Cu 1: S khc nhau gia lin kt ion, lin kt ng ha tr.

Nu r tc dng ca lin kt ny trong cu to cht: *S khc nhau gia lin kt ion v lin kt cng ha tr: lk ion -2 hoc nhiu nguyn t gp chung nhau 1 s in t c 8 in t ngoi cng -L loi lk k nh hng. Nu lk ion l nh hng th sc xut lk ln nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyn t do lk ion c tnh gin cao, d b b gy. -lk mnh Lk ng ha tr -cc nguyn t cho bt hoc thm in t ngoi cng tr thnh ion dng hoc ion m. -nh hng, lk ln nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyn t -Cng lk ph thuc mnh vo c tnh lk gia cc in t ha tr vi ht nhn -c 2 loi : ng cc v d cc

-Lk cng htri: lk ny to ra khi 2 hoc nhiu nguyn t gc chung nhau, 1 s in t c 8 in t lp ngoi cng. -c im ca lin kt cng ha tr + lk c tnh nh hng, ngha l xc sut tn ti cc in t tham gia lk ln nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyn t. + cng lin kt ph thuc rt ln vo c tnh lk gia cc in t ha tr vi ht nhn. +lk ng ha tr c th xy ra gia cc nguyn t cng loi VD: Cacbon dng th hnh kim cng c lin kt ng ha tr rt mnh v 4 in tch ha tr lin kt gn nh trc tip vi ht nhn =>kim cng c nhit nng chy trn 3550 oC -Lk ion l loi lin kt mnh, cc nguyn t cho bt in t lp ngoi cng v cng tr thnh ion dng(cation) hoc nhn thm in t y lp ngoi cng v tr thnh ion m (anion). Cng ging lin kt ng ha tr, lin kt ion cng mnh khi nguyn t cha cng t in t, tc l cc in t cho hoc nhn nm gn ht nhn VD: Hydro (H) to vi F, Cl, Br, I cc hp cht HF, HCl, HBr, HI bng nng lng lin kt ion tng ng l 5.81 , 4.44 , 3.75 , 3.06 eV/mol. => lin kt ion l lin kt khng nh hng. Cu 2: Trnh by s sp xp ca nguyn t trong cht kh, lng, rn. a)Cht kh:

Trong cht kh c s sp xp nguyn t mt cch hn lon , thc cht l hon ton khng c trt t. Khong cch gi a cc nguyn t khng c nh m hon ton ph thuc vo th t ch ca bnh cha, tc l c th chu nn. b)Cht rn tinh th: Ngc li hon ton vi cht kh , trong cht rn tinh th mi nguyn t c v tr hon ton xc nh khng nh ng vi cc nguyn t bn cnh hay gn - trt t gn, m cn c vi cc nguyn t khc bt k xa hn - trt t xa. Nh vy cht rn tinh th c c trt t gn ln trt t xa (trong khi cht kh hon ton khng c trt t, tc khng c c trt t gn ln trt t xa). Do c sp xp trt t nn cht rn tinh th c cu trc tinh th c xc nh bng kiu mng tinh th xc nh, tc cc nguyn t ca n c xp thnh hng, li vi quy lut nht nh. Ni tm cc nguyn t (ion) sp xp theo quy lut bng cc ng thng tng tng s cho ta hnh nh ca mng tinh th, trong ni giao nhau ca cc ng thng c gi l nt mng. Nt mng c quan nim nh mt im ca mng, tng ng vi n ch c mt nguyn t (ion) nh mng tinh th kim loi. Trong mng tinh th hp cht ha hc vi cc lin kt ion hay ng ha tr, ng vi mt nt ca mng tinh th c th l phn t (hai hay nhiu nguyn t ), lc c gi l nt phc. Do sp xp c trt t (quy lut, lp li theo ba chiu trong khng gian) nn theo cc phng khc nhau hnh thi sp xp v mt nguyn t cng khc nhau, to nn t nh d hng hay c hng. c)Cht rn v nh hnh: mt s cht, trng thi lng c st cao, cc nguyn t khng linh hot sp xp li theo chuyn pha lng - rn; cht rn to thnh khng c cu trc tinh th v c gi l cht rn v nh hnh . V mt cu trc c th coi cc vt th v nh hnh l cht lng rn li vi cc yu t gy nn bi ba ng nhit b loi tr . Thy tinh (m cu to c bn l SiO ) l cht rn v nh hnh rt in hnh nn i khi cn dng t ny ch trng thi v nh hnh ca cc vt liu thng c cu trc tinh th (nh kim loi thy tinh). Nh vy v mt cu trc, cc cht rn (i tng nghin cu ca mn hc) thng gp c chia thnh hai nhm tinh th v khng tinh th (v nh hnh). Phn ln cc cht rn c cu to tinh th trong bao gm ton b kim loi, hp kim v phn ln cc cht v c, rt nhiu polyme. S phn chia ny cng ch l quy c khng hon ton tuyt i v n ch ph hp vi iu kin sn xut (ch yu l lm ngui) thng thng v khng c ngha bt bin, khng th i ch cho nhau. Trong iu kin lm ngui bnh thng thy tinh lng, cc phn t SiO [trong ion O cc nh khi t din (bn mt) tam gic u, tm ca khi l ion Si khng thi gian sp xp li, n ch gim ba ng nhit to nn thy tinh thng; cn khi lm ngui v cng chm cc phn t SiO c thi gian sp xp li theo trt t xa s c thy tinh (c cu trc) tinh th. Xem th cu trc tinh th l cu trc n nh nht. Ngc li, cc cht rn c lit vo loi tinh th nh kim loi v hp kim khi lm ngui bnh thng t trng thi lng s cho cu trc tinh th, nay nu lm ngui vi tc v cng ln (> C/s) s nhn c cu trc v nh hnh. Lc ny vt liu nhn c li mang

cc c t nh ca cht rn v nh hnh. Khc vi cht rn tinh th, cc cht rn v nh hnh c t nh ng hng tc t nh cht nh nhau theo mi phng. d)Cht rn vi tinh th: Cng vi vt liu tinh th k trn khi lm ngui t trng thi lng rt nhanh ( trn di C /s) s nhn c cu trc tinh th nhng vi kch thc ht rt nh (c nm), l vt liu c tn gi l vi tinh th (cn gi l finemet hay nanomet). e)Cht lng: Cht lng c cu trc ging cht rn tinh th ch nguyn t c xu th tip xc (x t) nhau trong nh ng nhm nh ca mt khng gian hnh cu khong 0,25 nm , do vy khng c t nh chu nn (co th t ch li nh cht kh ). Cn s khc nhau vi cht rn tinh th l nh ng im sau: -V tr nguyn t khng xc nh tc l trong khng gian nh k trn cc nguyn t tuy c sp xp trt t nhng khng n nh , lun lun b ph v do ba ng nhit ri li hnh thnh vi cc nguyn t khc v ni khc... Cu trc nh vy l c trt t gn (nhng lun trng thi ng). i vi kim loi lng, cu trc trt t gn vi nhng nhm nh nguyn t x t nhau mt cch trt t nh vy c ngha rt quan trng khi kt tinh, khi b lm ngui chng c nh li (khng b tan i), ln dn ln v to nn trt t xa bng cch lp li v tr theo quy nh, tc cu trc tinh th. Do ch c trt t gn, khng c trt t xa nn cht lng c t nh ng hng. -Mt xp cht (t l gi a th t ch do nguyn t chim ch so vi tng th t ch) ca cht lng km cht rn nn khi kt tinh hay ng c thng km theo gim th tch (co ngt). Cu 3:k tn 1 s cu trc tinh th ca vt rn, c im chnh ca mng lp phng tm mt A1. 1 s cu trc tinh th ca vt rn: mng tinh th lp phng tm khi A2; mng tinh th lp phng tm mt A1; mng tinh th 6 phng xp cht A3 *c im: Trong c s mng A1 ngoi 8 nguyn t nh cn 6 nguyn t tm mt bn, s lng nguyn t trong 1 c s l n=1/8*8+1/2*6=4. Ta cc nguyn t gc l [[0 0 0]] [[1/2 0]] [1/2 0 ]] [[0 ]]. S sp xp ca mng A1 l K=12 v mi nguyn t bao quanh bi 12 nguyn t ln cn vi khong cch a /2. Cho rng cc nguyn t xp st nhau theo phng <110> c th rt ra quan h bn knh nguyn t r v kch thc c s a l: 4r= a => r= a /4

