Professional Documents
Culture Documents
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The Systems Life Cycle
The stages of the systems life cycle are as follows:
1. Definition
2. Feasibility
3. Investigation
4. Analysis
5. Design
6. Implementation/Installation
7. Introduction/Development
8. Testing
9. Monitor/Evaluate
10.Maintenance
11.Documentation
Using this scenario show how structured system analysis and design would help the
College to bring in a new system. This is called the SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE.
1. Definition of Problem
2. Feasibility study
3. Investigation
4. Analysis
5. Design
6. Implementation/Installation
7. Introduction and Development
8. Testing
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
10. Maintenance
11. Documentation
Write a short paragraph to describe how the College should go through each step in
the cycle to successfully bring in a new system.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The college should firstly, define the problem (i.e. replace the
computer network) and identify the software/hardware currently in
use.
Feasibility should be included within the following considerations:
• Cost
• User friendliness
• Complexity
• Time
• Skills needed
• Hardware/Software required
• Training
After all of this, they must install the software, if everything goes to
plan with the software and hardware.
They can choose to directly install (switch on, switch off), parallel
install (run both), phase the install (install in small chunks) or pilot
the install (new system installed and tested in parts).
When all of this is done, the evaluation must be performed. Did the
software meet the customer’s requirements? If not, this must be
checked out.
Investigative Approaches
There are 4 types of approaches that can be taken to investigate a
system. These are:
1. Document Analysis
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Participant Observation
All of these methods have their own consideration factors and their
own advantages and disadvantages. I will go through each one in
turn and state some of the advantages and disadvantages of each
method.
An analyst has been given the job of finding out the shortcomings in
the old system and producing a set of requirements for the new
system. He is unsure of the investigative methods available to him
in order to carry out this work.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following in
a report and recommend two methods that are best suited to this
situation
1. Document Analysis
2. Questionnaire
3. Interviews
4. Participant Observation
5. Meetings
Document Analysis
This can use any paper-based document such as receipts, invoices
and reports.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful to gather information from people.
However, there are a lot of factors that need to be taken into
consideration to ensure that the questionnaire can extract useful
information.
Interviews
The questions in interviews are usually open and focus in on certain
factors. 3 types of interview can be performed.
1. An initial interview (to scope the problem)
2. A interview involving gathering the facts
3. A final interview, when the drafts have been completed.
Participant Observation
The factors to consider when observing participants involve how
tasks are completed, how long tasks take and any delays or
problems that may be encountered when carrying out the tasks.
There are 3 major factors that affect the quality of testing procedures.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
The first factor is the critical nature of the system. The more important a
system is, the more thorough the testing needs to be. For example, a
customer records form would need to be tested thoroughly.
The second factor is the time available. The thoroughness of the job would
be measures by the amount of time that is available to do the project. The
project will be more thorough if testers had one month to test the system
rather than one week.
There are other external constraints to deal with such as the fact that
systems could have to meet legal requirements e.g. software features
controlling systems in cars need to be tested to an industry-recognised
standard. An external audit will take place to ensure everything has been
tested properly and everything is working.
Selecting Tests
A team of testers can be chosen to test the system. BETA testers check
the system does everything exactly as planned in the specification. This
team can check if the system is ‘user-friendly’ but it is not their main role.
A separate team is appointed, which is made up of front end users.
Test Data
Extreme data on the extreme limits of the range e.g. £50 should be tested
if the rule is <=£50.
Erroneous data that should not be accepted e.g. <=£50 and entering p.
Test Plans
Test plans must be carried out and it is a detailed document which a team
of testers follow carefully.
Every test is set out, data is entered and results are obtained.
The testing procedure should cover the requirements of the system, the
performance of the system, the pathways in the system and the validation
methods of the system.
The testing process involves people following the exact plan, entering the
data, recording the observations and deciding whether the test passes or
fails. If it passes, the next test is set up. If not, the developers work on the
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
concerned area. The best people to test the system are real users as they
will do things that the designers do not expect.
• Purpose
• Screen Layouts/Style Templates
• Data Structures
• Input/Output/Processing Details
• Validation Rules
• Error Messages
• Modelling Diagrams (such as Entity Relationship Diagrams)
• Software/Hardware Requirements
• Test Plans
The notable differences between the 3 specs is that they deal with
different parts of the system and they are done in different stages in
the design process.
