administrative functions.
Administration of Telephone Exchange
• involves activities such as new subs line and trunk into
service .
• Modifying subscriber service entitlement and changing
routing plans based on network status. Control subsystem
may facilitates such administrative functions.
Maintenance Activities
• May includes supervision and proper functioning of
exchange equipment , subscribers lines and trunks.
• It should be possible for maintenance personnel to access
any line or trunk for performing tests and making
measurements of different line parameters.
Cross Bar Switch
• More faster and sophisticated.

• Lattice of crossed bars that make and break the switch.
• Electromechanically activated.
• Magnets cause vertical and horizontal bars to cross each
other and make contacts at coordinates determined by the
number being called.
• Each switch typically has either 100 or 200 cross points.
• The lattice structure of cross bar switch has 10 horizontal
select bars and either 10 or 20 vertical hold bars.
• The horizontal and vertical hold bars are activated by
magnets.
Crossbar Switch
• A crossbar switch (also known as cross point switch or

matrix switch ) is switch connecting multiple inputs in to
multiple outputs.
• Crossbar switch was invented in 1917 by G.A Batulander.
• The crossbar switch retain a set of contacts at each cross
point. These are operated through horizontal and vertical
bar magnets at the side of each switch.
• The switch with N inlets and N outlets needs 2N magnets .
• The magnets which operates horizontal bars called select
magnets and which operates vertical bars are called hold
magnets or bridge magnets.
Crossbar Switch
• The crossbar switch is actually a matrix used to establish the
speech path . An electrical contact is made by actuating a
horizontal and vertical relays .
• Consider switch in fig 3.10 , to make contact at point B4 on
the matrix , horizontal relay B and vertical relay 4 must close
to establish connection . Such closing is momentary but
sufficient to cause latching .
• The latch keep the speech path connection until an on hook
condition results , freeing the horizontal and vertical relays,
to establish other connections.
• Crossbar switches are of basic 10x10 matrix , North Electric
(Canada) has 10 x 20 (20 vertical) matrix. Other
configurations are 14 x 22 etc.
Crossbar Switch
inlets
outlets
Crossbar Switch
• Schematic show 6x6 crossbar matrix
• 6 subscribers at horizontal bars represent the inlets and vertical
bars the outlets. Considering the establishment of following
connections in sequence A to C and B to E .
• First the horizontal A is energized , then vertical bar C is
energized. The crosspoint AC is latched and the conversation
between A and C can now be processed.
• Now energize the horizontal bar B to establish connection B-E
, the crosspoint BE may latched and B will brought into circuit
of AC . This is prevented by introducing an energizing sequence
for latching the crosspoints.
• A crosspoint will latches only if the horizontal bar is energized
first then the vertical bar. In order to establish the connection
B-E the vertical bar E need to be energized after the horizontal
bar B is energized .
Crossbar Switches
A
C
Inlets
D
A B C D E F
Outlets
6 x 6 cross point matrix
Crossbar Switch
• The crosspoint A-E may latched as the horizontal bar A has
already been energized for establish connection A-C. This
should be avoided and is done by de-energizing the horizontal
bar A after the crosspoint latched
• Making suitable arrangement such that the latch is maintained
even though the energization is with drawn.
• The crosspoint may latched as long as vertical bar is energized.
1 Energize Horizontal Bar 1 Energize Vertical Bar

