TRNG I HC KHOA HC HU

KHOA HA

Gio trnh

HA HC MI TRNG
(ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY)

ThS. HONG THI LONG

Hu 2008

MC LC
MC LC ................................................................................................................................. 1
DANH MC HNH .................................................................................................................. 4
DANH MC BNG ................................................................................................................. 6
1.

M U ...................................................................................................................... 7

1.1. Mt s khi nim ........................................................................................................................................ 7

1.1.1. Mi trng .......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.2. Ha hc mi trng ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.3. nhim mi trng ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.4. Cht gy nhim ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.5. ng i ca cht gy nhim (pollutant pathways) ........................................................................ 7
1.2. Cu trc v cc thnh phn mi trng ca Tri t .................................................................................. 8
1.2.1. Cu trc ca Tri t.......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2. Thnh phn mi trng ca Tri t................................................................................................ 11
1.3. Qu trnh pht trin ca s sng trn Tri t ........................................................................................... 12
1.4. Chu trnh a ha....................................................................................................................................... 13
Cu hi ............................................................................................................................................................. 15

2.

KH QUYN V S NHIM KH QUYN ....................................................... 16

2.1. Cu trc ca kh quyn ............................................................................................................................. 16

2.1.1. Tng i lu ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.2. Tng bnh lu .................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1.3. Tng trung lu .................................................................................................................................. 18
2.1.4. Tng nhit lu ................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2. S hnh thnh v thnh phn ca kh quyn.............................................................................................. 18
2.2.1. S hnh thnh kh quyn.................................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2. Thnh phn ca kh quyn ................................................................................................................ 19
2.3. Cc phn ng ca oxy trong kh quyn ..................................................................................................... 21
2.4. nhim khng kh.................................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.1. Sulfua dioxit (SO2) ............................................................................................................................ 26
2.4.2. Cc oxit ca nit ............................................................................................................................... 29
2.4.3. Cc oxit cacbon ................................................................................................................................ 32
2.4.4. Hydrocacbon..................................................................................................................................... 34
2.4.4.1. Mtan (CH4) ............................................................................................................................................... 34
2.4.4.2. Cc hydrocacbon khc mtan (non-methane hydrocarbonsNMHCs) ....................................................... 34
2.4.4.3. Cc dn xut halogen ca hydrocacbon...................................................................................................... 35

2.4.5. Cc ht l lng trong tng i lu ................................................................................................... 37

2.4.5.1. Mui than (soot) ......................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4.5.2. Cc ht hp cht ch ................................................................................................................................... 38
2.4.5.3. Tro bay (fly ash) ......................................................................................................................................... 38
2.4.5.4. Aming (asbestos) ...................................................................................................................................... 38
2.4.5.5. Bin php gim thiu nhim do ht cht rn l lng ............................................................................... 39

2.5. Tc ng tng hp ca cc cht nhim khng kh ................................................................................. 41

2.5.1. Hiu ng nh knh............................................................................................................................. 41
2.5.2. S suy gim nng ozon trong tng bnh lu ................................................................................ 43
2.5.2.1. Tng ozon ................................................................................................................................................... 43
2.5.2.2. Cc phn ng to thnh v phn hy ozon trong tng bnh lu .................................................................. 43
2.5.2.3. S suy gim nng ozon trong tng bnh lu .......................................................................................... 44

2.5.3. Sng khi (smog) ............................................................................................................................ 46

2.5.3.1. Sng khi kiu London ............................................................................................................................ 46
2.5.3.2. Sng khi kiu Los Angeles .................................................................................................................... 47

2.5.4. Ma axit ............................................................................................................................................ 49

Cu hi ............................................................................................................................................................. 51

3 . THY QUYN V NHIM MI TRNG NC ............................................. 52

2
3.1. Ti nguyn nc v chu trnh nc .......................................................................................................... 52
3.2. Thnh phn ca nc t nhin .................................................................................................................. 53
3.2.1. Cc kh ha tan ................................................................................................................................. 53
3.2.2. Cht rn ............................................................................................................................................ 53
3.2.2.1. Cht rn l lng v cht rn ha tan ........................................................................................................... 53
3.2.2.2. Cc cht v c ha tan................................................................................................................................ 55
3.2.2.3. Cc cht hu c .......................................................................................................................................... 57

3.2.3. Thnh phn sinh hc ca nc t nhin ........................................................................................... 58

3.3. Vai tr ca vi sinh vt trong cc chuyn ha ha hc ca mi trng nc............................................. 59
3.3.1. Phn ng chuyn ha cacbon ........................................................................................................... 59
3.3.2. Phn ng chuyn ha nit ................................................................................................................ 60
3.3.3. Phn ng chuyn ha lu hunh....................................................................................................... 61
3.3.4. Phn ng chuyn ha photpho ......................................................................................................... 61
3.3.5. Phn ng chuyn ha st .................................................................................................................. 61
3.5.6. Phn ng chuyn ha halogen v cc hp cht hu c cha halogen ............................................. 62
3.4. S to phc trong nc t nhin v nc thi .......................................................................................... 62
3.5. nhim mi trng nc ......................................................................................................................... 64
3.5.1. Cc ngun gy nhim nc ........................................................................................................... 64
3.5.2. Cc tc nhn gy nhim nc........................................................................................................ 66
3.5.2.1. Cc ion v c ha tan ................................................................................................................................. 66
3.5.2.2. Cc cht hu c .......................................................................................................................................... 71
3.5.2.3. Du m ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
3.5.2.4. Cc cht c mu ......................................................................................................................................... 78
3.5.2.5. Cc cht gy mi v .................................................................................................................................... 78
3.5.2.6. Cc vi sinh vt gy bnh (pathogens) ......................................................................................................... 78

3.5.3. Cc yu cu v cht lng nc Tiu chun cht lng nc ...................................................... 80

3.6. X l nc thi ......................................................................................................................................... 83
3.6.1. Cc phng php sinh hc x l nc thi.................................................................................. 83
3.6.1.1. Cc phng php hiu kh .......................................................................................................................... 83
3.6.1.2. Cc phng php k kh............................................................................................................................. 85
3.6.1.3. Mt s phng php x l sinh hc thng dng khc ................................................................................ 86

3.6.2. Cc phng php c l ha hc x l nc thi ...................................................................... 87

3.6.2.1. Phng php lng v keo t ....................................................................................................................... 87
3.6.2.2. Phng php hp ph ................................................................................................................................. 87
3.6.2.3. Phng php trung ha .............................................................................................................................. 87
3.6.2.4. Phng php oxy ha ................................................................................................................................. 88

Cu hi ............................................................................................................................................................. 88

4 . A QUYN V NHIM MI TRNG T ..................................................... 89

4.1. Khi nim v t ....................................................................................................................................... 89
4.2. Bn cht v thnh phn ca t ................................................................................................................. 89
4.2.1. Cc thnh phn v c ca t .......................................................................................................... 90
4.2.2. Cc thnh phn hu c ca t ........................................................................................................ 91
4.3. Nc v khng kh trong t .................................................................................................................... 93
4.3.1. Nc trong t .................................................................................................................................. 93
4.3.2. Khng kh trong t .......................................................................................................................... 94
4.4. Dch t ..................................................................................................................................................... 94
4.5. Phn ng axit-baz v phn ng trao i ion trong t ............................................................................ 94
4.5.1. S to thnh axit v c trong t ...................................................................................................... 94
4.5.2. iu chnh axit ca t ................................................................................................................ 95
4.5.3. Cn bng trao i ion trong t ....................................................................................................... 95
4.6. Cht dinh dng vi lng v a lng trong t ...................................................................................... 96
4.6.1. Cht dinh dng a lng ................................................................................................................ 96
4.6.1.1. Nit ............................................................................................................................................................ 97
4.6.1.2. Photpho ...................................................................................................................................................... 98
4.6.1.3. Kali ............................................................................................................................................................. 98

4.6.2. Cht dinh dng vi lng ................................................................................................................. 98

4.7. S xi mn v thoi ha t.................................................................................................................... 100
4.7.1. Xi mn t ..................................................................................................................................... 100
4.7.2. Sa mc ha ...................................................................................................................................... 100
4.7.3. t v ti nguyn nc ................................................................................................................... 101
4.8. nhim mi trng t .......................................................................................................................... 101

3
4.8.1. nh hng ca hot ng nng nghip .......................................................................................... 101
4.8.1.1. S dng phn bn ..................................................................................................................................... 101
4.8.1.2. S dng ha cht bo v thc vt ............................................................................................................. 101
4.8.1.3. Ch ti tiu ........................................................................................................................................ 102

4.8.2. nh hng ca hot ng sinh hot v cng nghip ...................................................................... 103

4.8.3. Mt s phng php x l t b nhim....................................................................................... 104
4.8.3.1. X l ti ch (in-situ) ............................................................................................................................... 104
4.8.3.2. X l t b nhim sau khi bc khi v tr......................................................................................... 105

Cu hi ........................................................................................................................................................... 106

5 . HA CHT C TRONG MI TRNG ............................................................. 107

5.1. Ha cht c trong mi trng ............................................................................................................... 107
5.2. c hc mi trng ................................................................................................................................ 107
5.3. Tnh bn vng ca c cht trong mi trng ........................................................................................ 109
5.3.1. Phn hy phi sinh hc..................................................................................................................... 109
5.3.2. Phn hy sinh hc ........................................................................................................................... 110
5.3.3. Qu trnh suy gim nng khng do phn hy ............................................................................ 110
5.4. Tch ly sinh hc..................................................................................................................................... 111
5.4.1. Tch ly sinh hc ............................................................................................................................. 111
5.4.2. Nhng yu t nh hng n s tch ly sinh hc .......................................................................... 112
5.5. c tnh .................................................................................................................................................. 113
5.5.1. c cp tnh ............................................................................................................................... 113
5.5.2. C ch gy c cp tnh.................................................................................................................. 114
5.5.3. c mn tnh.............................................................................................................................. 115
5.6. Tc dng c hi ca mt s cht ........................................................................................................... 116
5.6.1. Ha cht bo v thc vt ................................................................................................................ 116
5.6.1.1. Tc dng c hi ca thuc tr su c clo................................................................................................ 116
5.6.1.2. Tc dng c hi ca thuc tr su c photpho v cacbamat ................................................................... 118
5.6.1.3. Tc dng c hi ca metyl izocyanat (MIC)........................................................................................... 119

5.6.2. Kim loi .......................................................................................................................................... 119

5.6.2.1. Cc c ch gy c ph bin v b phn c th b tn hi ....................................................................... 120
5.6.2.2. Tc dng c hi ca asen ........................................................................................................................ 121
5.6.2.3. Tc dng c hi ca cadmi ..................................................................................................................... 123
5.6.2.4. Tc dng c hi ca ch .......................................................................................................................... 123
5.6.2.5. Tc dng c hi ca thy ngn ............................................................................................................... 124

5.6.3. Tc dng c hi ca mt s cht c khc ................................................................................... 127

5.6.3.1. Tc dng c hi ca cacbon monooxit (CO) .......................................................................................... 127
5.6.3.2. Tc dng c hi ca cc oxit nit (NOx) ................................................................................................ 127
5.6.3.3. Tc dng c hi ca kh sunfur (SO2)................................................................................................... 128
5.6.3.4. Tc dng c hi ca ozon v PAN ......................................................................................................... 128
5.6.3.5. Tc dng c hi ca cyanua (CN) ......................................................................................................... 128
5.6.3.6. Cc cht gy ung th (carcinogens).......................................................................................................... 129

Cu hi ........................................................................................................................................................... 133

TI LIU THAM KHO ................................................................................................... 134

DANH MC HNH
Hnh 1.1.
Hnh 1.2.
Hnh 1.3.
Hnh 1.4.
Hnh 1.5.
Hnh 1.6.
Hnh 2.1.
Hnh 2.2.
Hnh 2.3.
Hnh 2.4.
Hnh 2.5.
Hnh 2.6.
Hnh 2.7.
Hnh 2.8.
Hnh 2.9.
Hnh 2.10.
Hnh 2.11.
Hnh 2.12.
Hnh 2.13.
Hnh 2.14.
Hnh 2.15.
Hnh 2.16.
Hnh 2.17.
Hnh 2.18.
Hnh 2.19.
Hnh 2.20.
Hnh 2.21.
Hnh 2.22.
Hnh 2.23.
Hnh 2.24.
Hnh 3.1.
Hnh 3.2.
Hnh 3.3.
Hnh 3.4.
Hnh 3.5.
Hnh 3.6.
Hnh 3.7.
Hnh 3.8.
Hnh 3.9.
Hnh 3.10.
Hnh 3.11.

Hnh 3.12.
Hnh 3.13.
Hnh 3.14.

Cu trc ca Tri t [17] ........................................................................................ 8

Mt ct ngang ca b mt Tri t [17] ................................................................... 9
Cc mng lc a chnh [7] .................................................................................... 10
S dch chuyn ca cc mng lc a [17] ............................................................ 10
Hai dng t bo Prokaryote v Eukaryote [19] ...................................................... 13
M hnh tng qut ca chu trnh a ha [17]........................................................ 14
Cc thnh phn ca kh quyn [15] ....................................................................... 16
S thay i nhit theo cao trong kh quyn [8] ............................................ 17
Trao i oxy gia kh quyn, a quyn, thy quyn v sinh quyn [15] ............. 21
Cu trc ca (a) pyrrole, (b) mt vng porphyrin, (c) chlorophyll ........................ 23
Vai tr ca ATP v NADPH trong cc phn ng quang hp [17] ........................ 24
Cc ngun gy nhim kh quyn t nhin v nhn to ....................................... 26
Nng (trung bnh 1 gi) hng ngy ca cc cht nhim Los Angeles, USA [8] 30
Cc chuyn ha ha hc ch yu ca NOx trong tng i lu [7] ......................... 31
Cc phn ng oxy ha mtan ch yu khi c mt NOx trong tng i lu vo ban
ngy (xy ra trong c khng kh sch ln khng kh b nhim) [7] .................... 34
(a) pyren; (b): benzopyren ..................................................................................... 37
Kim tra bi aming trong cc cng trnh xy dng [18] ...................................... 38
Thit b lng qun tnh (cyclon) [12] ..................................................................... 39
Thit b lc bi bng ti vi [15] ........................................................................... 40
Thit b lc bi Venturi [15] .................................................................................. 40
S nguyn tc lc bi tnh in [15] ................................................................. 41
Hiu ng nh knh.................................................................................................. 42
S m t lc xoy hnh thnh vo ma ng Nam cc [17]......................... 45
L thng ln nht ca tng ozon Nam cc ghi nhn c (21-30/9/2006) [28] 46
Sng khi nm 1952 ti London [26] .................................................................. 47
iu kin v s to thnh sng khi quang ha [17] .......................................... 48
(A) Cc phn ng to thnh sng khi; (B) Cc phn ng to thnh PAN [8] ... 48
Sng khi ti Los Angeles [27] ........................................................................... 49
Ma axit hy hoi rng cy dy ni Blue Ridge, North Carolina [29] .............. 50
Ma axit n mn tng vi [25] ....................................................................... 50
Chu trnh nc [12] ............................................................................................... 52
S xc nh v quan h gia cht rn l lng v cht rn ha tan [16] ............ 54
Chu trnh Nit [8] .................................................................................................. 60
Cng thc cu to d on ca axit fulvic [8] ....................................................... 63
S tch chit cc hp cht humic t xc thc vt phn hy ........................ 63
Cc kiu to phc ca hp cht humic vi ion kim loi [8] .................................. 63
Tr em d tt do nh hng ca v nhim c thy ngn Minamata [23] .......... 70
Cng thc cu to ca cc hp cht DDT, DDD, DDE......................................... 72
Cng thc cu to ca mt s ha cht bo v thc vt thng dng ..................... 73
Cng thc cu to ca cc nhm dioxin v cht dioxin (TCDD) .......................... 74
Cu trc ca phn t biphenyl
(mi v tr c nh s c th c mt nguyn t clo th vo to thnh cc phn t
PCB)....................................................................................................................... 75
Chrysence v benzo(a)pyrene l cc hp cht thuc nhm PAHs ........................ 75
S h x l nc thi theo k thut bn hot ha ............................................ 84
B lc nh git x l nc thi th [20] ....................................................... 84

5
Hnh 3.15.
Hnh 3.16.
Hnh 4.1.
Hnh 4.2.
Hnh 4.3.
Hnh 5.1.
Hnh 5.2.
Hnh 5.3.
Hnh 5.4.
Hnh 5.5.
Hnh 5.6.
Hnh 5.7.
Hnh 5.8.
Hnh 5.9.

S h thng UASB............................................................................................ 85
S biu din hot ng ca ao ty nghi [12] .................................................... 86
Cc tng t ........................................................................................................... 90
S chuyn ha ca nit trong t .......................................................................... 97
Mui tch t trn b mt t mt vng canh tc [21]........................................ 103
nh hng ca nng (quang phn) v ma (thy phn)
n s phn hy ca parathion ............................................................................ 110
Tng quan gia hm lng cht bo trong c th ca nhiu loi ng vt h
Ontario (thuc Ng i H) v hm lng PCBs trong ton b c th [10] ...... 112
S tch ly DDT qua chui thc n trong mi trng nc [8] .......................... 118
Qu trnh nhp bo (endocytosis) v qu trnh xut bo (exocytosis) ................. 120
Nhim c asen gy hoi t bn tay v mt ngn tay [30] .................................. 121
Cng thc cu to ca ALAdehydraza enzim v porphobilinogen ................... 124
Phc chelat ca ch vi cc cht chng c......................................................... 124
Bn tay b bin dng ca nn nhn b ng c Hg Minamata [22] .................. 125
S khuch i sinh hc ca thy ngn trong chui thc n [8] ........................... 126

DANH MC BNG
Bng 1.1. Cc nguyn t chnh trong cc phn cu trc ca Tri t [17] .............................. 9
Bng 1.2. 10 nguyn t ha hc trong v tr, Tri t, v Tri t, i dng, kh quyn
(khng kh kh) v sinh quyn (% khi lng) [17] ............................................. 11
Bng 2.1. Thnh phn chnh ca khng kh kh tng i lu [7] ...................................... 20
Bng 2.2. Cc cht kh c hm lng thp trong khng kh kh tng i lu [15] ........... 20
Bng 2.3. Thi gian lu ca mt s cht gy nhim kh quyn [7] .................................... 26
Bng 2.4. Mt s nh hng ca SO2 i vi con ngi [7]................................................. 27
Bng 2.5. So snh kh nng hp th bc x ca cc kh nh knh [7] ................................... 42
Bng 2.6. So snh s ng gp vo hiu ng nh knh ca cc kh nh knh [7] ................. 43
Bng 3.1. S phn b ti nguyn nc ton cu [12] ............................................................ 52
Bng 3.2. Thnh phn ha hc trung bnh ca nc sng h v nc bin ton cu [5] ...... 55
Bng 3.3. Ti lng tc nhn nhim do con ngi a vo mi trng hng ngy [5] ..... 65
Bng 3.4. Mt s nguyn t vi lng quan trng trong nc t nhin [15] .......................... 68
Bng 3.5. Nng ti a cho php ca mt s kim loi nng trong cc loi nc
theo Tiu chun Vit Nam v mi trng ............................................................. 69
Bng 3.6. Gi tr gii hn cho php ca cc thng s v nng cc cht nhim
trong nc mt (TCVN 59421995) ..................................................................... 81
Bng 3.7. Gi tr gii hn cho php v cc thng s v nng cht nhim
trong nc thi cng nghip (TCVN 5945 -1995) ................................................ 82
Bng 4.1. Hm lng cc nguyn t ha hc trong v t ( w/w) [6] .......................... 91
Bng 4.2. Cc loi hp cht hu c chnh trong t [15] ...................................................... 92
Bng 5.1. Cc nguyn t c hi trong nc thin nhin v nc thi [8] ......................... 108
Bng 5.2. Thi gian bn hy ca mt s ha cht c bn vng trong mi trng [10] .... 109
Bng 5.3. Tch ly sinh hc trong c ca mt s cht gy nhim [10] ............................. 111
Bng 5.4. Gi tr phn tch v gi tr tnh ton ca h s tch ly sinh hc trong c
ca mt s ha cht c kh nng chuyn ha sinh hc khc nhau ...................... 113
Bng 5.5. Phn loi c theo Hodge & Sterner [24] ...................................................... 114
Bng 5.6. Phn loi c (liu c qua ng n ung c th gy cht ngi)
theo Gosselin, Smith & Hodge [24] .................................................................... 114
Bng 5.7. Phn loi c cp tnh ca ha cht c i vi c v ng vt [10] ............ 114
Bng 5.8. c cp tnh v c mn tnh ca mt s loi thuc tr su
xc nh trong phng th nghim trn cc loi c [10] ........................................ 116
Bng 5.9. c tnh ha hc v sinh ha ca thy ngn v cc hp cht ca n [8] ............ 126
Bng 5.10. nh hng c hi ca CO i vi con ngi cc nng khc nhau [8] ..... 127
Bng 5.11. nh hng c hi ca NO2 vi con ngi cc nng khc nhau [8].......... 127
Bng 5.12. Phn loi cc cht gy ung th theo IARC v EPA [10] .................................... 130
Bng 5.13. Danh mc cc tc nhn, cht, hn hp cht gy ung th ngi
v ngnh ngh c nguy c b phi nhim [10] .................................................... 130

1.

M U

1.1. Mt s khi nim

1.1.1. Mi trng
Mi trng l tng hp nhng iu kin bn ngoi c nh hng n i sng v s
pht trin ca mi sinh vt.
i vi con ngi, mi trng sng l tng hp cc iu kin vt l, ha hc, kinh t
x hi c nh hng n s sng v pht trin ca tng c nhn, ca cng ng con ngi.
Mi trng sng ca con ngi l c v tr, trong h Mt tri v Tri t c nh hng
trc tip v r rt nht.
nh gi cht lng mi trng, ngi ta thng o c, phn tch v so snh cc
thng s cht lng mi trng vi cc tiu chun v cht lng mi trng do tng quc gia
hay cc t chc quc t a ra.
1.1.2. Ha hc mi trng
Ha hc mi trng l mn khoa hc nghin cu cc hin tng ha hc xy ra trong
mi trng.
Ni cch khc, ha hc mi trng nghin cu cc ngun, cc phn ng, s vn
chuyn, hiu ng v s tn ti ca cc cht ha hc trong khng kh, nc, t, v nh hng
ca cc hot ng ca con ngi n cc qu trnh ny.
Nh vy, ha hc mi trng l mn hc a ngnh lin quan trc tip n cc ngnh
ha hc, vt l, sinh hc, a cht hc, nng hc, y hc,... Cc kin thc v ha hc mi
trng khng nhng ch cn thit cho cc nh ha hc, m cn rt cn thit cho c nhng nh
nghin cu mi trng, k thut v qun l.
1.1.3. nhim mi trng
nhim mi trng l cc thay i khng mong mun v tnh cht vt l, ha hc,
sinh hc ca khng kh, nc hay t c th gy nh hng c hi cho sc khe, s sng,
hot ng ca con ngi hay cc sinh vt khc [13].
Mt nh ngha khc v nhim mi trng, c s dng kh ph bin hin nay cho
rng, nhim mi trng l qu trnh con ngi chuyn vo mi trng cc cht hay dng
nng lng c kh nng gy hi cho sc khe ca con ngi, sinh vt, h sinh thi, hy hoi
cu trc, s hi ha, hoc lm nh hng n cc tc dng li ch vn c ca mi trng [14].
Theo Lut Bo v mi trng Vit Nam, nhim mi trng l s lm thay i tnh
cht ca mi trng, vi phm tiu chun mi trng.
1.1.4. Cht gy nhim
Cht (gy) nhim l nhng cht khng c trong t nhin, hoc vn c trong t nhin
nhng nay c hm lng ln hn v gy tc ng c hi cho mi trng thin nhin, cho con
ngi cng nh cc sinh vt khc.
Cht gy nhim c th c ngun gc t nhin (ni la, chy rng, bo lt,...) hoc do
cc hot ng ca con ngi to ra (hot ng sn xut cng nghip, giao thng vn ti, chin
tranh, sinh hot th,...).
1.1.5. ng i ca cht gy nhim (pollutant pathways)
ng i ca cht gy nhim l c ch pht tn cht gy nhim t ngun pht sinh
n cc b phn ca mi trng. V d: ng i ca ch trong xng du ng c vo c th

8
ngi v gy c hi:
n
g xa kh

Pb(C2H5)4 (xng, du ng c)
PbCl2 + PbBr2 (kh quyn)
Ngi

Thc phm

PbCl2 + PbBr2 (trong t)

1.2. Cu trc v cc thnh phn mi trng ca Tri t

1.2.1. Cu trc ca Tri t
C nhiu gi thit gii thch ngun gc ca h Mt tri ni chung v Tri t ni
ring, song tt c cc gi thit y u ch da trn cc hiu bit rt t i hin nay v h Mt
tri, do cn gy nhiu tranh ci. Nhng bng chng hin c cho thy rng, Tri t l mt
hnh tinh c lp v cng xut hin cch y khong 4,5 t nm, cch Mt tri 150 triu km.
Cu trc chnh ca Tri t (Hnh 1.1) rt t thay i trong 4 t nm gn y.
B dy (Km)

i dng

0
4
10

V lc a
V i dng

60
0 40
V

Lp ph trn

1000
2900
400
5100
6370

Lp ph Ngoi Trong
Vng chuyn tip

Nhn

1000
Lp ph di

Hnh 1.1. Cu trc ca Tri t [17]

Phn v mng bn ngoi ca Tri t, ch chim 1% khi lng ca Tri t, nhng

li ng vai tr rt quan trng i vi s sng v pht trin ca loi ngi.
B mt Tri t khng u, khong 70% b bao ph bi nc vi su trung bnh
khong 4 km (0 11 km). Phn cn li l khi t vi cao trung bnh 0,84 km (0 8,8 km)
trn mt nc bin. Hai phn ba ca khi t ny thuc phn Bc bn cu.
Khi t chnh l lc a c xc nh gii hn khng phi bng b bin, m bng

9
mp phn phng ca y i dng (c th xa b), v vy lc a bao gm c phn thm lc
a. Theo cch xc nh ny th trong nhiu trng hp, cc o ngoi khi vn c th l mt
b phn ca khi t lc a gn chng. Cch xc nh phn lc a ny hon ton ph hp
vi thc t v s khc nhau ca thnh phn lp v lc a v lp v y i dng.
Bng 1.1. Cc nguyn t chnh trong cc phn cu trc ca Tri t [17]
Phn cu trc ca Tri t

Cc nguyn t chnh (theo th t nng gim dn)

Kh quyn

N, O

i dng

O, H (Cl, Na, Mg, S)

trm tch

O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, K, Mg, C, Na

granit t nham thch

O, Si, Al, K, Na, Ca, Fe, Mg

bazan t nham thch

O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg

Lp ph

O, Si, Mg, Fe

Kh quyn

Ni (8,8 km)

Tng bnh lu (35 km)

bao gm tng ozon (15 km)
Tng i lu (15 km)

t thp (trung bnh 0,84 km)

trm tch

Thm lc a
i dng (su trung bnh 4 km)
Vc (11 km)

granit t
nham thch
bazan t
nham thch
Lp ph

20

40

60

80
100
% b mt Tri t b chim

Hnh 1.2. Mt ct ngang ca b mt Tri t [17]

Phn c thm: S chuyn dch ca cc mng lc a

Gi thuyt v hot ng kin to cho rng, lp v cng ca Tri t c to nn
bi 15 mng lc a c kch thc khc nhau lp ghp li, trong c 9 mng chnh.
C mng ch cha phn i dng hoc ch cha phn lc a, nhng a s cc mng
lc a va cha phn i dung, va cha phn lc a.
Di tc ng ca cc dng chuyn dch bn trong lng Tri t, cc mng lc
a lun tri dt trn lp quyn mm (asthenosphere). C 3 kiu chuyn dch tng i
gia cc mng lc a lin nhau.

10
Kiu chuyn dch phn k lm cho cc mng lc a tch xa nhau to nn cc khe
h dung nham t lng t tro ra ngoi, kh c li to thnh cc ngn ni la trn
t lin hay cc dy ni ngm di y i dng. Chuyn dch phn k thng xy ra
phn i dng hn trn lc a.

Hnh 1.3. Cc mng lc a chnh [7]

To ni

Dy ni ngm
i dng

Phn v lc a
Phn v
i dng
Ti nng chy
Vng ln
xung

Phn v
i dng

Hot ng ni la
LP PH

Mng lc a 1

Mng lc a 2

ng bin c
s dch chuyn hi t

Mng lc a 3
ng bin c
s dch chuyn phn k

Hnh 1.4. S dch chuyn ca cc mng lc a [17]

Kiu chuyn dch hi t lm cc mng lc a x p hay trn, trt, chng

ln nhau. Khi mt mng lc a l lc a cn mng kia l i dng th mng i
dng s trt v ln xung bn di mng lc a. Phn ln xung b nng chy, cc
thnh phn vt liu nng chy c khi lng ring nh s di chuyn i ln to ra ni,

11
cc vt liu nng hn s chm xung vo lp ph. Khi hai mng lc a dch chuyn hi
t u l lc a s dn n hin tng dn p cc lp t ln thnh cc dy ni cao
(dy Himalayas, Anpes). Khi mt phn ca mng lc a i dng trt v ln su
xung bn di mng lc a, th mt phn mng lc a mi c hnh thnh t i
dng thay th cc phn mng lc a b mt i.
Kiu chuyn dch trt ca hai mng lc a c th to ra cc vt nt gy trn
mt t hay i dng (v d: vt nt San Andreas chy t thnh ph San Francisco ct
ngang bang California (M) n tn bin gii Mexico).
1.2.2. Thnh phn mi trng ca Tri t
Khi nghin cu, ngi ta thng chia mi trng ca Tri t thnh 4 thnh phn chnh:
kh quyn, thy quyn, a quyn v sinh quyn. Ngoi 4 thnh phn chnh ny, cc nh khoa
hc cn a ra khi nim mi v tr quyn mt thnh phn ca mi trng Tri t.
Kh quyn: l lp kh bao ph xung quanh b mt Tri t, nui dng s sng trn
mt t v bo v chng trc cc tc ng c hi t khong khng v tr.
Kh quyn hp th hu ht cc tia v tr v mt phn ng k bc x in t ca Mt
tri chiu xung Tri t.
Kh quyn ch cho cc bc x c bc sng trong khong 320 n 2500 nm i qua v
ngn chn phn bc x t ngoi c bc sng nh hn 320 nm (phn bc x gy hi da).
Kh quyn ng mt vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh cn bng nhit ca Tri t,
thng qua kh nng hp th bc x hng ngoi ca nh sng Mt tri v phn ti bc x t
Tri t.
Thnh phn chnh ca kh quyn l nit v oxy, ngoi ra cn c argon, cacbonic v
nhiu cht kh khc c nng nh hn rt nhiu.
Bng 1.2. 10 nguyn t ha hc trong v tr, Tri t, v Tri t, i dng, kh quyn
(khng kh kh) v sinh quyn (% khi lng) [17]
V tr

Tri t

V Tri t

i dng

Kh quyn

Sinh quyn

H : 77

Fe : 35

O : 46,6

O : 85,8

N : 75,5

O : 53

He : 21

O : 29

Si : 29,5

H : 11

O : 23,2

C : 39

O : 0,8

Si : 14

Al : 8,2

Cl : 1,94

Ar : 1,3

H : 6,6
3

C : 0,3

Mg : 14

Fe : 5,0

Na : 1,05

C : 9,3 10

Ne : 0,2

S : 2,9

Ca : 3,6

Mg : 0,13

Ne : 1,3 103

Ca : 0,4

Fe : 0,1

Ni : 2,4

Na : 2,8

S : 0,09

Kr : 0,45 103

K : 0,2

Si : 0,07

Ca : 2,1

K : 2,6

Ca : 0,048

He : 72 106

Si : 0,1

N : 0,06

Al : 1,8

Mg : 2,1

K : 0,039

Xe : 40 106

P : 0,1

Mg : 0,06

Na : 0,3

Ti : 0,57

Br : 0,007

H : 23 106

Mg : 0,1

S : 0,04

P : 0,2

H : 0,22

C : 0,003

S : 70 109

S : 0,07

N : 0,5

Thy quyn: bao gm tt c cc ngun nc: i dng, bin, sng, sui, h, bng
cc cc, nc ngm,... Khong 97% lng nc ca thy quyn l nc cc i dng.
Lng nc ngt con ngi c th s dng c (nc sng, h, sui v nc ngm) ch
chim cha n 1% lng nc ca thy quyn.
Nc c con ngi s dng vo cc mc ch chnh sau: nng nghip (30%), nh
my nhit in (50%), cng nghip (12%), sinh hot (7%).

12
Nc b mt (nc mt) ngy cng b nhim do thuc tr su, phn bn trong nc
chy trn t ng rung, do cc cht thi khc ca con ngi, ng vt v sn xut cng nghip.
Cc bnh ly qua ng nc t nc thi th lm cht hng triu ngi cc nc ang
pht trin.
a quyn (thch quyn): l phn v Tri t t mt t n su khong 100 km,
bao gm cc khong cht trong lp phong ha v t (l hn hp phc tp gm cc cht
khong, cht hu c, khng kh v nc).
Sinh quyn: l mt phn ca Tri t v kh quyn c tn ti s sng. Gia sinh
quyn v mi trng c s tc ng qua li ln nhau. Sinh quyn cng c mi quan h cht
ch vi dng nng lng trong mi trng v ha hc mi trng nc.
Tr quyn (noosphere): l khi nim ch cc dng thng tin biu hin rt phc tp
trong sinh quyn m trong pht trin cao nht l tr tu con ngi. Mt cch ngn gn c
th xem tr quyn l quyn ca tr tu loi ngi.
Tr quyn ang thay i nhanh chng v phm vi tc ng ca n ngy cng m rng
k c ngoi phm vi Tri t.