Tester – Test the whole system and decide how to test it.
Project Planning
The reasons why a project fails is due to:
Poor planning
Poor time management
Over optimism/unrealistic time frames
Poor budgetary control
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Insufficient budget
Poor communication within project team or users
One-One Relationships
Many-Many Relationships
Diagnosis
Treatment/Prescriptio
n
PatientID
Patient
DoctorID
Doctor
Treatment required
Frequency
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Patient
PatientID
Name
Address Line 1
Address Line 2
Doctor Town
Name Postcode
Address Line 1 Doctor
Address Line 2 DoctorID
Town
Postcode
DoctorID
Appointment
AppointmentID
Doctor
DoctorID
Patient
PatientID
Time
Date
Type
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Alarm Off
activated
Senses intruder
Dependent
When burglar
on burglar
is
being
present
present
5-10 seconds
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Batch processing is used when large quantities of data are to be collected together and
treated in a similar way. The data is collected together before processing and the job is
treated as a single unit with no human intervention. It is often run at night when there is
slack time on the computer system and so results are not immediately available but can be
scheduled to be used at an appropriate time. Typical uses include payroll, billing systems,
multiple choice exam papers, etc.
Real-time processing is used when inputs need to be dealt with very quickly i.e. in real-
time. This has to be programmed very carefully to ensure that nothing is missed off.
Examples include: traffic lights, heart rate monitoring, aircraft control, computer games
and controlling robots e.g. remote control cars.
These examples cannot be used for batch processing because the inputs need to be dealt
with instantaneously without any delays. Also, the inputs have to be done separately and
humans have to provide the input before it is dealt with.
Interactive processing is also known as transactional processing and occurs when inputs
are dealt with after a short delay (in terms of computer time, it may seem that the
processing is done straight away). It may have spent the delay doing other things, such as
booking concert tickets, ordering books online, handling bank accounts and booking a
holiday. Interactive processing occurs one at a time. A GUI is the most common type of
interface for interactive processing.
The user interface is very important with interactive processing. It must be clear, easy to
use and very responsive. Data validation should take place to ensure all data is present,
accurate and precise.
2 – Operating Systems
• Learning Objectives
– Describe the difference between types of operating systems
(single-user, multi-user, multi-tasking, interactive, real time,
batch processing and distributed processing systems) by
identifying their major characteristics.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
• Operating Systems
An Operating System is a program written to make computers
useable by people other than specialist engineers. You do not need
to worry about how to write a character to the screen, how to print,
how to load or save to disc, … Most Operating Systems are very
complex – some of the most complex programs ever written
The Operating System directly interfaces with the computer’s
architecture – think of the Operating System as a layer wrapped
around the hardware. Most users interact with an application
program such as a spreadsheet. You can think of these applications
as another layer wrapped around the Operating System. The
application program translates the user input/output into commands
which the Operating System understands. The Operating System
then translates these commands via machine code routines into a
form which the hardware understands.
A large number of operating systems have been designed over the
years, and they have all been set up with one specific computer or
system in mind.
Windows/Linux – PCs
MacOS – Mac computers
Unix – Mainframe computers
Symbian, Android – Mobile phones
Common functions are: provision of a user interface, storage of
computer memory and hardware.
Single User
2 types
Single Application – deals with one user at a time, e.g. mobile phone
or iPad
Multi-tasking – deals with many applications running at the same
time, whilst still being designed with the single user in mind e.g.
Windows Vista, Windows 7, Linux, Mac OS X Leopard.
Differences – One handles a different amount of applications to the
other and because of this, the memory available is expanded,
commonly to Gigabytes.
Multi-User
Allows more than one user to log on and use the system at the
same time with the computer and resources. It also allows people to
multi-task and run many applications at one time.
The operating system has to manage the users, the allocation of
resources, security, processing time and efficiency.
Another example would be a computer running a single user, multi-
tasking operating system connected to a network, allowing it to
share peripherals and documents.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Interactive
This allows the user to directly interact with the operating system
while one or more programs or applications are running on the
computer. This is common in most operating systems.
Real-Time
This type of operating system is designed to handle input data
within a specific time frame (“latency”). This time could vary,
depending on the type of application that needs to be run.