2 Energize Vertical Bar OR 2 Energize Horizontal Bar
3 De-energize Horizontal Bar 3 De-energize Vertical Bar
Crossbar Switches
• The basic crossbar matrix requires at least M × N sets of
contacts and M + N or less activators to select one of the
contacts.
• Fig. 4.10 illustrates the 3 × 4 crossbar switching. It contains an
array of horizontal and vertical wires (shown as a solid
line).
• Both wires are connected to initially separated contact points
of switches. Horizontal and vertical bars (shown as dotted
lines) are mechanically connected to these contact points and
attached to the electromagnets.
• When both horizontal and vertical bars connected to the
electromagnet are activated, the contact of the intersection of
the two bars will close together. Thus the contact is made and
continues to hold. When the electromagnets are de-energized
both horizontal bar and vertical bars are released from the
contact.
Crossbar Switches
• In order to prevent the latching of different cross point in
the same circuit, a procedure is followed to establish a
connection. Accordingly, horizontal bar is energized first
and then vertical bar is energized to make contact or in
reverse.
• But while removing contact horizontal bar is de-energized
first and then the vertical bar is de-energized.
• The crossbar switch is known as a non-blocking crossbar
configuration. It requires N2 switching elements for N
subscribers.
• Thus for 100 subscribers, 10000 crosspoint switches are
required. Hence, crossbar is economic only for small
private exchanges requiring small switches.
Crossbar Switches
• For connecting and releasing the subscriber, the select
magnet and bridge magnet should be energized and de-
energized respectively. External switch must decide
which magnet to operate. This is called marker.
• A marker can control many switches and serve many
registers.
• Thus, even a large exchange needs few markers. In
Ericsson ARF system, groups of 1000 subscribers are
served by a line switch network controlled by the two
markers.
Crossbar Switches
M inlets
N outlets
Space Division Switch
Multistage Switch
Space Division Switching
Three Stage Switch
Electronics Switching System
• In electromechanical exchanges common control mainly used
switches and relays which were originally designed for switching
system.
• In common control they are used more frequently and wear out
earlier .
• In contrast the life of electronics devices is almost independent of
its frequency of operation.
• This gave an incentive for development of electronic common
control.
• Advances made in computer technology were incorporated and
led to the development of stored program control (SPC) .
• This enables a digital computer to be used as central control and
perform different functions through same hardware by executing
different programs. As a result digital exchange can offer vide
variety of facilities than earlier systems.
Electronics Switching System
• The facilities provided to the individual customer can be readily altered
by changing customer class of service i.e. data stored in a central
electronic memory. Some of the facilities can be controlled by customers
are as below :
1. Call barring (incoming or outgoing ): The customer can prevent
unauthorized calls being made and prevent incoming calls when wishing
to be left in peace.
2. Repeat last call : If call line is engaged the caller can try again with
having to redial the full number.
3. Remainder Calls : The exchange can be requested to call the customer
at prearranged time (e.g. for wakeup calls).
4. Call Diversion : The exchange can be instructed to connect calls to a
different number when customer goes away.
5. Three Way Call : The customer can instruct the exchange to connect
third party to a call that is already in progress.
6. Charge Advice : As a result of caller sending the appropriate
instruction when starting the call , the exchange call back at the end of
call to indicate the call duration and charge.
Stored Program Control