1.3. Qu trnh pht trin ca s sng trn Tri t

Cng nh lch s pht trin ca Tri t, qu trnh pht trin ca s sng trn Tri t
c gii thch da vo cc gi thit. Nhng gi thit ny c xy dng da trn vic nghin
cu cc ha thch tm c.
Cc ha thch c nht tm thy c c tui trn 3 t nm. Cc ha thch ny c
dng tng t vi khun v to ngy nay, tc l cc sinh vt n bo. Cc t bo ny cha c
nhn pht trin hon chnh v c t tn l prokaryotes (sinh vt nhn s) . Qu trnh to
thnh cc prokaryotes cho n nay vn cn l iu b n.
Qu trnh pht trin ca s sng c xem l mt qu trnh tin trin dn dn t cc
phn t v c n gin n cc sinh vt a dng, t n gin n phc tp hin nay. Tt c
cc dng sng u c to thnh t cc hp cht hu c. Cc hp cht ny c th c
to thnh trong t nhin t cc phn t n gin nh, H2O, NH3, CO2, CO, CH4, H2S, H2. Cc
phn t n gin ny c th tn ti trong kh quyn, i dng ca Tri t lc s khai.
Ngi ta suy on rng, t nhiu loi phn t hu c c to thnh, cc h v sinh
(non-living systems) c hnh thnh, tin ha thnh cc sinh vt t sinh tn v sinh sn, sau
cng pht trin thnh cc dng sng phong ph ngy nay.
Cc sinh vt u tin ph thuc vo cc ngun cung cp cc phn t hu c c tng
hp t bn ngoi, v do chng c gi l sinh vt d dng.
Cc sinh vt t dng c kh nng tng hp nn cc phn t hu c cn thit t cc phn
t v c n gin. V cc phn t v c n gin c sn rt nhiu trong kh quyn v i dng so
vi cc phn t hu c, nn cc sinh vt t dng pht trin mnh hn cc sinh vt d dng.
C hai loi sinh vt prokaryotes c th thu nng lng t cc phn ng ln men:
C6H12O6 2C3H4O3
+
4H
glucoz axit pyruvic (kt hp vi cc nhm khc)
Phn ng ln men khng phi l ngun cung cp nng lng tt. Kh nng dng phn
ph kh kin ca bc x Mt tri lm ngun nng lng chuyn ha CO2 thnh cc phn t
hu c, to iu kin thun li cho s pht trin ca loi vi khun quang hp. Cc phn t
nh H2S, hay cc phn t hu c n gin, c th ng vai tr l tc nhn cho hydro:
nCO2

an
h sang
(CH2O)n +
+ 2nH2A
tc nhn cho hydro
cacbohydrat

nH2O + 2nA

13
T , to lam s dng nc ca i dng, nh mt tc nhn cho hydro, pht trin
v to ra sn phm ph l oxy:
anh sang
(CH2O)n + nO2
nCO2 + nH2O
tc nhn cho hydro
cacbohydrat
Oxy to thnh t qu trnh quang hp lm thay i b mt Tri t, ng thi tiu
dit cc sinh vt khng thch ng vi loi kh hot ng ha hc mnh ny.
Khi oxy tch t nhiu trong kh quyn, tng ozon dn hnh thnh tng bnh lu (cch
mt t 15 40 km), hp th tia t ngoi c hi. Lc ny, cc sinh vt c th pht trin
thnh qun th trong vng tip gip ca kh quyn/nc/t v nhu cu phi sinh sng di
nc trnh tc hi ca tia t ngoi khng cn l iu bt buc na. Cc sinh vt bt u
chuyn ln sng trn cn. S c mt ca oxy to iu kin cho nhng bin i thch hp
ca t bo, nhm c th s dng phn ng h hp cung cp nng lng cho s pht
trin. Ngun nng lng thu t phn ng h hp ln hn nng lng thu t phn ng
ln men n 18 ln.
(CH2O)n + nO2 nCO2 + nH2O
cacbohydrat
Cc t chc bn trong t bo lc ny chu nhng thay i mnh m v pht trin. Xut
hin nhn t bo c mn bc, cha cc axit nucleic mang thng tin gen ca t bo, ngoi ra
cn c mt lot cc bin i khc bit v c im cu trc.
Cc t bo mi ny c gi l cc eukaryotes (sinh vt nhn thc), cha nhn xc
nh. Cc eukaryotes n bo t dng tin ha thnh thc vt a bo, c kh nng quang
hp sn xut cc cht hu c v oxy. S pht trin v s lng cc sinh vt c kh nng
quang hp v h hp tt to thnh tp hp d dng. Cc eukaryotes d dng tin ha thnh
c, cn trng v ng vt ngy nay.

Hnh 1.5. Hai dng t bo Prokaryote v Eukaryote [19]

Qu trnh pht trin s sng, nh va nu s lc trn lm cho hm lng oxy trong

kh quyn tng cao v tr thnh loi kh ch yu ca kh quyn, ng thi lm gim ng k
hm lng cc kh c lc u trong kh quyn s khai (N2, CO2, H2, CO, CH4...).

1.4. Chu trnh a ha

Cc s liu trong Bng 1.2 ch cho thy s phn b cc nguyn t trong cc thnh

14
phn ca mi trng m khng cho thy s di chuyn (vn ng) ca cc nguyn t t b
phn ny sang b phn khc, v d: sng vn chuyn cc cht tan v cht rn l lng t t
lin ra i dng; s di chuyn ca cc mng lc a v Tri t to ra s nng ln (uplift) ca
trm tch i dng v cc khi t mi; thc vt to thm oxy cho kh quyn thng qua
qu trnh quang hp, ng thi ly oxy t khng kh trong qu trnh h hp.
S di chuyn ca mt nguyn t ha hc gia t, i dng, khng kh c th c
biu din bi chu trnh gi l chu trnh a ha. Mi chu trnh a ha l mt m hnh, m t
s di chuyn ca mt nguyn t ha hc (hay mt cht), thng thng l xy ra gn b mt
Tri t.
Trong mt chu trnh a ha c mt s ni cha (reservoirs), c xc nh r v mt
vt l (nh lc a, t, i dng, kh quyn,...) v cc ng di chuyn (transport paths) ca
vt cht t ni cha ny n ni cha khc. S lng ni cha trong mt chu trnh a ha
ph thuc vo mc chi tit ca vic nghin cu h.
Dng vt cht di chuyn gia cc ni cha thng c xc nh trong mt khong
thi gian c nh, thng l mt nm.
1

KHNG KH
2

4
1

I DNG
8
7

TRM TCH

ni cha

1. Ngng t (ma, tuyt)

2. Bi
3. Bi nc bin (sea spray)
4. S tch kh (degassing)

ng di chuyn

5. S thot kh (gas evolution)

6. Cc cht tan v l lng (trong nc sng)
7. Sa lng
8. S nng ln

Hnh 1.6. M hnh tng qut ca chu trnh a ha [17]

Nu lng nguyn t (hay cht) c chuyn vo v chuyn ra khi ni cha bng

nhau th nng ca n trong ni cha s khng i, lc trng thi dng (steady state)
c thit lp. V c bn, nu khng b nh hng bi hot ng ca con ngi hu ht cc
chu trnh t nhin u trng thi dng. Kt lun ny c rt ra t thc t: mi trng ha

15
hc ton cu khng c thay i ln no xy ra trong vi trm triu nm gn y.
Nu h ang trng thi dng, ta c th xc nh thi gian lu (residence times) ca
mt cht xc nh trong ni cha xc nh da vo cng thc:
t=

lng nguyn t (cht ) trong ni cha

tc i vao
(hay ra ) ni cha cua nguyn t (cht )

V d, nu lng natri tan trong i dng l 151018 kg, lng thm vo hng nm l
100109 kg, th thi gian lu ca natri trong i dng s l 150 triu nm (thc ra, natri c
thi gian lu trong i dng l 210 triu nm). Hu ht cc nguyn t c thi gian lu trong
i dng khong vi triu nm, hoc t hn. Thi gian lu trong v Tri t thng cao hn
nhiu thi gian lu trong khng kh, iu phn nh tnh lu ng ca cc h.
Ngi ta cho rng, cc tc ng ca con ngi ln cc chu trnh a ha lm tng
tc chuyn cht rn t lc a ra i dng, do cht ph rng, hot ng canh tc, lm tng
xi mn. Nghin cu cho thy, tc xi mn ngy nay cao gp i cch y 5000 nm. Rt
kh nh gi c nh hng ca cc hot ng nhn to ln cc chu trnh, do chng ta
khng bit chc gi tr nn nng ca cc cht cng nh dng di chuyn vt cht trong cc
chu trnh nu.
Mc d, hiu bit v cc chu trnh a ha ton cu l rt quan trng, song chng ta
cng cn quan tm n c nhng g ang xy ra quy m nh hn. Mt qu trnh chung trn
ton cu c th che lp mt cc bin i bt thng ti mt khu vc nh. S r r cadmi t
vng khai khong c th gy cht c pha h lu, l mt s c rt quan trng trn phm
vi khu vc a phng, nhng dng di chuyn ca cadmi ny s khng ng k g khi so vi
dng di chuyn tng cng ton cu. V vy, ngoi cc chu trnh a ha, chng ta vn rt cn
cc m hnh minh ha v d on cc bin i mi trng khu vc.

Cu hi
1. nh ngha cc thut ng: Mi trng, nhim mi trng, Cht gy nhim.
2. Phn bit hai khi nhim cht gy nhim v cht gy nhim bn.
3. Chu trnh a ha l g?
3. Ti sao nghin cu chu trnh a ha li c ngha quan trng i vi ha hc mi trng?

16

2.

KH QUYN V S NHIM KH QUYN

2.1. Cu trc ca kh quyn

Kh quyn l lp v kh bao quanh Tri t. Ranh gii phn chia gia kh quyn v
khong khng gian bn ngoi khng r rng. cao ca lp v kh ny c th t 5001000
km t mt t, tuy nhin 99% khi lng ca kh quyn li tp trung lp kh ch cch mt
t 30 km.
Kh quyn c cu to bi nhiu cht khc nhau. Trong kh quyn c khong 50 hp
cht ha hc, gm c nhng ht l lng (bi, phn hoa, vi khun, vi rt,...). Thnh phn v
hm lng cc cht c mt trong kh quyn ty thuc vo iu kin a l, kh hu v phn b
theo cao. Cng ln cao, p sut cng gim, cao 100 km, p sut kh quyn ch bng
mt phn triu (3107 at) p sut b mt Tri t (1 at). Nhit thay i trong khong t
92 n 1200C. Khi lng tng cng ca kh quyn c khong 51015 tn, tc vo
khong mt phn triu khi lng Tri t.
Cn c vo s thay i nhit theo cao, ngi ta chia kh quyn thnh 4 tng:
tng i lu (troposhere), tng bnh lu (stratosphere), tng trung lu (mesosphere), tng
nhit lu (thermosphere). Cc thnh phn ca kh quyn v s thay i nhit kh quyn
theo cao c trnh by trong Hnh 2.1 v Hnh 2.2.

Bc x Mt tri

Tng Trung lu

UV ( < 100 nm): n cao 200 km

85 km

UV ( = 200 - 330 nm): n cao 50 km

Tng Nhit lu

UV, VIS, IR ( > 330 nm): n mt t

500 km

O2 , O , NO

O2 , NO

50 km
O3 + h (220 - 330 nm) O2 + O
Tng Bnh lu

O3
Lp dng

10 - 16 km
Tng i lu

N2, O2, CO2, H2O

Tri t

Hnh 2.1. Cc thnh phn ca kh quyn [15]

 cao (km)

17

100

92 1200C

Tng Nhit lu

80
Tng Trung lu

2 92C

Tng Bnh lu

56 2C

60

40

20
Lp dng
Tng i lu
100

15 56C
50

50
Nhit (C)

Hnh 2.2. S thay i nhit theo cao trong kh quyn [8]

2.1.1. Tng i lu
Tng i lu (troposphere) chim khong 70% khi lng kh quyn, cao t 0
n 11 km, cng ln cao nhit cng gim. cao ca tng i lu c th thay i khong
vi km, ty thuc vo cc yu t, nhit , b mt t... (khong 8 km hai cc, 18 km
vng xch o). Tng ny quyt nh kh hu ca Tri t, thnh phn ch yu l N2, O2, CO2
v hi nc. Kh trong kh quyn tp trung ch yu tng i lu, vi khi lng khong
4,12.1015 tn so vi tng khi lng kh trong kh quyn l 5,151015 tn. Mt khng kh
v nhit trong tng i lu khng ng nht. Mt khng kh gim rt nhanh theo cao
(gim theo hm s m). Nu khng b nhim, th nhn chung thnh phn ca kh quyn
tng i lu kh ng nht, do c dng i lu lin tc ca cc khi khng kh trong tng.
Tng i lu l mt vng xoy, do c s mt cn bng trong tc si m v lm lnh gia
vng xch o v hai u cc.
Phn trn cng ca tng i lu c nhit thp nht (vo khong 56C) c gi l
nh tng i lu hoc lp dng (tropopause). Tng ny nh du s kt thc xu hng gim
nhit theo cao trong tng i lu v bt u c s tng nhit . nh tng i lu do
nhit rt thp, hi nc b ngng t v ng c nn khng th thot khi tng kh quyn
thp. Nu khng c nh tng i lu ng vai tr nh tm chn hu hiu, hi nc c th
bay ln cc tng kh quyn pha trn v s b phn tch di tc dng ca bc x t ngoi c
nng lng ln. Hydro to thnh do phn ng phn tch s thot khi kh quyn (hu ht
hydro v heli vn c trong kh quyn thot khi kh quyn theo con ng ny).

18
2.1.2. Tng bnh lu
Tng bnh lu (stratosphere) cao t 11 n 50 km, nhit tng theo cao, t
56C n khong 2C. Thnh phn ch yu ca tng ny l O3, ngoi ra cn c N2, O2 v
mt s gc ha hc khc.
Pha trn nh tng i lu v phn di ca tng bnh lu l tng ozon, nhit trong
tng ny gn nh khng i. Ozon vng ny ng mt vai tr cc k quan trng, n c tc
dng nh l chn bo v cho cuc sng trn b mt Tri t, trnh c tc dng c hi ca
tia t ngoi t nh sng Mt tri.
O3 + h (: 220 330 nm) O2 + O + Q (lm tng nhit )
Trong tng bnh lu, khng kh t b khuy ng, do thi gian lu ca cc phn t
ha hc vng ny kh ln. Nu cc cht gy nhim bng cch no xm nhp vo tng
ny, th chng s tn ti v gy nh hng tc ng trong mt thi gian di hn nhiu so vi
nh hng ca chng tng i lu.
2.1.3. Tng trung lu
Tng trung lu (cn gi l tng trung gian, mesosphere) cao t 50 km n 85 km,
nhit gim theo cao, t 2C n 92C, do khng c nhiu cc phn t ha hc hp
th tia t ngoi, c bit l ozon. Thnh phn ha hc ch yu trong tng ny l cc gc t do
O2+, NO+ c to thnh do oxy v nit oxit hp th bc x t ngoi xa.
2.1.4. Tng nhit lu
Tng nhit lu (cn gi l tng nhit, thermosphere), cao t 85 n trn 500 km.
Nhit trong tng ny tng t 92C n 1200C. Trong tng ny, do tc dng ca bc x
Mt tri, nhiu phn ng ha hc xy ra vi oxy, ozon, nit, nit oxit, hi nc, CO2...,
chng b phn tch thnh nguyn t v sau ion ha thnh cc ion O2+, O+, O, NO+, e,
CO32, NO2, NO3,...v nhiu ht b ion ha phn x sng in t sau khi hp th bc x Mt
tri vng t ngoi xa (UV-C, < 290 nm).
Ngoi cc tng trn, ngi ta cn c khi nim tng in ly hay tng ngoi
(exosphere) v tng ion (ionosphere).
Tng ngoi bao quanh Tri t cao ln hn 800 km, c cha cc ion oxy O+ (
cao < 1500 km), heli He+ (< 1500 km) v hydro H+ (> 1500 km). Mt phn hydro tng ny
c th tch ra v i vo v tr (khong vi nghn tn nm). Mt khc, cc dng plasma do Mt
tri pht ra v bi v tr (khong 2 g/km2) cng i vo kh quyn Tri t. Nhit ca tng
ny tng rt nhanh n khong 1700C.
Khi nim Tng ion c dng ch phn kh quyn cao t 50 km tr ln, trong
vng ny khng kh c cha nhiu ion. S c mt ca cc ion trong vng ny c bit
n t nm 1901, khi ngi ta pht hin ra hin tng phn x sng radio ca lp kh quyn
tng cao.
Gii hn trn ca kh quyn v on chuyn tip vo v tr rt kh xc nh, cho ti
nay, ngi ta mi c on khong 500 1000 km.

2.2. S hnh thnh v thnh phn ca kh quyn

2.2.1. S hnh thnh kh quyn
C nhiu gi thuyt khc nhau v s hnh thnh ca kh quyn. Gi thuyt c nhiu
nh khoa hc chp nhn nht cho rng, kh quyn lc s khai c thnh phn rt khc vi thnh
phn ca kh quyn hin nay v hot ng ca vi sinh vt l nguyn nhn chnh gy ra s bin
i ny. S hnh thnh kh quyn gn lin vi s hnh thnh v pht trin ca s sng trn
Tri t.

19
Hn mt t nm trc y, ni la phun CO2, NH3 v hi nc vo kh quyn. Cc
cht ny c to thnh t CH4 v cc kh khc c trong lng t. Sau , di tc dng ca
tia t ngoi, sm chp, tia phng x, cc cht ban u trong kh quyn phn ng vi nhau to
thnh cc amino axit v ng. Cc dng sng u tin bt u xut hin v pht trin trong
i dng. Cc dng sng s dng nng lng t qu trnh ln men cht hu c, qu trnh
quang hp v cui cng l qu trnh h hp.
Ngi ta cho rng, c th trong kh quyn thi k u cng c sn mt t oxy
duy tr s sng ca cc dng sng s khai. Lng oxy ny c th c to thnh t phn
ng phn tch hi nc di tc dng ca sm chp hoc bc x Mt tri phn trn ca kh
quyn. Nhng chnh cc loi thc vt mi l ngun sn xut oxy ch yu cho kh quyn,
thng qua phn ng quang hp.
CO2 + H2O + h {CH2O} + O2
Khi lng O2 trong kh quyn gia tng, nhiu loi thc vt phc tp bt u pht trin
mnh. Song song vi qu trnh pht trin ca thc vt, cc loi ng vt tiu th O2 cng tng,
do to ra s cn bng oxy trong kh quyn.
Thnh phn ca kh quyn k Cambri (khong 500 triu nm trc y) gn nh
tng t vi thnh phn kh quyn hin nay. Tuy vy, thnh phn ca kh quyn ngy nay
ang b thay i. Cc cht kh d b bin i ca kh quyn lun b t, v cc sinh vt hp
th hoc tht thot ra khong khng v tr.
Chu k i mi lng CO2 trong kh quyn l t 4 n 8 nm, 3000 nm i vi O2 v
100 triu nm vi N2. Chu k tiu th v ti to cc cht kh trong kh quyn th hin mt cn
bng lin quan n t, khng kh, ng v thc vt.
Lc u, oxy c th l cht kh c hi cho cc dng sinh vt s khai. Tuy nhin, lc
ny, mt lng ln O2 uc Fe(II) hp th to thnh Fe2O3:
4Fe2+ + O2 +4H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H+
Qu trnh ny to thnh mt lng ln Fe2O3 sa lng v l bng chng cho s to
thnh ca O2 t do trong kh quyn thi k u.
V sau, khi c h enzim pht trin, nhiu vi sinh vt c th s dng O2 oxy ha cc
cht hu c c trong i dng.
O2 tch ly dn trong kh quyn dn n s hnh thnh lp ozon tng bnh lu. Tng
ozon ng vai tr mt lp o gip bo v cho sinh vt trn mt t khi b bc x t ngoi gy
tc hi. Cui cng, Tri t tr thnh mt mi trng sng thn thin hn, sinh vt bt u
chuyn t cuc sng di nc trong i dng sang cuc sng trn cn mt t
2.2.2. Thnh phn ca kh quyn
Nit, oxy v cacbon dioxit l 3 nhn t sinh thi quan trng ca kh quyn.
Nit l cht kh kh tr v mt ha hc, n hu nh khng tham gia cc phn ng ha
hc iu kin thng. nhit cao hoc trong tia la in, nit tc dng vi O2 to thnh
NO, tc dng vi H2 to thnh NH3. Mt s vi sinh vt trong t nhin c th vt qua c
hng ro nng lng cao ph v lin kt bn vng trong phn t nit, to thnh cc hp
cht ca nit, cung cp cht dinh dng cho nhu cu pht trin ca thc vt trong t nhin.
Oxy l cht kh quan trng trong kh quyn i vi ng vt trn cn cng nh vi
ng vt di nc. Oxy l cht kh c hot tnh ha hc cao, v vy, trong kh quyn, oxy
tham gia vo nhiu phn ng, to thnh nhiu sn phm khc nhau. Nng oxy trong kh
quyn nguyn thy rt thp, sau tng dn qua cc k nguyn a cht, ch yu do qu trnh
quang hp. Do s iu chnh t nhin m nng oxy trong kh quyn hin nay hu nh lun
c gi n nh khong 21%.

20
Cc chuyn ha ca oxy trong kh quyn s c trnh by chi tit hn trong mc 2.3.
Thnh phn chnh ca khng kh kh tng i lu c trnh by trong bng sau:
Bng 2.1. Thnh phn chnh ca khng kh kh tng i lu [7]
Cc cu t chnh

% (v/v)

% (w/w)

Nit (N2, kh)

78,09

75,51

Oxy (O2, kh)

20,95

23,15

Argon (Ar, kh)

0,93

1,23

Cacbon dioxit (CO2, kh)

0,03

0,05

Bng 2.2. Cc cht kh c hm lng thp trong khng kh kh tng i lu [15]

Kh

% (v/v) 1

Ngun pht sinh chnh

Sink 9

CH4

1,6 104

Sinh hc 2

Quang ha 3

CO

1,2 105

Quang ha, nhn to 4

Quang ha

N2O

3 105

Sinh hc

Quang ha

Quang ha, sm chp, nhn to

Quang ha

Quang ha

Ngng t t

NOx

10

10 10

10 10

HNO3
NH3

108107

Sinh hc

Quang ha, ngng t t

H2

5 105

Sinh hc, quang ha

Quang ha

H2O2

108106

Quang ha

Ngng t t

HO 6

10131010

Quang ha

Quang ha

HO2 6

1011109

Quang ha

Quang ha

H2CO

108107

Quang ha

Quang ha

CS2

109108

Nhn to, sinh hc

Quang ha

OCS

108

Nhn to, sinh hc, quang ha

Quang ha

SO2

2 108

Nhn to, quang ha, ni la

Quang ha

Nhn to

Quang ha

Nhn to

Quang ha

CCl2F2

H3CCCl3
1

2,8 10

7
8

1 10

Mc nng trong khng kh khng b nhim

T cc ngun sinh hc
3
Phn ng xy ra do hp th nng lng nh sng
4
Pht sinh do cc hot ng ca con ngi
5
Tng NO, NO2
6
Gc t do
7
Freon F-12, thng c k hiu l CFC-12
8
Methyl chloroform
9
Xem khi nim sink mc 2.5
2

21
Mc d c nng rt b (0,0314% theo th tch), nhng cacbon dioxit l mt thnh
phn quan trng trong kh quyn. Cacbon dioxit ng vai tr l ngun cung cp nguyn liu
cacbon tng hp cc hp cht hu c, thnh phn c th sinh vt, thng qua qu trnh
quang hp. Ngoi ra, CO2 cn hp th bc x sng di, chuyn chng thnh nhit si m b
mt Tri t. Nu khng c qu trnh ny (hiu ng nh knh, xem mc 2.5.1), nhit
trung bnh b mt Tri t s ch cn khong -18C
Ngoi cc cu t chnh, khng kh cn cha nhiu cu t khc (phn t, gc t do) vi
hm lng thp, cc ht bi. Khng kh m c th cha n 4% hi nc ...
cc tng kh quyn cao hn 80 km, thnh phn cc cu t chnh c thay i, nhng
t l gia chng thay i khng ng k.

2.3. Cc phn ng ca oxy trong kh quyn

Mt s chuyn ha c bn ca oxy gia kh quyn, a quyn, thy quyn v sinh
quyn c trnh by trong Hnh 2.3.

Hnh 2.3. Trao i oxy gia kh quyn, a quyn, thy quyn v sinh quyn [15]

Trong tng i lu, oxy ng mt vai tr quan trng trong cc qu trnh xy ra trn b
mt Tri t. Oxy tham gia vo cc phn ng to ra nng lng, nh qu trnh t nhin liu
ha thch:
CH4 (kh thin nhin) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

22
Vi sinh vt hiu kh s dng oxy ca kh quyn phn hy cc cht hu c. Mt s
qu trnh phong ha oxy ha xy ra di tc dng ca oxy, v d:
4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3
Bn cnh cc qu trnh tiu th oxy, trong kh quyn oxy c ti to nh qu trnh
quang hp:
CO2 + H2O + h {CH2O} + O2
Cc nh khoa hc cho rng, hu nh ton b lng oxy c trong kh quyn l sn
phm ca qu trnh quang hp. Lng cacbon c c nh trong cc sn phm hu c do
qu trnh quang hp trc y to ra, hin ang phn tn trong t nhin ch yu dui dng
cc hp cht humic, ch mt phn nh lng cacbon ny chuyn thnh cc loi nhin liu ha
thch. V vy, mc du ngy nay vic t nhin liu ha thch tiu tn mt lng ln oxy,
nhng nguy c s dng ht oxy trong kh quyn l hon ton khng th xy ra.
Do c mt khng kh rt thp v tc ng ca cc bc x gy ion ha, nn cc lp
khng kh trn cao, oxy khng ch tn ti dng O2 m cn cc dng khc nh: oxy nguyn
t O, oxy phn t trng thi kch thch O2* v ozon O3.
Di tc dng ca tia t ngoi ( < 290 nm) O2 b phn tch thnh oxy nguyn t:
O2 + h O + O
do phn ng ny nn cao 400 km (thuc tng nhit lu) ch cn khong 10% oxy trong
kh quyn tn ti di dng phn t O2. Do c cha nhiu oxy nguyn t nn phn t lng
trung bnh ca khng kh ( M KK ) cao 80 km nh hn M KK trn b mt Tri t (28,97 g/
mol); v vy, ngi ta chia kh quyn thnh hai vng: homosphere l vng kh quyn cao
thp c M KK ng nht; heterosphere l vng kh quyn trn cao c M KK khng ng nht.
Bn cnh nguyn t oxy O, trong kh quyn cn tn ti dng nguyn t oxy trng
thi kch thch O. Dng O c to thnh t cc phn ng sau:
O3 + h ( = 290320 nm) O2 + O
O + O + O O2 + O
O bc x ra nh sng c cc bc sng 636, 630 v 558 nm (thuc vng kh kin).
Bc x ny l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn gy ra hin tng pht sng ca kh quyn
(airglow hin tng bc x lin tc sng in t yu ca kh quyn. Bc x ny tuy rt yu
vng kh kin nhng li c thnh phn hng ngoi kh mnh).
Ion oxy O+ c th c sinh ra trong kh quyn do nh sng t ngoi tc dng ln
oxy nguyn t:
O + h O+ + e
ion O+ c mt rt ph bin mt s vng trong tng ion. Mt s ion khc c cha oxy l O2+
v NO+.
Ozon (O3) c to thnh trong kh quyn nh cc phn ng:
O2 + h ( < 290 nm) O + O
O + O2 + M O3 + M
trong M l cc phn t khc nh N2 hoc O2 ng vai tr tc nhn hp th nng lng do
phn ng to ozon gii phng ra. Ozon c mt nhiu nht trong kh quyn cao t khong
15 n 35 km, nng ozon cc i trong vng ny c th t n 10 ppm. Vng c cha
nhiu ozon ny c gi l tng ozon, c kh nng hp th mnh bc x t ngoi vng
220330 nm, bo v s sng trn Tri t.

23
Phn c thm: Qu trnh quang hp v s to thnh cc hp cht ca cacbon
Cho n nay c ch ca qu trnh quang hp vn cha c gii thch mt cch
hon chnh. Song ngi ta bit nhiu chuyn ha quan trng trong qu trnh ny.
Thc vt c cha mt s cc phn t c mu, c kh nng hp th nh sng,
trong ph bin nht l chlorophyll a v chlorophyll b.
H
C

H
C

hay

hay

CH

HC

N
H

N
H

N
H

(a) Cc cch biu din khc nhau ca cu trc pyrrole

CH 2
2

..

H3C

CH 2
5

(b) Porphyrin: cu trc chung, c th cha

cc nhm th khc nhau cc v tr 1 8

H
CH 2

COOphytyl
6

H
HN

NH

H 3 COOC

CH

CH

HC

..N

H3C

Mg
N

X
N
C2 H5
CH

CH
O

CH 3

(c) Chlorophyll:
Chlorophyll a: X = CH3
Chlorophyll b: X = CHO (phytyl = C20H40)

Hnh 2.4. Cu trc ca (a) pyrrole, (b) mt vng porphyrin, (c) chlorophyll

Cc lin kt n v lin kt i lun phin xen k, c gi l h ni i lin

hp, c cc in t d b kch thch. Ngi ta cho rng, c hai h cht mu trong t bo
c mu lc, mi h hp th mt phn ring ca ph nng lng Mt tri. Mt h cha
chlorophyll a, hp th nh sng ( 650 nm, nng lng 185 kJ/mol) v b kch
thch. Cc in t b kch thch lc ny s chuyn sang cc hp cht khc nh NADPH
hay ATP (adenosine- 5- triphosphate). ATP l phn t c trong cc h sinh hc ng
vai tr tc nhn cung cp nng lng cc phn ng cn nng lng. l mt hp
cht rt quan trng cho qu trnh ng ha. ATP chuyn nhm PO43 cho mt trong cc
cht hu c tham gia phn ng. Phn ng chuyn nhm photphat ny c gi l phn
ng phosphoryl ha (phosphorylation) sau:
ROH
+
ATP
ROPO3
+
ADP
(phn t hu c)
(sn phm trung gian ca
(adenosinephn ng phosphoryl ha) 5- diphosphate)
phan ng tip

ROPO3
ROX (sn phm hu c) + PO43
ADP kt hp vi mt nhm photphat to thnh ATP. Do qu trnh gn nh quay
vng, nn ATP ng vai tr nh mt tc nhn vn chuyn nng lng. Nng lng c
th thu c trc tip t qu trnh quang hp hay t nng lng ha hc ca cc hp
cht nh cacbonhydrat v cht bo khi chng b phn tch to thnh ATP.
NADPH tham gia phn ng vi cc cht kh to thnh nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide photphate v ng vai tr cht chuyn ti proton v electron:
NADPH + hp cht kh NADP+ + cc sn phm oxy ha

24

NADPH c th to thnh t NADP+ t phn ng:

NADP+ + H+ + 2e NADPH
Trong qu trnh quang hp, phn t nc cung cp proton v electron, ng thi
gii phng phn t oxy:
2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e
S kt hp v kh cacbon dioxit to thnh cc sn phm khc nhau ca qu
trnh quang hp c lin quan n hng lot cc phn ng tun hon lin tc v phc
tp (hnh 2.4). Mt phn t cacbon dioxit kt hp vi mt phn t hu c c hot
ha, sau sn phm ca phn ng ny b kh bi NADPH, ri tip tc ti cu trc li
di tc dng ca cc enzime er to thnh cacbohydrat, cht bo hoc protein. ATP
cung cp nng lng cho cc phn ng khng thun li v mt nng lng thng qua
phn ng phosphoryl ha. Cc enzime to iu kin cho nhiu loi phn ng khc nhau
xy ra (phn ng cng, phn ng ti cu trc hoc phn ng phn hy). Enzime l cc
cht xc tc, chng lm tng tc phn ng, nhng khng b mt i sau phn ng
Sn phm ca qu trnh quang hp l mt loi sinh vt c gi l sinh vt quang
t dng (photoautotrophs), loi sinh vt ny hp th cacbon dioxit, nc v nh sng
Mt tri, to ra cc phn t hu c v kh oxy. Sinh vt quang t dng s dng mt t
hp cht hu c to ngun nng lng cho nhiu phn ng xy ra trong t bo.
nh sng Mt tri

CO2

Chuyn nng lng

PO43 + ADP

Phn t hu c
hot ng u tin

ATP

Nng lng

Gii phng

Electron

Cacbohydrat
Cht bo

Protein
+

NADPH

NADP

H2O

O2

NO3
NH4+

Hnh 2.5. Vai tr ca ATP v NADPH trong cc phn ng quang hp [17]

Nng lng d tr di dng cc hp cht ha hc, c th vn chuyn hoc gii

phng khi cn, do rt thch hp cho sinh vt vo ban m, khi khng c nh sng
Mt tri, hoc lc tm thi thiu cacbon dioxit v nc. Qu trnh gii phng nng
lng trong phn ng sau, c gi l s h hp hiu kh, c th xem y l qu trnh
ngc vi quang hp:
(CH2O)n + nO2 nCO2 + nH2O + nng lng

25

Qu trnh h hp, cng nh qu trnh quang hp bao gm hng lot cc phn

ng phc tp xy ra theo nhiu nc vi cc cht xc tc enzime. Nng lng gii phng
ra t phn ng nh phn ng oxy ha glucoz khng phi c pht ra ngay mt lc, m
c to thnh tng phn nh, ch yu ti to ATP, do iu khin c cc phn
ng xy ra nhiu nc trong qu trnh sng ca sinh vt.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + nng lng
Nhit to thnh gip cho qu trnh ng ha xy ra thun li hn, v nhit
cao hn th cc phn ng ha hc xy ra nhanh hn mt cch ng k. Khi nhit
tng ln 10K th tc ca cc phn ng hu c tng gp hai ln. S gia tng tc
to ra nhiu nng lng hn, do li to iu kin cho nhiu phn ng tiu th nng
lng xy ra m khng b thiu nng lng. Bng vic s dng c hiu qu cc tnh
cht truyn nhit ca cc dung dch nc, cc sinh vt c th kim sot mi trng ca
t bo v duy tr nhit ca chng cao hn nhit mi trng chung quanh bn
ngoi. iu ny gip to ra mt mi trng bn trong n nh v c th ti u ha
cho ph hp vi cc nhu cu ca c th.
Cc dng sinh vt c kh nng tn dng trit vic s dng cc hp cht ha
hc v s h hp cung cp nng lng chnh l cc sinh vt d dng.
Cc sinh vt quang t dng chuyn ha nng lng Mt tri thnh cc hp cht
ha hc c nng lng cao. Phn cc hp cht cn tha khng s dng ht trong
qu trnh ng ha ca sinh vt quang t dng li b cc sinh vt d dng tiu th.
T hnh thnh chui thc n, trong sinh vt sn xut u tin ly trc tip nng
lng Mt tri, cn cc sinh vt tiu th khc nhau th ph thuc vo c sinh vt sn
xut ln cc sinh vt tiu th khc trong vic hp thu nng lng. Cc sinh vt tiu th
s dng cc phn t c tng hp sn phc v cho vic pht trin c th, nhu
cu tng hp sinh hc, cc qu trnh ng ha kim sot mi trng bn trong chng,
v hot ng ca c bp.