Trong mng A1 phng xp cht l <110>, mt xp cht {1 1 1} vi Ms=92%, mt xp ca mng l Mv=74%

Mng A1 c 2 loi l hng, 4 l hng 8 mt kch thc 0,41d nm trung tm khi v im gia cc mt bn, 8 l hng khi 4 mt nm trn cc ng cho <111> tnh t nh c kch hc l 0,225d. Cc nguyn t kim loi Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Al c trng bi cu trc mng A1. Cu 4: K tn 1 s cu trc tinh th vt rn c lin kt cng ha tr, c im chnh ca mng kim cng A4. 1 s cu trc tinh th vt rn c lkcht: mng kim cng (A4); mng graphit; si cc bon v fulleren;*c im chnh ca mng kim cng A4:Kim cng l 1 dng th hnh ca cacbon. S in t ca lp L tham gia lk l 4 (N=4). S sp xp trong mng l K=4. Mi nguyn t cacbon trong mng kim cng to lk ng ha vi 4 nguyn t xung quanh. C 4 nguyn t cacbon to nn 1 khi t din tam gic u. Cc khi sp xp chung nh to nn mng kim cng. c s mng kim cng to thnh trn c s mng lp phng tm mt c them 4 nguyn t bn trong vi cc ta [[ ]] [[3/4 ]] [[3/4 ]] [[1/4 ]]. Hoc c th hnh dung bng cch chia mng lp phng tm mt thnh tm khi u nhau v tm ca 4 khi nh nm cch nhau c them 4 nguyn t. Mi nguyn t cch u 4 nguyn t khc gn nht vi khong cch a /4. Gc c nh gia cc lk ng ha tr trong mng kim cng l 109.5 , vi nng lng lk ln cho nn kim cng c cng rt cao. Cu 5: Sai lch im trong mng tinh th. nh hng ca sai lch. *Sai lch imL loi sai lch c kch thc nh (c kch thc nguyn t) theo 3 chiu trong khng gian. 1 s sai lch in hnh l nt trng, nguyn t xen k v nguyn t tp cht.-Nt trng v nguyn t xen k. Sai hng Schottky Sai hng Frenkel Khi b kch thch, vs cc nguyn t Khi b kch thch, cc nguyn t khi gn st b mt nhy ln v tr mi to di chuyn ln v tr mi li 1 l l trng trng => mng k hon ho. L trng s to c hi cho nguyn t V khi cc nguyn t di chuyn ln v pha trong nhy ln chim ch => l tr mi lin tc => to ra nhiu l trng s i su vo trong cu trc trng 1 nt trng cation lun tn ti song song vi 1 nt trng anion 1 cation xen k cnh 1 nt trng Mt sai hng c biu din theo cng thc: n=A.N.e^(-E/kT) Trong : k-hng s Boldzman t-nhit tuyt i E-nng lng cn thit to lk N-s nt mng trong tinh th ns=A.N.e^(-Es/kT) nf=A.N.e^(-Ef/kT) nh hng: nt trng c nh hng ln n c ch v tc khuch tn ca kim loi (hp kim) trng thi rn. V vy n c ngha quan trng trong thc t. Ngoi ra n

cng nh hng n chuyn ng ca lch trong qu trnh bin dng do nhit cao.nguyn t tp cht:Trong thc t k c vt liu hoc kim loi sch tuyt i, ch sch khong 99,99% hoc cao hn 1 cht. Ph thuc vo kch thc cc nguyn t tp cht c th thay th nguyn t nn nt mng hoc xen k gia cc nt. y cng l sai lch im v lun km theo trng ng sut hnh cu xung quanh. Nguyn t xen k d khuch tn hn so vi nguyn t thay th v k cn nt trng lm trung gian. nh hng: Cc nguyn t tp cht trong k xc nh c th tng tc v cn tr ca lch, v vy chng nh hng n c ch, hnh thi qu trnh bin dng do, ha bn. Trong tinh th ng ha tr, nguyn t tp cht nh hng n t/c in. Cu 6: C my loi sai lch ng trong mng tinh th? c im ca sai lch xon, sai lch bin, sai lch bin gii ht. Sai lch ng l loi c k ch thc nh (c k ch thc nguyn t ) theo hai chiu v ln theo chiu th ba, tc c dng ca mt ng (ng y c th l thng, cong, xoy trn c). Sai lch ng c th l mt dy cc sai lch im k trn, song c bn v ch yu vn l lch (dislocation) vi hai dng l bin v xon c im ca sai lch xon:C th hnh dung lch xon nh m hnh trt dch hnh a ( iu ny khng ng ngha l n c hnh thnh ng nh vy): ct tinh th l tng theo bn mt ABCD ri trt dch hai mp ngoi ngc chiu nhau i mt hng s mng trn ng BC. iu ny s lm cho cc nguyn t trong vng hp gia hai ng AD v BC sp xp li c dng ng xon c ging nh mt vt nn lch c tn l lch xon nh thy r hnh b biu th sp xp nguyn t trn v di bn mt. S x lch nguyn t c thy r hnh c. Cng ging nh trn ng AD l tm ca s x lch nn c gi l trc lch .Lch xon: m hnh to thnh (a), m hnh khng gian (b) v s sp xp nguyn t trong vng lch (c).