• Modern digital computers use the stored program control
concept.
• A program or set of instructions to the computer are stored in
memory and are executed automatically one by one by
processor.
• Carrying out the exchange control functions through program
stored in the memory of computer led to the nomenclature
stored program control.
• Common channel signaling (CCS ), centralized maintenance
and automatic fault diagnosis and interactive human machine
interface are some of features that have become possible due
to application of SPC to telephone switching .
• A telephone exchange must operate without interruption 24
hours a day ,365 days a year and for 30 to 40 years . This
means that computer controlling the exchange must be highly
tolerant to fault
• The 1st electronics switching system known as No. 1 ESS was
installed in New Jersey in 1965. Since then electronics switching
system and stored program control rapid growth in range of
services.
• The two type of electronics switching systems (space division) ,
one using electromechanical and other using electronics switching
system. With evolution of time division switching ,which is done in
electronics domain .
• Modern exchanges are fully electronics. Electronics
switching n/w
Electromechanical (a). Electromechanical
Switching n/w Switching system
Stored program
(b). Electronics Switching
Stored program system control
Fig (a) control
Fig ( b )
• There are two approaches to organize stored program control
1. Centralized SPC 2. Distributed SPC
Centralized SPC:
• In centralized control , all the equipment replaced by single
processor which must be quite powerful.
• It must be capable of processing 10 to 100 calls per second .
Depending on load of system and simultaneously performing
many other tasks.
• A typical configuration of an ESS is shown in next slide using
centralized SPC .A centralized configuration may use more
than one processor for redundancy purposes.
• Each processor have access to all exchange resources like
scanner and distribution points and is capable of executing all
control functions
Typical Centralized SPC organization
To lines From lines
Signal Scanners
Distributor
Processor
Secondary storage:
Maintenance Call recording,
console Memory program
storage etc
• A redundant centralized structure is shown in fig .A
redundancy is also provided at the level of exchange
resources and function program.
• In actual implementation the exchange resources and
memory modules containing program for carrying out the
various functions may be shared by processors.
• Or each processor may have its own dedicated access path
to exchange resources and its own copy of program and
data in dedicated memory modules.
• In almost all the present day electronic switching systems
using centralized control , only two processors
configuration is used .
A dual processor configuration architecture may be
configured to operate in one of three modes.
1. Standby mode.
2. Synchronous duplex mode.
3. Load sharing mode.
1 Standby Mode
• Standby mode of operation is simplest of the dual processor
configuration operation .
• Normally one processor is active and other is in standby
mode, both hardware and software wise.
• The standby processor is brought into service only when
active processor fails. An important requirement of this
configuration is the ability of standby processor to
reconstitute the state of exchange system, when it takeover
the load i.e. to determine which of the subscriber and trunk
is busy, which of path is connected to switching network.
• The active processor copies the status system periodically ,say
every 5 seconds into a secondary storage.
• When switchover occurs , the online processor loads the most
recent update of system status from secondary storage and
continue system operation.
• In this case only the calls which changed status between last
update and failure of active processor are disturbed.
Exchange
environment
P1 P2
Processor Processor
P1 = Active processor Secondary Fig 4.4