Batch
This operating system is set up to run “jobs” (i.e. input data files)
without any user interaction at all.
The jobs consist of inputs, processing and outputs.
Distributed
This is where single tasks are split up into smaller components and
they are worked on separate computers and gathered together at
the end of the whole task. Distributed operating systems manage
this process.
4 – Methods of Dialogue
• Learning Objectives
- Compare and contrast different methods of dialogue that allow interaction
between computer and person, person and computer, and computer and
computer
51548
•
Methods of Dialogue
There are four main features of interaction between a computer and a person:
○ prompts
○ nature of input
○ methods of input
○ feedback
The type of dialogue is responsible for selecting the most appropriate method of
dialogue to be used. The choice will depend on the investigations that have
been completed, the tasks that the users need to complete and the
requirements of the business.
Prompts
A prompt is most commonly used in a command line interface. It indicates that
the user needs to input an appropriate command. When the command has
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
been input the command line interface will then complete the required action.
This type of dialogue can be difficult for 'every day' users to learn and so is
best used for technical administration of the system.
Prompts can also be used in a graphical user interface (GUI). Unlike command
line interface, a GUI uses icons to prompt the user. The icons should be
intuitive and simple to use and represent a concept that is familiar to a user,
such as a dustbin image for deleting or an X to close a window.
A menu-driven interface will, by nature of its characteristics, use menus to offer
the user a selection of possible inputs to choose from.
Question - Describe how prompts could be used in a command line
interface
Nature of Input
The nature of the input can also differ between interfaces. Interactive interfaces
decide the nature of the next user input (e.g. by asking a question or by
requiring a selection to be made) based on the response to the previous input.
Forms might be used as the basis for the dialogue with those being displayed
being decided by a pre-determined sequence of user inputs.
Method of Input
If the dialogue is being completed using a command line interface, then the usual
method of input is a keyboard. The user will have no need for other
peripherals. Form-based interfaces can also be used with only a keyboard,
however it is often simpler to also use a mouse. Touch screens have become
a popular method of input (e.g. on cash machines).
Question - Investigate other applications where the method of input is a
touch screen
Feedback
Any dialogue must provide feedback. This could be in the form of menus that
provide options for the user to select. A menu option may be a sub-menu
giving further options, for example a designer might provide a general menu
with sub-menus that provide specific areas or tasks that need to be carried
out.
The feedback given in a real-time or interactive interface is a further set of
required responses or the completion of the task providing the user with the
required results. This type of feedback will give the user very specific and
limited choices because the responses given to each set of questions of
choices will limit the response given.
• Mind Mapping Task
Read the following text and have a go at this using the text to the left
hand side. There are also some questions in there for you to answer.
Get creative!
Right now tens of thousands of students around the world are taking lecture
notes in a completely inefficient way: writing them down line by line; or, in
some languages, column by column.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
But the brain does not work that way. It does not store information in neat
lines or columns.
It stores information like branches on a tree – on branches called dendrites. It
also stores information by patterns and associations. And to store information
the way your brain does – British psychologist Tony Buzan has invented Mind
Mapping.
So don't take notes, make Mind Maps. And make them with trees, with
pictures, with colours, with symbols, with patterns and associations.
1. Imagine your brain cells are like trees, with each one storing related
information on its branches.
2. Now try arranging the key points of any topic on a sheet of white paper
in the same treelike format.
3. Start with the central topic – preferably with a symbol – in the centre of
the page, then draw branches spreading out from it.
4. Generally record only one word and/or symbol for each point you want
to recall – one main theme for each branch.
5. Put related points on the same main branches, each one shooting off
like a new sub-branch.
6. Use different coloured pencils or markets for related topics.
7. Draw as many pictures and symbols as you can.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
If the wrong colour is put with the wrong outcome (i.e. it shows
green for something wrong) then it can seem confusing.
Shapes can mean different things, for example starry shapes can
indicate a headline or a big offer. Tick shapes can indicate
correctness, crosses can indicate being incorrect.
7 – Mental Models
• Learning Objectives
Describe mental models and how they can be applied to the design
of a user interface.
Discuss the importance of designing a system model that matches
closely the user’s mental model.
• Task One
Answer these questions about mental models:
1.) What is a mental model?