c im sai lch bin: C th hnh dung lch bin nh m hnh hnh a (iu ny khng ng ngha l n c hnh thnh ng nh vy): chn thm bn mt ABCD vo na phn trn ca mng tinh th l tng (hnh a), s xut hin thm ca bn mt lm cho cc mt phng nguyn t khc nm v hai pha tr nn khng hon ton song song vi nhau n a. Nh thy r hnh b biu th sp xp nguyn t trn mt ct vung gc vi trc AD (trong vng b x lch kh nh - ch 4-5 thng s mng trong phm vi vng trn), r rng l s x lch ny ko di theo ng AD c gi l trc lch, n chnh l bin ca bn mt nn c tn l lch bin. Vi s phn b nh vy n

a tinh th c cha bn mt s chu ng sut nn, na cn li chu ng sut ko. Hnh v: Lch bin: m hnh to thnh (a), s sp xp nguyn t trong vng lch (b) v m hnh khng gian (c). *c im bin gii ht:Bin gii ht l vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th. Cc nguyn t bin gii ht k sp xp theo trt t mng v c th coi l vng cu trc v nh hnh. Sc cng BGH () c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do vng bin gii so vi cc vng pha trong duy tr s cn bng nguyn t b mt.Chiu dy BGH ph thuc vo sch ca kim loi hoc vt liu, c th t gi tr hng trm ln hng s mng. Kim loi cng tinh khit, BGH cng mng.Do cu trc k tinh th, tnh cht ca bin gii ht so vi cu trc tinh th: -C nhit nng chy thp hn so vi vng bn trong, v vy nhit cao bin gii ht d b chy do, gy hin tng b nng.-Hot tnh ha hc cao hn, d b n mn ha hc. Da vo c tnh ny, dng phng php tm thc pht hin bin gii ht trn knh hin vi quang hc hoc knh hin vi in t qut.-BGH c tng tc mnh vi cc loi sai lch khc (nguyn t tp cht, nt trng, lch), v vy qu trinh khuch tn y xy ra mnh hn so vi vng bn trong. Trong chuyn pha, bin gii ht l ni d to tm mm nht. -BGH nh hng n in tr sut v n tn x in t dn. Ngoi ra, lch rt kh vt qua bin gii ht nhit thp v vy kim loi c kch thc ht cng nh (BGH cng nhiu) in tr sut v bn cng cao. cu 7: th no l n tinh th, a tinh th. Nu c tnh v ng dng ca chng. *n tinh th :-nh ngha: nu vt tinh th c mng thng nht v phng khng i trong ton b th tch th gi l n tinh th.-c tnh: c tnh tiu biu ca n tinh th l tnh d hng v theo cc hng khc nhau, xp cht nguyn t khc nhau.-ng dng: ch yu c s dng trong cng nghip bn dn v vt liu k thut in.*a tinh th:-nh ngha: gm rt nhiu tinh th nh (kch c m) gi l ht tinh th c cng cu trc mng nhng vi nh hng khc nhau mang tnh ngu nhin lin kt bng bin gii ht.-c tnh: + ht ca a tinh th cu trc gm 2 phn chnh:++cc tinh th nh gi l ht c nh hng khc nhau.++Bin gii ht , cu trc khng trt t lin kt cc ht vi nhau c coi l mt dng ca sai lch mt.Do c im to thnh-> ht tinh th c kch thc khc nhau. ht ny cn c th biu din qua kch thc trung bnh ca ht hoc nhng biu phn b kch thc ht+ tnh ng hng ca a tinh th c c l do s phn b ngu nhin ca cc ht trong a tinh th, phng mng ca chng sp xp bt k nn tnh d hng khng cn th hin na, ngi ta ni a tinh th c tnh ng hng gi. S d :gi trong phm vi tng ht nh ca a tinh th tnh d hng vn th hin tht.Tnh cht ca a tinh th ging nhau theo cc phng khc nhau tr trng hp gia cc ht c tng quan c bit.VD: textual l cu trc a tinh th, loi vt liu thng c s dng trong k thut in.. c dng ch to ra cc li bin th nhm gim tn tht in nng. Cu 8: Trnh by cu trc polime:

-Polyme l khi nim c dng cho cc hp cht c khi lng phn t ln v trong cu trc ca chng c s lp i lp li nhiu ln nhng mt xch c bn. Cc phn t tng t nhng c khi lng thp hn c gi l oligome. - Khc vi cu trc tinh th ca kim loi v cc cht v c, c s ch to nn bi s lng hn ch (t vi n vi chc) nguyn t (ion), polyme c to nn bi rt nhiu phn t m mi phn t li gm hng triu nguyn t. V d polyme trn c s ca polytylen n c hnh thnh ln lt nh sau: -mch kn n: H H -C - C H Hm lk kp H H C=C H H m lk kp H H H H H -C - C C CH H H H

C = C H H -mch h dng thng: H H H -C-C-C-CH H H H

Cc mch polyme c sp xp li v lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt yu Van der Waals. S sp xp ny c th l c trt t to nn cu trc tinh th, hoc khng trt t to nn trng thi v nh hnh. Cu 9: Trnh by cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn. -Trong mi nguyn t tn ti cc mc nng lng gin on. Cc in t xp thnh cc tng(Cng vi cc s lng t chnh n=1,2,3,.)v cc lp c ch bi cc ch s, p, d, f (ng vi cc s lng t qu o l=0,1,2 v 3,). Trong mi lp li c tng ng 2l+1=1,3,5 hoc 7 qu o khc nhau. -Khi cc nguyn t cng xch li gn nhau th cc in t cng b kch thch bi cc in t v cc ht nhn ca nguyn t ln cn. nh hng lm cho mi trng thi in t ca nguyn t nm st nhau hnh thnh nn vng nng lng in t. S gin n t mt mc nng lng in t trng nguyn t thnh mt vng nng lng trong vt rn ty thuc vo khong cch gia cc nguyn t. trong mi vng, cc mc nng lng ny l gin on, tuy nhin khong cch gia cc mc k nhau l ht sc nh. khong cch nguyn t cn bng, s to thnh vng nng lng c th xy ra vi cc lp in t gn ht nhn nht. Gia cc vng k nhau tn ti khe nng lng(vng cm): bnh thng th cc in t khng c chim lnh. - 0 k tn ti bn kiu vng nng lng khc nhau:

+Th 1: vng ha tr ch b lp y mt phn. nng lng cao nht b chim d 0 k l E Fermi -> cu trc im hnh ca kim loi. +Th 2: Vng ha tr b lp y v cn ph ln vng dn -> cng tm thyowr kim loi. +Th 3,4: Hai cu truc ny tng t nhau. mi cu trc th tt cacr cc trng thi trong vng ha tr b chim d hon ton. Tuy nhin y ko cn dnh vi phn cn trng nn to khe nng lng. S khc nhau gia hai vng l rng ca khe nng lng. E Fermi nm chnh gia khe. -V th vt liu dn in l vt liu c in t d vt qua vng nng lng Fermi. Vt liu ko dn l vt liu c nng lng vng cm rt ln n mc in t khng th no vt qua E Fermi. Cu 10: Nu cu trc vng nng lng ca bn dn v in mi t chng minh tnh cht dn in ca chng Tnh cht dn in ca cc vt liu rn c gii thch nh l thuyt vng nng lng. Nh ta bit, in t tn ti trong nguyn t trn nhng mc nng lng gin on (cc trng thi dng). Nhng trong cht rn, khi m cc nguyn t kt hp li vi nhau thnh cc khi, th cc mc nng lng ny b ph ln nhau, v tr thnh cc vng nng lng v s c ba vng chnh.