P2 = Standby processor
storage
Synchronous Duplex Mode :
• In this configuration hardware coupling is provided
between two processors which execute same set of
instructions and compare the results continuously .
• If a mismatch occurs, the faulty processor is identified and
taken out of service within few milliseconds .
• When system is operating normally, the two processor
have same data in their memories all time and
simultaneously receive all information from exchange
environment .
• One of the processor actually control the exchange while
other is synchronized with former but does not participate
in the control of exchange.
• The synchronized configuration is shown in fig 4.5 .
Exchange Environment
P1 C P2
M1 M2
C= Comparator, M = Memory, P = Processor

Fig 4.5 Synchronous Duplex Mode
• If a fault is detected by comparator, the processors P1 and
P2 decoupled and checkout program is run independently
on each processor to detect which is faulty.
• The checkout program run without disturbing the call
processing . When processor is taken out of service on
account of failure or for maintenance , the other processor
operates independently .
• When a faulty processor is repaired and brought into
service , the memory content of active processor are copied
into memory.
• It is brought in to synchronous operation with active
processor and then comparator is enabled.
3 Load Sharing Mode :
• In this operation , an incoming call is assigned randomly or
predetermined order to one of processor which handle call till
completion.
• Both the processor are active simultaneously and share the
load and resources . The configuration is shown in fig 4.6.
• Both the processors have access to the entire exchange
resources . The calls are handled independently by
processors.
• They have separate memories to store temporary call data .
• There is inter processor link through which processors
exchange needed for mutual coordination and verifying the
state of other.
• If exchange of information fails , one of processor which
detect the same takeover entire load including calls that are
already setup by failing processor are usually lost.
• Under normal operation each processor handle one half of the
calls load .
• Exchange operator can send command to split the traffic
unevenly between two processors.
• Load sharing mode give better performance in presence of
traffic overload as compare to other operating modes.
• Load sharing mode increases the effective traffic capacity by
30 % compared to other modes.
• Load sharing is step toward distributed call control.
Exchange Environment
P1 P2
ED
M1 M2
ED = Exclusion Device
Fig 4.6 Load sharing mode
Distributed SPC
• In distributed control ,the control functions are distributed by
many processors within the exchange itself.
• This structure offer better availability and reliability than
centralized SPC . Exchange control functions are decomposed
horizontally or vertically for distributed processing .
• In vertical decomposition the exchange environment is divided
into several blocks and each block is assigned to a processor
that perform all control functions .related to that block of
equipment.
• The total control system consist of several control units
coupled together. The processor in each block may be
duplicated for redundancy purposes and operated in one of
three operating modes.
• In horizontal decomposition each processor perform only one
or some of exchange control functions. Typical horizontal
group is shown in figure 4.8.
Distributed SPC
Event monitoring
Level 3 and distribution
Real time
Level 2 Call constraints
processing increases
Level 1 O & M and