2.) What might go wrong with a system which did not match a
user’s mental model? Use everyday examples such as traffic lights
or screws (clockwise to screw in anti to unscrew etc or on/off
switches) in your answer.
A mental model is a constant stream of information that is
processed by the brain to help it achieve specific tasks. For
example, when the brake pedal is pressed in a car, the car should
stop.
• Task Two
The model begins with the fact that our ears and eyes are input sensors. Each of these
inputs is provided as separate channels as they store different types of information.
This information can only be stored for a few seconds and it will disappear after a
period of time as this is short term memory.
The outputs from the audio and visual sources are stored in a cognitive source (i.e.
stored together). Multiple interface streams are being combined in one go, so this is
why there should not be any confusion between the information (also known as
“cognitive dissonance”). Only a limited amount of information can be stored at any
one time, typically 7 elements. A good example of this would be a 7 digit telephone
number.
However, the information will only be remembered for a short time unless the user is
reminded of the action at a later stage in the processing.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
This information is then fed into the cognitive processor. This information is
combined with information stored in long-term memory to try to ascertain a complete
understanding of the instantaneous occurrences. If the effort is worthwhile, then the
new information is put into the long-term memory store.
The last thing involved in the model human processor is the physical part where
things have to be done. There is a muscle memory able to do these things without
even thinking about doing them, they will become “second nature” to people.
Although the model human processor works well in some cases, it does present a few
problems.
The processor assumes that the person concerned is doing one thing at a time.
4 marks
2 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
9. How does a batch processing system differ to an interactive
OS?
3 marks
10. Explain what you think a ‘natural language’ HCI might be.
3 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
16. List the 6 factors that you must consider when designing a
HCI.
6 marks
Use of colour, layout, quantity of information, font size, complexity of language and type of controls
4 marks
Prompts, nature of input, methods of input and feedback
2 marks
Menus and icons
3 marks
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Batch OS is given a set of tasks to run without any user intervention whereas an interactive OS is one in which
there is durect user interaction while a program is running
20. Explain what you think a ‘natural language’ HCI might be.
3 marks
For e.g. a satnav which allows the user to select by speaking into the device.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Networks & Communication
1 – Bandwidth and Transmitting Data
Network Topologies
There are 3 types of network topology; bus, ring and star. They all have their
advantages and disadvantages.
A bus network consists of a single cable which connects all of the hardware and
computers together.
It is the best choice for temporary networks, it is easy to install, it uses little cabling
and it is simple to add extra workstations.
Quiz
Round 1 – Networks
12.A client server has all the applications loaded onto every
computer? [1]
17.In which network can users roam from machine to machine? [1]
3 from:
3 from:
• Network Failure
• Data Transfer/slowing down network
• Viruses
• Expensive equipment
• Expert Support
3 from:
• All files are stored in a central location
• Network peripherals are controlled centrally
• Backups and network security are controlled centrally
• Users can access shared data which is centrally controlled.
3 from:
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
• A specialist operating system is needed
• The server is expensive to purchase
• Specialist staff such as a network manager is needed
• If any part of the network fails, a lot of disruption can occur.
3 from:
• There is no need for a network operating system
• It does not need an expensive server
• There is no need for network technicians
• It does not need specialist knowledge to set up
• If one computer fails, no other computers are affected (it just
means no-one can access their work).
3 from:
• The performance may be slowed because each computer is
accessed
• Files and folders cannot be centrally backed up
• Files and resources are not centrally organised
• Individual users need to ensure viruses are controlled
• There is little security beside the permissions.
E-mail
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Date
Sort by
Electronic mail is a method of exchanging digital messages across the Internet or other computer
networks.
Electronic mail, commonly called e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages across the
Internet or other computer networks.
You can attach files to accompany your message
e.g. pictures, links, or files.
These attachments can also be viruses however.
Uses
Business
Friends & Family
Broadcast info
sending & receiving documents
Confidentiality important
Little training
Free to send
Quick response
Not present
Any time
Attachments
Multiple copies
Carbon copy
Request proof
Prepared in advance
Encryption
Electronic signatures
Business
Friends & Family
Broadcast info
sending & receiving documents
Confidentiality important
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
I should clarify that Thomas means that this can be used in between business employees and
other businesses and between everyone and anyone else on the planet.