2.4. nhim khng kh

C nhiu ngun gy nhim khng kh. C th chia cc ngun gy nhim khng kh
thnh hai nhm:
Ngun t nhin: ni la phun cc kh SO2, H2S, cc sulfua hu c,...; chy rng
thi vo kh quyn cc kh CO, SO2, tro bi...; sm chp to ra cc kh NOx, HNO3; qu trnh
phn hy cc c th cht gii phng ra NH3, CH4, NOx, CO2...
Ngun nhn to: cc hot ng sn xut v sinh hot ca con ngi a vo kh
quyn rt nhiu cht gy nhim khc nhau.
Cc cht gy nhim khng kh c chia thnh cht gy nhim s cp (primary
pollutant) v cht gy nhim th cp (secondary pollutant). Cht gy nhim s cp l cc cht
thi ra trc tip t cc hot ng ca con ngi hoc qu trnh t nhin v gy tc ng xu n
mi trng. Cht gy nhim s cp chu cc bin i ha hc trong mi trng, cc sn phm
ca qu trnh bin i c th l cc cht gy nhim khc c gi l cht gy nhim th cp.
C 5 cht gy nhim s cp chnh ng gp hn 90% vo tnh trng nhim khng
kh ton cu. Cc cht ny l:
Sulfua dioxit, SO2,
Cc oxit ca nit,
Cacbon monoxit, CO,
Cc hydrocacbon, HC,
Cc ht l lng.

26
Ngun thin nhin
T v tr:
Bi v tr, tia Mt tri
T rng:
Phn hoa, nm, bo t
nm, chy rng,
T ni la: Kh, khi,
bi,
T bin: Ht mui t
bt nc bin,
T t b xi mn:
Bi t, ct,
Ngun khc:
Vi khun, virut,

Ngun nhn to

Kh quyn

Cht thi phng x

Cht thi cng nghip
v sinh hot (CO2, N2O
NO, NO2, SO2, HF,
CFCs, bi tro, bi
aming, CH4, NH3, H2S)
Khi thi t cc phng
tin giao thng (khi,
bi ng...)

Hnh 2.6. Cc ngun gy nhim kh quyn t nhin v nhn to

Khi tc ng tng hp ca cc cht gy nhim tng ln so vi tc ng ring l ca

tng cht th hiu ng ny c gi l hiu ng synergism. Hiu ng ngc li c gi l
hiu ng antigosism.
Mc d cc cht gy nhim thng xuyn c a vo kh quyn, nhng cho n
nay cc cht nhim ny vn ch tn ti trong kh quyn di dng vt. S d nh vy l do
c nhiu qu trnh vt l hay ha hc xy ra trong t nhin loi cc cht gy nhim ny
ra khi khng kh. Nhng qu trnh c gi l sink. V d kh CO2 c hp th (ha
hc) bi cy xanh trong qu trnh quang hp, hoc kh CO2 cng b loi khi khng kh qua
qu trnh ha tan (vt l) vo nc i dng. Nhng cc qu trnh sink khng phi lun loi
cc cht kh gy nhim ra khi khng kh, nhiu trng hp n ch chuyn t cht kh gy
nhim ny thnh mt cht kh gy nhim khc. V d H2S b oxy ha trong khng kh thnh
SO2, v vn tn ti trong kh quyn (cht gy nhim s cp v cht gy nhim th cp).
Bng 2.3. Thi gian lu ca mt s cht gy nhim kh quyn [7]
Cht gy nhim

Thi gian lu (nm)

N2O

20

CO2, CH4

CO

0,4

SO2

< 0,02

NO, NO2

< 0,01

NH3, H2S

<0,005

Bin ng mnh

Cc cht gy nhim c thi gian lu ngn (nh hn 6 thng) thng khng c

phn b u trong ton vng thp ca kh quyn. Trong chng ny chng ta s ln lt xem
xt mt s cc cht gy nhim khng kh ph bin nht.
2.4.1. Sulfua dioxit (SO2)
Sulfua dioxit l cht kh c mi kh chu, c th pht hin c nng khong 1
ppm. iu ng lu l khi nng ca kh ny vt trn 3 ppm th kh nng pht hin mi
ca khu gic s nhanh chng b mt i.

27
Nng ca SO2 trong tng i lu bin ng t khong 1 ppb ( xa cc vng cng
nghip) n khong 2 ppm ( cc vng b nhim nng). khu th v khu cng nghip
nng SO2 thng vo khong 0,1 n 0,5 ppm, vng nng thn (bc bn cu) vo khong
30 ppb. Hot ng ni la (ng gp khong 67% lng SO2 trn ton cu) v hot ng sinh
hc l ngun t nhin to ra SO2. Cc vi sinh vt thng tham gia qu trnh chuyn ha cc
cht c cha lu hunh to thnh H2S, (CH3)2S, cc cht ny sau b oxy ha nhanh trong
khng kh to thnh SO2. Cc ngun t nhin hng nm a vo kh quyn khong 2,3 1012
mol lu hunh, to ra nng nn ca SO2 trong kh quyn nh hn 1 ppb.
Hng nm, lng SO2 pht sinh do cc ngun nhn to tng ng 1,6 1012 mol
lu hunh. SO2 sinh ra do t nhin liu ha thch c cha lu hunh, ch yu l than
sn xut in, luyn qung sulfua kim loi...
Do c thi gian lu thp, nn SO2 t c c hi xm nhp vo tng bnh lu. Tuy nhin,
mt s hin tng t nhin (v d ni la) a mt lng kh ny vo tng bnh lu.
tng ny SO2 s b oxy ha to thnh cc ht H2SO4, y c xem l qu trnh t nhin lm
suy gim tng ozon.
Do lng SO2 c pht thi khng u (khong hn 90% ngun thi Bc M, chu
u, n , Cc ng) v thi gian lu ngn trong kh quyn, nn nhim kh SO2 thng
ch xy ra tng khu vc m khng mang tnh ton cu.
C hai qu trnh sink chnh ca SO2 trong tng i lu: hp th ln cc b mt kh
hoc t (dry deposition) v b oxy ha trong kh quyn thnh SO3 hay H2SO4. Cc cht
nhim th cp ny to ra ma axit (wet deposition). Do , SO2 c thi gian lu trong tng
i lu rt thp (Bng 2.3).
Bng 2.4. Mt s nh hng ca SO2 i vi con ngi [7]
Nng (ppm)

Thi gian tip xc

nh hng

0,03 0,5

lin tc

Vim cung phi

0,3 1

20 giy

Thay i hot ng ca no

0,5 1,4

1 pht

Ngi thy mi

0,3 1,5

15 pht

Tng nhy th gic

15

30 pht

Ngt th, mt kh nng khu gic

1,6 5

> 6 gi

Co ng h hp (kh qun, phi)

5 20

> 6 gi

Tn thng phi c th hi phc

>20

> 6 gi

Ph phi nc, t lit, cht

SO2 l cht kh c vi ng vt, n c kh nng gy kch thch ng h hp, kh

th, au kh qun v bnh phi mn tnh. Tip xc vi khng kh b nhim SO2 nng trong
thi gian ngn cng c th gy hi cho sc khe. SO2 thng c mt ng thi vi mt s
cc tc nhn gy nhim khng kh khc v thng c xu hng gy ra hiu ng tng tc
synergism vi cc cht gy nhim khc. Ngi ta thy rng, khi c mt cc ht bi l lng,
th t l mc bnh ng h hp do khng kh b nhim SO2 tng ln, ngay c khi nng
ca SO2 ch vo khong 30 ppb.
SO2 cng gy hi ln thc vt, mc nhy cm ca cc loi cy khc nhau vi kh
ny thng l khc nhau. Trong trng hp tip xc vi khng kh b nhim SO2 nng, l
cy c th b bc mu v cht, nh hn c th gy chm pht trin m khng gy tn thng
c th. Ngi ta thy c s suy gim tc pht trin ca cc ng c, ngay nng
SO2 thp khong 60 ppb.

28
Mt khc, SO2 cng mang li mt s li ch, n cung cp dinh dng cho thc vt, l
ngun nguyn t vi lng lu hunh ca thc vt. Ngi ta thy rng, thng thng gn cc
vng cng nghip th t trng khng cn bn phn sulfat, ngay c khi canh tc lin tc quanh
nm.
Hin nay c 4 hng ch yu hn ch pht thi SO2:
X l loi SO2 khi kh thi;
Loi lu hunh khi nhin liu trc khi t;
S dng loi nhin liu cha t lu hunh;
Thay th vic t nhin liu (ch yu l nguyn liu ha thch) bng cc ngun nng
lng khc.
Phn c thm: Qu trnh oxy ha SO2 trong tng i lu
Trong tng i lu, SO2 b oxy ha mt cch nhanh chng to thnh cc cht gy
nhim th cp rt nguy him l H2SO4 v SO3. Qu trnh oxy ha ny rt phc tp v
hin nay bn cht ha hc chi tit ca n vn ang cn gy nhiu tranh ci, nhng cc
nh ha hc pht hin c ba nhm c ch khc nhau lin quan n qu trnh ny.
Mt trong s cc c ch nu l c ch oxy ha d th, hai c ch cn li l hai c
ch oxy ha ng th (oxy ha trong pha kh v oxy ha trong pha lng).
Oxy ha d th:
Phn ng oxy ha SO2 trong pha kh:
2SO2 (k) + O2 (k) 2SO3 (k) (a)
khi c mt nc s xy ra phn ng sau:
SO3 (k) + H2O(l) H2SO4 (dd) (b)
trong iu kin khng kh kh v sch, nhit thng ca tng i lu, phn ng (a)
xy ra rt chm, do ng gp khng ng k vo qu trnh oxy ha SO2. B mt cc
ht bi trong khng kh nh ht tro bay, mui than,c th xc tc cho phn ng oxy
ha ny. Hi m trong khng kh to thnh mt lp mng mng bao bc quanh b mt
ca cc ht bi c th lm tng tc phn ng oxy ha ni trn. Lp mng nc mng
ny to iu kin cho phn ng (b) xy ra, ng thi ha tan lp sulfat to thnh, ngn
cn tnh trng lm bo ha cc trung tm xc tc trn b mt.
Qu trnh ny c th xy ra ng k gn cc ngun pht thi, ni mt cc ht
bi trong khng kh rt cao.
Oxy ha ng th trong pha kh:
Phn ng oxy ha SO2 trong pha kh ng lu nht l phn ng ca gc t do
hydroxyl (OH). Phn ng u tin to ra gc HOSO2:
OH + SO2 + M HOSO2 + M (c)
(M l cu t th 3 (phn t hay b mt cht rn) cn c mt hp th nng lng
thot ra khi to thnh lin kt mi, lm bn ha sn phm).
Sau , HOSO2 b oxy ha tip to thnh H2SO4. C ch ca phn ng ny cha
c bit y , c th c cc phn ng sau xy ra:
HOSO2 + H2O HOSO2.H2O
(d)
HOSO2.H2O + O2 H2SO4 + HO2
(e)
trong khng kh b nhim, HO2 c th phn ng vi NO ti to gc OH, do lm qu
trnh tip din mi:
HO2 + NO OH + NO2 (f)

29

Oxy ha ng th trong pha nc:

Trong nc, cn bng sau s c thit lp:
SO2 (n) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (n) (g)
H2SO3 (n) HSO3(n) + H+(n) (h)
HSO3(n) SO32 + H+(n)

(i)

Mt s cht oxy ha c mt trong tng i lu c th chuyn lu hunh (IV) thnh

axit sulfuric vi tc kh nhanh. Cc cht oxy ha l O3, H2O2, NO2 . V d i vi
H2O2, phn ng xy ra nh sau:
H2O2 (n) + SO2 (n) H2SO4 (n)
(k)
mui st v cc kim loi chuyn tip c nhiu mc oxy ha xc tc cho phn ng ny.
H2O2 s dng cho phn ng ny c th xut pht t khng kh ha tan vo nc hay t
sinh ra trong nc do phn ng t phn tch ca HO2:
2HO2 + M O2 + H2O2 + M
(l)
Cho n nay, ngi ta cha bit c trong iu kin khng kh nh th no th
qu trnh no trong s 3 qu trnh trn s chim u th.
2.4.2. Cc oxit ca nit
N2O, NO v NO2 c xem l cc cht nhim s cp ng lu .
Nit oxit (N2O)
N2O l cht kh khng mu, t hot ng ha hc.
N2O c th tm thy khp mi ni trong tng i lu, nng trung bnh vo khong
0,3 ppm, hng nm tng thm khong 0,2%.
Ngun pht sinh N2O ch yu c th l qu trnh denitrat ha ca mt s vi sinh vt
trong iu kin thiu oxy di t hoc nc. Hin tng ny cng ng lu hn do vic
gia tng s dng cc loi phn bn nhn to c cha nit, c bit i vi loi t c cha
nhiu cht hu c v c ch thng kh khng n nh. N2O c th cn l sn phm ph ca
qu trnh nitrat ha cha hon ton NH3, NH4+.
Mt phn nh kh ny c th sinh ra khi t nhin liu ha thch.
Do t hot ng ha hc, nn N2O c th gian lu trong tng i lu kh ln (khong
20 nm) v ng thi phn b khp mi ni trong tng ny.
Do c thi gian lu ln trong tng i lu, nn kh nit oxit c thi gian xm
nhp vo nh tng i lu ri vo tng bnh lu, y N2O b phn hy hoc chuyn ha:
2N2O + h 2N2 + O2
N2O + O * 2NO
(O* l nguyn t oxy trng thi kch thch c hot tnh cao c to thnh do s phn hy
ozon bi tia t ngoi).
Do cc qu trnh nu trn, tng bnh lu v cc phn ng ha hc xy ra c
xem l sink ca nit oxit.
nh hng v mt mi trng ca s gia tng nng nit oxit trong kh quyn cha
c bit r rng. N2O l loi kh nh knh, do n c th ng gp vo qu trnh lm
nng ton cu.
Ngoi ra, khi xm nhp vo tng bnh lu th N2O s chuyn thnh NO, sau tham
gia vo cc phn ng c nh hng n nng ozon ca tng ny.

30

Nitric oxit v nit dioxit (NO, NO2)

NO v NO2 thng c vit tt l NOx.
NO l cht kh khng mu. NO2 l cht kh c mu nu vng. C hai kh ny u c
hot tnh ha hc cao. Kh NO d dng b oxy ha thnh NO2. Do c hot tnh ha hc cao,
nn thi gian lu ca NOx trong tng i lu rt ngn (Bng 2.3). Cng v cc l do trn,
nng NOx trong tng ny bin ng mnh. Nng ca NO2 dao ng trong khong t 1
ppb n 0,5 ppm trong khong thi gian nhim cao im vng th. Ph thuc vo nh
nng Mt tri v mt giao thng, nng NOx trong khu vc th thng thay i theo
kiu nh sau :
Trc khi c nh sng Mt tri, nng NO v NO2 tng i n nh v hi cao
hn nng cc tiu hng ngy mt t.
Vo khong 6 n 8 gi sng, mt giao thng tng dn, nng NO tng ln v
t cc i.
Vo khong gia bui sng (910 gi), nng NO2 tng cng vi s gia tng
lng bc x UV, do NO b chuyn thnh NO2.
Khi nng NO gim xung di 0,1 ppm th bt u c s tch t O3.
Vo chiu ti (1720 gi), nng NO tip tc tng tr li do lng giao thng
tng tr li vo thi gian ny.
Ozon tch ly ban ngy s phn ng vi NO vo ban m, lm nng NO2 tng
nh, trong lc nng ozon gim.
cc thnh ph ln c mt giao thng cao, nng cc i ca NO v NO2 trong
khng kh tng ng l 12 v 0,5 ppm.

NO, NO2, O3 (ppm)

0,50
NO

0,40
0,30

NO2
O3

0,20
0,10
0

24

12

15

18

21

24

Gi trong ngy

Hnh 2.7. Nng (trung bnh 1 gi) hng ngy ca cc cht nhim Los Angeles, USA [8]

NO c th c to thnh t 2 ngun t nhin v nhn to.

Ngun t nhin: qu trnh chy ca sinh khi (chy rng), sm chp, oxy ha NH3,
cc qu trnh k kh xy ra di t.
Ngun nhn to: t sinh khi hoc nhin liu ha thch.
Lng NOx to ra t ngun thin nhin v ngun nhn to hng nm gn tng
ng. Hin nay, trn quy m ton cu, lng pht thi NOx ang gia tng.
NOx thng c to thnh trong qu trnh chy nhit cao. Lc c s kt hp
trc tip nit v oxy ca khng kh:

31
N2 + O2 2NO
Ngoi ra, NO cn c to thnh do qu trnh oxy ha cc hp cht c cha nit trong
nhin liu. Sau , NO c th b oxy ha to thnh NO2. Thng thng hu nh trong cc
ngun pht thi NOx, NO u chim hn 90% lng NOx.
NOx cng c tm thy trong tng bnh lu, c th do qu trnh oxy ha nit oxit
hoc do khi thi ca cc my bay.
Trong tng i lu, NOx tham gia nhiu phn ng ha hc vi cc tc nhn khc nhau,
nh O3, nh sng, gc hydroxyl (OH), hydroperoxyl (HO2), cc phn t hu c (bao gm c
cc gc peroxyl hu c, RO2), m, cc ht l lng (Hnh 2.8). Ngoi cc phn ng ha
hc, cc qu trnh vt l nh ngng t kh v t cng l cc qu trnh loi NO v NO2 trong
kh quyn. Trong , cc qu trnh ha hc c xem l c ch sink ch yu ca NOx , cn
cc qu trnh vt l l sink ca PAN (peroxyacyl nitrate), HNO3 v N2O5.
NO3
h

NO

O3 O2 HO2 OH RO2 RO
hay
hay

RH
N2O5
R

H2O + M

NO2

O3

O2

O2

HNO3
OH

h
RCO-O2 + M

H2O

N2O4
H2O

N2O3
H2O

HNO2

M
RCO-O2
RCO-O2-NO2
(PANs)

Hnh 2.8. Cc chuyn ha ha hc ch yu ca NOx trong tng i lu [7]

Ozon trong tng i lu c th oxy ha NO thnh NO2:

NO + O3 O2 + NO2
y l phn ng nhanh, nhng khng xy ra hon ton. NO c ti to mt phn
ng k do NO2 tham gia phn ng quang ha sau:
NO2 + h ( < 430 nm) NO + O
Nguyn t oxy to thnh c th phn ng vi phn t oxy ti to ozon:
O + O2 + M O3 + M
trong , M l cu t th 3 (c th l mt phn t hoc b mt rn) cn thit hp th nng
lng gii phng ra khi to lin kt mi, lm bn ha sn phm phn ng.
Mc du bn thn NOx l cc cht gy nhim, nhng cc nh hng chnh thng
gy ra do cc cht gy nhim th cp c to ra t NOx. Trong tng i lu NOx b oxy
ha thnh axit nitric, to ra ma axit. NOx l iu kin cn to ra sng khi quang ha

32
(photochemical smog).
Trong tng bnh lu, NOx tham gia vo cc qu trnh ha hc lm nh hng n nng
ozon trong vng ny.
Cc bin php gim thiu nhim NOx:
S dng cht xc tc chuyn ha NOx trong kh thi ng c xe my.
S dng qu trnh t 2 giai on c th gim n 90% lng NOx trong kh thi
cc nh my pht in (thng thng cc nh my ny c kh thi cha NOx t 50 n 1000
ppm):
Giai on 1: nhin liu (than /du/kh t) c t nhit kh cao, trong iu
kin thiu oxy so vi tnh ton theo l thuyt (9095% theo tnh ton) nh vy hn ch c
lng NO to thnh do thiu oxy.
Giai on 2: qu trnh t nhin liu c hon tt nhit tng i thp vi
lng d khng kh. Trong iu kin ny NO khng c to thnh.
NOx trong kh thi nh my c th x l bng cch sc kh thi qua dung dch
H2SO4 hay dung dch cha Ca(OH)2 v Mg(OH)2. Lc ngoi NOx, SO2 cng b loi khi
kh thi:
1. Kh thi v NO2 c dn vo b phn oxy ha:
NO2 + SO2 + H2O H2SO4 + NO
2. NO v NO2 phn ng vi nhau to thnh N2O3, kh thi c sc vo b cha
H2SO4. Kh thi sau khi x l c thi vo khng kh:
NO2 + NO N2O3
N2O3 + 2H2SO4 2NOHSO4 + H2O
3. Sn phm ca phn ng trong b sc c phn hy trong h thng phn hy ti to
li H2SO4:
2NOHSO4 + 1/2O2 + H2O 2H2SO4 + 2NO2
4. NO2 to thnh HNO3 trong b phn ng:
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
lng NO2 v NO tha c dn quay li b phn oxy ha ban u.
2.4.3. Cc oxit cacbon

Cacbon dioxit (CO2)

Cacbon dioxit l cht kh khng mu, hot tnh ha hc trung bnh. CO2 tan c mt
phn trong nc to ra axit cacbonic (H2CO3) .
CO2 c mt trong tng i lu vi nng khong 362 ppm (s liu nm 1993). Hng
nm nng CO2 gia tng khong 0,5%. CO2 c xem l cht kh nh knh lm nhit
ton cu tng ln. Thng 7 nm 1992, Hi ngh cp cao v Tri t ti Rio de Janeiro cng
b Cng c v s thay i kh hu, theo n nm 2000 cc quc gia s phi gim lng
pht thi CO2 v bng mc pht thi nm 1990.
Ngun chnh to ra CO2 trong kh quyn l cc qu trnh h hp, phn hy oxy ha,
t nhin liu, thot kh t i dng. Vic t nhin liu ha thch hng nm a vo kh
quyn khong 4 1014 mol C, t sinh khi (c bit l t rng) ng gp 1,7 1014 mol C.
Qu trnh quang hp v i dng l cc sink quan trng nht ca CO2 ( tan ca
CO2 trong nc bin nhiu hn tan trong nc ngt khong 200 ln).
t rng khng nhng lm gia tng lng CO2 trong kh quyn m ng thi cn lm
gim qu trnh sink ca CO2 do quang hp.

33
CO2 c xem l cht kh nh knh ng quan tm nht. Tuy vy, cho n nay, mi
quan h gia nhit ton cu v hm lng CO2 vn cha c gii thch r rng. Hin
tng m ln ton cu c th dn n nhiu h qu tip theo. V d, tng nhit s lm gim
tan ca CO2 trong nc bin, lm tng qu trnh thot kh CO2 t i dng; tuy vy lc
ny qu trnh quang hp cng tng lm gim bt lng CO2.
Gim s dng nhin liu ha thch c th gim c lng CO2 pht thi.
Cacbon monoxit (CO)
CO l mt cht kh khng mu, khng mi v khng v. CO khng tan trong nc.
Cc phn ng to thnh CO chnh l:
t chy nhin liu hay hp cht c cha cacbon:
2C + O2 2CO
Phn ng gia CO2 vi vt liu cha cacbon nhit cao:
CO2 + C 2CO
Phn ng phn tch CO2 nhit cao:
CO2 CO + O
Nng nn ca CO trong kh quyn thng nh hn 0,1 ppm. Nng CO c th
tng ln 2 20 ppm cc vng th. Trong mt s trng hp c bit (ng giao thng
cht hp, ng hm thng kh km ), nng CO c th tng n trn 100 ppm.
Thi gian lu ca CO trong khng kh kh ngn (khong 0,4 nm), do c s bin
ng nng CO theo thi gian v khng gian trong kh quyn, v d Bc bn cu b nhim
CO nhiu hn Nam bn cu.
CO c to thnh do cc qu trnh sinh hc (trong t lin v ngoi i dng),
ngoi ra n cn l sn phm ca qu trnh oxy ha cc hp cht hydrocacbon trong kh quyn
v qu trnh t chy khng hon ton nhin liu ha thch hoc sinh khi. Cc ngun t
nhin ng gp mt lng CO vo kh quyn tng ng 1,8 1013 mol C hng nm. Cc
ngun thi nhn to a vo kh quyn khong 2,7 1013 mol C mi nm, v lng ny ngy
cng gia tng.
Trong tng i lu cc qu trnh sink ch yu ca CO l: di chuyn ln tng bnh lu
(sau b oxy ha); hp th vo t v thc vt (c khong 16 vi khun trong t c kh nng
hp th CO t khng kh); b oxy ha bi gc hydroxyl (phn ng ny c xem l c ch
sink ch yu ca gc hydroxyl, trong khng kh khng b nhim khong 70% gc OH phn
ng vi CO, phn cn li s phn ng vi CH4):
OH + CO H + CO2
Nng cao ca CO trong khng kh gy tc hi n sc khe con ngi. CO kt hp
vi hemoglobin (Hb) l tc nhn vn chuyn oxy ca mu:
HbO2
+ CO V O2 +
HbCO
(hemoglobin b oxy ha)
(cacboxyhemoglobin)
lm thiu oxy cho qu trnh h hp, nh hng n hnh vi, hot ng (do nhng khu
vc b nhim nng th tai nn giao thng thng xy ra), v c th gy t vong.
Ngoi tc hi nu trn i vi ngi v ng vt, kh CO cn c xem l mt kh
nh knh ng gp vo qu trnh lm m ln ton cu.
S gia tng nng CO trong kh quyn lm gim nng gc hydroxyl do phn ng
xy ra gia cc tc nhn ny, v vy lm gim tc dng loi tr cc cht nhim khc ca gc
hydroxyl. y chnh l tc hi ca CO ang c cc nh khoa hc quan tm nhiu nht.

34
Hn 74% lng CO pht thi t cc ngun nhn to l do hot ng giao thng vn
ti, ch yu do cc ng c t trong dng du gasolin. V vy, cc gii php gim thiu
nhim tp trung ch yu vo vic ci thin ng c xe my.
2.4.4. Hydrocacbon
2.4.4.1. Mtan (CH4)
Mtan c to thnh trong kh quyn do ngun t nhin v nhn to. Hng nm mt
lng mtan tng ng t 8,6 1012 n 2,9 1013 mol C c a vo kh quyn ch yu
do hot ng ca vi sinh vt k kh. Hot ng ca con ngi cng a thm mt lng
mtan khong 1,5 1013 n 3,6 1013 mol C /nm vo kh quyn ch yu t vic trng la
nc, t sinh khi nhit thp, chn nui gia sc, khai thc nhin liu ha thch.
Thi gian lu ca mtan trong kh quyn kh di (khong 3 nm), do mtan phn
b khp tng i lu. Nng mtan hin nay trong tng i lu vo khong 1,75 ppm, tc
gia tng hng nm l 1 2%.
Mtan l kh nh knh, n ng gp vo s m ln ton cu. S m ln ny sau li
lm tng nng mtan, do mt lng ln kh ny ang b gi trong bng di dng
CH4.nH2O (n 6) s c gii phng khi bng tan. V vy, hiu ng nh knh c nguy c s
tip din mc cao hn.
C 3 c ch sink i vi mtan: 2 7% b t hp th; 6 12% b chuyn vo tng
bnh lu. Phn mtan cn li b phn hy trong tng i lu do mt chui cc phn ng phc
tp c trnh by trong Hnh 2.9. Trong s cc phn ng , quan trng nht l phn ng ca
mtan vi gc hydroxyl:
CH4 + OH CH3 + H2O
S can thip ca con ngi lm gim s lng gc OH trong khng kh do lm
gim tc ca phn ng trn. Nh trnh by trong mc 2.3.3, s gia tng nng CO
trong tng i lu lm gim khong 70% lng gc OH theo phn ng:
CO + OH H + CO2
CH4

CH3

hay

O2 + M

H2O
O

OH

CH3O2

CH3O

O2

NO

HCHO

HCO

HO2
h
H
( < 340 nm)

CO

CO2

O2

H2O
O3
O3

h
h
O2
M M + O2
( < 310 nm)
( < 430 nm)

O2 + M

O2

NO2

Hnh 2.9. Cc phn ng oxy ha mtan ch yu khi c mt NOx trong tng i lu vo ban ngy
(xy ra trong c khng kh sch ln khng kh b nhim) [7]

2.4.4.2. Cc hydrocacbon khc mtan (non-methane hydrocarbonsNMHCs)

Ngoi mtan, trong kh quyn cn c trn 600 hydrocacbon khc. Mt s cc qu trnh
sinh hc to ra mt lng ln cc hydrocacbon hot ng, nh isopren, -pinen. Giao thng

35
vn ti v cc hot ng nhn to c lin quan n cc dung mi hu c b sung mt lng
ln hydrocacbon, nh benzen, butan, etan, etin, hexan, pentan. propan, toluen vo kh quyn.
Cc hydrocacbon khc mtan cng c xp vo loi kh nh knh. Trong tng i
lu, chng b oxy ha to thnh nhiu cht gy nhim th cp, nhiu cht trong s ny ng
vai tr quan trng trong vic to thnh sng khi quang ha.
2.4.4.3. Cc dn xut halogen ca hydrocacbon
Khi mt hay nhiu nguyn t hydro ca hydrocacbon b thay th bng nhng nguyn
t halogen (F, Cl, Br, I) s to thnh cc dn xut halogen. Nhiu hp cht trong s ny rt
ng quan tm v kha cnh mi trng.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCs l cc hp cht bay hi c t 1 n 2 nguyn t cacbon trong phn t lin kt
vi cc nguyn t clo v flo. Cc CFC thng gp l CCl3F (CFC-11), CCl2F2 (CFC-12),
C2Cl3F3 (CFC-113), C2Cl2F4 (CFC-114) v C2ClF5 (CFC-115).
CFCs l cc hp cht nhn to trc y khng c trong t nhin. CFCs c s dng
ln u tin ti M vo thp nin 1930 lm tc nhn lm lnh (hng Du Pont v General
Motors Coporation).
Trong s cc CFC th CFC-11 (CCl3F) v CFC-12 (CCl2F2) c dng ph bin nht.
Nng ca chng trong kh quyn ln lt l 0,280 ppb v 0,484 ppb. Tc gia tng nng
hng nm vo khong 4% (s liu nm 1992). Cc cht ny u l cc cht tr v mt ha
hc, khng c, khng chy, khng mi, nhit si thp (30C) nhng d b ha lng di
p sut, do chng c xem l cc cht l tng lm tc nhn lm lnh cho t lnh. T
khi CFCs c pht minh, t lnh tr thnh thng dng (trc cc tc nhn lm lnh nh
SO2, NH3, u l cc cht c, nn t lnh ch c dng trong cng nghip). Ngoi ra, CFCs
cn c dng lm dung mi, cht to xp khi sn xut m, cht y trong cc bnh xt kh.
Do c ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc nn sn lng CFCs trc y lin tc gia tng.
Do kh tr v mt ha hc, khng b phn hy trong tng i lu, c thi gian lu
trong kh quyn rt di (hng chc, thm ch hng trm nm), nn cc CFC phn b khp tng
i lu v mt phn thm nhp vo tng bnh lu.
Trong tng bnh lu CFCs b suy gim dn dn do b phn tch di tc dng ca nh
sng, v d:
CF2Cl2 + h ( < 250 nm) CF2Cl + Cl
nguyn t clo va c gii phng s tham gia xc tc cho qu trnh phn hy vi phn t
ozon ca tng ozon:
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2
Cc Halon (Halons) v cc hydrocacbon brom ha
Halon l cc hp cht tng t CFC nhng c cha flo, clo v brom. Cc halon
thng gp l CBrClF2 (Halon-1211), CBrF3 (Halon-1301) v C2Br2F4 (Halon-2402). Cng
nh CFC, halon l cc hp cht c ngun gc nhn to. Halon c dng vo mc ch cu
ha, c bit i vi nhng v chy khng th dp bng nc.
Cc hp cht hydrocacbon brom ha nh bromometan (CH3Br) c dng dit
nm, ch yu li c ngun gc t nhin.
Cc hp cht ny u b phn tch di tc dng ca nh sng trong tng bnh lu, gii
phng ra nguyn t brm. S c mt ca cc nguyn t brm, ngay c nng rt nh (
0,02 ppb) c th lm tng 20% tc phn hy ozon ca nguyn t clo. Mt khc, bn
thn brm cng c kh nng phn hy ozon mnh hn clo.