charging
Fig 4.8 . Level control function
Distributed SPC
• A chain of different processors may used to perform the
event monitoring ,call processing and O & M functions .
Entire chain may be duplicated for redundancy purpose.
Lever 3 Processing
• Since the processors perform specific functions in
distributed control .They can be specifically designed to
perform these functions.
• In fig. 4.9 below level 3 processing handles scanning ,
distribution and marking functions.
• The processors and associated devices are closed to
switching network, junction and signaling equipment.
• Processing operations are simple , specialized and well
defined.
• Processing at this level results in setting or sensing one or
more binary conditions in flip flop and registers
Distributed SPC
Exchange environment
EM & DP =
Event EM & DP
monitoring and
EM & DP Level 3
distribution
processing .
O&M P = Call
Operation and Call Level 2
maintenance processing
processing
processing
O&M and O&M and

charging charging Level 1
Fig 4.9 Dual chain distribution control

Distributed SPC
Level 2 Processing
• Level 2 employed for call processing . It is usually termed as
switching processor. The switching processor are not generally
different from general purpose computers.
• Some specific characteristics to switching processors are designed
to ensure 99.9 % availability, fault tolerance and security of
operation.
• In the input output area the switching processor differ from
general purpose computer mainly on account of telephone
peripherals such as scanners ,distributor and marker along with
conventional data .
Distributed SPC
• The traffic handling capacity of the control equipment is

usually limited by capacity of switching processor . The
load on switching processor is measured by its occupancy t
by formula.
t=a+bN
a = Fixed overhead depending upon exchange capacity.
b = Average time to process one call
N = No. of calls per unit time.
Distributed SPC
Level 1 Processing :
• Level 1 control handles O & M functions which involve
following steps .
– Administer the exchange hardware and software.
– Add, modify or delete information in translation table .
– Change subscriber class of service.
– Put a new line or trunk in service.
– Supervise operation of exchange
– Monitor traffic
– Detect and locate fault and errors .
– Run diagnostic and test program.
– Man machine interaction.
Distributed SPC
Maintenance
Operator personnel
O&M
Computer
Exchange 2 ●●●● Exchange n

Exchange 1
Fig 4.10 . Remote operation and maintenance

Comparison of Hardwired and Stored Program
Control Systems .
• A control unit designed as a collection of logic circuits using
logic elements ,electronics or otherwise is called hardwired
control unit.
• The hardwired lacks flexibility and cannot be easily adopted
to new requirements.
• A micro program is more universal and can be put to many
different uses by simply modifying the program and
associated data.
• When processing is complex microprogramming is easy to
implement. Table on next shows the characteristics of the
microprogramming and hardwired control.
Comparison of Hardwired and Stored Program Control .
Micro programmed control Hardwired control
vFlexible Not flexible
vSlower Faster
vMore expansive for Less expansive for moderate
moderate processing function ,simple and fixed processing
vEasier to implement complex Difficult to implement complex
processing function processing function
vIntroduction of new services Not easily possible

is easy
vEasier to maintained Difficult to maintained
Availability of Processors
1 The availability of single processor is defined as
A= uptime (1)
Uptime + downtime
MTBF
A=
(2)
MTBF + MTTR
• Where MTBF is Mean Time Between Failure and MTTR
is Mean Time To Repair.
• Unavailability of system is given by :

MTTR (3)
U= 1-A =
MTBF + MTTR
• If MTBF >> MTTR , ignoring MTTR then:
U= MTTR (4)
MTBF
2. Dual processor : A dual processor system is said to have
failed only when both processor fails and the total system is
unavailable . The MTBF of dual processor is given by :
(MTBF)2
(MTBF)D = (5)
2MTTR
Where (MTBF)D = MTBF of dual processor and
MTBF = MTBF of single processor.
(MTBF)D (6)
Availability = AD = MTTR + (MTBF)D
• Substituting the value of (MTBF)D in equation (6)
AD = (MTBF)2/ 2MTTR
MTTR + (MTBF)2 / 2 MTTR
(MTBF)2 (7)
AD =
(MTBF)2 + 2(MTTR)2
Unavailability = U = 1- AD = 1- (MTBF)2
(MTBF)2 + 2(MTTR)2
If MTBF >> MTTR ,then ignoring MTTR.
U= 2(MTTR)2 (8)
(MTBF)2
• Example : Given that MTBF = 2000 hrs and MTTR = 4
hrs. Calculate the unavailability for single and dual
processor systems for 10 years and 30 years.
• Solution : Given MTBF = 2000 hrs
MTTR = 4 hrs
U = MTTR / MTBF =4/ 2000 = 2x 10-3
For 10 years :
U = 24hrs x 365 days x 10 x 2 x10-3
U = 175.2 hrs.
For 30 years :
U = 24 hrs x 365 days x 30 x 2 x 10-3
U = 525.6 hrs.
• Unavailability of dual processor:
UD = 2(MTTR)2 2(4)2 = 8 x 10-6
= (2000)2
(MTBF)2
For 10 years :
= 24 hrs x 365 days x 10 x 8 x 10-6 = 0.7008 hrs