Cu trc nng lng ca in t trong mng nguyn t ca cht bn dn. Vng ha tr c lp y, trong khi vng dn trng. Mc nng lng Fermi nm vng trng nng lng. Vng ha tr (Valence band): L vng c nng lng thp nht theo thang nng lng, l vng m in t b lin kt mnh vi nguyn t v khng linh ng. Vng dn (Conduction band): Vng c mc nng lng cao nht, l vng m in t s linh ng (nh cc in t t do) v in t vng ny s l in t dn, c ngha l cht s c kh nng dn in khi c in t tn ti trn vng dn. Tnh dn in tng khi mt in t trn vng dn tng. Vng cm (Forbidden band): L vng nm gia vng ha tr v vng dn, khng c mc nng lng no do in t khng th tn ti trn vng cm. Nu bn dn pha tp, c th xut hin cc mc nng lng trong vng cm (mc pha tp). Khong cch gia y vng dn v nh vng ha tr gi l rng vng cm, hay nng lng vng cm (Band Gap). Ty theo rng vng cm ln hay nh m cht c th l dn in hoc khng dn in. Nh vy, tnh dn in ca cc cht bn dn c th l gii mt cch n gin nh l thuyt vng nng lng nh sau:

Cc cht bn dn c vng cm c mt rng xc nh. khng tuyt i (0 K), mc Fermi nm gia vng cm, c ngha l tt c cc in t tn ti vng ha tr, do cht bn dn khng dn in. Khi tng dn nhit , cc in t s nhn c nng lng nhit (kB.T vi kB l hng s Boltzmann) nhng nng lng ny cha in t vt qua vng cm nn in t vn vng ha tr. Khi tng nhit n mc cao, s c mt s in t nhn c nng lng ln hn nng lng vng cm v n s nhy ln vng dn v cht rn tr thnh dn in. Khi nhit cng tng ln, mt in t trn vng dn s cng tng ln, do , tnh dn in ca cht bn dn tng dn theo nhit (hay in tr sut gim dn theo nhit ). in mi: tng t nh cht bn dn nhng do khe nng lng rng hn ca bn dn rt nhiu -> e Fermi ln v vy s rt kh c dc din t nhy c t vng ha tr sang vng dn nn c th coi nh chng khng dn in. Cu 11:Da vo khi nim linh ng ca in t v cu trc vng nng lng, anh (ch) hy nu c im ca in tr kim loi.Tnh cht dn in, hay cn tr in ca nhiu vt liu c th gii thch bng c hc lng t. Mi vt liu u c to nn t mng li cc nguyn t. Cc nguyn t cha cc electron, c nng lng gn kt vi ht nhn nguyn t nhn cc gi tr ri rc trn cc mc c nh. Cc mc ny c th c nhm thnh 2 nhm: vng dn v vng ha tr, vng ha tr thng c mc nng lng thp hn vng dn. Cc electron c nng lng nm trong vng dn c th dy chuyn d dng gia cc mng li nguyn t./Khi c hiu in th gia 2 u ming vt liu, mt in trng c thit lp ko theo cc electron vng dn dy chuyn nh lc Coulumb to ra dng in. Dng in mnh hay yu ph thuc vo s lng electron cng dn/Cc electron ni chung sp sp trong nguyn t t mc nng lng thp n cao, do vy hu ht nm vng ha tr. S lng electron nm vng dn ty thuc vo vt liu v iu kin kch thch nng lng (nhit lng , bc x in t t mi trng). Chia theo tnh cht cc mc nng lng ca electron c 3 loi vt liu chnh sau:

Trong kim loi lun c sn electron nm cng dn. Trn thc t hok c khong cch gia vng dn v vng ha tr, v c th coi 2 vng l mt i vi kim loi/Kim loi c vng dn v vng ha tr ph ln nhau(khng c vng cm) do lun c in t trn vng dn v th m kim loi lun lun dn in Mng li ca kim loi thc t hok hon ho: cc ch b st m trong mng li tn x electron, gy nn s cn tr vi s dy chuyn ca electron(in tr). Khi nhit tng, cc nguyn t dao ng mnh hn v d va chm vo cc electron hn khin in tr tng theo. Vt dn in cng di, s lng va chm ca electron trn ng y cng tng.

Cu 12: Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi p. Xt bn dn nguyn t silic. Mt nguyn t silic c 4 in t vng ngoi mi in t ny lin kt ng ha tr vi 4 nguyn t silic ln cn. Gi s 1 nguyn t tp cht c ha tr 3 c thay th vo( nguyn t nhm III A: Al, B, Ga). Ta ly bo.Mt trong cc mi lin kt ng ha tr xung quanh mi nguyn t ny s b thiu 1 in t. Ch thiu c th xem nh 1 l trng lin kt yu vi nguyn t tp cht. C th gii phng l trng ny khi nguyn t tp cht bng cch l in t v l trng i ch cho nhau. Mt l trng chuyn ng c coi nh l trng thi kch thch. Vy trong trng hp ny tp cht bo lm cho l trng trong tinh th tng ln rt nhiu: ch cn mt s nguyn t tp cht bng mt phn triu s nguyn t bn dn tinh khit cng lm cho s l trng tng ln hng vn ln, do dn in ca bn dn c tp cht ln hn dn in ca bn dn tinh khit hng vn ln. Mi 1 nguyn t tp cht a vo khe cm mt mc nng lng nm st pha trn nh ca vng ha tr. Mi l trng s c to ra trong vng ha tr khi kch thch nhit 1 in t chuyn t vng ha tr ln trng thi in t tp cht. Vi 1 chuyn di nh th ch c 1 ht ti (1 l trng) c sinh ra trong vng ha tr m khng c in t t do no c to ra hoc mc tp cht hoc trong vng dn. Tp cht ny c gi l acxept (tp cht nhn). bi v n c kh nng nhn in t t vng ha tr v li 1 l trng . i vi bn dn tp cht loi ny, l trng c mt vi nng cao hn nhiu so vi in t (p>>n) v trong trng hp vt liu c gi l cht bn dn loi p bi v tnh dn in ch yu do cc in tch dng m nhim. L trng c gi l ht ti a s, in t l ht ti tiu s. Cu 13: Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi n. Xt bn dn nguyn t silic. Mt nguyn t silic c 4 in t vng ngoi mi in t ny lin kt ng ha tr vi 4 nguyn t silic ln cn. Gi s 1 nguyn t tp cht c ha tr 5 c thay th vo( nguyn t nhm V A: P, As, Sb). Ch c 4 trong 5 nguyn t tp cht ny c th tham gia vo lin kt. Mt in t tha ra ch nh 1 cch lng lo xung quanh nguyn t tp cht bi lc ht tnh in yu nng lng lin kt ca in t ny tng i nh (0,01 eV) =>d b tch khi nguyn t tp cht =>n tr thnh in t t do (tc in t dn). Nh vy, trong trng hp ny (tc ) lm cho s in t t do trong bn dn tng ln rt nhiu. V ch cn mt s nguyn t tp cht bng mt phn triu s nguyn t bn dn tinh khit cng lm cho s in t tng ln hng vn ln, ngha l dn in ca bn dn c tp cht ln dn in ca bn dn tinh khit hng vn ln. Mi in t lng lo chim mt mc nng lng ng nm trong khe cm v ngay di y vng dn. kch thch in t nhy t 1 trong cc trng thi (mc) tp cht ny ln 1 mc trong vng dn i hi 1 nng lng tng ng vi nng lng lin kt trong in t. C mi ln kch thch s cp 1 in t n vo vng dn. Tp cht loi ny gi l n (tp cht cho).Bi mi in t n c kch thch t 1 tp cht nn khng to ra l trng trong vng ha tr do trong bn dn c tp cht

mt in t rt ln so vi mt l trng. V l bn dn c tp cht c gi l bn dn in t hay bn dn loi n. Trong bn dn loi n cc in t l nhng ht ti a s, cn l trng l nhng ht ti thiu s.