36
Rt may l nng cc hp cht loi ny trong kh quyn tuy ang tng, nhng vn
cn kh thp (CF2ClBr: 1,7 103 ppb; CF3Br: 2,0 103 ppb; CH3Br: 0,013 ppb).
Phn c thm: Cch gi tn cc CFC v halon
bit thnh phn ca CFC, ly phn s ca tn thng phm ca CFC cng
thm 90. Tng s l con s c ba ch s i din cho s nguyn t cacbon, hydro v flo
trong phn t. Cn li l cc nguyn t clo.
V d: i vi CFC-11: 11 + 90 = 101, v vy, c 1 nguyn t cacbon, 0 nguyn
t hydro, v 1 nguyn t flo trong phn t CFC-11. Do cacbon c ha tr l 4, nn s
nguyn t clo c trong phn t s l 3. Vy cng thc ha hc ca CFC-11 l CCl3F.
Halon thng c biu din bng cc m c 4 con s vi ch H (i din cho
halon) i u, v d H1211. Cc con s ny i din cho s nguyn t cacbon, flo, clo
v brom trong phn t (H1211: CF2ClBr).
Do tc hi ca CFCs, halon v cc hp cht lin quan, nn bo v cho tng ozon,
Cng c Montreal (1987) quyt nh hn ch s dng v sn xut cc hp cht ny.
Hp cht c xut thay th cho CFCs l cc hydrocloroflorocacbon (HCFCs) c
cha cc nguyn t hydro trong phn t, cc hp cht ny d b phn hy trong tng i lu,
do ch mt phn nh thm nhp c vo tng bnh lu.
V d: CH2FCF3 (HFC-134a): l cht thay th cho CFC-12 dng trong my iu ha
khng kh ca xe hi v t lnh gia nh; CHCl2CF3 (HCFC-123) v CH3CCl2F (HCFC141b): l cht thay th cho CFC-11 trong qu trnh sn xut m xp; CHClF2 (HCFC-22):
dng cho my iu ha khng kh v sn xut hp ng thc n bng nha xp.
Khng nh trng hp CFC, vic tm kim hp cht thay th halon gp nhiu kh
khn. Ngy nay, mt lng ln halon vn ang cn c s dng vo mc ch cu ha.
iu ng lo ngi l do kh bn vng trong tng i lu, nn ngay c khi hn ch,
thm ch cm hn vic sn xut, s dng, th cng phi n th k 22, nng ca cc CFC,
halon v cc hp cht lin quan trong kh quyn mi gim li cn bng mc nng nm 1960.
Cc hp cht hydrocacbon clo ha khng c cha flo (CCl4, CH3CCl3...)
Cc hp cht hydrocacbon clo ha khng c cha flo cng b phn tch trong tng
bnh lu di tc dng ca nh sng gii phng clo nguyn t lm suy gim tng ozon.
Phn c thm: Cng c Montreal v cc cht lm suy gim tng ozon
Cng c quc t ny c k kt nm 1987, bt u thc thi vo thng 1 nm
1989. Vo nm 1990 c b sung sa cha, bn sa cha ny c hiu lc thi hnh
vo thng 8 nm 1992. thi im c 76 quc gia ph chun cng c 1987 v
20 quc gia ph chun cng c b sung sa cha.
Bn cng c 1987 quy nh hn ch mc s dng v sn xut cc CFC 11, 12,
113, 114, 115, cc halon 1211, 1301 v 2402 mc nm 1986. D kin t c mc
hn ch ny vo nm 1990 vi CFCs v 2005 vi cc halon. Cam kt gim mc sn
xut v tiu th CFCs cn 80% mc 1986 vo nm 1993, 50% vo nm 2000. Cc nc
ang pht trin c gia hn thm 10 nm cho cc mc t ra.
Bn sa cha b sung nm 1990 nhn mnh cam kt ct gim cc CFC nu trn
50% vo 1995, 85% nm 1997 v 100% nm 2000. Cc hp cht CFC halogen ha
hon ton khc c ct gim 20% vo nm 1993, 85% nm 1997 v 100% nm 2000.
Cc halon trn c ct gim 50% vo nm 1995 (tr trng hp rt cn thit) v
100% nm 2000. Lng pht thi cacbon tetraclorua (CCl4) phi c ct 85% vo
nm 1995 v 100% vo nm 2000. Lng pht thi metyl cloroform (CH3CCl3) c
gi hn ch vo nm 1993, gim 30% nm 1995, 70% nm 2000 v 100% nm 2005.

37
2.4.5. Cc ht l lng trong tng i lu
Cc ht l lng trong tng i lu xut pht t nhiu ngun khc nhau.
Cc ht l lng ngun gc t nhin bao gm ht bi t, ht nc bin, phn hoa, bo
t, tro bi ni la, khi do sinh khi chy. Cc hot ng ca con ngi c th lm gia tng
lng mt s loi ht l lng ngun gc t nhin, v d canh tc km c th gy xi mn t
to nhiu bi hn.
Mt s loi ht l lng c ngun gc nhn to, quan trng nht trong s ny l ht xut
pht t vic t nhin liu ha thch v t sinh khi. Cc ht loi ny thng c kch thc rt
nh ( 2,5 m), do thng kh lng xung m ch c th b ra tri theo nc ma,
tuyt,...(ngng t t) hay bm vo cc b mt trong qu trnh di chuyn (ngng t kh).
Lng ht l lng trong kh quyn tng khng ngng trong th k 20, tuy nhin hin
nay trn phm vi ton cu, lng ht l lng pht thi ang c xu hng gim (trn 6,01013
gam/nm vo nm 1970 cn 5,71013 gam/nm vo nm 1990.
S gia tng nng cc ht l lng trong kh quyn gy ra mt s vn cn lu
v mt mi trng. Vi din tch b mt ring ln, cc ht l lng c th to iu kin lm
tng tc cc phn ng ha hc trong khng kh, v d phn ng oxy ha lu hunh dioxit
thnh lu hunh trioxit.
Cc ht l lng c kch thc b c th tn x nh sng, dn n cc thay i phc tp
v kh hu. nh hng ca s gia tng nng cc ht l lng n s thay i nhit trung
bnh ton cu cho n nay vn cn cha r rng.
Phi nhim trong thi gian di vi cc ht l lng kch thc b c th gy bnh phi
nh bnh thng phi, bnh bi phi silic, thm ch c th gy ung th (bi aming, bi kim
loi Be...).
Cc ht l lng c trong khi t nhin liu c kh nng lm tng tc hi ca cc cht
nhim khc. Mt s loi ht l lng khc mang cc cht c, trong s ng quan tm l
cc ht mui than, ht hp cht ch, tro bay...
2.4.5.1. Mui than (soot)
Mui than l cc ht nh mu en, c to thnh trong qu trnh t chy khng
hon ton nhin liu ha thch hoc sinh khi. N l dng cacbon khng tinh khit kt hp
vi nhiu hp cht hu c, trong c cc hp cht a vng (PAHs: polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons) nh pyren, benzopyren. y l cc cht c xp vo loi cht c kh nng
gy ung th.
Hiu sut to thnh mui than khi t nhin liu ph thuc vo loi nhin liu v ch
t. V d, ng c t xng theo nguyn tc chp chy (spark-ignition, ng c Otto) ch
to ra 0,1 g C/kg nhin liu, trong lc ng c Diesel theo nguyn tc nn chy
(compression ignition) li to ra n 3 g C/kg nhin liu. Tuy nhin, do hiu qu s dng
nng lng tt hn, nn ng c Diesel ngy cng c dng ph bin hn, dn n nguy c
tng lng ht mui than trong kh quyn.

(a)

Hnh 2.10. (a) pyren; (b): benzopyren

(b)

38
2.4.5.2. Cc ht hp cht ch
Trn 90% ch trong kh quyn c ngun gc t hot ng nhn to. C th tm thy ch
trong kh quyn nhiu ni khc nhau, song vng th c bit l ni gn cc xa l, nng
ch trong kh quyn thng rt cao.
Tetraankyl ch, thng l Pb(C2H5)4, c a vo nhin liu ng c Otto lm
tng ch s octan. trnh tch t ch trong ng c, ngi ta thm C2H4Br2 hay C2H4Cl2 vo
nhin liu pha ch. Cc cht ph gia ny gip to thnh PbBr2, PbBrCl hay PbCl2 thot ra khi
ng c. Cc hp cht ny thng c to thnh dng ht nh, mt na trong s ny (tnh
theo khi lng) c kch thc th (ng knh trung bnh > 5 m), mt phn ba c kch
thc rt b (ng knh trung bnh < 0,5 m). Thng thng cc ht ln s b sa lng ngay
gn ngun pht thi, cn cc ht b c th bay l lng mt thi gian kh di trong kh quyn
v c th pht tn rt xa.
Vic s dng ph gia ch cho nhin liu gy ra hai vn cn quan tm v kha
cnh mi trng. Th nht, ch c trong khi thi gy ng c h xc tc lp trong ng
x gim pht thi CO, NOx v cc hydrocacbon dn n gia tng nng cc kh ny trong
kh thi. Th hai, cc ht bi ch gy tc hi cho con ngi qua ng h hp v tiu ha (gy
kch thch v t lit thn kinh).
Hin nay, nhiu quc gia cm s dng cht ph gia ch cho nhin liu ng c, nh
nng ch trong kh quyn mt s vng bt u gim. Vit Nam, ph gia ch cho
nhin liu b cm s dng t 07/2001.
2.4.5.3. Tro bay (fly ash)
Tro bay l cc ht khong nh xut pht t vic t nhin liu ha thch c hm lng
tro cao. Thnh phn ca tro bay thay i ty thuc vo loi nhin liu s dng. Nhn chung
tro bay thng cha SiO2, Al2O3, K2O, Fe2O3, C, Na2O, SO2, CaO, P2O5, MgO, CO32,
TiO2,...
2.4.5.4. Aming (asbestos)
Aming l tn gi ca mt nhm cc khong silicat c dng si, c bit l cc khong
thuc nhm xecpentin, cng thc gn ng l Mg3P(Si2O5)(OH)4. Do c kh nng chu lc
cng, do v khng chy, nn trc y aming c s dng rt ph bin trong xy dng,
sn xut m phanh, tm vch ngn, cc loi ng ng.

Hnh 2.11. Kim tra bi aming trong cc cng trnh xy dng [18]

39
Hin nay, aming c xp vo loi vt liu gy nhim khng kh. Khi ht khng kh
c cha bi aming s b bnh phi do aming (asbestosis mt dng vim phi c iu
kin), u t bo biu m ca mng khoang lng ngc v ung th ph qun. Do , ngy nay
vic s dng aming b hn ch. Nhiu chng trnh hnh ng c tin hnh rng khp
nhm loi b hon ton vt liu ny ra khi ngnh xy dng.
2.4.5.5. Bin php gim thiu nhim do ht cht rn l lng
X l loi ht cht rn l lng (gi tt l bi) trong kh thi l bin php tch cc gp
phn hn ch tnh trng nhim khng kh. C nhiu kiu thit b khc nhau x l bi.
la chn h thng x l thch hp, cn cn c vo ti lng, bn cht v kch thc ht bi.
Thit b lng v qun tnh
Thit b lng l thit b n gin nht x l bi. Ht bi c lng v tch khi kh
thi trong bung lng da vo tc dng ca trng lc. Tuy c u im l c cu to n gin,
nhng hiu qu x l ca thit b lng khng cao, c bit vi loi bi c kch thc nh,
ngoi ra th tch ca bung lng thng ln, chim nhiu khng gian.
Qu trnh lng s c ci thin nu tng c kch thc ht bi bng bin php keo
t. Thi gian lng cng di th kch thc cc ht bi cng tng ln, ng thi s lng ht
bi gim xung. Chuyn ng Brown lm cho cc ht bi c kch thc nh (c 0,1 m) va
chm v gy ra hin tng keo t. Cc ht bi c ng knh ln hn (khong 0,3 m) khng
th khuch tn mnh m ch ng vai tr l tc nhn tp trung cc ht bi nh khc.

Kh thi x l bi

Kh thi cha bi

Bi lng

Hnh 2.12. Thit b lng qun tnh (cyclon) [12]

Trong thit b x l bi theo nguyn tc qun tnh (Hnh 2.12), dng kh thi c lm
cho chuyn ng xoay trn bng cch dng cnh qut hoc bng cch a dng kh vo thp
x l hnh tr theo phng tip tuyn vi thnh thp. Cc ht bi trong dng kh chu lc ly
tm ln v tch ra ri bm vo thnh v lng xung. Thit b kiu ny cn c gi l thit b
ly tm kh hay cyclon.

40

Thit b lc bi
Kh thi
cha bi
Ti lc
bng vi
Kh thi
x l

H thng rung
tun hon

B phn
hng bi

Hnh 2.13. Thit b lc bi bng ti vi [15]

Thit b lc bng ti vi (Hnh 2.13) c cu to rt n gin nhng c hiu qu x l cao.

Kh thi hoc khng kh c cha bi c dn i xuyn qua cc ti lc Thit b ny c th loi
c cc ht bi c kch c nh n 0,01 m v hiu qu x l bi rt tt vi loi ht bi 0,5 m.
Vt liu lm ti lc thng l vi bng, len d, vi si tng hp, vi si thy tinh,
cc loi li khc nhau.
C th tch bi bm vo ti lc vi bng nhiu bin php khc nhau, cc bin php
thng c s dng l: gn thit b to rung vi ti vi lm rung ti, thi khng kh, hoc
lm co gin nhanh ti lc.
Thit b Venturi (thit b ra xo ng)
Thit b gom bi Venturi c m t trong hnh di y. Thit b ny hot ng trn
c s s dng nng lng ca dng kh phun dng nc a vo di dng sng m.
Dng kh khi i vo thit b, b nn p do i theo ng hnh cn nh dn, khi n phn gia
thit b (hng ni tip), tc dng kh tng ln rt cao (80-200 m/s). Sau , tc dng kh
b gim t ngt v i vo phn ng rng hn. Trong dng kh b xo ng mnh, cc ht bi
nh b tch t li thnh ht ln hn, sau b li cun vo cc ht nc nh v do b tch
ra khi pha kh. Cc ht nc ln bi c tch ra khi dng kh bng thit b tch ring, v
d h thng xyclon t.
Kh thi

Nc

Kh thi x l

Hnh 2.14. Thit b lc bi Venturi [15]

41
Thit b Venturi c kh nng lm cc ht bi ln ln n kch thc 10 m nn c
hiu sut lm sch bi n 99,9%.
Thit b lc bi tnh in
30. 000 n
50.000 V
Cc dng
(tip t)

Ht bi tch in

Cc m

Kh thi c
cha bi

Hnh 2.15. S nguyn tc lc bi tnh in [15]

Kh thi c dn i qua vng in trng mt chiu c hiu th khong 30.00050.000 V. Cc ht bi trong kh thi hu ht s b tch in m khi i qua vng in trng
ny. Cc ht bi tch in m s b ht v tch t vo bn in cc dng. Mt s t ht bi c
th b tch in dng v tch t ln cc m.
Thit b lc tnh in c dng rt ph bin x l bi trong kh thi, hiu qu x
l c th t n 99%, chi ph nng lng thp. Vi nhng nh my pht thi mt lng rt
ln kh thi cha bi, th bin php lc tnh in l bin php thch hp nht x l.

2.5. Tc ng tng hp ca cc cht nhim khng kh

2.5.1. Hiu ng nh knh
Kt qu o c t nm 1890 n 1990 cho thy nhit trung bnh ton cu gia
tng 0,3 n 0,6C. Chnh lch nhit ny c v khng ng k, nhng c th dn n
nhiu thay i quan trng v kh hu. Cn lu rng, trc y k bng h kt thc ch v
nhit ton cu tng 2C. V vy, nu xu hng gia tng nhit ny tip tc din ra th
ngi ta d on s c nhiu o ln ca kh hu ton cu.
Nguyn nhn ca s gia tng nhit ny cha c gii thch r rng. C th c hai
kh nng:
y ch l s bin ng ngu nhin ca kh hu.
y l hin tng m ln ton cu do vic pht thi cc kh nh knh. Cc kh nh
knh hp th bc x hng ngoi t Tri t, thay v cc bc x ny thot vo khng trung,
do lm cho Tri t m ln (theo nguyn tc hot ng ca nh knh). Cng chnh nh hiu
ng ny m nhit Tri t m p duy tr s sng ca sinh quyn. C th minh ha
hiu ng nh knh bng Hnh 2.16.
Bc x Mt tri bao gm cc phn t ngoi (UV), kh kin (VIS), hng ngoi (IR),
sau khi i vo kh quyn Tri t, thnh phn UV b tng ozon hp th, ch cn phn VIS v
mt phn IR n c mt t v b mt t hp th.

42

Hnh 2.16. Hiu ng nh knh

Sau khi hp th nng lng, mt t bc x tr li vo kh quyn cc bc x bc sng

di hn bc sng ca nh sng c hp th. Cc bc x ny ch yu l bc x IR. Bc x
IR t mt t b kh nh knh trong kh quyn hp th v ta ra nhit, lm kh hu m ln.
Cc kh nh knh chnh:
T nhin: H2O, CO2, CH4, N2O
Nhn to: CFCs
Nu xt v kh nng hp th nng lng bc x ca cc phn t kh nh knh, th CO2
l loi kh c kh nng hp th km hn rt nhiu cc kh nh knh khc (Error! Not a valid
bookmark self-reference.). Song trong thc t, do nng ca CO2 trong tng i lu cao
hn rt nhiu nn phn ng gp ca kh ny vo hiu ng nh knh l cao nht.
Hi nc trong khng kh hp th bc x hng ngoi nhiu hn tt c cc kh nh knh
khc, nhng do nng ca hi nc trong tng i lu gn nh khng thay i nn phn
ng gp ca n khng c xem l yu t chnh lm gia tng hiu ng nh knh.
Bng 2.5. So snh kh nng hp th bc x ca cc kh nh knh [7]
Kh

Kh nng hp th nng lng bc

x so vi CO2

CFC12

15800

CFC11

12400

N2O

206

CH4

21

CO2

43
Bng 2.6. So snh s ng gp vo hiu ng nh knh ca cc kh nh knh [7]
Kh

Phn ng gp (%)

CO2

55

CFC11 & CFC12

17

CH4

15

Cc CFC khc

N2O

Nu khng c cc n lc trit nhm hn ch pht thi cc kh nh knh, th theo d

bo hiu ng ny s gia tng mnh m trong th k 21.
S dng cc m hnh my tnh tnh ton d on nhng thay i v kh hu do hu
qu ca hiu ng nh knh, ngi ta thu c cc kt lun quan trng sau:
1. Nhit trung bnh ton cu n nm 2050 s cao nht trong vng 150.000 nm gn y.
2. Trong th k 21 tc thay i nhit trung bnh ton cu s cao nht so vi
10.000 nm gn y.
3. Mc nc i dng s tng mt cch ng k, do khi nhit tng th khi lng
ring ca nc gim, bng tan. Mt s o nh, cc vng t thp ven b s b nhn chm
trong nc. Nhng thay i ny d on c th xy ra trong th k 22.
4. Mc nc mt s h s b gim ng k do tc bay hi tng.
5. S m ln ton cu s xy ra khng ng nht c v khng gian ln thi gian. Lc
a s b m ln mnh hn i dng, c bit ng lu cc v tuyn cao pha Bc vo
ma ng, do lm gim s chnh lch nhit gia cc cc vi vng xch o, nn c th
dn n suy gim cc dng i lu ca Tri t.
Ngoi cc h qu c d on bng m hnh my tnh trn, c th cn c mt s h
qu khc m m hnh my tnh cha th kt lun c, v d:
1. S thay i thi tit ca a phng hay khu vc, phm vi tc ng ca cc cn bo
nhit i v tn sut bo khu vc v tuyn trung bnh.
2. p ng ca cc h sinh thi, ma mng nng nghip vi s m ln ton cu.
3. nh hng ca cc s kin xy ra t ngt cha tin on c, v d s thay i
ng k v hot ng ca cc vnh ai i dng, s thay i ca cc lp bng.
2.5.2. S suy gim nng ozon trong tng bnh lu
2.5.2.1. Tng ozon
Ozon c mt khp trong kh quyn, nhng tng i lu nng ca ozon ch dng
vt. Nng ozon t gi tr cc i (8 10 ppm) khu vc trn nh tng i lu v phn
di ca tng bnh lu ( cao t khong 15 n 35 km) to thnh tng ozon.
2.5.2.2. Cc phn ng to thnh v phn hy ozon trong tng bnh lu
Trong tng bnh lu ozon c to thnh, ng thi cng b phn hy di tc dng
ca bc x t ngoi t nh sng Mt tri. Bc x t ngoi thng c chia lm ba vng:
UV-A ( = 320 400 nm); UV-B ( = 290 320 nm) v UV-C ( < 290 nm). Cc phn ng
to thnh v phn hy ozon trong tng bnh lu:

Phn ng to thnh ozon:

O2 + h (UV-C) 2O
O + O2 + M O3 + M

(a)
(b)

44
Phn ng to thnh ozon xy ra nhiu hn lp khng kh pha trn vng xch o, do
ti y nh sng Mt tri cha nhiu bc x UV-C hn hai vng cc.

Phn ng phn hy ozon:

h (UV-B) O2 + O
(c)
O + O3 2O2
(d)
ngoi ra cn c phn ng phn hy ozon do cc tc nhn khc:
X + O3 XO + O2
(e)
XO + O X + O2
(f)
(g)
tng cng ca (e) & (f):
O + O3 2O2
trong , X c th l Cl, NO, OH, hay H. Cu t X c ti to sau qu trnh phn hy ozon,
do mi nguyn t hay phn t X c th phn hy hng ngn phn t ozon trc khi phn
ng xc tc b kt thc do X phn ng vi mt phn t khc ozon.
Phn ng phn hy ozon bi cu t X nu trn cng c th b gin on, do X hay XO
tham gia cc phn ng khc, v d:
Cl (X) + CH4 CH3 + HCl
(h)
ClO (XO, vi X = Cl) + NO2 + M M + ClONO2
(i)
NO2 (XO, vi X = NO) + OH + M M + HNO3
(k)
V vy, cc phn t HNO3, HCl, ClONO2 c xem l ni cha tm thi ca cc tc
nhn xc tc phn hy ozon.
O3 +

2.5.2.3. S suy gim nng ozon trong tng bnh lu

Hot ng nhn to a vo tng bnh lu ngy cng nhiu cc kh gy phn hy
ozon (N2O, NO, NO2, CFCs, halons, cc hp cht hydrocacbon brom ha,...). Cc hp cht
ny hoc l ng vai tr ca X, XO trong cc phn ng (e), (f), hoc chuyn ha to ra X,
XO (xem cc phn trc).
Do nng ca ozon trong tng bnh lu lun bin ng khong vi phn trm theo
ngy, ma hay nm, nn rt kh xc nh c hot ng ca con ngi c phi l nguyn
nhn chnh gy ra cc thay i ny khng, tr khi c mt bin ng nng ln xy ra ti
mt khu vc no .
Nm 1985, cc nh khoa hc ca mt on thm him Nam cc pht hin thy s
suy gim ng k nng ozon vo ma Xun ti khu vc ny. Hin tng ny tip tc c
pht hin vo cc nm sau v c nhc n vi tn gi l thng tng ozon (khi nng ozon
ti mt khu vc trong tng ozon gim i hn 50% th c xem l xut hin l thng tng
ozon ti khu vc ).
Nguyn nhn ca l thng tng ozon Nam cc
Do c s chnh lch nhit gia vng cc v cc vng v thp hn, li c bao
quanh bi i dng, nn vo ma ng Nam cc thng xut hin cc cn gi xoy rt
mnh to thnh cn lc cao 10 n 15 km. Vi c im ca a hnh v nhit ring, lc
Nam cc tn ti sut ma ng, c lp mt vng khng kh pha trn Nam cc v ch tan i khi
ma Xun n.
Do khng kh pha trn Nam cc rt kh (cha khong 4 n 6 ppmv hi nc), nn
qu trnh ngng t to my ch xy ra nhit rt thp. Khi nhit ca khu vc gia tng
i lu v tng bnh lu xung thp hn 75C th bt u to thnh nhng m my cha
cc ht HNO3.3H2O (nitric acid trihydrate NAT) ng c gi l my tng bnh lu vng
cc loi 1 (Type 1 PSC polar stratospheric clouds). My loi ny cha cc ht rn nh

45
tng t cc tinh th bng c ng knh trung bnh khong 1 m vi din tch b mt ln.

Tm cn lc
NHIT THP
H2O PSC loi 2
HNO3 + H2O PSC loi 1
ClONO2 + PSC HOCl + HNO3
ClONO2 + HCl + PSC Cl2 + HNO3

SUY GIM
CHM

TRN LN CHM
NOx
gim

Cl2, HOCl
tng

Khong 10 15 km
NAM CC

(a) Mt ct ngang

(b) Mt ct ng

Hnh 2.17. S m t lc xoy hnh thnh vo ma ng Nam cc [17]

(a): Mt ct ngang: mt s phn ng xy ra trn b mt cc ht bng trong PSC.
(b): Mt ct ng: lc xoy hnh thnh ch yu tng bnh lu. Vng gi mnh c lp khi khng kh
pha trong con lc vi phn khng kh bn ngoi.

Cc ht rn ny hp th oxit nit v gi chng li trong pha rn di dng HNO3, do

trong pha kh khng th xy ra phn ng kt hp ClO vi NO2 (phn ng (i) nu trn,
phn ng ny c vai tr ngn chn qu trnh phn hy ozon ca clo).
Trong lc , chlorine nitrat ClONO2 c sn trong tng bnh lu li b phn hy trn
b mt cc ht rn ny:
ClONO2 + H2O HOCl + HNO3
ClONO2 + HCl Cl2 + HNO3
(cc phn ng ny khng xy ra trong pha kh khi khng c b mt ht rn) lm tng lng
Cl2 v HOCl l cc cht cung cp Cl cho qu trnh phn hy ozon.
Khi khng kh bn trong cn lc b c lp khng th tip xc, ha trn vi khng kh
bn ngoi. V vy, khng kh bn trong cn lc khng cn cha cc nit oxit, ngc li
tch t mt lng ng k cc tc nhn (Cl2, HOCl) c th b phn hy to thnh gc t do Cl.
Qu trnh ny tip din trong sut cc thng ma ng khng c nh sng Mt tri.
Khi Mt tri mc vo ma Xun, bc x t ngoi ca nh sng Mt tri phn hy Cl2
v HOCl to ra mt lng ln Cl t do lm phn hy ozon rt nhanh chng.
Vo cui ma Xun, cn lc Nam cc tan dn, khng kh bn ngoi v bn trong
cn lc c th ha trn vi nhau. Lc ny lng clo t do to thnh b khuch tn bt,
ng thi do s c mt ca nit oxit t khng kh bn ngoi nn qu trnh phn hy ozon
chm dn li. Vng ozon b suy gim ny di chuyn v pha Xch o (qua c hay Nam M)
v c hi phc dn.
Bc cc t lnh hn so vi Nam cc, ti y cng khng tn ti cn lc ko di sut
ma ng, nn s suy gim tng ozon cng khng mnh m nh Nam cc.

46

Hnh 2.18. L thng ln nht ca tng ozon Nam cc ghi nhn c (21-30/9/2006) [28]

Hu qu ca s suy gim ca nng ozon trong tng bnh lu

Tng ozon hp th bc x t ngoi bc sng trong khong 230 320 nm. Bc x ny
ch yu thuc nhm UV-B. Bc x nhm UV-B c th hy hoi ADN v mt s h sinh hc.

i vi thc vt: tc hi ca bc x UV-B i vi thc vt c ghi nhn, tuy

nhin tc hi ny khng ng k nu thi gian nh hng khng di. Ngoi ra, cc nh
khoa hc cng c th chn loi ging cy c kh nng chng chu c loi bc x ny. ng
quan tm hn c l tc hi ca UV-B ln thc vt ph du. y l loi thc vt c lin quan
trc tip n nng sut sinh hc ca i dng. 70% lng thc vt ph du xut pht t i
dng vng cc. y li l ni xy ra tnh trng suy gim tng ozon ng lu nht. S
suy gim nng sut sinh hc ca i dng s nh hng trc tip n sinh vt v xa hn na
l nh hng n chui thc n.

i vi con ngi: UV-B c th gy cc tc hi nh n con ngi nh lm da chy

nng, la mt, lo ha da, c thy tinh th, ung th da hay ung th mt. Ngoi ra, UV-B cn
nh hng c hi n h min dch da, do lm cc bnh lin quan n da nh si, st rt,
phong, tr nn phc tp hn.
2.5.3. Sng khi (smog)
Sng khi l mt dng s c mi trng, xy ra do s kt hp sng vi khi v mt
s cht gy nhim khng kh khc. Sng khi thng to ra nhiu cht gy nhim th
cp c hi cho ng thc vt v mi trng ni chung. Cho n nay, ngi ta ghi nhn c
hai kiu sng khi xy ra:
2.5.3.1. Sng khi kiu London
Cc s c sng khi kiu ny c ghi nhn t th k 17. Song sng khi xy ra
ti London t 05 n 10/12/1952 l trng hp in hnh v trm trng nht.
Vo ma ng, ban m, nhit gn mt t thng xung rt thp, to ra mt khi
khng kh lnh c mt cao nm st mt t v mt khi khng kh tng i m hn bn
trn, gi l hin tng o nhit (temperature inversion). Hin tng o nhit hn ch ng
k s di chuyn i lu ca lp khng kh gn mt t. Vo bui sng, Mt tri thng si
m dn cc lp khng kh v ph v hin tng o nhit v sng to thnh trong lp khng
kh lnh st mt t. Tt c cc hin tng ni trn u l cc hin tng t nhin thng xy
ra, c bit vi cc vng v cao. Tuy nhin, s c sng khi xy ra London li do mt
s nguyn nhn b sung sau:

47

Sng xut hin vo thi im ny qu dy c nn kh tan i.

Mt lng ln khi t l than b gi li trong tng kh lnh st mt t.

Hnh 2.19. Sng khi nm 1952 ti London [26]

Trong iu kin ny cc ht sng pht trin chung quanh cc ht khi, to nn hin

tng sng khi ko di v ngy cng trm trng hn, do s tch t tip khi than theo thi
gian. Sau , sng khi tan i nh gi cun ra Bin Bc.
SO2 v cc ht l lng c trong khi than to nn hiu ng synergism v l cc tc
nhn gy hi chnh ca s c sng khi London. Trong iu kin cng tn ti, SO2 v cc
ht l lng thng to ra nhiu sn phm gy nhim th cp (ch yu l axit sulfuric) gy
hi cho h h hp, kh qun, phi v c th c tim (do gy kh th). S t vong trong s c
sng khi ny ln n gn nm ngn ngi. V mt bn cht, hin tng sng khi London
chnh l mt v d c bit v ma axit.
Do tc hi nghim trng ca s c 1952, chnh ph Anh ban hnh Lut v chng
nhim khng kh (Clean Air Act) vo nm 1956, trong nhn mnh v vic to cc khu vc
sng khng c khi ng thi cm s dng cc loi than t sinh khi.
2.5.3.2. Sng khi kiu Los Angeles
Ngoi kiu sng khi London, cn c mt kiu sng khi khc tng honh hnh
ti nhiu thnh ph ln khc vng v thp. Sng khi dng ny gy nh hng ng k
ln u tin Los Angeles. Tuy nhin sau , s c sng khi xy ra cc thnh ph
Mexico v Baghdad li l cc trng hp gy tc hi mnh nht.
Khc vi sng khi kiu London, sng khi kiu Los Angeles khng xy ra vo cc
m ma ng khi c khi t than, m xy ra vo ban ngy khi c nng m v mt giao
thng cao. NOx (ch yu l NO) v cc hydrocacbon cha b t chy ht thi ra t ng x
ng c xe my l cc cht nhim s cp gy ra hin tng sng khi kiu ny. Sau
di tc dng ca nh sng Mt tri, nhiu phn ng quang ha xy ra to thnh nhiu cht
nhim th cp (ozon, HNO3, anhyt, peroxyaxyl nitrat PANs,...). V vy, sng khi kiu
Los Angeles c gi l sng khi quang ha (photochemical smog). Mt cch n gin c
th biu din s hnh thnh sng khi quang ha bng phng trnh sau:
Cc hydrocacbon + NOx Sng khi quang ha

48
(b) Gia bui sng

(a) Sng sm

nh sng Mt tri
(tia t ngoi)

KHNG KH M HN
KHNG KH LNH HN
khi thi ng c

NO
CO
(CH2)n

2NO + O2 NO2 (mu nu)

NO2 + O2 O3
(CH2)n v CO tch t

Hin tng o nhit ngn cn

s khuch tn khi thi

(c) Tra, chiu

NO b xy ha to ra NO2 mu nu l m
tch ly zn

(d) Bui ti

nh sng Mt tri
(tia t ngoi)

Khng c nh sng Mt tri

khuch tn
(tc khuch tn ph thuc
vo tc suy gim ca hin
tng o nhit)

(CH2)n + (NO, O3, NO2, H2O)

peroxit, hp cht cacbonyl,
nitrat hu c,....

Khng c nh sng Mt tri (giao thng t)

khng tch ly thm khi thi
c th khuch tn mt phn hay ton b

Hp th tip nh sng Mt tri to ra cc

cht nhim th cp c hi

Hnh 2.20. iu kin v s to thnh sng khi quang ha [17]

Hydrocacbon hot ng

(A)

+ O3
RCH2

+ O2

+ NO

RCH2O2

RCH2O (+ NO2)
+ O2

(H2O) + RCH2

(B)

+ RCH3

HOO (+ RCHO)

(gc axyl)
O

O
RCHO

+ NO

HO
(+ NO2)

+ HO

(+ H2O)

+ O2

O
O

(gc peroxyaxyl)

+ NO2

NO2

(peroxyaxyl nitrat: PAN)

Hnh 2.21. (A) Cc phn ng to thnh sng khi; (B) Cc phn ng to thnh PAN [8]

Cc qu trnh xy ra trong sng khi quang ha cha c bit r rng, song ngi
ta cho rng cc phn ng quang ha xy ra y c l cng khng khc nhiu so vi cc phn
ng quang ha xy ra trong khng kh khng nhim.