The original email systems allowed communication only between users who logged into the same
host or "mainframe". This could be hundreds or even thousands of users within an organization.
Bottom of Form
Tele/Video Conferencing
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Date
Sort by
Uses: Business meetings, training, education, family and friends (webcam is cheap), gaming,
virtual tourism, remote medical care.
Pros: No need for time and money travelling, seeing people as well as hearing them, no need for
others to travel to one location, everyone views something, ideas and knowledge communicated
between people, one trainer can provide lectures to hundreds of people at the same time.
Cons: Access to hardware and software required, fast data link needed, slight delay between
responses (even with a fast connection), hardware breakdown means everyone suffers, different
time zones, no substitute for face to face meeting.
Issue: Eye contact plays a large role in conversational turn-taking, perceived attention and intent,
and other aspects of group communication. Some systems have cameras located in the screens
that reduce this. The issue of eye-contact may be solved with advancing technology.
Can't you still see people's eyes when you are on camera??
The point here is if you look at your webcam on your laptop, it is not where you will be looking on
the screen aka you will not be looking directly into the camera which means that you will not be
making 'eye contact' which in some cultures is perceived as being rude. (Issues with using video
conferencing internationally here!)
You will be losing out on body language that is important in the business world especially when
trying to convince somebody or sell something to them. This would be a disadvantage of video
conferencing as the application would not be suitable to this situation.
Alan sugar makes the most of it on apprentice
video conferencing is used in law where individuals cannot attend the physical legal setting
It may also be used for witness protection where the witness is too distressed or scared to be in
the same room/building as the accused.
Can also be used in the court rooms where the defendant is too young to stand and give
evidence.
With high speed internet video conferencing has become easier and more available
/w EWBQKp96Hx
Bulletin Boards
Date
Sort by
A bulletin board is a place where people can leave public messages, for example, to advertise
things to buy or sell, announce events, or provide information.
Message boards and even internet forums are interchangeable
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Bulletin boards are particularly prevalent at universities. There are hundreds of thousands of
public bulletin boards, used for everything from advertisements by extracurricular groups and local
shops to official notices.
Internet forums are becoming a global replacement for traditional bulletins. Online bulletin boards
are sometimes referred to as message boards. The terms bulletin board, message boards and
even internet forums are interchangeable, although often one bulletin board or message board
can contain a number of internet forums or discussion groups. An online board can serve the
same purpose as a physical bulletin board.
Bulletin Boards
Internet based
Un-moderated (posts loaded as soon as they are sent) or moderated (someone looks at it before
it is sent), this is an un-moderated one.
Terms: "Forum" or "Board" ( topic area), "Thread" (related messages), "Post" (single message),
"Troll" (deliberate offender), "Lurker" (reads messages, not replying)
WHAT IS UNMODERATED?
Fax
Date
Sort by
FAX
Invoices
Orders
Drawings/Sketches
Contracts
Date
Sort by
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
David CLARKE
IRC is an internet protocol.
Text based real time messaging system; uses are chatting to friends using text, webcam services
and business colleague messages.
Features
View messages
"Buddy" lists
Block people
Use graphical images
Status available
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Sending attachments
Archive messages
Inviting people for a chat
Joshua COOPER
IRC is mainly designed for group communication in things called
'channels'
Josh WEATHERBY
Because IRC connections are usually unencrypted and typically
span long time periods, they are an attractive target for crackers. Because of this, careful security
policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an IRC
takeover war. IRC networks may also K-line or G-line users or networks that have a harming
effect.
Matthew SCHOFIELD
An IRC Server can connect to several other IRC Servers which
expands the network.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Joshua COOPER
IRC is easily archived.
David CLARKE
A user may be part of several channels at once.
However, the use of 10 channels is recommended as a limit for all standards of users.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
G-line or global kill line (also written G:line) is a global network ban applied to a user
Joshua COOPER
IRC uses 'bots' to help protect channels and act as points of contact
for information and protection. Bots are always being developed for more complex tasks - such as
a 'trivia' bot which starts up a trivia game.
Josh WEATHERBY
K-Line - Internet Relay Chat term, applied to a specific user. When a
user is k-lined, it bans the user from a certain server, either for a certain amount of time or
permanently. Once the user is banned, they are not allowed back onto that server; they have to
join a different server to get onto IRC.