= 42.04 minutes.
For 30 years :
= 24 hrs x 365 days x 30 x 8 x 10-6

= 2.1 hours.
Circuit Switching CS
• In circuit switching an electrical path is established
between source and destination before any data transfer
take place.
• The electrical circuit may be realized by physical wires,
coaxial cable ,optical fiber and radio links.
• It remains dedicated to communicating pair for the entire
duration of the transmission. irrespective of whether data
is actually transmitted or not.
• No potential user can use the path even if it is idle. The
connection is released only when specifically signaled by
either of party.
• A PSTN connection is a typical example of circuit
switched data . Figure 2.3 shows the principle of circuit
switching , when host computer H1 want to transfer the
to host computer H6.
• A connection is made to node which in turn select
a suitable neighboring node ,desired connection is
made through N5 , then N6 and so on , until an
electrical path is establish between H1 and H6.
• This path selection is based on routing algorithm .
This may take into account the network traffic.
Once path is established ,data transfer begins .
• There are three phases involved in circuit
switched data transfer.
1. Connection establishment
2. Data transmission
3. Connection released
• Time taken for data transfer in a circuit switched
connection Tcs has three components
Circuit Switched Network
T
H6
H4 T
N6 N7
T
N8
T N9 T
N5 N4
T
N3
N1 N2
H = Host
H1 N = Node
H2 T = Terminal
Figure 2.3
• Tcs = Te + Tt + Tr
Te is time for path setup or connection established.
Tt time for data transfer
Tr time for path release
• Te depend on the number of switching nodes in the
path between source and destination.
Te = (N-1) Tm
N is number of switching nodes in path
Tm is average routing selection time in each node
for given network node.
Tt depend on data rate and size of message.
Tt = M/R
M= message length in bits
R = data rate in bps.
• Tr depend on number of nodes in path connection
release, is initiated by released signal which
propagate from one end from other.
• Tr = NTh
Th is time taken by node to make house keeping
(making entries in routing table).
• Tcs = (N-1) Tm + M/R + NTh.
Message Switching
• Store and forward network configuration is shown in fig 6.5.
• In store and forward switching ,the switching node have ability to
store user messages and forward the same toward the destination
as and when the link become available.
• Each node is equipped with a processor and some buffer storage.
• No end to end link is setup prior to data transmission. The user
deposit his/her message to nearest switching node . The network
takes responsibility for delivering the message to the destination .
• The network moves the user information from node to node..
• In message switching once the transmission is initiated , the
message is transmitted on its entirety without a break from one
node to other.
Message Switching
The node processor perform the following functions
1. Receive the full user message and store the same.
2. Check the message for data transmission errors and
perform error recovery if required.
3. Determine the destination address from user message .
4. Choose an appropriate link toward destination based
on certain routing criteria.
5. Forward the message to the next node on the closed
link.
Message Switching
• Message switching has certain drawbacks . For the long
message it become important to ensure that there is
adequate storage space on the receiving node before
transmission is started.
• Otherwise buffer storage may become full and part of
message may not stored , thereby requires
retransmission of full message .
• Retransmission of large message results in large
communication overheads in network .
• If high priority short message arrives while long
message in transmission , it has to wait till transmission
of long message end.
Message Switching Network
N N
N
N
N
Node
Communication
Subsystem
Storage
Processor
Fig 6.5
Message Switching
• Message switching is known as store and forward. In
this mechanism ,a node (usually a computer with
number of disks) receive a message ,store it until
appropriate route is free , then sends it along.
• Store and forward is considered in a switching
technique because there is no direct link between
sender and receiver.
• A message is not delivered to the node along one path
then rerouted along another to its destination.
• A message switching was common in 1960s
Packet Switching
• Data networks use a modified form of message switching
called packet switching .
• Long messages are split into a number of short messages
called packets, which are transmitted separately as
shown in fig. 8.6.
• The single packet from VDU operator is sent between
packets of large computer file , instead of watching until
its transmission is complete and delay is minimized .
Format of packet is shown in fig 8.7.
• Since each packet handle a complete message , its data
must be preceded by header which contains the
destination address of message .
• It is possible for packets some time to arrive at their
destination in a different order from that in which they
sent.
Packet Switching
• Each header therefore contains a sequence number enable
the packets to be reassemble in correct order at receiving
format .
• Other bits are added to the header for control purpose e.g
to indicate whether the packet is contained message or
being sent to control the network.
• The packet ends with bits added for error detection and
correction .
• Packet switching is widely used in local area networks and
wide area networks.
Packet Switching
• Packet switching is the dividing of messages into packets
before they are sent, transmitting each packet individually,
and then reassembling them into the original message once all
of them have arrived at the intended destination.
• Packets are the fundamental unit of information transport in
all modern computer networks, and increasingly in other
communications networks as well.
• Each packet, which can be of fixed or variable size depending
on the protocols, consists of a header, body (also called a
payload) and a trailer. The body contains a segment of the
message being transmitted.
• The header contains a set of instructions regarding the
packet's data, including the sender's IP address, the intended
receiver's IP address, the number of packets into which the
message has been divided, the identification number of the
particular packet, the protocol (on networks that carry
multiple types of information, such as the Internet), packet
length (on networks that have variable length packets) and
synchronization (several bits that help the packet match up to
the network).
Packet Switching
• Packets are switched to various network segments by routers
located at various points throughout the network.
• Routers are specialized computers that forward packets
through the best paths, as determined by the routing
algorithm being used on the network, to the destinations
indicated by destination IP addresses in the packet headers.
• During transport from one host to another, packets may be
routed out of order and across a variety of paths to get to the
desired end point.
• This contrasts with circuit switching, in which a dedicated, but
temporary, circuit is established for the duration of the
transmission of each message.
• The most familiar circuit-switching network is the telephone
system when used for voice communications.
• Circuit-switching is ideal when data must be transmitted
quickly and must arrive in the same order in which it is sent,
as is the case with most real-time data, such as live audio and
video.
Packet Switching
• Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the