49

Hnh 2.22. Sng khi ti Los Angeles [27]

Cc tc nhn nhim gy hi ch yu ca sng khi quang ha l ozon, PANs, NO2

v ht keo kh. Cc tc nhn ny gy ra hiu ng synergism. Do c cha NO2, nn sng khi
kiu ny thng c dng khi l m mu nu, khc vi sng khi kiu London c mu en.
i vi ng vt v con ngi, sng khi quang ha kch thch gy cay bng mt,
kh qun, phi v ng h hp ni chung. i vi thc vt, sng khi quang ha ngn cn
qu trnh quang hp, lm gim nng sut cy trng. Sng khi quang ha c th gy lo ha,
ct mch cao su, n mn kim loi v nhiu loi vt liu khc.
2.5.4. Ma axit
Thng thng ngay c khi khng kh khng b nhim th nc ngng t (bao gm
ma, ma , tuyt, sng m) cng khng phi l nc nguyn cht. Nc ngng t cha
mt lng ng k bi, cht rn v kh ha tan. CO2 ha tan lm cho pH ca nc ngng t
sch c gi tr khong 5,6. V vy, nc ma khng b nhim vn c pH < 7. Thut ng
ma axit ch dng cho loi nc ngng t c pH nh hn pH ca nc ma sch mt cch
ng k. Thng thng khi pH ca nc ngng t nh hn 5 th mi c gi l ma axit.
Cht nhim s cp ch yu gy ra ma axit l SO2 v NOx.
SO2(k) + 2H2O(l) HSO3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Trong thc t, ma axit t khi c pH thp hn 3.
Cc cht nhim th cp nh SO3, H2SO4, HNO3 cn gy nh hng ln hn SO2
nhiu, do chng l cc axit mnh trong mi trng nc. Trn gc ton cu, SO2 v H2SO4
to thnh t SO2 l cc tc nhn nhim chnh gy ra ma axit. HNO3 thng ch ng gp
khong 1/3 trong tng lng axit c trong khng kh nhim axit.
Ma axit chnh l mt dng c ch sink loi tr cc cht kh nhim nh SO2, NOx
theo kiu ngng t t. Cc kiu sng khi trnh by cng chnh l mt dng ma axit.
Mc d khng phi l vn mi trng mi pht sinh, nhng gn y ma axit c
cc nh khoa hc rt ch .
Ma axit gy ra mt lot cc vn v mi trng, trong ng quan tm l nh
hng ca n n cc ngun nc t nhin. nh hng ca ma axit n cc vc nc t
nhin ph thuc vo kh nng m cng nh kh nng trung ha cc nh hng ca axit

50
ca vc nc . Kh nng chng chu ny li ph thuc vo c im a cht (t, )
khu vc ngun nc. V d, khc vi sng h khu vc granite, cc sng h khu vc
vi, thch cao rt t b nh hng ca ma axit do kh nng m tt v c cha nhiu ion
hydrocacbonat (HCO3):
H+ + HCO3 H2CO3 H2O + CO2
Ma axit lm suy gim mnh tnh a dng v loi ca h ng thc vt thy sinh. Tuy
nhin, mt s loi c kh nng chng chu vi s thay i pH ca mi trng li pht trin
mnh do s cnh tranh trong mi trng sng gim.

Hnh 2.23. Ma axit hy hoi rng cy dy ni Blue Ridge, North Carolina [29]

Hnh 2.24. Ma axit n mn tng vi [25]

51
C thng rt nhy cm v c th cht khi c s thay i t ngt axit ca mi
trng (do ma axit hay tuyt axit tan).
Bn cnh cc nh hng trc tip nu trn, ma axit cn gy ra cc nh hng
gin tip. Ma axit lm gim pH cc ngun nc t nhin dn n lm tng nng cc ion
kim loi c trong nc, v d nng ion nhm trong nc tng t l vi axit, y l ion
c i vi nhiu ng vt thy sinh, c bit i vi c.
i vi thc vt, cc nghin cu v tc hi ca ma axit cha cho cc kt qu r rng.
Nhn chung, ma axit c th gy hi n ma mng do nh hng n s ra tri cc nguyn
t, cht dinh dng trong t cn cho s pht trin ca thc vt. Ma axit ra tri Ca v Mg
trong t ng thi lm tng nng Al. Khi t s Ca:Al nh hn 1, b r nh ca thc vt s
hp th nhiu Al hn, nhng y li l nguyn t c hi cho r nh, do lm cht b r nh
nn thc vt s chm pht trin. Thc vt chm pht trin c th b nhim bnh do vi khun,
nm,...
Ngoi ra, ma axit c th nh hng n cc cng trnh xy dng, b cha, ng ng
dn nc do c kh nng n mn.
Ma axit t nh hng trc tip n sc khe con ngi (tr trng hp sng khi).

Cu hi
1. p sut v nhit c xu hng bin i nh th no theo cao trong kh quyn?
2. Lp dng l g ? Ti sao ni lp dng ng mt vai tr quan trng trong kh quyn?
3. Qu trnh tch t oxy trong kh quyn?
4. Gii thch cc qu trnh trao i oxy m t trong hnh 2.3?
5. Ti sao nguy c s dng ht oxy trong kh quyn l hon ton khng th xy ra?
6. Cc nhn t sinh thi quan trng trong kh quyn?
7. V sao cn hn ch v i n ngng s dng cc hp cht CFC v halon?
8. Cc ph gia cha ch dng trong vic sn xut nhin liu ng c li b cm s dng?
9. Lit k mt s ng dng ca aming trong i sng v tc hi c th c n sc khe ca
con ngi.
10. Hin tng m ln ton cu c th c gii thch th no theo quan im ca ha hc
mi trng?
11. Ti sao l thng tng ozon thng xut hin trn vng Nam cc vo thi im cui
ma ng v u ma Xun hng nm?
12. Trnh by s khc nhau gia hin tng sng khi kiu London v sng khi kiu Los
Angeles.
13. Tc hi ca ma axit i vi ngnh nng nghip?
14. C th thc hin cc bin php g lm gim nguy c gy ma axit?

52

3.

THY QUYN V NHIM MI TRNG NC

3.1. Ti nguyn nc v chu trnh nc

Nc tham gia vo thnh phn cu trc ca sinh quyn, iu ha cc yu t kh hu,
t ai v sinh vt. Nc cn p ng nhng nhu cu a dng ca con ngi trong sinh hot
hng ngy, ti tiu cho nng nghip, sn xut cng nghip, sn xut in nng v to ra
nhiu cnh quan p...
Khong 97% ti nguyn nc ton cu l nc ca cc i dng. Mt phn rt nh hi
nc trong khng kh, trong t cng vi khong hn 2% lng nc cha trong bng hai
u cc l lng nc kh c th khai thc s dng. Con ngi ch c th da vo lng nc
ngt rt nh c trong sng, h nc ngt v ti nc ngm phc v cc nhu cu sinh hot v
sn xut ca mnh, lng nc ny ch chim khong 0,62% ti nguyn nc ton cu.
Bng 3.1. S phn b ti nguyn nc ton cu [12]
Th tch ( 1012 m3)

V tr

T l (%)

Vng lc a
H nc ngt

125

0,009

H nc mn, bin ni a

104

0,008

Sng

1,25

0,0001

67

0,005

8.350

0,61

29.200

2,14

(37.800)

(2,8)

13

0,001

1.320.000

97,3

m trong t
Nc ngm ( su di 4000 m)
Bng cc cc
Tng vng lc a (lm trn)
Kh quyn (hi nc)
Cc i dng
Tng cng (lm trn)

1.360.000

Kh quyn

100

Ngng t

Ma, tuyt 100%

Bc hi 30%

Thot hi nc 40%
Chy trn b mt 20%

Thm 50%

i dng

Ti nc ngm
Dng nc ngm 10%

Hnh 3.1. Chu trnh nc [12]

53

3.2. Thnh phn ca nc t nhin

Cc iu kin vt l nh hng rt mnh n cc qu trnh ha hc v sinh hc xy ra
trong nc.
Nc t nhin cha cc hp cht v c, hu c, cc kh ha tan, cht rn l lng,
nhiu loi vi sinh vt. S phn b cc cht ha tan v cc thnh phn khc trong nc quyt
nh bn cht ca nc t nhin: nc ngt, nc l, nc mn; nc giu hoc ngho dinh
dng; nc cng hoc mm; nc b nhim nng hoc nh...
3.2.1. Cc kh ha tan
Hu ht cc cht kh thng gp trong mi trng u c th ha tan hoc phn ng
vi nc, tr m tan.
Cc kh ha tan c th c mt trong nc do ha tan trc tip t khng kh vo nc
(nh oxy, cacbonic,...) hoc do cc qu trnh sinh ha xy ra bn trong cc ngun nc.
tan ca cc kh trong nc ph thuc vo nhit , p sut. Trong mt s trng
hp tan ca cht kh cn ph thuc vo mt vi yu t khc (pH, thnh phn ha hc ca
nc,).
Trong s cc cht kh ha tan trong nc, oxy ha tan (dissolved oxygen DO) ng
mt vai tr rt quan trng. Oxy ha tan cn thit cho sinh vt thy sinh pht trin, n l iu
kin khng th thiu c cho cc qu trnh phn hy hiu kh ca vi sinh vt. Khi nc b
nhim do cc cht hu c d b phn hy bi vi sinh vt th lng oxy ha tan trong nc s
b tiu th bt, do gi tr DO s rt thp so vi DO bo ha ti iu kin . V vy, DO
thng c s dng nh mt thng s nh gi mc nhim cht hu c ca cc
ngun nc. DO c ngha ln i vi qu trnh t lm sch ca sng (assimilative capacity
AC).
C th xc nh DO bng phng php Winkler(ha hc) hoc bng phng php s
dng DO mt (in ha). n v biu din: mg/L.
Phng php Winkler: oxy trong nc c c nh ngay sau khi ly mu bng hn
hp cht c nh (MnSO4, KI, NaN3), lc ny oxy ha tan trong mu s phn ng vi Mn2+
to thnh MnO2. Khi em mu v n phng th nghim, thm axt sulfuric hay phosphoric
vo mu, lc ny MnO2 s oxy ha I thnh I2. Chun I2 to thnh bng Na2S2O3 vi ch
th h tinh bt. Tnh ra lng O2 c trong mu.
Phng php s dng DO mt: y l phng php c s dng rt ph bin hin
nay. DO mt c dng xc nh nng oxy ha tan ngay ti hin trng. in cc ca
DO mt hot ng theo nguyn tc: dng in xut hin trong in cc t l vi lng oxy
ha tan trong nc khuch tn qua mng in cc, trong lc lng oxy khuch tn qua
mng li t l vi nng ca oxy ha tan. o cng dng in xut hin ny cho php
xc nh c DO.
Bn cnh DO, nng CO2 ha tan trong nc cng ng mt vai tr quan trng.
Nng CO2 nh hng trc tip n nhiu tnh cht, qu trnh ha hc, sinh hc ca nc
nh kim, axit, kh nng xm thc, qu trnh quang hp,
3.2.2. Cht rn
3.2.2.1. Cht rn l lng v cht rn ha tan
Cc cht rn trong nc thng phn tn trong nc di dng l lng (khng tan)
hoc dng tan.
Cht rn l lng (suspended solids SS): cht rn l lng trong nc c th l cc
ht cht v c, hu c k c cc ht cht lng khng trn ln vi nc. Cc ht c bn cht v

54
c c th l cc ht t st, ph sa, ht bn, Ht c bn cht hu c thng l si thc vt,
to, vi khun, Cht rn l lng thng c trong nc mt do hot ng xi mn nhng t c
trong nc ngm do kh nng tch lc tt ca t.
Ngoi cc ht cht rn l lng c ngun gc t nhin, nhiu cht rn l lng xut pht
t cc hot ng sinh hot, sn xut ca con ngi.
Thng thng cht rn l lng c xc nh bng cch lc mu nc qua giy lc si
thy tinh (glassfiber filter) c c l xp khong 1,2 m hoc mng polycacbonat c c l
xp khong 1 m, sau sy kh phn khng qua giy lc 103 n 105C n khi lng
khng i v cn xc nh cht rn l lng. n v biu din: mg/L.

(TS: total solids; SS: suspended solids; VSS: volatide SS; FSS: fixed SS; TVS: total volatide solids;
FS: filtrable solids; VFS: volatide FS; FFS: fixed FS; TFS: total fixed solids)
Hnh 3.2. S xc nh v quan h gia cht rn l lng v cht rn ha tan [16]

Cht rn ha tan (dissolved solids - DS): phn cn li trong nc sau khi lc tch
cht rn l lng c xem l phn cht rn ha tan v c nh gi thng qua thng s tng
cht rn ha tan (total dissolved solids - TDS).
Tng cht rn ha tan thng c xc nh trc tip bng cch lm bay hi n kh
kit mu nc sau khi lc b cht rn l lng. Khi lng phn cn kh cn li chnh l
TDS ca nc. TDS thng c biu din bng n v mg/L.

55
3.2.2.2. Cc cht v c ha tan
Nc t nhin l dung mi tt ha tan hu ht cc axit, baz v mui v c.
Bng 3.2. Thnh phn ha hc trung bnh ca nc sng h v nc bin ton cu [5]

Thnh phn

Nc bin

Nc sng h

Nng (mg/L)

Th t

Nng (mg/L)

Th t

19340

10770

2712

11

1294

412

15

399

140

58

Br

65

Sr2+

Cc ion chnh
Cl
Na+
SO4
Mg

2+

Ca2+
+

HCO3

Cc nguyn t vt

(g/lt)

(g/lt)

4500

10

15

Si

5000

13100

1400

100

12

250

230

11

35

20

13

Mo

11

18

Zn

20

14

Fe

670

Cu

17

Mn

10

16

Ni

11

0,3

19

Al

12

400

10

Bng 3.2 cho thy tng nng cc ion ha tan trong nc bin cao hn rt nhiu so
vi trong nc sng. S ha tan cc cht rn (ion) trong nc chnh l yu t quyt nh
mn ca nc.
Nc bin
Theo quan im ha hc, c th xem nc bin l dung dch hn hp gm NaCl 0,5 M
v MgSO4 0,05 M, ngoi ra nc bin cn cha nhiu nguyn t ha hc khc vi nng
thp hn.
Nuc bin trn ton cu c nhng c im ng ch sau:

T l thnh phn cc cu t chnh n nh: nhn chung trn phm vi ton cu, nc

56
bin kh ng nht v t l thnh phn ca cc cu t chnh, mc d nng tuyt i ca
cc cu t ny c th bin ng theo vng, khu vc:
a. T l Na/Cl:
0,55 0,56
b. T l Mg/Cl:
0,06 0,07
c. T l K/Cl:
0,02

pH n nh: pH ca nc bin gn nh lun n nh gi tr 8,1 0,2 trn phm vi

ton cu. iu ny c gii thch do:
a. Tc dng m ca h m H2CO3 HCO3 CO32
b. Tc dng m ca h m B(OH)3 B(OH)4
c. Cn bng trao i gia cc cation ha tan trong nc bin vi lp silicat trm tch
y i dng:
3Al2Si2O5(OH)4(S) + 4SiO2 (S) + 2K+ + 2Ca2+ + 9H2O 2KCaAl2Si5O16(H2O)6(S) + 6H+
trong , (c) c xem l nguyn nhn chnh to tc dng m cho nc i dng.

pE n nh: pE ca nc bin cng c gi tr n nh trong khong 12,5 0,2. Do

nc bin khng nhng c tc dng m pH m cn c kh nng m oxy ha kh.
Phn c thm: Khi nim pE
Xu hng ca phn ng oxy ha kh ca mt h ha hc ph thuc vo hot
ca in t. Khi hot in t ca h kh cao, cc cu t (ngay c nc) trong h c
xu hng nhn in t:

2H2O + 2e H2(kh) + 2OH

v b kh. Khi hot in t thp, mi trng c xu hng kh, cc cu t ho hc
ca h v ngay c nc cng s b oxy ha:
2H2O O2 (kh) + 4H+ + 4e
Kh nng oxy ha hay kh ca mi trng ph thuc vo th in cc E. Khi E
dng, mi trng c tnh oxy ha, ngc li khi E m th mi trng c tnh kh. Do
hot in t ca mi trng thng dao ng trong mt khong rng theo hm m,
nn tin li cho vic nh gi kh nng oxy ha kh ca mi trng, ngi ta
thng dng khi nhim pE. pE c nh ngha bng biu thc sau:
pE = lg (ae)
trong , ae l hot ca in t trong nc. (Lu : pE khng phi l -lgE, vi E l
th oxy ha kh).
Mi quan h gia pE v th oxy ha kh ca phn ng oxy ha kh
Trong bn phn ng oxy ha kh:

Ox + ne Kh

Ox l cht oxy ha, Kh l cht kh.

Theo phng trnh Nernst ta c th oxy ha kh ca bn phn ng trn l:
0,059 [Ox ]
E = EO +
( 25C)
lg
n
[ Kh]
Nhit ng hc chng minh c:
pE =

E
0,059

( 25C)

57

Do , sau khi chia hai v cho 0,059, th phng trnh Nernst tr thnh:
1 [Ox ]
pE = pEO + lg
( 25C )
n [ Kh ]
Trong , pE = E/0,059; pEO = EO/0,059.
Trong cc h oxy ha kh, khi EO cng ln th pEO cng ln, nh vy, cht oxy
ha trong cn bng oxy ha kh cng mnh th pE cng ln. C th thy r iu ny
qua cc v d minh ha sau:
Na+ + e Na (r)

c EO = - 2,71 V

v pEO = - 45,9

2H+ + 2e H2 (k)

c EO =

v pEO =

Cl2 + 2e 2Cl

c EO = 1,36 V

0V

v pEO = 23,0

Mi quan h gia gi tr pE v pH ca dung dch nc

Trong nc c cn bng:
O2 + 2e + 2H+ H2O

c EO = 1,229 V

v pEO = 20,8

Phng trnh Nernst cho ta:

E=E +
O

0, 059
n

lg H

Chia hai v cho 0,059 ta c:

pE = pE O pH pE = 20,8 pH
i vi nc bin, pH = 8,2 pE = 20,8 - 8,2 = 12,6
Thng thng, nc t nhin trung tnh trong iu kin hiu kh c pE +13,75;
cn trong iu kin k kh th pE -4,13.
Nc sng
Nng cc nguyn t ha hc trong nc sng phn b ph thuc vo c im kh
hu, a cht, a mo v v tr thy vc. Nhn chung, c im thnh phn cc ion ha tan
ca cc dng sng trn th gii do 3 yu t ch o quyt nh:
nh hng ca nc ma (vng nhit i nhiu ma).
nh hng ca s bc hi kt tinh (vng sa mc).
nh hng ca s phong ha (vng n i, t ma).
vng ca sng, thnh phn ha hc ca nc b nh hng mnh bi thnh phn
ha hc ca nc bin, c bit l cc ion Cl, Na+, SO42 v HCO3.
3.2.2.3. Cc cht hu c
Trong ngun nc t nhin khng nhim, hm lng cht hu c rt thp, t c kh
nng gy tr ngi cho cc mc ch s dng thng thng. Tuy nhin, nu b nhim do cht
thi sinh hot, cht thi cng nghip, giao thng, th hm lng cht hu c trong nc s
tng cao.
Da vo kh nng b vi sinh vt phn hy, ngi ta phn cc cht hu c thnh hai
nhm:
Cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc (nh cc cht ng, cht bo, protein, du
m ng thc vt,...). Trong mi trng nc cc cht ny d b vi sinh vt phn hy to
thnh CO2 v nc.

58

Cc cht hu c kh b phn hy sinh hc (nh cc hp cht clo hu c dng lm

thuc bo v thc vt: DDT, lindane, Aldrine, cc hp cht a vng ngng t: pyren,
naphtalen, anthraxen, dioxin...). y l cc cht c c tnh cao, li bn vng trong mi
trng, nn c tc hi lu di cho i sng v sc khe con ngi.
Cc cht hu c v phng php phn tch nh gi s c trnh by chi tit trong
phn nhim mi trng nc.
3.2.3. Thnh phn sinh hc ca nc t nhin
Thnh phn v mt cc loi c th sng trong ngun nc ph thuc cht ch vo
c im, thnh phn ha hc ca ngun nc, ch thy vn v a hnh ni c tr.
Cc loi sinh vt tn ti trong ngun nc t nhin ch yu l vi sinh vt, cy c, ng
vt nguyn sinh, ng vt a bo, cc loi nhuyn th, cc loi ng vt c xng sng.
Da vo v tr phn b trong ct nc t b mt n y c th c cc loi sinh vt sau:
Phiu sinh vt (plankton): trong ng vt phiu sinh (zooplankton) v thc vt
phiu sinh, to (phytoplankton) sng tri ni trong nc. Nhiu loi phiu sinh c gi tr lm
ngun thc n cho tm c. Mt s loi phiu sinh vt c kh nng s dng nh tc nhn ch
th nhim nc cho php d bo v cht lng nc.
C (cng c chia thnh cc loi c tng mt, tng gia v tng y)
Sinh vt bm.
Sinh vt y (benthos). Mt s loi sinh vt y c gi tr kinh t ng thi l sinh
vt ch th nhim v x l nhim.
Cc loi vi sinh vt gy bnh c lin quan n cht lng nc s c trnh by chi
tit hn trong phn nhim mi trng nc.
Da vo qu trnh ng ha, ngi ta thng chia sinh vt trong nc thnh hai nhm
t dng v d dng.
Sinh vt t dng s dng nng lng Mt tri hoc nng lng ha hc tng
hp nn cc cht hu c phc tp cn cho s sng ca chng t cc cht v c n gin hp
thu c trong mi trng. Cc sinh vt t dng dng nng lng Mt tri tng hp cht
hu c c gi l sinh vt sn xut (producers).
Sinh vt d dng s dng cc cht hu c do sinh vt t dng to ra sn xut
nng lng v pht trin c th ca chng. Thuc nhm cc sinh vt d dng c mt s vi
khun v nm c gi l sinh vt phn hy (decomposers hoc reducers). Sinh vt phn
hy phn hy cc cht c ngun gc sinh hc thnh cc sn phm n gin sinh vt t dng
c th hp th c.
Vi sinh vt l nhm sinh vt sng n bo gm to, nm, vi khun.
To l loi vi sinh vt sng da vo cc cht dinh dng v c. To tng hp cht
hu c thng qua qu trnh quang hp.
Nm l loi vi sinh vt khng c kh nng quang hp, thng c cu to dng si.
Nm l loi sinh vt hiu kh, c kh nng chu c mi trng c axit v nng ion
kim loi nng cao hn so vi vi khun. Mc d khng pht trin mnh trong nc, nhng nm
ng mt vai tr quan trng trong vic xc nh thnh phn ca nc t nhin. Sn phm
phn hy ca nm i vo nc t thn cy, g, l mc. Nm tit ra enzim ngoi bo cellulase
phn hy celluloz. Sn phm quan trng ca qu trnh phn hy ny l humic. Humic v
mt s hp cht lin quan c nhiu nh hng n tnh cht, c im ca nc t nhin.
Vi khun l sinh vt n bo prokaryotes, c th c dng que (bacillus), dng cu
(coccus), hoc dng phy (vibrios, spirilla, spirochetes). Hu ht vi khun c thnh t bo kh

59
cng, chuyn ng c nh c lng roi. Vi khun l sinh vt n bo, nhng chng cng c
th kt hp thnh dng chui do kt qu ca s sinh sn lin tip. Vi khun cng c th
dng kt i do s phn chia t bo m to ra.

3.3. Vai tr ca vi sinh vt trong cc chuyn ha ha hc ca mi trng nc

Cc vi sinh vt, vi khun, nm v to ng vai tr trung gian to iu kin cho nhiu
chuyn ha ha hc xy ra trong nc v t. Vi sinh vt thng qua nhiu phn ng khc
nhau to thnh nhiu loi trm tch v cc khong vt sa lng. Vai tr quan trng ca vi sinh
vt trong mi trng nc th hin trong cc im sau:
To v vi sinh vt quang hp l sinh vt sn xut chnh to ra sinh khi cho ton b
chui thc n trong mi trng nc;
Vi khun xc tc cho nhiu qu trnh oxy ha kh xy ra trong nc;
Vi sinh vt ng mt vai tr quan trng trong vic cung cp v quay vng cht dinh
dng thng qua kh nng phn hy sinh khi v khong ha cc nguyn t cn cho s dinh
dng c bit l nit, photpho;
Vi sinh vt tham gia cc chu trnh sinh a ha;
Nhiu vi khun tham gia phn hy cc cht gy nhim v kh hoc lm gim c
tnh ca cc cht ny.
3.3.1. Phn ng chuyn ha cacbon
Vi sinh vt ng mt vai tr quan trng trong chu trnh cacbon. Cc loi to quang
hp l loi sinh vt c nh cacbon quan trng nht trong mi trng nc. To quang hp
tiu th CO2, lm pH ca nc tng v do lm kt ta CaCO3 v CaCO3.MgCO3. Lng
cacbon hu c c to thnh nh hot ng ca vi sinh vt s tip tc b chnh vi sinh vt
phn hy chuyn ha trong chu trnh sinh a ha thnh nhin liu ha thch nh du m,
than , than bn, Cacbon hu c trong sinh khi, nhin liu ha thch c th b vi sinh vt
phn hy hon ton to thnh CO2. C th tm tt cc qu trnh chuyn ha cacbon c lin
quan n vi sinh vt nh sau:
Quang hp: l qu trnh trong to hoc cc loi thc vt bc cao, vi khun quang
hp s dng nng lng nh sng c nh cacbon thnh cht hu c:
CO2 + H2O + h {CH2O} + O2(k)
H hp hiu kh: l qu trnh trong cht hu c b oxy ha trong iu kin c oxy
phn t O2:
{CH2O} + O2(k) CO2 + H2O
H hp k kh: qu trnh oxy ha cht hu c s dng ngun oxy kt hp nh NO3,
SO42, khng s dng oxy phn t.
S phn hy sinh khi: vi khun hoc nm phn hy xc ng thc vt, chuyn
cacbon hu c, nit, lu hunh, photpho thnh cc dng hp cht hu c hoc v c n gin
c th hp th bi thc vt.
Qu trnh to metan: cc cht hu c c th b vi khun to metan (methane-forming
bacteria) nh Methanobacterium chuyn thnh metan trong iu kin thiu kh (anoxyc) lp
trm tch bng phn ng ln men (y l mt loi phn ng oxy ha kh, trong cht oxy
ha v cht kh u l cht hu c):
2{CH2O} CH4 + CO2
y l qu trnh ng vai tr quan trong trong chu trnh cacbon ti mt khu vc cng nh trn
ton cu, v y l khu cui cng trong qu trnh phn hy k kh cc cht hu c. Qu trnh

60
ny cung cp khong 80% lng CH4 cho kh quyn.
Qu trnh phn hy cc hp cht hydrocacbon: cc hp cht hydrocacbon ln c th
b Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium v Nocardia oxy ha trong iu kin hiu kh.
Nh c qu trnh ny m cht thi du m c th b phn hy trong nc v trong t. V d
cc phn ng:
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2O2H + O2 CH3CH2CH2O2H + 2CO2 + 2H2O
OH
H

O2

O2

CO2H

H
OH

CO2H

S phn hy sinh hc cc hp cht hu c: nh cc qu trnh xy ra trong qu trnh

x l nc thi th. C th biu din s phn hy ny bng phn ng i din sau:
{CH2O} + O2(k) CO2 + H2O + sinh khi
3.3.2. Phn ng chuyn ha nit
Chu trnh nit l mt trong cc qu trnh ha hc quan trng nht trong nc v t c
s tham gia ca vi sinh vt. Qu trnh ny da vo 4 chuyn ha quan trng:
C nh nit (nitrogen fixation): l qu trnh trong phn t N2 t kh quyn c
chuyn thnh nit hu c (ch yu do vi khun Rhizobium):
3{CH2O} + 2N2 + 3H2O + 4H+ 3CO2 + 4NH4+
N2 kh quyn
C nh m do vi
sinh vt

Cc phn ng to
NO3 trong kh quyn
nitrat ha
nitrat ha

Nit trong cht hu c

(NH2 trong protein)

N2O

NO3

C nh m
do phn ng
ha hc

Phn hy
do vi sinh vt

NH3

Nitrobacter

NO2

Nitrozomonas

Hnh 3.3. Chu trnh Nit [8]

Nitrat ha (nitrification): l qu trnh oxy ha NH3 hoc NH4+ thnh NO3 (do vi
khun Nitrozomonas v Nitrobacter):
NH3 + 3/2 O2 H+ + NO2 + H2O
(Nitrozomonas)

(Nitrobacter)
NO2 + O2 NO3

61
nitrat ha ng mt vai tr rt quan trng trong t nhin, n cung cp ion nitrat cho thc vt
hp th (y l dng nit ch yu thc vt c th hp th c). Phn bn dng mui amoni
s c vi khun chuyn ha thnh nitrat thc vt c th hp th tt nht.

Kh nitrat (nitrate reduction): l qu trnh kh NO3 thnh NO2:

NO3 + {CH2O} NO2 + H2O + CO2
Denitrat ha (denitrification): l qu trnh trong NO3 v NO2 b kh thnh N2
trong iu kin khng c oxy t do:
4NO3 + 5{CH2O} + 4H+ 2N2 + 5CO2 + 7H2O
qu trnh denitrat ha cng c th to thnh NO v N2O.
3.3.3. Phn ng chuyn ha lu hunh
Chu trnh lu hunh c lin quan n s chuyn ha qua li gia cc dng hp cht
khc nhau ca lu hunh nh: hp cht sulfat v c tan, hp cht sulfat khng tan, hp cht
sinh hc cha lu hunh, hp cht hu c tng hp cha lu hunh. Cc qu trnh c s tham
gia ca vi sinh vt trong chu trnh lu hunh bao gm:
Kh sulfat thnh sulfua di tc dng ca cc vi khun nh Desulfovibrio:
SO42 + 2{CH2O} + 2H+ H2S + 2CO2 + 2H2O
H2S to thnh do c v c mi kh chu nn c th lm gim cht lng nc.
Oxy ha sulfua di tc dng ca cc vi khun nh Thiobacillus:
2H2S + 4O2 4H+ + 2SO42
Mt s loi vi khun oxy ha sulfua c th chu c mi trng axit v rt nguy
him cho mi trng. V d, cc vi khun loi ny c th oxy ha pyrite FeS2 trong nc r r
t m khai thc qung to thnh axit sulfuric. Axit to thnh s ha tan nhiu kim loi trong
qung v cui cng i vo cc ngun nc ngm, nc mt v gy nhim chng.
Qu trnh phn hy cc hp cht hu c c cha lu hunh di tc dng ca vi
khun c th to ra cc cht hu c cha lu hunh bay hi v c mi kh chu, nh metyl
thiol CH3SH, dimetyl disulfua CH3SSCH3. Ngoi ra, qu trnh phn hy ny cng to ra H2S.
3.3.4. Phn ng chuyn ha photpho
Cc qu trnh c s tham gia ca vi sinh vt trong t v nc ng mt vai tr quan
trng trong chu trnh photpho. iu ng ch l photpho thng l cht dinh dng gii hn
trong nc rt cn cho s pht trin ca to. Mt s vi khun c kh nng tch ly photpho t
nc tt hn to. Photpho tch ly trong t bo v c th gii phng tr li gip vi khun pht
trin khi mi trng thiu cht dinh dng ny.
S phn hy sinh hc ca cc hp cht photpho rt quan trng i vi mi trng, th
hin hai im sau:

Qu trnh phn hy photpho l qu trnh khong ha, n chuyn cc dng photpho

hu c thnh photpho v c, cung cp cht dinh dng octophotphat (PO43) cho s pht trin
ca thc vt v to.

Nh qu trnh phn hy sinh hc ny m cc hp cht photpho hu c rt c hi

dng lm thuc tr su mi b phn hy m khng gy hi nhiu cho mi trng.
3.3.5. Phn ng chuyn ha st
Mt s vi khun (nh Ferrobacillus, Gallionella, Sphaerotilus) c th s dng cc
hp cht ca st ly nng lng cho qu trnh ng ha ca chng, thng qua qu trnh oxy
ha Fe(II) thnh Fe(III) vi oxy phn t:

62
4Fe2+ + 4H+ + O2 4Fe3+ + 2H2O
ngun cung cp cacbon cho mt vi loi vi khun ny l CO2. V cc vi khun ny khng cn
ngun cacbon hu c v c th thu nng lng t phn ng oxy ha cc cht v c, do
chng c th sng mi trng khng c cht hu c. Ngi ta thng tm thy nhng lng
ln st (III) oxit tch t di dng bn sa lng nhng ni vi khun oxy ha st pht trin
mnh.
3.3.6. Phn ng chuyn ha halogen v cc hp cht hu c cha halogen
Phn hy cc hp cht hu c cha halogen l mt trong nhng qu trnh vi sinh vt
quan trng nht trong nc. Trong nc, t v khng kh c th tm thy nhiu loi cht hu
c cha halogen. Mt s cc hp cht thuc nhm ny c c tnh cao v c kh nng tch ly
trong m m v gy ung th. Vi khun c th phn hy cc hp cht hu c cha halogen
nh qu trnh halogen (dehalogenation), trong nguyn t clo s b thay th:

OH

Cl
Cht hu c
c cha clo

Gc cht hu c
c cha clo

3.4. S to phc trong nc t nhin v nc thi

Nc t nhin c cha rt nhiu ion v hp cht c kh nng to phc mnh, v d
axit humic, amino axit, ion clorua,.... Ngoi ra, trong nc t nhin cn c cc tc nhn to
phc nhn to xut pht t cc loi cht thi cng nghip thi vo cc ngun nc. Cc tc
nhn to phc nhn to c th l natri tripolyphotphat, natri etylen diamin tetraaxetic (EDTA),
natri nitrilotriaxetat (NTA), natri citrat,...
Cc tc nhn to phc ny c th to phc vi hu ht cc ion kim loi c trong nc
(Mg2+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Sr2+, Cd2+, Ba2+). Do cc phn ng to
phc nu, nn cc ion kim loi thng tn ti trong nc di nhiu dng khc nhau, ty
theo pH, cc tc nhn c mt,... v rt t khi tn ti di dng ion t do n l.
Phn ng to phc xy ra trong nc c th nh hng n cc phn ng ring ca
phi t v cc kim loi, lm thay i mc oxy ha ca ion kim loi, ha tan cc hp cht
khng tan ca kim loi. Ngc li, phn ng to phc cng c th lm kt ta mt s kim loi
di dng hp cht phc.
Nhiu cation kim loi b gi li trong t do qu trnh trao i ion, nhng khi to phc
vi mt s phi t mang in tch m, cc ion kim loi s to thnh cc anion phc v do
khng cn b hp th vo t na.
Hp cht humic l cc phi t to phc quan trng nht thng gp trong nc t
nhin. Tnh cht ca nc t nhin b nh hng ng k bi s c mt ca cc hp cht
humic do tnh axit - baz, kh nng hp ph v to phc ca chng. Axit fulvic tan c
trong nc, do nh hng trc tip n cht lng nc; axit humic v humin tuy khng
tan c trong nc nhng cng c kh nng nh hng n tnh cht nc thng qua kh
nng trao i ion v cht hu c vi nc.
Do c kh nng lin kt vi nhiu ion kim loi v khng tan trong nc, nn humin v
axit humic c kh nng tch ly mt lng ln kim loi trong trm tch.
Phn c thm: Cc hp cht Humic
Humin, axit humic v axit fulvic khng phi l tn gi ca cc hp cht
n l m l tn chung ca mt lot cc hp cht.
Cc hp cht humic c bit n t nm 1800, chng l thnh phn cn li

63

sau qu trnh phn hy xc thc vt. Cc hp cht ny c mt trong t, trm tch m

ly, hoc cc khu vc c nhiu xc thc vt ang b phn hy.
Thnh phn c bn ca cc hp cht humic nh sau: C: 45 55%; O: 30 45%;
H: 3 6%; N: 1 5% v S: 0 1%.
H
OH H C
C O C O
H
C
C
C
H
H
OH
C OH

OH
O
H C
H
H C
H

OH

OH
H
H
C

O
C

O
C OH

OH

H H C H C OH
OH

Hnh 3.4. Cng thc cu to d on ca axit fulvic [8]

Cc hp cht humic l cc i phn t c kh nng in ly. Phn t lng ca

hp cht humic dao ng trong khong vi trm (i vi axit fulvic) n hng chc
ngn (i vi axit humic v humin. Cho n nay, cng thc ha hc, cu trc phn t
v tnh cht ha hc ca cc hp cht ny vn cha c xc nh mt cch r rng.
Khi chit cc hp cht humic bng dung dch kim t xc thc vt phn hy, sau
axit ha dch chit s thu c axit humic kt ta, dch cn li khng kt ta l axit
fulvic. Phn xc thc vt phn hy cn li sau khi chit bng dung dch kim c gi
l humin.
Xc thc vt phn hy
Chit bng
dung dch kim

Dch chit

Phn b cn li : HUMIN

Axit ha

D.Dch: Axit FULVIC

Kt ta: Axit HUMIC

Hnh 3.5. S tch chit cc hp cht humic t xc thc vt phn hy

Cc hp cht humic to phc vi cc ion kim loi bng cc nhm cacboxyl hay
cc nhm hydroxyl phenol (Hnh 3.6)
O

O
C
O

C
O
M

O
O

O
O
Hnh 3.6. Cc kiu to phc ca hp cht humic vi ion kim loi [8]

O M+

64

S c mt ca cc hp cht humic trong nc bt u c ch nhiu t

khong nm 1970, sau khi cc nh khoa hc pht hin thy trihalometan (THMs, v d
nh clorofoc, dibromclometan) trong nc my sinh hot. Ngy nay, ngi ta cho rng
cc hp cht THMs (c xp vo loi hp cht c th gy ung th) xut hin trong
nc l do kh trng cc loi nc c cha cc hp cht humic bng clo.
Cc hp cht THMs c to thnh trong nc l do clo phn ng vi cc hp
cht humic. C th hn ch s to thnh THMs trong qu trnh kh trng nc bng
cch x l loi humic trc khi thm clo vo nuc.