G-Line - is a global network ban applied to a user. Whenever a G-lined person attempts to
connect to the IRC network, the services will automatically disconnect the client
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Martin WILCOX
Users can create file servers that allow them to share files with each
other by using customised IRC bots or scripts for their IRC client
Joshua COOPER
IRC Bouncers are 'ghost' users or a persistent proxy. The main
purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server - if the client loses connection to a certain
IRC server - the bouncer will remain connected and archive the chat. This will allow the user to
reconnect and resume his IRC session.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
David CLARKE
First programmes created for the initial time-sharing computers in
early 1960's were designed to be able to support real-time chat
Joshua COOPER
'Quakenet' www.quakenet.org - is the largest IRC network in the
world.
posted 26/11/2010 09:04
Josh WEATHERBY
Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to
connect through an insecure (exploited) proxy server, which can then be denied a connection.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
e.g.
Letter
I
Description
Invisible? Cannot be seen without a common channel or knowing the exact name
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Matthew SCHOFIELD
Automated clients are called bots.
Most modern IRC services typically implement bot-like interfaces, through which users can
communicate with and control the functionality. Bots have also been created for malevolent uses,
such as flooding or taking over channels, ousting their rightful owners.
Matthew SCHOFIELD
Flooding or scrolling on an IRC network is a method of disconnecting
users from an IRC server. It will exhaust bandwidth, thereby causing network latency ('lag'), or
just annoying users. Floods can either be done by scripts (written for a given client) or by external
programs. It is possible to flood a user off simply by sending those data faster than they can
receive it.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
Cable
Wireless
Leased Line
Satellite
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
System
The Switching system (SS) is very operative system in which many crucial operations are conducted,
SS holds five databases with in it which performs different functions. If we talk about major tasks of SS
system it performs call processing and subscriber related functions. These five databases from SS
systems are HLR, MSC, VLR, AUC and EIR. Let’s study each database in detail and learn what
functions this little systems performs.
SATELLITE Television
Television could not exist in its contemporary form without satellites. Since 10 July 1962,
when NASA technicians in Maine transmitted fuzzy images of themselves to engineers at a
receiving station in England using the Telstar satellite, orbiting communications satellites have
been routinely used to deliver television news and programming between companies and to
broadcasters and cable operators. And since the mid-1980s they have been increasingly
used to broadcast programming directly to viewers, to distribute advertising, and to provide
live news coverage.
Arthur C. Clarke, a British engineer turned author, is credited with envisioning the key
elements of satellite communications long before the technical skill or political will to
implement his ideas existed. In 1945 he published a plan to put electronic relay stations--a
radio receiver and re-transmitter--into space at 23,000 miles above the earth's equator. At this
altitude, the satellite must complete a full rotation around the earth every 24 hours in order to
sustain orbit (countering the pull of the earth's gravity). Given the rotation of the earth itself,
that keeps the satellite at the same relative position. This "geosynchronous orbit" is where
several hundred communications satellites sit today providing telephone and data
communications, but mostly, relaying television signals. Television is currently the largest
user of satellite bandwidth.
An "uplink" transmitter on earth, using a "dish" antenna pointed toward the satellite, sends a
signal to one of the satellite's "transponders." The transponder amplifies that signal and shifts
it to another frequency (so as not to interfere with the incoming signal) to be transmitted back
to earth. A "downlink" antenna and receiver on earth then captures that signal and sends it on
its way. The essential advantage of the satellite is that the uplink and downlink may be 8000
miles apart. In practice, satellite communications is more efficient over a shorter distances
than that, but the advantages over terrestrial transmissions--cable, fiber optics, and
microwave--are profound, particularly across oceans. As with Direct Broadcast Satellites
(DBS), satellites can transmit to an unlimited number of ground receivers simultaneously, and
costs do not increase with distance.
Each satellite has a distinct "footprint," or coverage area, which is meticulously shaped and
plotted. In 1971, the first communications satellites carrying "spot beam" antennas were
launched. A spot beam antenna can be steered to focus the satellite's reception and
transmission capabilities on a small portion of the earth, instead of the 40% of the earth's
surface a wider antenna beam could cover. Spot coverage is crucial in international
broadcasting, when neighboring countries may object to signal "spillover" into their territory.