Cu 14: Da vo khi nim linh ng ca in t v cu trc vng nng lng, anh (ch) hy nu c im ca in tr ca bn dn tinh khit? Trong bn dn v cch in cc nguyn t tng tc vi nhau khin cho khong cch nng lng gia vng dn v vng c ha tr ln, hu ht cc electron khng nm vng dn. c electron dn in, cn cung cp nhu nng lng cho e nhy ln vng dn, v d nhit nng hay quang nng. Mt hiu in th ln ch to c dng in yu do c it in t dn in, do cht bn dn v cht cch in c in tr sut cao. Trong bn dn khi tng nhit , cc e c th nhn nhit nng nhy ln vng dn. Hiu ng ny mnh hn hiu ng cn tr do dng dao ng mng, khin in tr gim khi nhit tng.. tng t c th chiu nh sng hay bc x in t ni chung vo mt s cht bn dn truyn nng lng cho cc e(sau khi hp th cc photon) nhy ln vng dn v tng tnh dn in nh trong CCD ca camera hay pin Mt Tri C th thay i kh nng dn in ca cc cht bn dn bng vic pha thm tp cht la chn c bit to ra cc li trong mng tinh th c tha e t do(bn dn loi n). Nng tp cht quyt nh s l trng hay in t t do trong vt liu, do quyt nh tnh dn in ca vt liu Cc cht bn dn c vng cm c 1 rng xc nh. 0 tuyt i(0 K), mc Fermi nm gia vng cm, c ngha l tt c cc in t tn ti vng ha tr, do cht bn dn khng dn in. Khi tng dn nhit , cc in t s nhn c nng lng nhit( l hng s Boltzmann) nhng nng lng ny cha vt qua vng cm nn in t vn vng ha tr. Khi tng nhit n mc cao, s c mt s in t nhn c nng lng ln hn nng lng vng cm v n s nhy ln vng dn v cht rn tr thnh cht dn in. Khi nhit cng tng ln, mt in t trn vng dn s cng tng ln, do tnh dn in ca bn dn tng dn theo nhit (hay in tr sut gim dn theo nhit ). Mt cch gn ng c th vit s ph thuc ca in tr cht bn dn vo nhit nh sau: Vi Ro l hng s, l rng vng cm Ngoi ra tnh dn ca cht bn dn c th thay i nh cc kch thch nng lng khc, v d nh nh sng. Khi chiu sng cc in t s hp th nng lng t photon v c th nhy ln vng dn nu nng lng ln. y chnh l nguyn nhn dn n s thay i v tnh cht ca bndn di tc dng ca nh sng(quang-bn dn)

Cu 15: Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu. T gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca kim loi C ch dn nhit ca vt liu Trong cc vt liu rn,nhit c truyn bi c song dao ng mng v in t t do. dn nhit ton phn l tng ca 2 thnh phn theo 2 c ch . K=Kl +Ke Kl: dn in bi dao ng mng Ke: dn in bi dao ng in t -Thng thng th 1 trong 2 thnh phn chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon,tc l song mng c truyn i theo hng chuyn ng ca chng. -Thnh phn Kl gy bi chuyn ng thun ca cc phonon t vng nhit cao ti vng c nhit thp trong vt th. -Cc in t t do cng tham gia dn nhit. vng nng ca vt liu in t t do c ng nng ln hn,chng di chuyn n nhng vng lnh hn vaf1 phn ng nng c chuyn b thm cho cc nguyn t nh l kt qu cc va chm vi phonon hay l vi khuyt tt mng.Phn ng gp tng i ca Ke tng theo nng in t t do v c nhiu in t hn tham gia vo qu trnh dn nhit. Gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca kim loi +Trong kim loi vi sch cao,c ch in t vn chuyn nhit c u th hn phn ng gp ca photon v in t khng d b tn x nh photon v c tc ln hn.Kim loi l cht bn dn ht sc tt do c s lng kh ln in t t do tham gia dn nhit. dn nhit thng dng ca kim loi l vo khong:20-40 w m.K. +v in t t do chu trch nhim c dn nhit v dn in trong kim loi tinh khit,biu thc: L=k T L:Hng s L=2,44.10 ^-8 W/(k^2) T:Nhit tuyt i : dn nhit +Tp cht trong kim loi lm gim dn nhit,c th l trong cc nguyn t tp cht,c bit l trong dung dch rn hot ng nh nhng tm tn x,h thp hiu qu ca chuyn ng in t.V vy thp khng d dn nhit km hn st hoc thp hp kim thp. Cu 16:Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu,t gii thch tnh dn nhit ca polymer C ch dn nhit ca vt liu. Trong cc vt liu rn,nhit c truyn bi c song dao ng mng v in t t do. dn nhit ton phn l tng ca 2 thnh phn theo 2 c ch . K=Kl +Ke Kl: dn in bi dao ng mng Ke: dn in bi dao ng in t -Thng thng th 1 trong 2 thnh phn chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon,tc l song mng c truyn i theo hng chuyn ng ca chng. -Thnh phn Kl gy bi chuyn ng thun ca cc phonon t vng nhit cao ti vng c nhit thp trong vt th.

-Cc in t t do cng tham gia dn nhit. vng nng ca vt liu in t t do c ng nng ln hn,chng di chuyn n nhng vng lnh hn vaf1 phn ng nng c chuyn b thm cho cc nguyn t nh l kt qu cc va chm vi phonon hay l vi khuyt tt mng.Phn ng gp tng i ca Ke tng theo nng in t t do v c nhiu in t hn tham gia vo qu trnh dn nhit. gii thch tnh dn nhit ca polyme +a s cc polyme l vo c 0.3 wm.K.i vi vt liu ny,nng lng truyn theo dao ng,tnh tin v quay ca cc phn t mch. ln ca dn nhit ph thc vo mc kt tinh:Polyme c cu trc tinh th v trt t cao s c dn nhit ln hn so vi cc vt liu v nh hnh tng ng. l dao ng hiu dng hn ca cc mch phn t trng thi tinh th. +Polyme thng c ng dng lm cht chs nhit nh c dn nhit thp,tnh cc nhit ca chng cng nh ca gm,c th c nng cao hn bng cch a vo nhng l xp nh,thng c to ra bng cch khuy bt trong khi polyme ha.Polystryren to bt c dng ph bin dng lm cc ung v hp cch nhit. Cu 17: Anh (ch) hy nu hiu ng ng sut nhit ca vt liu ng sut nhit l ng sut c gy ra trong vt th do s thay i nhit . Tm hiu ngun gc v bn cht ca ng sut nhit l rt quan trng v nhng ng sut ny c th dn ti s nt v hoc bin dng do khng mong mun. ng sut do s gin v co b hn ch Ta hy xt mt thanh ng cht v ng hng b nung nng hoc lm lnh ng u, ngha l khng c gradien nhit . Khi gin hoc co t do, thanh s khng chu ng sut. Tuy nhin nu chuyn ng dc trc ca thanh b gii hn bi cc gi cng chn hai u th s c ng sut nhit. ln dn in ca ng sut gy bi bin thin nhit t To n Tf l: = E. 1 (To-Tf) (1) Khi nung nng (Tf > To) ng sut s l nn ( < 0), v s gin n ca thanh b gi li. ng nhin khi thanh b lm lnh (Tf < To) th s c ng sut ko ( > 0). Cng vy ng sut theo biu thc (1) cng l ng sut cn thit nn (hoc ko) n hi thanh mu tr v di ban u sau khi n chu gin n do bin i nhit To - Tf ng sut gy bi gradien nhit Khi mt vt rn b nung hoc lm ngui, s phn b nhit bn trong s ph thuc vo kch thc v hnh dng ca n, vo dn nhit ca vt liu v ch s bin i nhit . ng sut nhit c th hnh thnh do gradien nhit gy ra bi s nung nng hoc lm ngui nhanh v lm cho phn ngoi thay i nhit nhanh hn phn pha trong. Cc bin i kch thc b phn c tc dng hn ch s gin hoc co ca nhng phn th tch xung quanh. Chng hn khi nung nng, phn ngoi ca mu s nng hn, v do s gin mnh hn cc vng trong. Nh vy ng sut b mt l ng sut nn, xut hin v b cn bng bi cc ng sut ko bn trong. Mi tng quan ng sut trong ngoi s o li khi lm ngui nhanh, lm cho b mt chu ng sut ko. Sc nhit ca vt liu gin