3.5. nhim mi trng nc

Do hot ng t nhin v nhn to m thnh phn v cht lng ca nc trong mi
trng c th b thay i. Sau mt thi gian nc c th t lm sch thng qua cc qu trnh
t nhin nh hp ph, lng, lc, to keo, phn tn, oxy ha, kh, polime ha, bin i di tc
dng ca vi sinh vt... Kh nng t lm sch ca nc ch ng k i vi cc ngun nc c
lu thng (sng, sui,...). Do trong iu kin c dng chy oxy t khng kh mi c th
khuch tn v ha tan vo nc tham gia vo qu trnh phn hy cc cht nhim ca vi
sinh vt. Khi a mt lng qu nhiu cht gy nhim vo cc ngun nc t nhin, vt
qu kh nng t lm sch ca n th ngun nc s b nhim.
C nhiu cht gy nhim nc. Tc hi ca cc cht gy nhim khng nhng ty
thuc vo tnh cht vt l, ha hc m cn ph thuc vo dng tn ti ca chng trong mi
trng. V d: asen l nguyn t c, nhng cc dng asen khc nhau th c c tnh khc
nhau, cc hp cht v c ca As (III) c hn cc hp cht As (V) tng ng, cn asen
dng (CH3)2As+CH3COO (asenobetain) c nhiu trong hi sn li t c...
V vy, khi nh gi v mc nhim nc, khng nhng ch cn phn tch xc
nh s c mt ca nguyn t, hoc hp cht gy nhim m cn phi xc nh c dng
tn ti ca n trong mi trng (speciation).
3.5.1. Cc ngun gy nhim nc
Cc ngun gy nhim nc ch yu xut pht t qu trnh sinh hot v hot ng
sn xut ca con ngi to nn (cng nghip, th cng nghip, nng ng nghip, giao thng
thy, dch v). nhim nc do cc yu t t nhin (ni la, xi mn, bo, lt,...) c th
rt nghim trng, nhng khng thng xuyn, v khng phi l nguyn nhn chnh gy suy
thoi cht lng nc ton cu. Cc ngun gy nhim nc thng gp:
Nc thi sinh hot (domestic wastewater): l nc thi pht sinh t cc h gia
nh, bnh vin, khch sn, c quan trng hc, cha cc cht thi trong qu trnh sinh hot,
v sinh ca con ngi.
Thnh phn c bn ca nc thi sinh hot l cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc
(cacbohydrat, protein, du m), cht dinh dng (photpho, nit), cht rn v vi trng.
Ty theo mc sng v li sng m lng nc thi cng nh ti lng cc cht c
trong nc thi ca mi ngi trong mt ngy l khc nhau. Nhn chung mc sng cng cao
th lng nc thi v ti lng thi cng cao.
Ti lng trung bnh ca cc tc nhn gy nhim nc chnh do mt ngi a vo
mi trng trong mt ngy c nu trong Bng 3.3.
T s liu trong bng ny c th xc nh c tng ti lng ca tng cht gy
nhim cho mt khu dn c, th nhm phc v cng tc nh gi ti lng nhim ngun
nc v thit k h thng x l nc thi cho khu dn c, th .
Nc thi th (municipal wastewater): l loi nc thi to thnh do s gp
chung nc thi sinh hot, nc thi v sinh v nc thi ca cc c s thng mi, cng

65
nghip nh trong khu th. Nc thi th thng c thu gom vo h thng cng thi
thnh ph, th x l chung.
Thng thng cc th c h thng cng thi, khong 70 n 90% tng lng
nc s dng ca th s tr thnh nc thi th v chy vo ng cng.
Ni chung, thnh phn c bn ca nc thi th cng gn tng t nc thi sinh hot.
Bng 3.3. Ti lng tc nhn nhim do con ngi a vo mi trng hng ngy [5]
Tc nhn nhim

Ti lng (g/ngi/ngy)

BOD5

45 54

COD

(1,6 1,9) BOD5

Tng cht rn ha tan (TDS)

170 220

Tng cht rn l lng (TSS)

70 145

Clo (Cl)

48

Tng nit (tnh theo N)

6 12

Tng photpho (tnh theo P)

0,8 4

Nc thi cng nghip (industrial wastewater): l nc thi t cc c s sn xut

cng nghip, tiu th cng nghip, giao thng vn ti.
Khc vi nc thi sinh hot hay nc thi th, nc thi cng nghip khng c
thnh phn c bn ging nhau, m ph thuc vo ngnh sn xut cng nghip c th. V d:
nc thi ca cc x nghip ch bin thc phm thng cha lng ln cc cht hu c; nc
thi ca cc x nghip thuc da ngoi cc cht hu c cn c cc kim loi nng, sulfua,...
Ngi ta thng s dng i lng PE (population equivalent) so snh mt cch
tng i mc gy nhim ca nc thi cng nghip vi nc thi th. i lng ny
c xc nh da vo lng thi trung bnh ca mt ngi trong mt ngy i vi mt tc
nhn gy nhim xc nh. Cc tc nhn gy nhim chnh thng c s dng so snh
l COD (nhu cu oxy ha hc), BOD5 (nhu cu oxy sinh ha), SS (cht rn l lng).
PE =

Tai lng cht nhim

cua
ngun thai / n v thi gian
Lng cht nhim do mt ngi thai ra / n v thi gian

V d: tnh PE ca ngun nc thi c lu lng l 200 m3/ngy, nng BOD5 ca

nc thi l 1200 mg/L. Lng BOD5 trung bnh do mt ngi thi ra trong mt ngy l 50
g/ngi.ngy.
200 10 1200 10
3

PE =

= 4800 ngi
50
Nh vy, xt i vi thng s BOD5, nc thi ca ngun thi ny tng ng vi
nc thi ca mt khu dn c c 4800 ngi.
Nc chy trn (run-off, stormwater): nc chy trn t mt t do ma, hoc do
thot nc t ng rung l ngun gy nhim nc sng, h. Nc chy trn qua ng
rung c th cun theo cht rn (rc), ha cht bo v thc vt, phn bn. Nc chy trn qua
khu dn c, ng ph, c s sn xut cng nghip, c th lm nhim ngun nc do cht
rn, du m, ha cht, vi trng.
Khi lng v c im ca nc chy trn ph thuc vo din tch vng ma v
thnh phn, khi lng cht nhim trn b mt vng nc ma chy qua.

66

Nc sng b nhim do cc yu t t nhin: nc sng vng ven bin v c th

cc vng khc su hn trong ni a cng c th b nhim mn. Nc sng b nhim mn theo
cc knh rch a nc mn vo cc h cha... gy nhim mn cc vng xa b bin. Nc
sng, knh rch b nhim phn c th chuyn axit, st, nhm... n cc vng khc gy suy
gim cht lng nc vng b tc ng.
V d: sng Si Gn on C Chi, Hc Mn b axit ha ch yu do nc phn t
ng bng sng Cu Long v pha Ty thnh ph H Ch Minh chuyn n. Vng h lu ca
sng (t Nh B n vnh Ghnh Ri) b nhim mn do nc bin.
Hot ng ca con ngi cng gp phn gia tng mc nhim do cc yu t t
nhin. V d: vic ci to khu vc ng Thp Mi bng cc bin php o knh, mng,
chuyn vng ng c hoang thnh vng trng la, chnh l nguyn nhn gy gia tng mc
axit ha ca cc sng Vm C v Si Gn.
Ngi ta thng chia cc ngun gy nhim nc thnh hai loi l ngun im v
ngun khng im:

Ngun im (point source): l ngun gy nhim c th xc nh c v tr, lu

lng c th, v d cng thi nc thi th vo sng, h, cng thi nh my,...

Ngun khng im (nonpoint source): l ngun gy nhim khng xc nh c

c th v tr, lu lng, v d nc chy trn khu th, nng thn, nc ma b nhim,...
3.5.2. Cc tc nhn gy nhim nc
Hin tng t nhin (ni la, l lt, xm nhp mn, phong ha...) c th l nguyn
nhn gy nhim cc ngun nc, nhng hot ng ca con ngi l nguyn nhn ph bin
v quan trng nht. Cc hot ng sinh hot, sn xut cng nghip, nng nghip, khai khong,
xy dng cc cng trnh... ca con ngi a ngy cng nhiu cc cht thi vo cc ngun
nc, gy suy gim r rt cht lng nc t nhin tt c cc quc gia trn th gii.
C nhiu loi tc nhn khc nhau gy nhim nc, tin cho vic quan trc v
kim sot nhim ngun nc, c th phn chng thnh 10 nhm c bn.
3.5.2.1. Cc ion v c ha tan
Nhiu ion v c c nng rt cao trong nc t nhin, c bit l trong nc bin.
Trong nc thi th lun cha mt lng ln cc ion Cl, SO42, PO43, Na+, K+. Trong
nc thi cng nghip, ngoi cc ion k trn cn c th c cc cht v c c c tnh rt cao
nh cc hp cht ca Hg, Pb, Cd, As, Sb, Cr, F...
Cc cht dinh dng (N, P)
Mui ca nit v photpho l cc cht dinh dng i vi thc vt, nng thch
hp chng to iu kin cho cy c, rong to pht trin. Amoni, nitrat, photphat l cc cht
dinh dng thng c mt trong cc ngun nc t nhin, hot ng sinh hot v sn xut
ca con ngi lm gia tng nng cc ion ny trong nc t nhin.
Amoni v amoniac (NH4+, NH3): nc mt thng ch cha mt lng nh (di
0,05 mg/L) ion amoni (trong nc c mi trng axt) hoc amoniac (trong nc c mi
trng kim). Nng amoni trong nc ngm thng cao hn nhiu so vi nc mt. Nng
amoni trong nc thi th hoc nc thi cng nghip ch bin thc phm thng rt
cao, c lc ln n 100 mg/L. Tiu chun Mi trng Vit Nam v nc mt (TCVN
59421995) quy nh nng ti a ca amoni (hoc amoniac) trong ngun nc dng vo
mc ch sinh hot l 0,05 mg/L (tnh theo N) hoc 1,0 mg/L cho cc mc ch s dng khc.
Nitrat (NO3): l sn phm cui cng ca s phn hy cc cht cha nit c trong
cht thi ca ngi v ng vt. Trong nc t nhin nng nitrat thng nh hn 5 mg/L.

67
Do cc cht thi cng nghip, nc chy trn cha phn bn t cc khu nng nghip, nng
ca nitrat trong cc ngun nc c th tng cao, gy nh hng n cht lng nc sinh
hot v nui trng thy sn. Tr em ung nc cha nhiu nitrat c th b mc hi chng
methemoglobin (hi chng tr xanh xao). TCVN 59421995 quy nh nng ti a ca
nitrat trong ngun nc mt dng vo mc ch sinh hot l 10 mg/L (tnh theo N) hoc 15
mg/L cho cc mc ch s dng khc.
Phn c thm: Nitrat trong nc ung
Nc ung c cha nhiu nitrat s gy ri lon mu nghim trng i vi tr s
sinh di 6 thng tui. Cc vi khun trong ng rut ca tr s sinh, ch yu l
Escherichia coli, kh ion nitrat thnh nitrit (NO2). Ion nitrit sau khi b hp th vo
mu li tham gia vo phn ng oxy ha ion Fe2+ trong hemoglobin thnh Fe3+.
Hemoglobin cha ion Fe3+ c gi l methemoglobin khng th lm nhim v vn
chuyn oxy.
Do d dy cha t axit hn so vi ngi ln nn tr s sinh rt d b tn thng
do n ung thc phm v nc ung cha nhiu nitrat. axit thp cho php E. coli
pht trin mnh trong ng tiu ha, do chng c kh nng kh NO3 thnh NO2
trc khi c hp th. S dng chai ung sa khng c tit trng tt s lm gia
tng nguy c to thnh methemoglobin, do trong chai c th c cc loi vi khun c kh
nng chuyn NO3 trong nc thnh NO2.
Khi nng methemoglobin trong mu cao hn 25%, da v mi tr s sinh s b
xanh ti (v vy c tn gi l hi chng tr xanh xao). Khi nng methemoglobin
tng n mc 60 80%, tr c th cht. T chc Y t Th gii (WHO) ghi nhn c
khong 2000 trng hp mc hi chng ny Chu u v Bc M trong nhng nm t
1945 n 1986, trong s 160 trng hp t vong. Hu ht trng hp b ng c
l cc tr s sinh vng nng thn, ti cc vng ny nc thng b nhim v cht
thi ca sc vt v nc thi sinh hot. Cc trng hp ng c nitrat ngy cng gim
dn, trng hp ng c gn y nht Anh xy ra vo nm 1972.
Mc d nng cho php ca nitrat trong nc nm trong khong t 50 n 100
mg NO3/L, nng ca n trong nc ung phi khng c vt qu 50 mg NO3
(Tiu chun Sc khe Chu u European Health Standards). Ti Hoa k nng
nitrat ti a cho php trong nc ung l 45 mg NO3/L. Khi nng cao hn 100 mg
NO3/L, nitrat c th to thnh hp cht nitrosamin trong ng rut ca ngi ln,
nitrosamin l cht c kh nng gy ung th. Tuy vy, mi quan h ny ch mi c th
nghim trn ng vt v cha c kim chng trn ngi.

Photphat (PO43): cng nh nitrat, photphat l cht dinh dng cn cho s pht trin
ca thc vt thy sinh. Nng photphat trong cc ngun nc khng nhim thng nh
hn 0,01 mg/L. Nc sng b nhim do nc thi th, nc thi cng nghip hoc nc
chy trn t ng rung cha nhiu loi phn bn, c th c nng photphat n 0,5 mg/L.
Photphat khng thuc loi ha cht c hi i vi con ngi, nhiu tiu chun cht lng
nc khng quy nh nng ti a cho photphat.
Mc d khng c hi i vi ngi, song khi c mt trong nc nng tng i
ln, cng vi nit, photphat s gy ra hin tng ph dng (eutrophication, cn c gi l
ph dng). Theo nhiu tc gi, khi hm lng photphat trong nc t n mc 0,01 mg/l
(tnh theo P) v t l P:N:C vt qu 1:16:100, th s gy ra hin tng ph dng ngun nc.
T eutrophication bt ngun t ting Hy Lp, c ngha l c nui dng tt. Ph
dng ch tnh trng ca mt vc nc ang c s pht trin mnh ca to. Mc du to pht

68
trin mnh trong iu kin ph dng c th h tr cho chui thc n trong h sinh thi nc,
nhng s bng n ca to s gy ra nhng hu qu lm suy gim mnh cht lng nc.
Hin tng ph dng thng xy ra vi cc h, hoc cc vng nc t lu thng trao
i. Khi mi hnh thnh, cc h u tnh trng ngho cht dinh dng (oligotrophic) nc
h thng kh trong. Sau mt thi gian, do s xm nhp ca cc cht dinh dng t nc
chy trn, s pht trin v phn hy ca sinh vt thy sinh, h bt u tch t mt lng ln
cc cht hu c. Lc bt u xy ra hin tng ph dng vi s pht trin bng n ca
to, nc h tr nn c mu xanh, mt lng ln bn lng c to thnh do xc ca to cht.
Dn dn, h s tr thnh vng m ly v cui cng l vng t kh, cuc sng ca ng vt
thy sinh trong h b ngng tr.
Bng 3.4. Mt s nguyn t vi lng quan trng trong nc t nhin [15]
Nguyn t Ngun

Tnh cht

Asen

Khai khong, cht thi ha hc

c, c kh nng gy ung th

Beri

Than , cht thi cng nghip

Bo

Than , cht ty ra, cht thi

Crom

M kim loi

Cr(III): nguyn t vi cn cho c th;

Cr(VI): c

ng

M kim loi v khai khong

Nguyn t vi lng, c vi thc vt

v to nng cao

Florua (F ) Khong cht t nhin trong t,

nng khong 1 mg/L c tc

dng nga su rng; Gy hi nng
cao hn

Iodua (I)

Cht thi cng nghip, nc bin

Nga bi c

St

Cht thi cng nghip, n mn, nc r t Nguyn t cn cho c th; Gy vng

khai thc m, hot ng ca vi sinh vt
dng c

Ch

Cht thi cng nghip, nhin liu ng

c, khai khong

Mangan

Cht thi cng nghip, nc r t khai

thc m, hot ng ca vi sinh vt

c i vi thc vt; Gy vng

dng c

Thy ngn

Cht thi cng nghip, ha cht bo v

thc vt, khai khong

c, chuyn ha thnh cc dng

metyl thy ngn do vi khun k kh

Molipden

Cht thi cng nghip, ngun t nhin

Nguyn t cn cho thc vt, c i

vi ng vt

Selen

Cc ngun t nhin, than

Nguyn t vi lng, c nng

cao hn

Km

Cht thi cng nghip, m kim loi, hn

ch

Nguyn t vi lng, c vi thc vt

nng cao hn

69

Sulfat (SO42)
Cc ngun nc t nhin, c bit nc bin v nc phn, thng c nng sulfat
cao. Sulfat trong nc c th b vi sinh vt chuyn ha to ra sulfit v axit sulfuric c th gy
n mn ng ng v b tng. nng cao, sulfat c th gy hi cho cy trng.
Clorua (Cl)
L mt trong cc ion quan trng trong nc v nc thi. Clorua kt hp vi cc ion
khc nh natri, kali gy ra v cho nc. Ngun nc c nng clorua cao c kh nng n
mn kim loi, gy hi cho cy trng, gim tui th ca cc cng trnh bng b tng,... Nhn
chung clorua khng gy hi cho sc khe con ngi, nhng clorua c th gy ra v mn ca
nc do t nhiu nh hng n mc ch n ung v sinh hot.
Cc kim loi nng
Pb, Hg, Cr, Cd, As, Mn,...thng c trong nc thi cng nghip. Hu ht cc kim
loi nng u c c tnh cao i vi con ngi v cc ng vt khc.
Bng 3.5. Nng ti a cho php ca mt s kim loi nng trong cc loi nc
theo Tiu chun Vit Nam v mi trng
Nng ti a cho php
STT

Kim loi nng

n v

TCVN
5942 1995

TCVN
5943 1995

(Nc mt )

(Nc bin ven b )

TCVN
59441995
(Nc ngm)

Asen

mg/L

0,05

0,05

0,05

Cadmi

0,01

0,005

0,01

Ch

0,05

0,1

0,05

Crom (III)

0,1

0,1

Crom (VI)

0,05

0,05

0,05

ng

0,1

0,02

1,0

Km

0,1

5,0

Mangan

0,1

0,1

0,1 0,5

Niken

0,1

10

Thy ngn

0,001

0,005

0,001

(): p dng cho nc mt dng lm ngun cp nc sinh hot (nhng phi qua x l theo quy nh)
(): p dng cho nc bi tm, khu vc gii tr

Ch (Pb): ch c trong nc thi ca cc c s sn xut pin, acqui, luyn kim, ha

du. Ch cn c a vo mi trng nc t ngun khng kh b nhim do kh thi giao
thng. Ch c kh nng tch ly trong c th, gy c thn kinh, gy cht nu b nhim c
nng. Ch cng rt c i vi ng vt thy sinh. Cc hp cht ch hu c c gp 10 100
ln so vi ch v c i vi cc loi c.
Thy ngn (Hg): thy ngn l kim loi c s dng trong nng nghip (thuc
chng nm) v trong cng nghip (lm in cc). Trong t nhin, thy ngn c a vo
mi trng t ngun kh ni la. cc vng c m thy ngn, nng thy ngn trong nc
kh cao. Nhiu loi nc thi cng nghip c cha thy ngn dng mui v c ca Hg(I),
Hg(II) hoc cc hp cht hu c cha thy ngn.
Thy ngn l kim loi nng rt c i vi con ngi. Vo thp nin 50, 60, nhim

70
thy ngn hu c vnh Minamata, Nht Bn, gy tch ly Hg trong hi sn. Hn 1000
ngi cht do b nhim c thy ngn sau khi n cc loi hi sn nh bt trong vnh ny.
y l mt trong cc s c mi trng nghim trng nht trong lch s hin i.
Thy ngn cng rt c vi cc ng vt khc v cc vi sinh vt. Nhiu loi hp cht
ca thy ngn c dng dit nm.
Asen (As): asen trong cc ngun nc c th do cc ngun gy nhim t nhin
(cc loi khong cha asen) hoc ngun nhn to (luyn kim, khai khong...). Hin nay, tnh
trng nhim asen trong nc ngm c pht hin nhiu nc trn th gii. Asen
thng c mt trong nc di dng asenit (AsO33), asenat (AsO43) hoc asen hu c (cc
hp cht methyl asen c trong mi trng do cc phn ng chuyn ha sinh hc asen v c).
Asen v cc hp cht ca n l cc cht c mnh (cho ngi, cc ng vt khc v vi
sinh vt), n c kh nng tch ly trong c th v gy ung th. c tnh ca cc dng hp cht
asen: As(III) > As(V) > Asen hu c.
Phn c thm: S c nhim thy ngn Minamata, Nht Bn
Vo nhng nm u thp nin 50, s c nhim mi trng xy ra Minamata
thu ht s quan tm ch ca cng ng v tnh trng nhim mi trng do thy
ngn v cc kim loi c khc. Mt nh my a phng (cng ty Chiso) s dng xt
thy ngn lm xc tc cho qu trnh sn xut acetaldehyt (ethanal) polyvinyl clorua.
Nc thi cha thy ngn c thi vo vnh Minamata v b chuyn ha thnh dng
metyl thy ngn rt c hi.

Hnh 3.7. Tr em d tt do nh hng ca v nhim c thy ngn Minamata [23]

Nhng du hiu u tin ca v ng c thy ngn ny l hin tng pht bnh

thn kinh ca ch v mo trong khu vc ny, mt s ch mo cht. Sau , vo nm
1956, mt s ngi dn a phng bt u c pht hin c cc triu chng ca mt
loi bnh l (v sau c gi l bnh Minamata) nh t cng t chi, ic, au
u, ri lon thn kinh, co git. n nm 1958 c 50 trng hp nhim c c
pht hin, trong 21 ngi cht. Hu ht cc nn nhn ca v nhim c n c
ba ln mi ngy. Vo nm 1968 ngi ta mi chnh thc cng b nguyn nhn ca bnh
Minamata l do n cc loi hi sn b nhim thy ngn, do c nh bt c vnh
Minamta b cm tiu th. .
Tuy vy, vo thi im ban u mi quan h gia nng thy ngn cao trong
c, s v nc thi ca nh my vn cha c lm r. Nh my ny vn tip tc thi
nc thi cha thy ngn thm mt thp k na, cho n nm 1968 nh my mi ngng

71

hn vic sn xut acetaldehyit.

Cho n cui nm 1991, c 2248 ngi c xc nh mc bnh Minamata,
trong s 1004 ngi cht. Tnh n thi im , tp on Chisso tr khong
9,08 t yn tin bi thng cho cc nn nhn; hin nay cng ty ang phi tr 3 t yn
mi nm. Gn 40 nm sau khi khm ph ra cn bnh, vn bi thng vn cha c
gii quyt hon ton.
Mt lng ln thy ngn tch t trong lp bn y vnh Minamata (ln n
trn 25 ppm), do tch ly vo cc loi hi sn nh trai s (nm 1966, nng thy
ngn trong trai s ln n 80 ppm). V vy, chnh ph Nht, chnh quyn a phng
tnh Kumamoto v tp on Chisso phi gp kinh ph thc hin cng trnh no vt
1,5 triu mt khi bn y vnh v m mang 58 ha t ln bin. Sau khi hon thnh
vic no vt, nng thy ngn trung bnh trong lp bn y vnh l 4,65 ppm.
Ngoi cc chi ph n b ni trn, tp on Chisso cn phi chi ra cc khon tin
ln hng nm cho cc khon bi thng khc, v d bi thng cho ng dn, chi ph
cho phng chng v kim sot nhim
3.5.2.2. Cc cht hu c
Da vo kh nng c th b phn hy di tc dng ca vi sinh vt, nh trnh by
trong mc 3.2.4, cc cht hu c c trong nc thng c chia thnh hai loi:
Cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc (cc cht tiu th oxy)
Cacbonhydrat, protein, cht bo...thng c mt trong nc thi sinh hot, nc thi
th, nc thi cng nghip ch bin thc phm l cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc. Trong
nc thi sinh hot, c khong 60 80% lng cht hu c thuc loi d b phn hy sinh hc.
C th biu din qu trnh phn hy cc cht hu c loi ny trong s sau:
Phn hy hiu kh:
Cht hu c

O2 ha tan trong nuc

H2O + CO2 + nng lng

Vi sinh hiu kh

Vi sinh vt ly oxy trong nc phn hy cht hu c lm suy gim oxy trong nc.
Phn hy k kh:
Vi sinh vt ky kh
Cht hu c
CH4 + axit hu c
Cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc thng nh hng c hi n cc ngun li thy
sn, v khi b phn hy cc cht ny s lm gim oxy ha tan trong nc, dn n cht tm c.
Cc cht hu c bn vng
Cc cht hu c c c tnh cao thng l cc cht bn vng, kh b vi sinh vt phn
hy trong mi trng. Mt s cht hu c c kh nng tn lu lu di trong mi trng v
tch ly sinh hc trong c th sinh vt. Do c kh nng tch ly sinh hc, nn chng c th
thm nhp vo chui thc n v t i vo c th con ngi.
Cc cht polychlorophenol (PCPs), polychlorobiphenyl (PCBs: polychlorinated
biphenyls), cc hydrocacbon a vng ngng t (PAHs: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons),
cc hp cht d vng N, hoc O l cc hp cht hu c bn vng. Cc cht ny thng c
trong nc thi cng nghip, nc chy trn t ng rung (c cha nhiu thuc tr su, dit
c, kch thch sinh trng...). Cc hp cht ny thng l cc tc nhn gy nhim nguy
him, ngay c khi c mt vi nng rt nh trong mi trng.

Nhm hp cht phenol

Phenol v cc dn xut phenol c trong nc thi ca mt s ngnh cng nghip (lc
ha du, sn xut bt giy, nhum,...). Cc hp cht loi ny lm cho nc c mi, gy tc hi

72
cho h sinh thi nc, sc khe con ngi, mt s dn xut phenol c kh nng gy ung th
(carcinogens). TCVN 59421995 quy nh nng ti a ca cc hp cht phenol trong nc
b mt dng cho sinh hot l 0,001 mg/L.

Nhm ha cht bo v thc vt (HCBVTV) hu c

Hin nay c hng trm, thm ch hng ngn cc loi HCBVTV ang c sn xut v
s dng dit su, cn trng, nm, dit c. Trong s , phn ln l cc hp cht hu c,
chng c chia thnh cc nhm:
Photpho hu c (malathion, metyl parathion,...)
Clo hu c (lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T,...)
Cacbamat (carbaryl, cacbofuran...)
Phenoxyaxetic (2,4-D, 2,4,5-T,...)
Pyrethroid tng hp (allethrin, fenvalerate,)
Hu ht cc cht ny c c tnh cao i vi con ngi v ng vt. Nhiu cht trong
s , t bit l cc clo hu c, b phn hy rt chm trong mi trng, c kh nng tch ly
trong c th sinh vt v con ngi. Nhiu trong s cc HCBVTV l tc nhn gy ung th.
TCVN 59421995 quy nh nng ti a cho php ca tng cc HCBVTV trong nc b
mt l 0,15 mg/L, ring vi DDT l 0,01 mg/L.
Phn c thm: Thuc tr su c clo
DDT (DichloroDiphenyl TrichloroEthane) l loi thuc tr su c qun i
ng minh dng ln u tin vo nm 1940 trong chin tranh th gii ln th 2. Trong
thi k ny, DDT tho mn c nhu cu tiu dit st rt cc rng rm nhit i
v cc bnh khc ly lan do cn trng. Sau DDT cn c dng rng ri trong nng
nghip dt cn trng. Do hiu qu cao ca DDT, ngi ta tip tc sn xut ra cc
thuc tr su c clo khc nh lindane v diedrin.
Cl

(a). DDT: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane

(Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane)

Cl
Cl

Cl
Cl

H
H
Cl

(b). DDD: 1,1-dichloro-2,2-di-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane

Cl

Cl
Cl

(c). DDE: 1,1-dichloro-2,2-di-(p-chlorophenyl)ethene

Cl

Cl

C
Cl

Cl

Hnh 3.8. Cng thc cu to ca cc hp cht DDT, DDD, DDE

Tuy nhin n thp nin 1970 th DDT v cc thuc tr su c clo b cm s dng

cc nc pht trin. Trong mi trng DDT rt bn (5 15 nm), thot u y c
xem l mt u im ca DDT, nay tr thnh vn rt ng quan tm v kha cnh mi
trng. Do bn v c th tan c trong m, nn DDT c kh nng tch ly v c

73

khuch i trong chui thc n, gy nguy c cho cc ng vt nh ca dy chuyn

ny, trong c con ngi.
c tnh ca DDT i vi con ngi khng cao. DDT nh hng n cn bng
trao i natri mng no gy tc hi n h thn kinh. Da ca ngi v cc ng vt
khc khng hp th DDT, nhng cn trng li c lp v kitin c kh nng cho DDT
thm qua v gy hi. Ngi ta cho rng, tc hi ca DDT c th s xy ra sau khi b
nhim c mn tnh mt thi gian di, hoc b nhim c mt lng ln DDT, hoc do
mt l do no lng DDT tch ly trong m m b gii phng ra tr li.
DDT khi b phn hy trong mi trng th to thnh cc sn phm DDE v DDD.
DDE c c tnh rt thp i vi cn trng.
Cng thc cu to ca mt s loi HCBVTV khc c trnh by trong Hnh 3.9
Cl
Cl

Cl2

CH2

Cl2

Cl

Cl

Aldrin

Cl

Dieldrin Cl

Cl
Cl

S
Cl

(CH3O)2

Lindane
Cl

Cl
Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl2

Cl

Cl

Cl

Chlordane Cl

P S CH C OC2H5
H
O

Malathion

S
O2N

C C OC2H5
H2

O P (OCH3)2
H

Methyl Parathion

Cl

O C N CH3
H

Cl
Cl

Carbaryl

O CH2 COOH

O CH2 COOH
Cl

2,4,5T

Cl

2,4D

Hnh 3.9. Cng thc cu to ca mt s ha cht bo v thc vt thng dng

Nhm hp cht dioxin (Dioxins)

Dioxin l hai nhm hp cht tp cht sinh ra trong qu trnh sn xut cc hp cht hu
c clo ha. Dioxin cng c to thnh khi t chy cc hp cht clo ha nhit thp
(di 1000C). Hai nhm hp cht ny l polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) (Hnh
3.10a) v polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) (Hnh 3.10b).
Nhm PCDD c 75 cht, trong c mt hp cht c gi l dioxin, l hp cht
2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzpdioxin (2,3,7,8TCDD) (Hnh 3.10c).
Nhm PCDF c 135 cht. c tnh ca cc hp cht dioxin rt khc nhau. c nht
trong cc hp cht loi ny l hp cht c tn gi l dioxin nu trn. Cc cht t c nht l
cc cht ch c cha mt n ba nguyn t clo thay th.
Tuy c cc bng chng cho thy dioxin l tc nhn gy ung th cho ng vt,
nhng cc bng chng i vi ngi li cha chc chn. Vo nm 1976, mt nh my ha

74
cht ti Seveso, b pht n lm nhim dioxin mt khu vc rng gn 8 km2. Nhiu loi
ng vt cht trong s c ny, nhng 36.000 ngi dn trong khu vc li sng st, 193
ngi b nhim c nng v mc hi chng chloracne (mt chng bnh ri lon da). Nhng
cui cng sau 10 nm, ch cn mt trng hp khng cha tr khi chng chloracne.
9
8
7
6

2
3

4
O
(b). Dibenzofuran

(a). Dibenzopdioxin
Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

(c). 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzopdioxin
(Dioxin hoc 2,3,7,8TCDD hoc TCDD)
Hnh 3.10. Cng thc cu to ca cc nhm dioxin v cht dioxin (TCDD)

Do cc hp cht trong nhm hp cht dioxin c c tnh khc nhau, v vy nh gi

c tnh ca hn hp nhiu cht khc nhau, ngi ta s dng i lng TEQ (toxyc
equivalent). Mi hp cht dioxin c mt gi tr TEF (toxyc equivalent factor) ring. Gi tr
TEF ca 2,3,7,8TCDD c xem l bng 1, v y l hp cht c nht trong s cc hp
cht dioxin. Gi tr TEF ca cc hp cht khc trong nhm nhn cc gi tr t 0 n 1, ty
thuc vo c tnh tng i ca chng so vi 2,3,7,8TCDD. TEQ ca mt hn hp cc
dioxin c xc nh nh v d sau:
Ngun pht thi 1:
Lng dioxin pht thi t ngun 1:
1 g 2,3,7,8TCDD + 4 g PeCDD (pentachlorodibenzopdioxin) = 5 g dioxin/ngy
TEQ = (1 1) + (4 0) = 1 g/ngy
Ngun pht thi 2:
Lng dioxin pht thi t ngun 2:
0,75 g 2,3,7,8TCDD + 2 g 2,3,4,7,8PeCDF = 2,75 g dioxin/ngy
TEQ = (0,75 1) + (2 0,5) = 1,75 g/ngy
trong :
2,3,7,8TCDD c TEF = 1;
PeCDD c TEF = 0;
2,3,4,7,8PeCDF c TEF = 0,5.
Kt qu xc nh cho thy mc du pht thi mt lng dioxin cao hn nhiu ngun
pht thi 2, nhng li c TEQ nh hn TEQ ca ngun pht thi 2, do t nguy him hn
ngun 2. Tuy vy, cng cn lu rng gi tr TEF ca cc hp cht dioxin l cc gi tr c
tnh v c nn ch mang tnh tng i; ngoi ra, vic t hp cng n gin cc gi tr
tch TEF v lng cht nh trn cha th hin c cc nh hng do kt hp cc hn hp
dioxin phc tp trong thc t.