Communications satellites since the 1960's have received uplink signals in a range of
frequencies (or "bandwidth") near six GHz (gigahertz, or a billion cycles per second) and
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
downlinked signals near four GHz. This range of frequencies is known as "C-band." Each
range of frequencies is subdivided into specific channels, which, in the case of C-band, are
each from 36 to 72 MHz wide. A single analog television transmission may occupy enough
bandwidth to fully utilize a single 36 Mhz channel. Hundreds or thousands of voice or data
signals requiring far less bandwidth would fit on the same channel. In the 1980s a new
generation of satellites using bandwidths of 11 to 12 GHz (uplink) and 14 GHz (downlink)
came into use. The "Ku-band" does not require as much power to be transmitted clearly,
thereby permitting the use of small (and less expensive) earth stations for uplink and
downlink. With the introduction of the Ku-band, television entered the era of live news--
satellite news gathering (SNG)--as "Ku-band" satellites made it easy to uplink television
signals with a portable dish from the scene of a breaking news story. Television news has
also made some use of another satellite technology, remote sensing, using pictures taken by
satellites to illustrate or verify news stories.
In the late 1970s, with the satellite distribution of Home Box Office, home satellite dishes, or
"television receive only" (TVRO), became popular for people out of reach of cable television.
Later, direct satellite broadcasting (DBS) to small home dishes became possible through the
use of these higher frequencies. Since 1988 DBS has been heavily used in Europe, and it is
rapidly gaining popularity in the United States. Overuse of the C and Ku bandwidths and the
desire for even greater signal strength is leading to new satellites that use other areas of the
radio spectrum. A typical communications satellite launched in the early 1990s has a mix of C
and Ku-band transponders, and is capable of relaying over 30,000 voice or data circuits and
four or more television transmissions. Telephony and television use roughly equivalent
portions of available satellite capacity, but the demand for DBS has led to a number of
satellites dedicated to TV transmission.
Like other communications technologies, the satellite industry has embraced digitalization and
signal compression as a means of maximizing the use of limited bandwidth. By converting
analog signals to digital signals, less bandwidth is required, and digital signals can be broken
into smaller pieces for transmission through bits of available bandwidth, and reassembled at
the point of reception. Compression eliminates otherwise redundant portions of a television
transmission, allowing for a signal to be sent using far less bandwidth. Encryption, or
scrambling, of satellite television signals is now becoming common to ensure that only
customers who have bought or rented a decoder can receive transmissions. Even inter-
company television feeds via satellite, such as daily feeds to broadcasters from television
news agencies, are being encrypted to prevent unauthorized use. Typical television
transmissions via satellite in the 1990s are digital, and are often compressed and encrypted.
Compression technology is expected to considerably increase the number of DBS services
available.
Some developing countries have demonstrated success in using satellite delivered television
to provide useful information to portions of their populations out of reach of terrestrial
broadcasting. In 1975, an experimental satellite communications project called SITE (Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment) was used to bring informational television programs to
rural India. The project led to Indian development of its own satellite network. China has also
embarked on a ambitious program of satellite use for development, claiming substantial
success in rural education.
STAR-TV, controlled by media mogul Rupert Murdoch, transmits television programming over
much of Asia and has forced governments worldwide to reevaluate their stance on issues of
national sovereignty and control of incoming information. STAR-TV reaches over 50 countries
and potentially half of the world's population--far more than any other satellite television
service (though it is technically not DBS, still requiring larger dishes). A slew of contentious
political and cultural issues have resulted. Murdoch dropped BBC World Service Television
from his STAR-TV program lineup as a concession to the Chinese government. Other
governments have complained about the unrestricted importation of news presented from an
Anglo-American viewpoint, though their concerns about political consequences are often
couched in terms of protecting local culture. Reports of disruptions to local cultures stemming
from international satellite broadcasting are widespread.
In all these instances satellite technology has called into question conventional notions of the
nation state. Geographic borders may be insufficient definitions of culture and nationality in an
era of electronic information, beamed from multiple sources into the sky, and down again into
almost any location.
Thomas Roe
13B/It1
Mr. Moore
-Chris Paterson