i vi cc kim loi v polyme d un, ng sut sinh ra c th c gim nh nh c bin dng n hi. tuy nhin, i vi a s vt liu gm, tnh kh un s lm tng kh nng ph hy gin do ng sut nhit. ngui nhanh d gy ra sc nhit hn l nung nng, v ng sut nhit sinh ra l ng sut ko. S to thnh vt nt v s lan truyn cc vt nt t b mt x ra d hn khi c ng sut ko. Kh nng ca vt liu chng li loi ph hy ny c gi l bn xung nhit. i vi gm b lm ngui nhanh, bn xung nhieeyj ph thuc khng nhng vo ln ca s thay i nhit m cn vo tnh cht c v nhit ca vt liu. bn xung nhit tt nht cc gm c bn nt cao v dn in cao, cng nh modun n hi v h s gin n nhit thp. bn ca nhiu vt liu chng li loi ph hy ny c th c tnh bng thng s khng sc nhit TSR TSR= f. k/ E. 1 (2) C th phng nga sc nhit bng cch bin i cc iu kin ngoi gim bt tc ngui hoc nung nng v hn ch gradien nhit trong vt th n mc ti thiu. ci thin cc c trng nhit v c trong biu thc (2) cng c th nng cao tnh khng sc nhit ca vt liu. trong cc thng s ny h s gin n nhit l d bin i v d khng ch nht. v d, thy tinh Na ph thng, thng c 1 vo khong 9.10^-6 (C)- c bit nhy vi sc nhit nh chng ta vn bit. bng cch gim hm lng CaO v Na2O ng thi b sung B2O3 vo to thnh thy tinh borosilicat (Pyrex) th s gim c h s gin n xung ti khong 3.10^-6 (C)- ; vt liu ny hon ton thch hp cho cc chu trnh nung nng v lm ngui ca l nung. a vo mt s l xp tng i ln hoc mt pha th hai mm cng x th ci thin c tnh sc nhit ca vt liu. C hai bin php ny u c tc dng ngn nga s lan truyn cc vt nt nhit. Thng cn phi kh ng sut nhit trong cc vt liu gm nh l mt bin php ci thin bn c v c tnh quang hc ca chng. iu ny c th thc hin bng . Cu 18: Anh (ch) hy nu ngun gc momen t ca vt liu. Cc tnh cht t v m ca vt liu u l h qu ca cc momen t gn vi tng in t. Khi nim ny kh phc tp v da trn cc nguyn l c hc lng t nn di y ta ch trnh by mt s lc dn gin ha. Mi in t trong mt nguyn t u c cc momen t vi hai ngun gc. Mt lin quan n chuyn ng qu o ca n xung quanh ht nhn. L mt in tch chuyn ng , mi in t c th c xem nh mt dng in vng nh, sinh ra mt t trng rt yu, do c mt momen t hng dc theo chiu qu o ca n, nh minh ha trn hnh 5.39a Mt khc mi in t cn c mt chuyn ng ring l chuyn ng xung quanh trc ca bn thn (gi l spin). Do xut hin momen t na bt ngun t spin in t, hng theo trc spin nh trn hnh5.39b. Momen t spin in t ch c th nhn hai chiu i song song, hoc hng ln hoc hng xung. Nh vy mi in t trong nguyn t c th coi nh mt nam chm vnh cu nh, c momen t qu o v momen t spin Momen t dn v l magneton Bohr c gi tr 9,27.10^-24 A.m. i vi mi in t trong nguyn t, momen t spin ch c th nhn mt trong hai gi tr (cng cho spin hng ln v tr cho spin hng xung). Cn momen t qu o th bng m1, m1 l s lng t t (s lng t khng gian) ca in t.

Trong mi nguyn t c lp, momen t qu o cng nh momen t spin ca cp diendj t trit tiu ln nhau. V d, momen spin ca mt in t c spin hng ln s trit tiu momen spin ca mt in t c spin hng xung. Cn momen t ca mt nguyn t s chnh l tng momen t ca mi in t trong nguyn t bao gm c hai thnh phn qu o v spin. i vi mt nguyn t c cc lp in t hon ton y, momen tng ca n b trit tiu. Nh vy vt liu cu to bi nguyn t c cc lp in t hon ton y th khng th b t ha vnh cu. v d, cc kh tr (He, Ne, Ar) cng nh nhiu vt liu ion khc. Trong vt liu tn ti cc dng t tnh sau: nghch t, thun t v st t. Ngoi ra, phn st t v feri t c xem l nhng dng ph ca st t. mi vt liu u tn ti t nht mt trong dng t tnh v tnh cht t ca vt liu ph thuc vo hnh vi ca cc lng cc t nguyn t v in t di tc dng ca t trng ngoi. Cu 19: Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu?t Gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca Gm C ch dn nhit ca vt liu -Trong cc vt liu rn,nhit c truyn bi c song dao ng mng v in t t do. dn nhit ton phn l tng ca 2 thnh phn theo 2 c ch . K=Kl +Ke Kl: dn in bi dao ng mng Ke: dn in bi dao ng in t -Thng thng th 1 trong 2 thnh phn chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon,tc l song mng c truyn i theo hng chuyn ng ca chng. -Thnh phn Kl gy bi chuyn ng thun ca cc phonon t vng nhit cao ti vng c nhit thp trong vt th. -Cc in t t do cng tham gia dn nhit. vng nng ca vt liu in t t do c ng nng ln hn,chng di chuyn n nhng vng lnh hn vaf1 phn ng nng c chuyn b thm cho cc nguyn t nh l kt qu cc va chm vi phonon hay l vi khuyt tt mng.Phn ng gp tng i ca Ke tng theo nng in t t do v c nhiu in t hn tham gia vo qu trnh dn nhit. Gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca Gm - Cc vt liu phi kim loi u l nhng cht cch nhit v chng khng c nhiu in t t do.Nh vy,phonon chu trch nhim ch yu trong dn nhit: K rt nh so vi K.phonon vn chuyn nng lng nhit khng hiu qu nh in t t do,do phonon b tn x rt mnh bi khuyt tt mng. - dn in ca 1 s vt liu gm nm trong khong 2->50W/m.K nhit phng .Thy tinh v cc gm v nh hnh khc c dn in thp hn gm tinh th v tn x phonon mnh hn nhiu khi cu trc nguyn t c mc khng trt t cao. -Tn x ca cc dao ng nhit tr nn ni bt hn khi nhit tng.Do vy, dn nhit ca a s vt liu gm bnh thng u gim dn dn khi nhit tng,t nht l nhit tng i thp. -L xp trong vt liu gm c th gy nh hng mnh n dn nhit trong a s trng hp,s tng th tch l xp lm gim dn nhit.Trong thc t:nhiu gm s

dng lm vt liu cch nhit u c xp cao.S truyn nhit qua cc l xp l chm v khng c hiu qu.Cc l xp bn trong cn cha khng kh,kh ny c dn nhit cc k thp,khong 0,02W/m.K.Hn na s i lu kh trong cc l xp cng khng c hiu qu ng k.