Nhm hp cht polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)

75
PCB l nhm hp cht c t 1 n 10 nguyn t clo gn vo cc v tr khc nhau ca
phn t biphenyl. C th c n 209 hp cht thuc loi ny. Cng nghip thng sn xut
c cc hn hp cha nhiu loi PCB khc nhau, ty thuc vo iu kin, trong thng
thng c mt t tp cht dioxin.
PCBs bn ha hc v cch in tt, nn c dng lm du bin th v t in, ngoi
ra chng cn c dng lm du bi trn, du thy lc, tc nhn truyn nhit...
3'

2'

4'

4
5'

6'

Hnh 3.11. Cu trc ca phn t biphenyl

(mi v tr c nh s c th c mt nguyn t clo th vo to thnh cc phn t PCB)

n khong thp nin 1960, ngi ta pht hin ra nguy c nhim PCBs t cc
ngnh cng nghip. PCBs lc c mt gn nh khp ni, c bit l nguy c tch ly
PCB trong m m ng vt. Trong m m ca nhiu loi ng vt c v bin c cha nng
PCBs ln gp mi triu ln nng PCBs trong nc. Nhng nm cui thp nin 1970,
vic sn xut PCBs bt u b nh ch hu ht cc nc.
PCBs c th lm gim kh nng sinh sn, gim kh nng hc tp ca tr em; chng
cng c th l cc tc nhn gy ung th. Tuy vy, cng nh cc dioxin, bng chng v tc hi
ca PCBs cng cha r rng lm, do nng ca chng trong mi trng thng rt nh v
tc hi li c xu hng din ra sau mt thi gian di.

Nhm hp cht hydrocacbon a vng ngng t (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon,

PAHs)
Cc hp cht PAH thng cha hai hay nhiu vng thm. PAH l sn phm ph ca
cc qu trnh chy khng hon ton nh: chy rng, chy tho nguyn, ni la phun tro (qu
trnh t nhin); ng c xe my, l nung than cc, sn xut nha asphalt, sn xut thuc l,
nng tht,... (qu trnh nhn to).

Chrysene

Benzo(a)pyrene

Hnh 3.12. Chrysence v benzo(a)pyrene l cc hp cht thuc nhm PAHs

Cc PAH thng gy hi khi tip xc vi liu lng nh trong mt thi gian di,
nhng li khng gy hi ng k nu ch dng mt liu lng ln trong mt ln. Trong s cc
hp cht PAH, c 8 hp cht c xem l cc tc nhn gy ung th. Thng thng, thc
phm hng ngy l ngun a PAHs chnh vo c th ngi (95%), thuc l, rau khng ra
sch, ng cc cha c tinh ch, tht c xng khi l cc ngun a mt lng ng k
PAHs vo c th.

76

Cc thng s nh gi chung cc cht hu c

nh gi tng lng cc cht hu c trong nc ngi ta thng dng cc thng s sau:
Nhu cu oxy ha hc (CODChemical Oxygen Demand): l lng cht oxy ha (th
hin bng gam hoc miligam O2 trn mt n v th tch) cn oxy ha ha hc cht hu c
trong nc. Gi tr COD cho php nh gi lng cht hu c tng cng c trong mu.
Hin nay tc nhn oxy ha thng c s dng l kali bicromat trong mi trng
axit sulfuric, v cht ny c th oxy ha 95 100% cht hu c.
Khi xc nh COD bng phng php bicromat, ngi ta un nng mu nc 150C
vi kali bicromat v axt sunfric c trong 2 gi. Sau , xc nh lng bicromat cn li bng
cch chun vi dung dch chun mui Mo (mui (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2), hoc bng phng php
quang ph hp th phn t UVVIS. Cn c vo lng kali bicromat tiu tn, tnh ra gi tr COD.
n v biu din: mg (O2)/L.
Bn cnh phng php s dng kali bicromat oxy ha cht hu c trong mu, ngi
ta cn s dng kali pemangnat tin hnh phn ng oxy ha cht hu c. Gi tr COD xc
nh bng phng php ny c k hiu l CODMn hoc CODP (P, Mn: potasium
permanganat; nhiu trng hp vn s dng k hiu COD). Do kh nng oxy ha cc cht hu
c ca KMnO4 yu hn K2Cr2O7 nn CODMn (CODP) thng nh hn COD v khng i din
tt c cho lng cht hu c c trong mu, nhng u im ca phng php xc nh
CODMn l t tn thi gian v khng s dng Hg2+ (ion kim loi c hi) nh khi xc nh COD.
Nhu cu oxy sinh ha (BODBiochemical Oxygen Demand): l lng oxy (th
hin bng gam hoc miligam O2 trn mt n v th tch) cn cho vi sinh vt tiu th oxy
ha sinh hc cc cht hu c iu kin nhit v thi gian xc nh. Gi tr BOD phn nh
lng cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc c trong mu nc.
Thng s BOD c tm quan trng thc t; BOD l c s thit k v vn hnh trm
x l nc thi. BOD cn l thng s c bn nh gi mc nhim ca ngun nc,
gi tr ca BOD cng ln ngha l mc nhim hu c cng cao. Gi tr ca BOD ph
thuc vo nhit v thi gian, nn xc nh BOD cn tin hnh iu kin chun,
thng nhit 20C trong thi gian 5 ngy. V vy, gi tr BOD thng c cng b l
BOD520, vit tt l BOD5.
Nhu cu oxy sinh hc ca mu nc c xc nh bng cch o DO(1) ca mu sau
khi ly v DO(2) sau 5 ngy bo qun 20C trong iu kin khng c nh sng. Gi tr BOD5
ca mu l hiu s DO(1) tr DO(2).
Khi mu 20C nu lng cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc cao, khng th oxy
ha ht bng lng oxy ha tan c trong mu, phi p dng bin php pha long bng dung
dch pha long cha cht dinh dng cn cho s pht trin ca vi sinh vt, cy thm vi sinh,
n v biu din: mg (O2)/L.
BOD5 ca cc ngun nc mt khng b nhim t khi vt qu gi tr 5 mg/L. Khi
nc cha nhiu cht nhim hu c d b phn hy sinh hc th BOD ca nc s tng cao.
TCVN 59421995 quy nh ngun nc dng cho mc ch sinh hot phi c gi tr BOD5 <
4 mg/L.
Phn c thm: S khc nhau gia gi tr COD v gi tr BOD
C hai thng s COD v BOD u c s dng xc nh lng cht hu c
c kh nng b oxy ha trong nc; nhng gi tr BOD i din cho lng cht hu c
d b phn hy di tc dng ca vi sinh vt; cn gi tr COD i din cho ton b cc
cht hu c c mt trong nc c th b oxy ha bi tc nhn oxy ha ha hc mnh.
V vy, t s BOD/COD ca mt mu nc lun nh hn 1.
Trong nhiu trng hp, tuy lng cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc trong

77

mu nc kh ln, song do s c mt ca cc tc nhn c ch hot ng ca vi sinh vt

ngn cn qu trnh phn hy cc cht hu c ny, nn kt qu xc nh BOD s gn
bng khng. Lc ny, kt qu xc nh COD vn s rt cao.
Nhn chung, v mt l thuyt khng th t gi tr COD suy ra BOD v ngc li.
Tuy nhin, i vi mt s ngun nc, nc thi c cht lng n nh, bng kt qu
xc nh thc nghim c th bit c t s BOD5/COD gn ng ca loi ngun nc
ny, v do c th chuyn i gn ng gia 2 i lng.
S oxy ha nit
Cc thng s COD, BOD th hin lng oxy cn thit oxy ha lng cacbon
trong cht hu c. Tuy nhin, trong thc t nc v nc thi cn cha cc hp cht
nit cng c kh nng tiu th oxy do b oxy ha chuyn thnh nitrat.
Qu trnh oxy ha nc thi sinh hot c thnh phn tng qut l C4H10O3N xy
ra nh sau:
C4H10O3N + 4,25O2 4CO2 + 3,5H2O + NH3
Khi i vo cc ngun nc NH3 hoc NH4+ b vi khun oxy ha thnh nitrit

(NO2 ) v sau thnh nitrat (NO3):

NO2 + 2H+ + H2O

NH4+ + 3/2O2
Nitrosomonas

NO3
NO2 + O2
Do s c mt ca cc hp cht nit trong nc s lm tng ng k v do
lm sai lch gi tr BOD xc nh c. khc phc, khi xc nh BOD, ngi ta phi
thm cht c ch cc vi sinh vt tham gia qu trnh nitrat ha nu trn, m bo ch
c cc hp cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc b oxy ha bi sinh vt v ng gp vo
kt qu xc nh BOD.
Ngoi cc thng s COD v BOD thng c dng i din cho lng cht hu
c trong nc v nc thi, ngi ta cn s dng cc thng s sau:
Tng cacbon hu c (TOCTotal Organic Carbon): thng c xc nh bng
cch nh lng CO2 to thnh khi oxy ha cacbon hu c trong mu bng cc cht oxy ha
mnh (c th kt hp cht xc tc, UV, siu m,). n v biu din: mg (C)/L.
Nhu cu oxy l thuyt (ThODTheoretical Oxygen Demand): l lng oxy cn
thit oxy ha hon ton cht hu c. ThOD c tnh da theo phng trnh phn ng.
n v biu din: mg (O2)/L.
Nhu cu oxy tng cng (TODTotal Oxygen Demand): l lng oxy cn thit
oxy ha mt cht iu kin nhit cao (900C) vi xc tc thch hp (thng l xc tc
Pt). Nhiu cht khng th oxy c bng tc nhn oxy ha s dng trong php xc nh COD,
nhng vn c th b oxy ha trong iu kin xc nh TOD. V vy, kt qu xc nh TOD
cao hn kt qu xc nh COD. n v biu din: mg (O2)/L.
Nitrobacter

3.5.2.3. Du m
Du m l cht kh tan trong nc nhng tan c trong cc dung mi hu c. Du
m c thnh phn ha hc rt phc tp. Du th c cha hng ngn phn t khc nhau, nhng
phn ln l cc hydrocacbon c s cacbon t 4 n 26. Trong du th cn c cc hp cht lu
hunh, nit, kim loi. Cc loi du nhin liu sau tinh ch (du DO, FO) v mt s sn phm
du m khc cn cha cc cht c nh PAHs, PCBs,... Do , du m thng c c tnh
cao v tng i bn trong mi trng nc. c tnh v tc ng ca du m n h sinh
thi nc khng ging nhau m ph thuc vo loi du m.
Hu ht cc loi ng thc vt u b tc hi ca du m. Cc loi ng thc vt thy

78
sinh d b cht do du m ngn cn qu trnh h hp, quang hp v cung cp nng lng. Tuy
nhin, mt s loi to li km nhy cm vi du m, do trong iu kin nhim du m,
nhiu loi to li pht trin mnh.
Giao thng thy, khai thc v c bit vic vn chuyn du th l ngun gy nhim
du m ch yu i vi mi trng nc.
3.5.2.4. Cc cht c mu
Nc nguyn cht khng c mu, nhng nc trong t nhin thng c mu do cc
cht c mt trong nc nh:
Cc cht hu c do xc thc vt b phn hy (cc hp cht humic),
St v mangan dng keo hoc dng ha tan,
Cc cht thi cng nghip (phm mu, crm, tanin, lignin,...),
Mu thc ca nc to ra do cc cht ha tan hoc cht keo c trong nc. Mu biu
kin ca nc (apparent color) do cc cht rn l lng trong nc gy ra.
Ngoi cc tc hi c th c ca cc cht gy mu trong nc, nc c mu cn c
xem l khng t tiu chun cm quan, gy tr ngi cho nhiu mc ch s dng khc nhau.
3.5.2.5. Cc cht gy mi v
Nhiu cht c th gy mi v cho nc. Trong , nhiu cht c hi cho sc khe con
ngi cng nh gy cc tc hi khc n ng thc vt v h sinh thi nc nh:
Cc cht hu c t nc thi th, nc thi cng nghip,
Cc sn phm ca qu trnh phn hy xc ng thc vt,
Du m v cc sn phm du m,...
Cng nh cc cht gy mu, cc cht gy mi v c th gy hi cho i sng ng
thc vt v lm gim cht lng nc v mt cm quan. Tuy nhin, mt s cht khong c
mt trong nc to ra v nc t nhin, khng th thiu c trong nc ung sch, do chng
l ngun cung cp cc cht vi lng cn thit cho c th con ngi. Khi hm lng cc cht
khong ny thp hoc khng c, nc ung s tr nn rt nht nho.
3.5.2.6. Cc vi sinh vt gy bnh (pathogens)
Nhiu vi sinh vt gy bnh c mt trong nc nh hng xu n mc ch s dng
nc trong sinh hot. Cc sinh vt ny c th truyn hoc gy bnh cho ngi. Vi sinh vt gy
bnh vn khng t pht sinh trong nc, chng cn c vt ch sng k sinh, pht trin v
sinh sn. Mt s sinh vt gy bnh c th sng mt thi gian kh di trong nc v l nguy c
truyn bnh tim tng. Cc sinh vt ny l vi khun, vi rt, ng vt n bo, giun sn.
Vi khun
Vi khun l cc vi sinh vt n bo, c cu to t bo, nhng cha c cu trc nhn
phc tp, thuc nhm prokaryotes v thng khng mu. Vi khun l dng sng thp nht c
kh nng t tng hp nguyn sinh cht t mi trng xung quanh. Cc loi vi khun gy bnh
c trong nc thng gy cc bnh v ng rut, nh dch t (cholera, do vi khun Vibrio
comma), bnh thng hn (typhoid, do vi khun Salmonella typhosa),...
Vi rt
Vi rt l nhm vi sinh vt cha c cu to t bo, c kch thc rt b, c th i qua
c mng lc vi khun. Cho n nay, vi rt l cu trc sinh hc nh nht c bit n, ch
c th thy c vi rt qua knh hin vi in t. Vi rt c mang y thng tin v gien cn
thit gip cho qu trnh sinh sn v l nhng vt k sinh cn phi sng bm vo t bo sinh
vt ch (t vi khun n t bo ng vt, thc vt) . Vi rt c trong nc c th gy cc bnh

79
c lin quan n chng ri lon h thn kinh trung ng, vim ty xm, vim gan,... Thng
thng kh trng bng cc qu trnh khc nhau trong giai on x l nc c th dit c vi
rt. Nhng hiu qu c th ca qu trnh kh trng cha c nh gi ng mc i vi vi
rt, do kch thc vi rt qu nh v cha c phng php kim tra nhanh phn tch.
ng vt n bo (protozoa)
ng vt n bo l dng ng vt sng nh nht, c th c cu to n bo nhng c
chc nng hot ng phc tp hn vi khun v vi rt. ng vt n bo c th sng c lp
hoc k sinh, c th thuc loi gy bnh hoc khng, c loi c kch thc rt nh, nhng
cng c loi kch thc ln c th nhn thy c. Cc loi ng vt n bo d dng thch
nghi vi iu kin bn ngoi, nn chng tn ti rt ph bin trong nc t nhin, nhng ch c
mt s t thuc loi sinh vt gy bnh.
Trong iu kin mi trng khng thun li, cc loi ng vt n bo thng to lp
v kn bao bc (cyst), rt kh tiu dit trong qu trnh kh trng. V vy, thng thng trong
qu trnh x l nc sinh hot cn c cng on lc loi b cc ng vt n bo dng
v kn ny.
Giun sn (helminths)
Giun sn l loi sinh vt k sinh c vng i gn lin vi hai hay nhiu ng vt ch,
con ngi c th l mt trong s cc vt ch ny. Phn ngi v ng vt l ngun a giun
sn vo nc. Nc l mi trng vn chuyn giun sn quan trng. Tuy nhin, cc phng
php x l nc hin nay c th tiu dit giun sn rt hiu qu. Ngi thng s dng hoc
tip xc vi cc loi nc cha x l c th c nguy c nhim giun sn.
Cc sinh vt ch th cho sinh vt gy bnh
Vic phn tch nc pht hin ton b cc sinh vt gy bnh thng rt mt thi
gian v cng sc. Thng thng, ngi ta ch thc hin mt php kim nghim c th no
xc nh s c mt ca mt sinh vt gy bnh xc nh, khi c l do nghi ng v s c
mt ca chng trong ngun nc. Khi cn kim tra thng k cht lng nc, ngi ta s
dng cc sinh vt ch th.
Cc sinh vt ch th l cc sinh vt m s hin din ca chng biu th cho thy nc
ang b nhim cc sinh vt gy bnh, ng thi phn nh s b bn cht v mc nhim.
Mt sinh vt ch th l tng phi tha mn cc im sau:
(1) c th s dng cho tt c cc loi nc,
(2) lun lun c mt khi c mt sinh vt gy bnh,
(3) lun lun khng c mt khi khng c mt sinh vt gy bnh,
(4) c th xc nh c d dng thng qua cc php kim nghim, khng b nh
hng cn tr do s c mt ca cc sinh vt khc trong nc,
(5) khng phi l sinh vt gy bnh, do khng c hi cho kim nghim vin.
Trong thc t, hu nh khng th tm c sinh vt ch th no hi cc iu kin
nu trn.
Hu ht cc sinh vt gy bnh c trong mt nc thng xut pht t ngun gc phn
ngi v ng vt. Do , bt k sinh vt no c mt trong ng rut ca ngi v ng vt
v tha mn cc iu kin nu trn u c th dng lm sinh vt ch th. Tng coliforms (total
coliforms), fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, v clostridium perfringens, thng l cc sinh
vt ch th c dng pht hin s nhim phn ca nc. Trong s , nhm tng
coliform (total coliform group) bao gm Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes,
Citrobacter fruendii,... thng c s dng nht.
Total coliforms thng c dng nh gi kh nng b nhim phn ca nc
ung. Fecal coliforms c dng nh gi cc loi nc sng, sui b nhim, nc cng,

80
nc h bi,... cc nc vng n i Escherichia coli (E. coli) l loi chim u th trong
ng rut ngi, trong lc cc nc vng nhit i E. coli khng phi l loi vi khun
ch yu trong rut ngi. V vy, total coliform l test thng c dng pht hin kh
nng nhim phn cc ngun nc vng nhit i.
Fecal streptococci, cng l loi vi khun ng rut, nhng c nhiu trong ng vt
hn ngi. Do , t s ca Fecal coliforms v Fecal streptococci (FC/FS) c th cho bit
nc ang b nhim phn ngi hay phn ng vt. Khi t s ny ln hn hoc bng 4,0,
nc c xem l b nhim phn ngi. Khi t s ny nh hn 0,7, th nc c xem l b
nhim phn ng vt.
Sinh vt (vi khun) ch th thng c xc nh bng 2 phng php:
Phng php lc mng (membrane filter, hay cn gi l phng php MF, kt qu
biu din bng s vi khun/100 mL),
Phng php MPN (Most Probable Number, hay cn gi l phng php ln men ng
nghim, kt qu biu din bng s MPN/100 mL).
3.5.3. Cc yu cu v cht lng nc Tiu chun cht lng nc
Yu cu v cht lng nc thay i ty theo mc ch s dng nc. Mt loi nc
c th khng t yu cu cho mc ch s dng ny, nhng vn c th t yu cu cho mc
ch s dng khc.
Khi khng c nc cht lng tt s dng th ngi ta buc phi chp nhn s
dng loi nc c cht lng km hn yu cu.
Cc t chc quc t, cc quc gia hoc cc c quan c thm quyn thng phi ban
hnh tiu chun cht lng nc (water quality standards), l cc yu cu v cht lng
nc mang tnh php l.
Vit Nam, B Khoa hc Cng ngh v Mi trng ban hnh tiu chun cht
lng cho nc mt, nc ngm, nc bin ven b, nc thi.
Tiu chun cht lng nc cho cc mc ch s dng khc nh nc s dng cho
mc ch nui trng thy sn, nc ti tiu nng nghip, nc ung,... do cc B, Ngnh
ban hnh c th theo chc nng ring.
Thng thng cc quc gia ban hnh cc tiu chun cht lng nc dng cho cc
loi nc sau:
Nc sng, sui, h, bin ven b (in-stream quality). Tiu chun cht lng ny phi
m bo duy tr c v mt php l cht lng nc sao cho nc an ton cho mc ch nh
bt c, bi li v ch cn mt vi cng on x l n gin l c th cp c cho sinh hot.
Nc ung. Tiu chun cht lng nc ung phi m bo nc khng nhng t
cc tiu chun v cm quan, nh khng mu, khng mi v l, m cn phi an ton cho ngi
s dng. T chc Y t Th gii (WHO) ban hnh hng dn v tiu chun cht lng
nc ung (1984, 1993), nhiu quc gia da vo hng dn ny ban hnh tiu chun cht
lng nc ung ring cho nc mnh.
Nc thi. Tiu chun cht lng nc thi quy nh nng ti a cho php ca
cc tc nhn nhim trong nc thi khi thi vo mi trng. Ty theo c trng ring (lu
lng, kh nng t lm sch, mc ch s dng,...) ca ngun nhn thi (sng, sui, h,
bin,...), chnh quyn a phng cn c cc tiu chun quy nh ring thch hp, nhm bo
m cht lng nc ca cc ngun nhn thi t cc yu cu ca cht lng nc sng, sui,
h, nc bin ven b nu trn.
Cc tiu chun cht lng nc sng, sui, h, nc bin ven b, nc ung, nc
thi u c lin quan mt thit vi nhau.

81
Bng 3.6. Gi tr gii hn cho php ca cc thng s v nng cc cht nhim
trong nc mt (TCVN 59421995)

TT
1

Thng s
pH
o

n v

Gi tr gii hn
A

6 8,5

5,5 9

BOD5 (20 C)

mg/l

<4

< 25

COD

mg/l

< 10

< 35

Oxy ha tan

mg/l

Cht rn l lng

mg/l

20

80

Asen

mg/l

0,05

0,1

Bari

mg/l

Cadmi

mg/l

0,01

0,02

Ch

mg/l

0,05

0,1

10

Crom (VI)

mg/l

0,05

0,05

11

Crom (III)

mg/l

0,1

12

ng

mg/l

0,1

13

Km

mg/l

14

Mangan

mg/l

0,1

0,8

15

Niken

mg/l

0,1

16

St

mg/l

17

Thy ngn

mg/l

0,001

0,002

18

Thic

mg/l

19

Amonic (tnh theo N)

mg/l

0,05

20

Florua

mg/l

1,5

21

Nitrat (tnh theo N)

mg/l

10

15

22

Nitrit (tnh theo N)

mg/l

0,01

0,05

23

Xianua

mg/l

0,01

0,05

24

Phenola (tng s)

mg/l

0,001

0,02

25

Du, m

mg/l

khng

0,3

26

Cht ty ra

mg/l

0,5

0,5

27

Coliform

MPN/100 ml

5,000

10,000

28

Tng ha cht bo v thc vt (tr DDT)

mg/l

0,15

0,15

29

DDT

mg/l

0,01

0,01

30

Tng hot ng phng x

Bq/l

0,1

0,1

31

Tng hot ng phng x

Bq/l

1,0

1,0

Ch thch:

Ct A p dng i vi nc mt c th dng lm ngun cp nc sinh hot (nhng

phi qua qu trnh x l theo quy nh).
Ct B p dng i vi nc mt dng cho cc mc ch khc. Nc dng cho nng
nghip v nui trng thy sn c quy nh ring.

82
Bng 3.7. Gi tr gii hn cho php v cc thng s v nng cht nhim
trong nc thi cng nghip (TCVN 5945 -1995)
TT
1
2

Thng s
Nhit
pH

n v

40

40

45

mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l

69
20
50
50
0,01
0,01
0,1
1
0,05
0,2
0,2
1
0,2
0,2
1
0,005
0,2
0,1
30
1
0,05
0,2
0,001
ND
5
0,2
4
0,05
0,02

5.5 9
50
100
100
0,2
0,02
0,5
2
0,1
1
1
2
1
1
5
0,005
1
1
60
2
0,1
0,5
0,05
1
10
0,5
6
0,3
0,1

59
100
400
200
0,5

MPN/100 ml

5000

10000

Gi tr gii hn

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

BOD5 (20 C)
COD
Cht rn l lng
Asen
Cadmi
Ch
Clo d
Crom (VI)
Crom (III)
ng
Km
Mangan
Niken
St
Thy ngn
Thic
Amoniac (tnh theo N)
Tng nit
Florua
Xianua
Sulfua
Phenol
Du m khong
Du ng thc vt
Phot pho hu c
Phot pho tng s
Tricloetylen
Tetracloetylen

31

Coliform

32

Tng hot phng x

Bq/l

0,1

0,1

33

Tng hot phng x

Bq/l

1,0

1,0

Ch thch:

1
2
0,5
2
5
5
5
2
10
0,01
5
10
60
5
0,2
1
1
5
30
1
8
0,3
0,1

Nc thi cng nghip c gi tr cc thng s v nng cc cht thnh phn bng

hoc nh hn gi tr quy nh trong ct A c th vo cc vc nc dng lm ngun
cp nc cho sinh hot.
Nc thi cng nghip c gi tr cc thng s v nng cc cht thnh phn bng
hoc nh hn gi tr quy nh trong ct B ch c vo cc vc nc dng cho cc
mc ch giao thng thy, ti tiu, bi li, nui thy sn, trng trt ...

83
Cc tiu chun cht lng nc nu trn thng xuyn c thay i theo chiu
hng ngy cng kht khe hn, da vo kt qu cc nghin cu v c hc, y hc, thnh tu
mi trong lnh vc phn tch ha hc, phn tch sinh hc, kh nng kinh t k thut, phng
php x l nc v nc thi,... nhm mc ch m bo an ton cho sc khe con ngi v
h sinh thi mi trng nc ni ring cng nh h sinh thi t nhin ni chung.

3.6. X l nc thi
Ngun gy nhim mi trng nc quan trng nht l nc thi. Nc thi sinh
hot v nc thi cng nghip u cha cc tc nhn c hi gy suy thoi cht lng nc
sng, h, nc ngm. V vy, vic x l nc thi trc khi thi vo mi trng l cng vic
ti cn thit bo v ti nguyn nc ni ring v mi trng ni chung. C th ni hu ht
cc quc gia u c nhng quy nh c th v nng ti a cho php ca cc tc nhn gy
nhim trong nc thi khi thi vo mi trng. Tiu chun Vit Nam v mi trng, TCVN
59451995, chnh l tiu chun v nc thi ca Vit Nam.
3.6.1. Cc phng php sinh hc x l nc thi
Hu ht cc cht hu c trong nc thi c th tr thnh thc n cho vi sinh vt pht
trin. y l c s ca phng php sinh hc x l nc thi. Cc phng php sinh hc
thng c s dng x l cc loi nc thi cha nhiu cht hu c, nh nc thi sinh
hot, nc thi cng nghip thc phm, cng nghip thy sn, ch bin sn xut giy,...
C th s dng cc loi vi khun sau x l nc thi:
Vi khun hiu kh (aerobic): hot ng trong iu kin c oxy ha tan,
Vi khun k kh (anaerobic): khng hot ng c trong iu kin c oxy t do, s
dng oxy lin kt (v d oxy trong NO3, CO2,) hot ng,
Vi khun ty nghi (facultative): hot ng theo c ch hiu kh khi c oxy ha
tan; hoc c ch k kh trong iu kin ngc li.
Trong cc qu trnh x l sinh hc, vi sinh vt c th pht trin dng l lng trong
dung dch hoc pht trin trn cc vt bm (gi th).
Ty theo loi nc thi cn x l v cc iu kin khc nh kh hu, thi tit, a hnh,
kinh ph,... m la chn phng php, hoc kt hp cc phng php ny x l nc thi.
3.6.1.1. Cc phng php hiu kh
Trong qu trnh x l hiu kh, cc vi khun hiu kh d dng (ly cacbon t cc hp
cht hu c) oxy ha khong 1/3 cc hp cht hu c tan hoc dng keo trong nc thnh cc
sn phm cui n gin (CO2 + H2O) v chuyn ha 2/3 lng cht hu c cn li thnh t
bo vi sinh vt mi, phn ny c th loi b ra khi nc thi bng cch lng. Qu trnh ny
c th biu din bng cc phng trnh phn ng sau [13]:
Cht hu c + O2 CO2 + H2O + t bo mi
Trong iu kin hiu kh, vi khun t dng (ly cacbon t cc hp cht v c) c th
chuyn cc hp cht hu c c cha nit thnh nitrat qua cc phn ng sau:
Cht hu c cha N NH3 (phn hy)
Vi khun nitrat ha
Nitrat ha
NH3 + O2
NO2

NO3
Nitrat to thnh khng th chuyn ha thnh dng khc, tr khi mi trng chuyn
sang iu kin k kh (ch c oxy lin kt trong h), lc ny vi khun d dng s chuyn
NO3 to thnh N2:
Vi khun denitrat ha
NO2 N2 ( nitrat ha)
NO3
cng trong iu kin k kh, SO42 b kh thnh kh H2S c mi thi:

84
Vi khun khu sunfat
SO42
H2S
Theo phng php hiu kh, mt s k thut sau y thng c s dng:
K thut bn hot ha (activated sludge process)
y l k thut c s dng rng ri x l nc thi th v nc thi cng
nghip thc phm. Nc thi sau khi thu gom v sng lc s b loi cc cht rn l lng
c a vo b x l. Trong b x l, vi khun hiu kh c duy tr dng l lng trong
nc thi nh h thng cnh khuy c th c kt hp sc khng kh. Sinh khi to ra trong
qu trnh x l (t bo vi sinh vt sng v cht) c gi l bn hot ha (cn gi l bn
hot tnh). duy tr mt vi khun cao trong b x l, mt phn bn hot ha t b lng
c a ngc li vo b x l (bn hi lu). Phn bn thi cn li c lm kh (tch
nc) v tiu hy bng nhiu bin php khc nhau. Qu trnh ny c th loi dn 90% BOD,
40% nit v 60 90% coliform.