bandwidth available in a network, to minimize the
transmission latency (i.e. the time it takes for data to pass
across the network) and to increase robustness of
communication. It is more efficient and robust for data
that can withstand some delays in transmission, such as
web pages and e-mail messages.
Packet Switching
• In packet switching network type, no specific path is used

for data transfer. Instead, the data is chopped up into
small pieces called packets and sent over the network. The
packets can be routed, combined or fragmented, as
required to get them to their eventual destination. On the
receiving end, the process is reversed—the data is read
from the packets and re-assembled into the form of the
original data. A packet-switched network is more
analogous to the postal system than it is to the telephone
system (though the comparison isn't perfect.) An example
is shown in Figure 2.
Packet Switching
Figure 1: Circuit Switching

Packet Switching
Figure 2: Packet Switching

Packet Switching
Key Concept:
• One way that networking technologies are categorized is
based on the path used to carry data between devices. In
circuit switching, a circuit is first established and then used
to carry all data between devices.
• In packet switching no fixed path is created between
devices that communicate; it is broken into packets, each
of which may take a separate path from sender to
recipient.
Time Switch
• A time slot in conventional PCM contains 8 bits and a
basic frame is 125 µ second in duration .
• For the North America DS1 format , the basic contains 24
time slots and for the European E1 has 32 time slots .
• The time duration of an eight bits time slot is 125/24 =
5.2083 µsec for DS1 and 125/32 =3.906 µsec for E1 .
• The time slot interchanging involves moving the data
contained in each time slot from the incoming bit stream to
an outgoing bit stream but with different time slot
arrangement in accordance with the destination of each
time slot .
• To accomplish this at least one time slot must be stored in
memory and then called out of memory in changed
position . The operation must be controlled in some
manner and some of these control actions must be kept
together with the software managing such action.
Time Switch
Time Switch
• Typical control actions are time slot idle or busy .
There are three basic blocks of time switch.
1. Memory for speech
2. Memory for control
3. Time slot counter or processor.
These three blocks are shown in figure.
• In the first case sequential write , the time slots are
written into the speech memory as they appear in the
incoming bit stream .
• For the 2nd case the random write, the random write , the
incoming time slots are written into memory in the order
of appearance in the outgoing bit stream . This means that
the incoming time slots are written into memory in the
desired output order.
• The writing of incoming time slots are controlled by a
simple time slots counter and can be sequential.
Time Switch
Time Switch
and can be sequential (e.g. in order in which they appear in
the incoming bit stream) .The readout of speech memory is
controlled by control memory.
• In this case readout is random where the time slots are
readout in the desired output order. The memory has as
many cells as there are time slots.
• For the DS1 for example are 24 cells . The time switch, as
shown work well for a single inlet-outlet switch . With just
24 cells it could handle 23 stations .
• How can we increase a switch capacity ? Enter the space
switch as shown in fig.9.3 affords a simple example of this
concept. For example time lot B1 on the B trunk is moved
to the Z trunk into the in to time slot Z1 and timeslot Cn is
moved to the trunk W into time slot Wn , we observe that
there is no change in time slot position.
Space Switch Connects Time Slots
Space Switch
• A typical time division switch fig. 9.4 It consist of cross point
matrix made up of logic gates that allow the switching of time
slots in the spatial domain.
• The PCM time slot bit streams are organized by the switch
into the pattern determined the network connectivity . The
matrix consist of a number of input horizontals and a number
of output verticals with a logic gate at each cross point.
• The array as shown in fig. , has M inlets and N outlets and we
call it as M x N array. If M=N the switch is non blocking If M
>N the switch concentrates and if M<N the switch expands.
• For a given time slot , the appropriate logic gate is enabled
and the time slot passes from input horizontal to desired
output vertical . The other horizontal each serving a different
serial stream of time slots ,can have same time slot (a time slot
from time slot number 1-24,1-30 ,1-n , for instance time slot 7
on each stream) switched into verticals enabling their gates.
Time Division Space Switch
Space Switch
• In the next time slot position (time slot 8),a completely
different path configuration could occur, allowing time slots
from horizontal to be switched to selected vertical.
• The space array (cross points matrix ) does not switch time
slots but as does a time switch . This is because the
occurrence of time slots are identical on the horizontal and
vertical . It switches in space domain not in the time domain .
• The control memory in the fig 9.4 enables gates in
accordance with its stored information.
• If an array has M inputs and N outputs , M and N may be
equal or unequal depending on function of switch . For a
tandem or transit switch web expect M=N . For local switch
requiring concentration and expansion , M and N would be
unequal
Space Switch
• If in fig.9.4 , it is desired to transmit a signal from input 1
(horizontal) to output 2 (vertical) the gate at the
intersection may be activated by placing enable signal on
S12 during desired time slot period.
• Then the 8 bits of that time slot would pass through the
logic gate onto vertical. In the same time For example if
array is 20 x 20 and time slot interchanger is placed on
each input (horizontal ) and interchanger handles 30 time
slots , the array then can serve 20 x 30 = 600 different time
slots
Connectivity of Space Switch

Chapter 2 Evaluation of Switching System 240810new

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Evolution of Switching System

MTBF = Mean time between failure

• Step by step switching may be constructed using uniselector or

From calling To called

Line equipment Switching network Connector

From Exchange Outlet To Exchange

Initial Final Maintenance Event

• More faster and sophisticated.

• A crossbar switch (also known as cross point switch or

1 Energize Horizontal Bar 1 Energize Vertical Bar

P1 = Active processor Secondary Fig 4.4

C= Comparator, M = Memory, P = Processor

Level 1 O & M and

O&M and O&M and

Fig 4.9 Dual chain distribution control

• The traffic handling capacity of the control equipment is

Exchange 2 ●●●● Exchange n

Fig 4.10 . Remote operation and maintenance

vFlexible Not flexible

vIntroduction of new services Not easily possible

• Unavailability of system is given by :

= 24 hrs x 365 days x 10 x 8 x 10-6 = 0.7008 hrs

= 24 hrs x 365 days x 30 x 8 x 10-6

• Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the

• In packet switching network type, no specific path is used

Figure 1: Circuit Switching

Figure 2: Packet Switching

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