Cu 20: Nu c im ca vt liu t cng. Vt liu t cng l vt liu st t, kh kh t v kh t ha. ngha ca tnh t cng y chnh l thuc tnh t kh kh t v kh b t ha, ch ko xut pht t c tnh ca vt liu t. -N l vt liu c pht hin v s dng ln nht trong lich s loi ngi . Cc vt liu t cng thng phm dng ch to nam chm vnh cu xut hin ln u tin vo nhng nm 1740-1750 chu u v s pht trin mnh t cui tk19 u th k 20 n nay. -Vt liu t cng c nhiu c trng t hc, s ph thuc ca tnh cht t vo nhit , bn, chng mi mn..di y lit k mt s c trng quan trng. -Lc khng t. Lc khng t k hiu l Hc l lng quan trng c trng cho tnh t cng ca vt liu t cng.v vy vt liu t cng l kh t ha v kh kh t, nn c lc khng t cao. iu kin ti thiu l trn 100 0e, nhng vt liu t cng ph bin thng c lc khng t t ngn Oe tr nn. Ngun gc ca lc khng t ln trong cc vt liu t cng ch yu lin quan n d hng t tinh th trong vt liu. Cc vt liu t cng thng c cu trc tinh th c tnh i xng km hn so vi cc vt liu t mm v chng c d hng t tinh th rt ln. C th lin h cng tng i ca vt liu vi tich s Br*Hc. N bng khong 2 ln nng lng ph hy t ha mt n v th tich vt liu. Vt liu c nng lng cng cao nu tch Br*Hc cng ln. -Tnh nng lng t cc i L i lng c trng cho mnh yu ca vt t, c c trng bi nng lng t cc i c th tn ti trong mt n v th tich vt t.i lng ny c c n v l n v mt nng lng J /m^3 -Nhit kurie y l nhit m ti vt liu b mt t tnh, tr thnh cht thut t. Mt s vt liu t cng c dng trong cc nam chm hot ng nhit cao nn n i hi nhit crrie rt cao. Loi vt liu t cng c nhit curie rt cao hin nay l nhm cc vt liu trn nn SmCo c nhit curie t 500-1000 c -ng dng vt liu t cng c th dng ch to cc nan chm vnh cu hoc c s dng lm vt liu ghi t trong cc a cng, cc bng t Cu 21: Anh (ch) hy nu tnh cht dn in ca polymer.

- Phn ln cc vt liu polyme u dn in km v ko th c nhiu in t t do tham gia vo qu trnh dn in -C ch dn in phc tp Cc polyme dn in: - Vt liu polyme c dn in ngang vi lim loi c gi l cc polyme dn in, trong cc vt liu ny t n cao l 1,5.107 (.m)-1 - C th thy nhiu polyme l polyxetylen,polyparaphenylen,polypyrol vafplyanilin c pha vi cc ph gia thch hp - Cc polyme ny c th k ch to theo loi n hoc loi p - Polyme tinh khit cao c c trng cu trc vng in t ca cc cht cch in - C ch sn sinh ra s lng ln in t t do v l trng trong cc polyme ny rt phc tp, khng th gii thch r rng. ng dng: Nhng polyme ny c u th trong ng dng do chng c trng lng ring thp, do cao v d ch to v d nh ch to pin ti sinh vi in cc polyme, lm dy dn trong cc cu kin hng khng v v tr, che ph chng nhiu in cho qun o, vt liu mu chn in t v linh kin in t. Cu 22: Th no l cht phn st t, feri t. Nu c im ca chng. Phn st t : l nhm cc vt liu t c trt t t m trong cu trc gm c 2 phn mng t i song song v cn bng nhau v mt gi tr. C ch ca tnh phn st t -Vt liu phn st t c lit vo nhm vt liu c trt t t. - Vt liu phn st t l vt liu phi t bi t tnh ca chng cng yu. -Tnh cht phn st t bt ngun t tng tc trao i gia cc spin - Phn st t l tng tc trao i m, lm cho cc spin phn song song vi nhau. Cc tnh cht c bn - khng tuyt i (0 Kelvin), cc spin ca vt liu phn st t sp xp i song song nhau nn t . - Nhit tng dn dn n vic ph v trt t t kiu phn song song lm tng t ha (v cm t, ) ca vt liu phn st t. - T trng ngoi cng l nguyn nhn ph v trt t phn song song ca vt liu. Feri t Feri t :l tn gi chung ca nhm cc vt liu c trt t t m trong cu trc t ca n gm 2 phn mng i song song nhng c ln khc nhau. Ferri t cn c gi l phn st t b tr khng hon ton. Cu trc ca feri t Feri t t c tn gi xut pht t nhm vt liu ferrite ,l nhm cc vt liu gm c cng thc ha hc chung l: XO.Y2O3 + X l mt kim loi ha tr 2, + Y l kim loi ha tr 3 . n v ca mt ferrite s cha 32 anion v 24 cation. 8 cation v tr A (to thnh phn mng t A) s b bao quanh bi 4 in xi theo dng cc t din v 16 cation cn l v tr

B (phn mng t B) b bao quanh bi 6 ion xi bi mng bt din. y l nhm ferrite c tn gi chung l ferrite spinel , thng mang cu trc lp phng tm mt. Mt s nhm ferrite khc c thnh phn phc tp hn mang cu trc lc gic Tnh cht ca feri t - Feri t c 2 phn mng t b tr khng hon ton, nn n c t t pht v t ny c b tr t mmen t ca 2 phn mng: .MA (1 ).MB +MA, MB ln lt l mmen t ca 2 phn mng A v B, + l t phn gia 2 phn mng. -Nhn chung, tnh cht t ca feri t gn ging vi st t, - im khc bit c bn nht l do n c 2 phn mng ngc chiu - C mt nhit m ti mmen t t pht ca 2 phn mng b b tr nhau gi l "nhit b tr". - Nhit b tr thp hn nhit Curie (i khi nhit Curie ca feri t cng c gi l nhit Nel, trn nhit Curie cht b mt trt t t v tr thnh thun t Cu 23. Th no l vt liu t mm, nu tnh cht, c im ca vt liu t mm. Vt liu t mm l vt liu st t, "mm" v phng din t ha v kh t, c ngha l d t ha v d kh t. - Tnh cht Vt liu p in c t trng bo ha v t ha ch ph thuc vo thnh phn ca vt liu. H s t ha v kh t ca Hc li ph thuc vo cu trc ca vt liu ch khng phi thnh phn ca vt liu. Tn hao nng lng t ph thuc vo in tr sut v n th l nghch vi in tr sut. - c im C t thm cao C kh t thp. c tn hao nng lng t tr thp. d b t ha. Cu 24. Anh (ch) hy trnh by tnh cht st in v p in ca vt liu. nhm vt liu mang tnh phn cc t pht tc l phn cc ngay c khi vng mt in trng c gi l vt liu st in.Tnh cht: trong cc vt liu st in, c tn ti mmen lng cc in ca cc nguyn t, Mmen lng cc in trong cht st in c ln cao, ng thi c tng tc vi nhau nn to ra s khc bit so vi cc cht st in khc. phn cc c xc nh l mt ca mmen lng cc in trong mt n v th tch. phn cc tng theo gi tr ca in trng ngoi theo mt hm phi tuyn tnh, ph thuc vo in trng ngoi, hng s in mi. cc cht st in, hng s in mi c gi tr rt ln, v ph thuc vo gi tr ca in trng.

Trong vt liu st in c s phn chia thnh cc men st in. Trong mi men st in, cc mmen lng cc sp xp hon ton song song vi nhau. Trn ton vt, phn cc trong nhiu men c th nh hng hn lon nhau. p in l hin tng khi lc ngoi tc dng ln 1 mu cht th s phn cc sinh ra v mt in trng c thit lp trong mu.Tnh cht: - Khi o du ca lc ngoi (tc l ko chuyn sang nn) th chiu ca in trng cng thay i theo. - Vt liu p in c 2 hiu ng thun v nghch. - Vt liu p in ph thuc vo lc ngoi tc dng. nu lc ngoi tc dng l mt in trng th n bin i hnh dng.khi lc ngoi tc dng l mt lc c hc th n to ra dng in.
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Cu 25:nh hng ca nhit ln tnh cht t ca vt liu +Khi tng nhit ,dao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t trong vt rn s tng,cc mmen t nguyn t s quay d dng.Do khi nhit tng,chuyn ng nhit ca cc nguyn t dn ti s nh hng hn lon ca mi mmen t. +i vi cc vt liu st t phn st t v feri t,chuyn ng nhit chng li lc tng tc ghp gia cc mmen lng cc nguyn t gy ra s xp hng lm ln ca cc lng cc,k c khi c t trng ngoi.Do t bo ha ca cht st t v feri t u gim.T ba ha s cc i nhit 0K v khi dao ng nhit l cc tiu.Khi tng nhit t bo ha gim dn v sau tt mnh ti ko nhit Curie T. nhit Tc lc ghp spin vi nhau mt tc dng v khi nhit cao hn Tc vt liu st t v feri t u tr thnh thun t.Nhit Curie thay i theo vt liu.V d:st,cban,niken v Fe3O4 c gi tr tng ng l:768,1120,335,v 585C +Tnh phn st t cng ph thuc nhit ,n bin mt nhit Neel.Cao hn nhit ny vt liu phn st t cng tr thnh thun t. Cu 26. Anh (ch) hy nu ng dng ca vt liu t trong l tr. Khi tng nhit dao ng ca cc nguyn t trong vt rn s tng, cc momen t nguyn t s quay d dng. Do khi nhit tng chuyn ng nhit ca cc nguyn t dn ti s nh hng hn lon ca mnmen t. i vi cc vt liu st t, phn st t, v feri chuyn ng nhiu nguyn t chng li lc tng tc ghp gia cc monen lng cc nguyn t gy ra s xp hng lm ln ca cc lng cc, k c khi c t trng ngoi. Do t bo ha ca cht st t v feri u gim. khi nhit tng t bo ha gim dn v sau tt mnh ti khng nhit CurieTe. nhit Te lc ghp spin vi nhau mt tc dng v khi nhit cao hn Te vt liu st t v feri t u tr thnh thun t. tnh st t cng ph thuc vo nhit ; n bin mt nhit Neel. Cao hn nhit ny th cc vt liu phn st t cng tr thnh thun t. Cu 27 Th no l cht thun t, nghch t. Nu c im ca chng

 Cc cht nghch t: c cu to t mt loi phn t khng c t tnh. Khi t vo t trng ngoi trong cc phn t s xut hin dng in ph v to ra t trng ph ngc chiu t trng ngoi (v vy c tn l cht nghch t).Do cm ng t tng cng nh hn cm ng t ca t trng ngoi (<1). Thun t: l nhng cht c t tnh yu (trong ngnh t hc xp vo nhm phi t, c ngha l cht khng c t tnh). Tnh cht thun t th hin kh nng hng ng thun theo t trng ngoi, c ngha l cc cht ny c mmen t nguyn t (nhng gi tr nh), khi c tc dng ca t trng ngoi, cc mmen t ny s b quay theo t trng ngoi, lm cho cm ng t tng cng trong cht tng ln. c im: Thun t v nghch t c xp vo nhm cc cht phi t, hoc nhm khng c trt t t. t thm ca cc cht thun t l ln hn 1 nhng xp x 1 (ch trnh lch c 10-6). T tnh yu ca thun t do hai yu t em li: - Mmen t nguyn t - Cc mmen t nguyn t ny nh v hon ton khng tng tc vi nhau. Cc cht thun t in hnh l: xi, nhm... Cu 28: Nhit dung l g. Trnh by ngun gc ca nhit dung v s ph thuc ca nhit dung theo nhit . Nhit dung cho bit kh nng ca vt liu hp th nhit t bn ngoi, n biu th phn nng lng cn thit nng nhit ln 1 n v. Bng ngn ng ton hc, nhit dung C c vit nh sau:

dQ: nng lng cn gy ra bin thin nhit dT Thng thng nhit dung c tnh theo mol ca vt liu(chng hn J/mol.K hoc cal/mol.K). Nhit dung ring (thng k hiu bng ch c) l nhit dung ca 1 n v khi lng vt liu c n v J/kg.K hoc cal/g.K. Trong thc t c 2 cch o nhit dung ca vt liu tng ng vi cc iu kin mi trng km theo s truyn nhit. Mt l nhit dung ng tch Cv (th tch mu c gi khng i) v hai l nhit dung ng p Cp lun lun ln hn Cv. Tuy nhin s khc nhau gia chng l rt t i vi a s cc vt liu rn nhit phng v thp hn. S ph thuc nhit ca nhit dung Bin thin theo nhit ca nhit dung theo ng tch ca nhiu cht rn tinh th tng i n gin.Cv bng 0 OK nhng tng ln nhanh theo nhit . iu ny tng ng vi kh nng ca cc sng mng nng cao nng lng trung bnh ca mnh. Kh nng ny c tng ln theo nhit . cc nhit thp mi quan h gia Cv v nhit T l: Cv=A T3 Trong A l hng s khng ph thuc nhit . trn nhit d gi l nhit Debye. Cv hu nh khng cn ph thuc nhit na, cn gi tr vo

khong 3R, R l hng s kh. i vi nhiu vt liu rn, gi tr ca d xp x nhit phng, v gi tr gn ng hp l ca Cv nhit phng l 15 J/mol.K