Sng lc s b,
loi cn th

Cn th

Lng ln 1

Khng kh

B x l

Lng ln 2

Kh trng

Khuy
Nc thi
x l

Nc thi

Bn hot
ha hi lu
Bn phn hy
H nn bn
Phn hy k kh

Hnh 3.13. S h x l nc thi theo k thut bn hot ha

Hnh 3.14. B lc nh git x l nc thi th [20]

85

K thut mng mng c nh (fixed film process)

Trong k thut ny, nc thi c tip xc vi vi sinh vt bm vo cc gi th bng
, cht do, ct, gm, s, g,... H lc nh git (lc sinh hc, trickling filter, Hnh 3.14) c
s dng ph bin hin nay x l cc cht hu c trong nc thi, l mt v d v k thut
mng mng c nh.
Trong h lc nh git, nc thi c phun t bn trn thp, ln lt chy qua cc vt
liu xp rng t cch nhau thnh tng lp trong thp. Vi sinh vt hiu kh pht trin trn b
mt cc lp vt liu ni trn (gi l mng sinh hc) tip xc vi nc thi v phn hy cc
cht hu c trong nc thi theo c ch phn hy hiu kh.
3.6.1.2. Cc phng php k kh
Trong qu trnh x l k kh, hai nhm vi khun k kh d dng tham gia vo 2 giai
on phn hy phn hy trn 90% cht hu c trong nc thi thnh cc sn phm trung
gian (thng l cc axt hu c v ru), sau thnh mtan v cacbonic.
vi khun tao axit
Hp cht trung gian + CO2 + H2S + H2O
Cht hu c
vi khun mtan
Cc axt hu c
CH4 + CO2
So vi phn hy hiu kh, phn hy k kh c cc u im sau:
To ra sn phm mtan, c th dng lm nhin liu
To ra t bn thi (ch bng 10% so vi x l hiu kh).
Theo phng php k kh mt s k thut sau thng c s dng:
B phn hy k kh (anaerobic digestion)
B phn hy k kh l mt trong cc phng php c s dng sm nht x l bn
thi ca qu trnh x l sinh hc. Trong b phn hy k kh xy ra s phn hy khng nhng
cc hp cht hu c m c cc hp cht v c. Ngy nay phng php ny vn c s dng
rt hiu qu x l cc loi bn thi cng nh mt s loi cht thi cng nghip khc.
B phn hy l mt h phn ng hon ton kn khng kh. Bn thi cn x l c
a vo b mt cch lin tc hay gin on, sau c lu li trong b mt thi gian thch
hp, ri c tho khi b khi hm lng cht hu c v cc vi khun gy bnh gim n
mc ti a. Phn bn thi sau x l ny khng cn b thi ra trong khng kh na.
K thut UASB (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket)

Kh thot ra
vo h thu kh

Nc thi x l

Lp ht
bn sinh hc

Nc thi vo

Hnh 3.15. S h thng UASB

86
Trong k thut UASB, nc thi cn x l c a vo b x l k kh t pha y.
Trong b, dng nc thi i ln v gp mt lp cc ht bn to thnh do qu trnh sinh hc
trong b v c x l, ng thi sinh ra cc kh nh CH4, CO2,... Kh sinh ra to thnh dng
i lu trong b, gip to thnh lp cc ht bn sinh hc. Mt phn kh sinh ra bm vo cc
ht bn, lm chng ni ln nh b, ti y cc ht bn s va chm vi phu thu kh lp t
nh b lm bt kh tch khi ht bn. Ht bn tch khi bt kh li chm xung. Bt kh
tch ra c thu vo h thu kh ca b x l. Tc a nc thi vo b x l c khng
ch thch hp duy tr trng thi l lng ca lp ht bn sinh hc trong b.
3.6.1.3. Mt s phng php x l sinh hc thng dng khc

Ao ty nghi (facultative ponds)

Ao ty nghi thng c dng x l nc thi th. Nc thi c dn vo cc
ao c su nh, t 1 n 2 m. Ty theo su mc nc thi trong ao, c th c qu trnh
phn hy hiu kh, ty nghi v k kh xy ra trong ao. lp nc trn mt, do c tip xc
vi khng kh nn DO cao, xy ra qu trnh hiu kh chuyn ha cc cht hu c thnh
CO2. Trong tng nc mt to ng vai tr h tr ng k cho qu trnh phn hy cht hu c
do cung cp thm DO cho nc qua qu trnh quang hp. Ngc li, tng y qu trnh
phn hy k kh li xy ra ch yu (Hnh 3.16).
nh sng Mt tri

Tng bn

CO2, NO3, PO4, SO4

O2
Vi khun
hiu kh

Axt hu c v
cc sn phm kh khc ca
C, N, P, S

Sinh khi

Sinh
khi

Vng k kh

S chuyn i gia iu kin hiu kh

v k kh ph thuc vo iu kin kh
hu v ti lng nc thi

Vng ty nghi

To

Vng hiu kh

CO2

Gi

Vi khun k kh

Lp chng thm

Hnh 3.16. S biu din hot ng ca ao ty nghi [12]

Mc d ao ty nghi n gin, hot ng khng cn nhiu cng lao ng chuyn mn

vn hnh, song n cng c nhiu im yu. To pht trin trong ao bn cnh vai tr tch

87
cc nu trn, li rt kh loi khi nc sau khi x l, thm ch cn lm tng BOD ca
nc hn nhiu so vi phn BOD ca cc cht hu c c x l trong ao. Hiu qu x l
ca ao ty nghi ph thuc mnh vo iu kin kh hu, thi tit, c bit i vi cc nc
vng n i vo ma ng. Din tch xy dng ao ln, khng ph hp vi cc vng c
mt dn c cao.
K thut t ngp nc (wetland)
Cc vng t ngp nc t nhin hay nhn to, nh cc vng m ly, l mi trng
thch hp cho qu trnh sa lng cng nh hot ng ca vi khun x l loi nc thi
qua mt s cng on x l trc (ti lng cht nhim khng qu cao). Cc loi thc vt
thy sinh nh bo Nht Bn, c ui chn (cattail),... tham gia vo qu trnh x l lm sch
nc thi do bn thn thc vt hp th bt cc cht dinh dng (N, P) trong nc, thn v r
ca chng l gi th rt tt cho vi sinh vt pht trin v phn hy cht nhim hu c trong
nc thi. Ngi ta cn c th nui mt s s loi c n tp trong vng ngp nc tn
dng ngun thc vt pht trin, xem y l mt bin php h tr cho hiu qu x l nc thi
ca vng t ngp nc.
3.6.2. Cc phng php c l ha hc x l nc thi
C 4 phng php c l ha hc thng c dng x l nc thi:
Phng php lng v keo t
Phng php hp ph
Phng php trung ha
Phng php dng cht oxy ha
3.6.2.1. Phng php lng v keo t
Nc thi c a vo cc b cha lng cc cht rn. Thng thng cc cht rn
l lng lng rt chm hoc kh lng. tng tc lng, ngi ta thng dng cc cht gy
keo t nh:
Al2(SO4)3.nH2O (n = 13 18)
Hn hp Na2CO3 + Al2(SO4)3
FeSO4.7H2O
Ca(OH)2
NaAlO2,
3.6.2.2. Phng php hp ph
Phng php hp ph da trn nguyn tc cc cht nhim tan trong nc c th b
hp ph trn b mt mt s cht rn (cht hp ph). Cc cht hp ph thng dng l than
hot tnh dng ht hay dng bt, than bn sy kh, t st hot ha.
Cc cht hu c, cht mu, kim loi nng d b hp ph. Lng cht hp ph s dng
ty thuc vo kh nng hp ph ca tng cht v hm lng cht cn hp ph trong nc.
Trong nhiu trng hp ngi ta cn li dng kh nng hp ph ca st (III) hydroxit hoc
nhm hydroxit to thnh trong qu trnh keo t x l loi kim loi nng v cc cht
nhim hu c c hi trong nc.
3.6.2.3. Phng php trung ha
Nc thi c axt cao cn cho qua b cha vt liu lc c tnh kim nh vi, vi,
lmit, hoc dng nc vi, dung dch kim (NaOH, Na2CO3) trung ha.
Nc thi c tnh kim, dng axt long trung ha.

88
Trc khi trung ha cn chun b v tnh ton lng ha cht sao cho sau khi trung
ha pH ca mi trng t c gi tr mong mun.
3.6.2.4. Phng php oxy ha
Nhiu tc nhn nhim c hi trong nc thi c th c x l bng cch thm cc
cht oxy ha mnh vo nc. V d, nhiu cht hu c b oxy ha bi oxy khng kh, Cl2, O3,
H2O2, phn hy thnh cc cht hu c n gin v t c hi hn.
Qu trnh oxy ha cc cht hu c trong nc thi c th c thc hin nhit
thng, hoc nhit cao. Trong nhiu trng hp ngi ta cn s dng p sut cao
nng nhit x l ln trn 300C.
Cc tc nhn oxy ha ha hc thng c s dng kt hp vi cc cht xc tc, tia
UV, vi sng, siu m,... nng cao hiu qu oxy ha cht hu c.
Nhiu cht oxy ha mnh cn l cht kh trng tt, nn khi s dng chng oxy ha
cc tc nhn gy nhim trong nc th ng thi chng cng thc hin lun nhim v kh
trng cho nc v ngc li.

Cu hi
1. tan ca cht kh trong nc tng hay gim khi: a. Nhit tng? b. p sut tng?
2. Ti sao nng oxy ha tan c xem l thng s d on tnh trng nhim hu c
i vi cc ngun nc t nhin?
3. pH ca nc sng thng dao ng trong khong 5-8. Hy gii thch hin tng pH ca
nc sng cng tng khi cng n gn ca sng.
4. Thng s no trong s cc thng s sau c th tng t l vi s tng pH ca nc sng
gn ca sng: nhu cu oxy sinh ha (BOD5), nhu cu oxy ha hc (COD), c (TURBID),
dn in (EC), tng cht rn l lng (TSS), tng cht rn ha tan (TDS)? Gii thch.
5. C quan h no gia gi tr COD v BOD5 ca mt mu nc thi hay khng?
6. V sao cc loi ha cht bo v thc vt nhm c clo b cm s dng? Nhm ha cht ny
b cm s dng Vit Nam t nm no?
7. Dioxin c phi l thnh phn chnh ca Cht c mu da cam hay khng? Gii thch.
8. Vi sinh vt ch th nh gi tnh trng nhim sinh vt gy bnh ca nc l g?
9. Ti sao cc nc vng n i thng s dng thng s E. Coli nh gi cht lng nc
ung, trong lc cc nc vng nhit i li s dng thng s Tng coliforms?
10. Nc thi th thng c x l bng phng php no? Nguyn tc ca phng php
x l ny?

89

4.

A QUYN V NHIM MI TRNG T

4.1. Khi nim v t

t l mt lp mng khong vt trn b mt Tri t b phong ha kt hp vi
thnh phn hu c. Thc vt pht trin trn t, v vy t l mt trong nhng yu t cn bn
i vi nng nghip. Vi con ngi v hu ht cc sinh vt trn cn, t l thnh phn ti
quan trng ca a quyn. Mc d ch l mt lp rt mng so vi kch thc ca Tri t,
song t li l mi trng sn sinh ra lng thc, thc phm cho hu ht cc dng sinh vt.
Bn cnh vai tr sn xut lng thc thc phm, t cn l ni tip nhn mt lng
ln cc cht gy nhim. Mt s cht c con ngi a vo t nh phn bn, ha cht
bo v thc vt, cng gp phn lm nhim mi trng t, nc v khng kh.
V vy, c th ni t l khu quan trng trong chu trnh ha hc mi trng.
t c to thnh do s phong ha m, y l mt qu trnh t nhin bao gm cc
qu trnh a cht, thy vn v sinh hc kt hp li. t xp v phn thnh cc tng theo
su. S phn tng ny l sn phm ca qu trnh thm nc xung t, qu trnh sinh hc bao
gm s to thnh v phn hy sinh khi.
C th ni rng t l vt th thin nhin c to thnh nh s kt hp ca su yu t
l , sinh vt (gm ng vt v thc vt), kh hu, a hnh, nc v thi gian. Cc loi cu
to nn v Tri t, di tc dng ca kh hu, a hnh, nc, sinh vt, tri qua mt thi gian
lu di, dn dn b ph hy, vn ra thnh t. Nhiu nh nghin cu cho rng khi c loi ngi,
th con ngi l yu t c bit quan trng tc ng n s hnh thnh v thoi ha ca t.
t l mt h m, h ny thng xuyn trao i cht v nng lng vi kh quyn,
thy quyn v sinh quyn.
Trn quan im sinh thi hc v mi trng, c th xem t l mt c th sng v
trong n c nhiu sinh vt khc nh: vi khun, nm, to, thc vt, ng vt. Do , t cng
tun th cc quy lut sng: pht sinh, pht trin, thoi ha v gi ci.
Thc t con ngi ch quan tm ti lp v ngoi Tri t c su khong 16 km.

4.2. Bn cht v thnh phn ca t

t l hn hp cc cht khong, cht hu c v nc, c kh nng duy tr s sng cho
thc vt trn b mt Tri t. Trong t c cha khng kh, nc v cht rn.
Cht rn l thnh phn ch yu ca t, chim gn 100% khi lng t v chia thnh
hai loi: cht rn v c v cht rn hu c.
t canh tc kh thng c cha khong 5% cht hu c v 95% cht v c. Mt s
loi t, nh t than bn c th cha n 95% cht hu c. Mt s loi t khc ch cha
khong 1% cht hu c.
Hp phn hu c ca t cha:
Sn phm phn hy cc giai on khc nhau ca sinh khi ng thc vt,
Vi khun, nm v ng vt nh cn trng, giun t,
Thng thng t phn b thnh cc tng theo su. Cc tng t c hnh thnh
do cc s tng tc phc tp gia cc qu trnh xy ra trong sut qu trnh phong ha. Nc
ma thm qua t ko theo cc cht tan v cc ht keo rn xung cc tng khc bn di v
tch t li. Cc qu trnh sinh hc, v d s phn hy sinh khi thc vt di tc dng ca vi
sinh vt to ra CO2, cc axit hu c, cc hp cht to phc. Sau , cc cht ny b nc ma
li ko xung cc tng t bn di, chng phn ng vi t st hoc cc loi khong
khc v lm thay i tnh cht ca cc loi khong ny.

90
Tng t trn cng dy khong vi n vi chc centimet, c gi l tng A, hay cn
gi l tng t mt. y l lp t cha nhiu cht hu c nht v cng l vng t c vi sinh
vt hot ng mnh nht. Ion kim loi v cc ht st trong tng A rt d b cun theo nc.
Tng t tip theo c gi l tng B, hay tng t ci. Tng ny tip nhn cht hu c, cc
loi mui, ht st t tng t mt. Tng C c to thnh t m phong ha (sn phm t
hnh thnh t).

Thc vt

Tng A (tng t mt)

Tng B (tng t ci)

Tng C (tng m b phong ha)

Hnh 4.1. Cc tng t

C nhiu loi t c c tnh khc nhau, do c th s dng cc loi t vo cc mc

ch s dng ring, v d t canh tc, t lm ng, t lm bi chn lp. Loi m t
to thnh t quyt nh thnh phn v tnh cht chnh ca t to thnh.
4.2.1. Cc thnh phn v c ca t
Cc cht rn v c l thnh phn ch yu ca t, chim 97 - 98% t kh [15]. Thnh
phn cc nguyn t ha hc c mt trong t c trnh by trong Bng 4.1. Nm nguyn t
cu bng l H, C, S, P v N rt cn cho cy trng, cc nguyn t ny cha trong t hn
trong t. Cacbon trong t nhiu hn trong n 20 ln, nit gp 10 ln, chnh v vy m
t trng nui sng c cy.
Ion oxalat, to thnh do qu trnh ng ha ca nm, tn ti trong t di dng mui
canxi; nc trong t cha ion oxalat ha tan c mt s khong, do thc y qu trnh
phong ha, lm gia tng cc ion dinh dng cho thc vt. Phn ng to phc gia ion oxalat
v cc ion st hay nhm trong khong c biu din bng phng trnh phn ng sau:

3H+ + M(OH)3(r) + 2CaC2O4(r) M(C2O4)2 (dd) + 2Ca2+(dd) + 3H2O

trong , M l Al hay Fe.
Khong vt cha cc nguyn t thng gp trong v Tri t nh oxy, silic, nhm, st,
canxi, natri, kali v magi l thnh phn khong chnh ca t. Cc loi khong ph bin
trong t l thch anh (SiO2), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), epidote
(4CaO.3(AlFe)2O3.6SiO2.H2O), geothite (FeO(OH)), magnetite (Fe3O4), canxi v magi
cacbonat (CaCO3, CaCO3.MgCO3) v cc oxit mangan v titan. Cc khong st l loi khong

91
quan trng ca t. Khong st c cng thc chung l nSiO2.Al2O3.mH2O; khong st
kaolinite c t l n:m = 2:2; khong st montmorillonite c t l n:m = 4:2; khong st illite l
dng trung gian ca 2 loi khong trn, nhng gn vi montmorillonite hn. Cc khong ny
hp th mnh cc cation nh Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+, nn cc cation ny c th khng b
nc ra tri m c gii phng dn vo t lm thc n cho cy.
Mt trong nhng sn phm cui cng ca qu trnh phong ha m l cc ht keo v
c. Cc ht keo ny ng mt vai tr rt quan trng trong t. Ht keo ny gi nc v cc
cht dinh dng cho thc vt hp th. Ngoi ra, cc ht keo t c bn cht v c cn hp th
cc cht c trong t, v vy chng ng vai tr nh nhng tc nhn lm gim c tnh ca
cc cht gy c cho thc vt. Bn cht v mt ca cc ht keo v c l cc yu t rt quan
trng xc nh nng sut sinh hc ca t.
S hp th cht dinh dng ca r cy thng lin quan n cc tng tc phc tp
vi nc v pha v c ca t. V d, cht dinh dng b cc ht keo v c gi phi vt qua
b mt phn cch khong/nc, sau l b mt phn cch nc/r cy. Qu trnh ny thng
b nh hng mnh bi cu trc ion v cc cht v c trong nc.
Bng 4.1. Hm lng cc nguyn t ha hc trong v t ( w/w) [6]

Oxy

47,2

49,0

Silic

27,6

33,0

Nhm

8,8

7,13

St

5,1

3,8

Canxi

3,6

1,37

Natri

2,64

0,63

Kali

2,6

1,36

Magi

2,1

0,6

Titan

0,6

0,46

Hydro

0,15

Cacbon

0,1

2,0

Lu hunh

0,09

0,08

Photpho

0,08

0,09

Nit

0,01

0,1

Nguyn t

4.2.2. Cc thnh phn hu c ca t

Mc d ch chim t hn 5% trong thnh phn ca t canh tc, nhng hp phn hu
c ng mt vai tr rt quan trng v l yu t quyt nh cht lng v mt nng sut sinh
hc. Cc cht hu c trong t l ngun thc n ca vi sinh vt, chng tham gia vo cc phn
ng ha hc nh phn ng trao i, ng thi cng nh hng n tnh cht vt l ca t.
Mt s cht hu c cn tham gia vo qu trnh phong ha cc cht khong to thnh
t. Mt s nm trong t c th to ra axit citric v cc axit hu c c kh nng to phc, cc
cht ny phn ng vi khong silicat, gii phng kali v cc ion kim loi khc cn cho thc
vt. Mt s vi khun trong t c th to ra axit 2-ketogluconic c kh nng to phc mnh do
c th ha tan nhiu ion kim loi lm phong ha cc khong vt. Axit ny cn ha tan
c cc hp cht photphat khng tan, gii phng ion photphat.

92
Trong t cn cha mt s hp cht hu c hot ng sinh hc nh cc polysaccarit,
cc ng amino, nucleotic, cc hp cht hu c cha lu hunh, photpho.
iu rt ng ch l s c mt ca cc hp cht a vng ngng t (PAH), nh
fluoranthene, pyrene v chrysene trong t. Cc hp cht ny c xp vo loi cht c kh
nng gy ung th. Cc hp cht ny pht sinh trong t do c ngun t nhin (ng c chy)
ln ngun nhn to (t cht thi, hoc cc ngun thi gy nhim khc).
S tch t cc cht hu c trong t ph thuc nhiu vo nhit v lng oxy. cc
vng c nhit thp, cht hu c b phn hy sinh hc chm v tch ly trong t nhiu hn.
cc vng t ng nc c nhiu thc vt pht trin v xc thc vt, do khng c oxy
phn hy nn thnh phn hu c trong t c th ln n 90%.
Khi chit t bng hn hp ete v ru s thu c dung dch cha cc sc t bcarotein, chlorophyll v xanthophyll.
Bng 4.2. Cc loi hp cht hu c chnh trong t [15]
Loi hp cht

Thnh phn

Ghi ch

Mn

Phn cn li kh phn hy ca xc
thc vt. Ch yu cha C, H v O.

L thnh phn hu c ph bin nht,

ci thin tnh cht vt l ca t, kh
nng trao i cht dinh dng, ni
lu gi lng N sinh ra do c nh
m.

Cht bo, cht nha

v sp

Cc cht bo c th chit c bng

dung mi hu c.

Thng ch chim vi % so thnh

phn hu c, c hi cho t v khng
thm nc, c th c hi i vi cy
trng.

Saccarit

Cellulose, tinh bt, hemi-cellulose,

cht gm.

Ngun thc n chnh cho vi sinh vt,

lm n nh lin kt ca t.

Hp cht hu c
cha N

Mn cha N, amino axit, ng

amino, cc cht khc.

Cung cp nit lm cho t mu m

Hp cht photpho

Cc este photphat, cc inositol

photphat (axit phytic), cc
photpholipit.

Ngun cung cp P cho thc vt

Di tc ng ca khng kh, nc, nhit v vi sinh vt, cc cht hu c t xc

ng vt v thc vt c th b bin i theo hai qu trnh: qu trnh khong ha v qu trnh
mn ha.
Qu trnh khong ha
Khong ha l qu trnh phn hy cc hp cht hu c to thnh cc cht v c n
gin, nh cc mui khong v cc kh CO2, H2S, NH3, H2O...
Qu trnh mn ha
Qu trnh to thnh mn c gi l qu trnh mn ha
Mn l thnh phn hu c quan trng nht ca t. Mn l sn phm cn li ca s
phn hy xc thc vt do vi khun v nm c trong t.
Mn gm phn ha tan c trong kim l axit humic v axit fulvic; phn khng tan
gi l humin.
Trong qu trnh mn ha, vi sinh vt chuyn ha cc cht hu c thnh CO2 v ly
nng lng t qu trnh ny. Vi sinh vt cn to iu kin cho phn ng kt hp nit vi cc

93
hp cht to thnh trong qu trnh phn hy. Do , t l nit/cacbon tng t 1/100 trong sinh
khi thc vt ti n 1/10 trong mn khi qu trnh mn ha kt thc. V vy, mn cha
nhiu hp cht nit hu c.
Mc d ch chim vi phn trm trong thnh phn ca t, nhng nhng hp cht
trong mn c nh hng mnh n tnh cht ca t:

C kh nng lin kt mnh vi cc ion kim loi, do c th gi cc nguyn t kim

loi vi lng trong t.

C tnh axit baz nn cn ng vai tr l tc nhn m pH trong t.

Mn lin kt cc ht t v lm tng kh nng gi m cng nh kh nng hp th
cc cht hu c ca t.

4.3. Nc v khng kh trong t

4.3.1. Nc trong t
Thng thng, do cc ht t c kch thc nh, ng thi trong t cn c cc mao
qun v l xp nh, nn nc trong t khng tn ti hon ton c lp vi phn cht rn ca
t. Thc vt ch s dng c nc trong cc l xp ln ca t, loi nc ny c th chy
thot khi t. Nc cha trong cc l xp nh gia cc lp khong st b gi cht hn nn
thc vt kh hp th phn nc ny.
t cha nhiu cht hu c thng gi mt lng nc nhiu hn cc loi t khc,
nhng thc vt kh s dng lng nc ny, do n b hp ph vt l v ha hc ln cc thnh
phn hu c.
Nc tng tc rt mnh vi khong st trong t. Nc b hp ph ln b mt cc ht
st. Do c din tch b mt ring ln nn cc ht keo st gi c mt lng nc kh ln.
Nc cn b gi bi cc lp st bin tnh, nh khong st montmorillonite.
Khi b ng nc, tnh cht l, ha, sinh ca t s b bin i:

Oxy trong t s b suy kit nhanh chng do hot ng h hp ca vi sinh vt khi

tham gia qu trnh phn hy cc cht hu c.
Lin kt gia cc ht keo t b b gy, cu trc t b ph v.
Nc d tha trong t gy hi cho cy trng, lc ny t khng cha lng
khng kh cn thit cho r cy. Ngoi tr la, hu ht cc cy lng thc khc khng th pht
trin c trong t ng nc.

pE ca t gim (chuyn sang mi trng kh) do tc dng ca cc cht kh hu c

di tc dng xc tc ca vi sinh vt. pE gim mnh xung ch cn khong 1 hoc nh hn
(so vi gi tr 13,7 pH 7 trong iu kin nc cn bng vi khng kh).
Hu qu ca s thay i ny chnh l s di ng ca st v mangan, do cc oxit khng
tan mc oxy ha cao hn ca chng b kh v dng st (II) v mangan (II) tan c:
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e

Mn2+ + 2H2O

Fe2O3 + 6H+ + 2e Fe2+ + 3H2O

Mangan tan di dng ion Mn2+, cn st (II) tan thng tn ti di dng ion phc
tch in m vi cc phi t hu c. Do st (II) to phc mnh vi axit fulvic trong t, nn
st (III) d b kh thnh st (II) hn trong iu kin ny.
Cng vi mt s ion khc, Fe2+ v Mn2+ nng cao l cc ion c hi vi thc vt.
Qu trnh oxy ha cc ion ny to thnh cc oxit khng tan Fe2O3, MnO2 gy ra hin tng
nc phn hoc ng thnh vng trn mt t (ng phn).

94
4.3.2. Khng kh trong t
Trong cc loi t thng thng, cc l xp cha khng kh chim khong 35% tng
th tch t. Thnh phn khng kh trong t hon ton khc khng kh bnh thng (cha
khong 21% O2 v 0,03% CO2 tnh theo th tch). Nguyn nhn ca s khc bit ny c gii
thch do s phn hy cc cht hu c trong t:
{CH2O} + O2 CO2 + H2O
Qu trnh ny tiu th oxy v to thnh CO2. Do hm lng oxy ca khng kh
trong t gim xung cn khong 15%, trong lc hm lng CO2 tng ln n khong vi
phn trm. S phn hy ny cng lm tng CO2 trong nc ngm, lm gim pH v lm tng
s phong ha cc khong cacbonat, c bit l khong canxi cacbonat. CO2 cn lm chuyn
dch cn bng hp th cc ion kim loi ca r cy [11]:
t}Ca2+ + 2CO2 + 2H2O t}(H+)2 + Ca2+(r cy) + 2HCO3
Khi qu trnh trao i cht gia t v kh quyn khng tt th bn cnh CO2, khng
kh trong t cn cha cc kh khc nh NO2, NO, H2, CH4, C2H4, H2S.

4.4. Dch t
Dch t l phn nc trong t cha cc cht tan to thnh t cc qu trnh ha hc
v sinh hc trong t, cng nh t cc qu trnh trao i gia t vi thy quyn v sinh
quyn. Dch t vn chuyn cc cht ha hc n v i khi cc ht t. Ngoi tc dng cung
cp nc cho s pht trin ca thc vt, dch t cn to iu kin cn thit cho qu trnh trao
i cc cht dinh dng gia r cy v cc ht t.
Rt kh thu c dch t v phn ln dch t c gi trong cc mao qun hoc to
thnh lp mng mng trn b mt ht t. Mt trong nhng cch trc tip ly dch t l
thu nc r t t. Ngoi ra, c th tch dch t t t m bng cch thay th nc vi cc
cht lng khng trn ln vi nc, hoc dng cc bin php c hc nh ly tm, nn p hay x
l bng chn khng. Hu ht cc cht khong ha tan trong dch t tn ti dng ion.
Cc cation ch yu thng l H+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+. Cc ion Fe2+, Mn2+, Al3+
thng ch c mt vi nng rt thp, chng thng di dng hydrat ha nh FeOH+,
hay dng to phc vi cc hp cht hu c trong mn.
Cc anion trong dch t thng gp l HCO3, CO32, SO42, Cl v F. Cc anion
cng c th to phc vi cc ion kim loi, nh AlF2+. Cc cation v anion a ha tr c th kt
hp to thnh cc cp ion hoc cc hp cht nh CaSO4, FeSO4.

4.5. Phn ng axit-baz v phn ng trao i ion trong t

4.5.1. S to thnh axit v c trong t
Khong pyrite (FeS2) c mt trong mt s loi t khi tip xc vi khng kh c th b
oxy ha thnh axit sulfuric
FeS2 + 7/2O2 + H2O Fe2+ + 2H+ + 2SO42 + 7H2O
lc ny t cha nhiu sulfat v axit do c gi l t sulfat-axit (acid-sulfate soil).
Cc vng t c hnh thnh t trm tch bin trung tnh cha FeS2, c th b chuyn
thnh t sulfat-axit khi tip xc vi khng kh. Cc m khong sn c cha FeS2 ngng
hot ng cng to thnh loi t tng t nh t sulfat-axit t trm tch bin.
Nu khng c x l thch hp th khng th canh tc c trn t sulfat-axit do
loi t ny cha cc yu t bt li nh c pH thp, nng H2S cao gy hi cho r cy, cha
ion Al3+ rt c i vi thc vt.

95
4.5.2. iu chnh axit ca t
Hu ht cc loi thc vt ch pht trin tt trn t c pH gn trung tnh.
t chua thng c x l bng vi hoc CaCO3:
t}(H+)2 + CaCO3 t}Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
cc vng c lng ma thp, t c th c mi trng kim do cha cc mui baz.
C th x l t kim bng mui nhm hoc st sulfat, cc mui ny khi tan vo nc th b
thy phn v to ra mi trng axit.
2Fe3+ + 3SO42 + 6H2O 2Fe(OH)3 (r) + 6H+ + 3SO42
Cng c th s dng lu hunh x l t kim. Vi khun trong t oxy ha lu
hunh thnh axit sulfuric. y l mt phng php c hiu qu v mt kinh t, do lu hunh
s dng y chnh l sn phm ph rt di do ca cng ngh tch loi lu hunh ra khi
nhin liu ha thch (nhm mc ch gim thiu nhim khng kh do SO2).
4.5.3. Cn bng trao i ion trong t

Kh nng trao i cc cation l mt trong nhng tnh cht quan trng ca t. Nh

qu trnh trao i cation ca t m trong t c cc ion a lng nh kali, canxi, magi v
cc ion vi lng khc cho thc vt. Khi ion kim loi c r cy hp th, H+ s thay th v tr
ca ion kim loi trong t, v d:
t}Ca2+ + 2CO2 + 2H2O t}(H+)2 + Ca2+(r) + HCO3
Do qu trnh ny nn khi canxi, magi v cc ion kim loi khc trong t b nc cha
axit cacbonic ra tri th t s b chua ha.
nh gi kh nng trao i cation ca t ngi ta s dng thng s CEC (cationexchange capacity: kh nng trao i cation). CEC l s mili ng lng gam (meq) cation
mang in tch +1 c th trao i trn 100 g t kh. CEC ca t thay i theo pE v pH.
C cc khong st v thnh phn hu c trong t u c kh nng trao i cation.
CEC ca cc loi t c thnh phn hu c khc nhau thng dao ng trong khong 10 30
meq/100 g. Mn c kh nng trao i cation rt cao. CEC ca than bn c th ln n 300
400 meq/100 g.

Trn b mt cc oxit trong khong ca t cn c th xy ra qu trnh trao i cc

anion. C ch ca qu trnh ny c gii thch bng v d minh ha vi kim loi M trnh by
di y.
pH thp, b mt cc oxit kim loi c th c cc in tch dng, do chng c th
gi c cc anion (v d Cl) bng lc ht tnh in:
+

O H Cl
M OH2

pH cao, trn b mt oxit kim loi c cc in tch m, do cc phn t nc b gi

trn b mt oxit mt H+ v to thnh OH:
O
M OH

96
Lc ny anion nh HPO42 c th thay th v tr ca OH lin kt trc tip ln b
mt oxit:
O
O
M OH + HPO42

M OPO3H2 + OH

4.6. Cht dinh dng vi lng v a lng trong t

Cung cp cc cht dinh dng a lng v vi lng l chc nng quan trng nht ca
t. Cht dinh dng a lng l cc cht c mt trong thc vt hay dch thc vt mc nng
kh cao. Trong lc , cc cht dinh dng vi lng ch c mt mc nng rt thp
nhng li cn thit cho hot ng ca cc enzim ca thc vt.
4.6.1. Cht dinh dng a lng
Cacbon, hydro, oxy, nit, photpho, kali, canxi, magi v lu hunh c xem l cc
cht dinh dng a lng i vi thc vt.
Thc vt hp th cacbon, hydro v oxy t kh quyn. Cc nguyn t a lng khc
c hp th t t. Trong s , nit, photpho v kali l cc cht dinh dng rt quan trng
nh hng n s pht trin ca thc vt, nng sut ca v ma, nhng thng khng c
trong t nn phi c b sung di dng phn bn.
Thng rt t gp loi t thiu canxi. Bn vi x l t chua cng cung cp mt
lng ng k canxi cho thc vt. t chua c th vn cha mt lng ln canxi, nhng do
s cnh tranh gia ion canxi v ion hydro nn thc vt khng th hp th c lng canxi
ny. X l chua ca t s khc phc c tnh trng thiu canxi ny. Trong t kim, cc
ion natri, magi, v kali c mt nng ln c th cnh tranh vi canxi, gy ra tnh trng
thiu canxi.
Hu ht magi trong v Tri t (2,1%) c lin kt rt bn vi cc khong. Thc vt
ch c th hp th c dng magi trao i lin kt vi cc cht hu c hay khong st.
Magi trong t c cho thc vt hay khng cn ph thuc vo t s Ca/Mg. Nu t s ny
qu cao, t s b thiu magi. Tng t nh vy, nu t c cha nhiu natri, kali cng s
gy ra thiu magi.
Thc vt hp th lu hunh di dng SO42. Ngoi ra, nhng vng khng kh b
nhim SO2, lu hunh cn c th c cy hp th qua l.
Thc vt pht trin chm nhng vng t thiu lu hunh do nguyn t ny l thnh
phn ca mt s amino axit cn thit, thiamin v biotin. Ion sulfat thng tn ti trong t
di dng khong sulfat di ng khng tan, hoc dng mui tan. Khng nh trng hp kali,
sulfat b t hp th mt phn (lin kt theo kiu trao i ion), nn mt mt ngn chn c
tnh trng ra tri, mt khc vn cung cp c sulfat cho thc vt hp th.
Nhiu vng t thiu lu hunh c pht hin trn ton th gii. Trong khi , hu
ht cc loi phn bn trn th trng li khng cha, hoc cha rt t lu hunh. Cng vi xu
hng s dng phn bn thiu lu hunh hin nay, kh nng lu hunh tr thnh yu t dinh
dng gii hn c th xy ra mt s ni.
Nh trnh by trn, FeS2 phn ng vi axit trong t sulfat-axit c th gii phng
H2S rt c vi cy trng, H2S cng c kh nng tiu dit nhiu vi sinh vt c li. Kh H2S
c hi c th c to thnh t phn ng kh ion sulfat bi cc cht hu c, di tc dng
xc tc ca vi sinh vt. C th ngn chn s to thnh H2S trong t ngp nc bng cc tc
nhn oxy ha, KNO3 l cht oxy ha c s dng hiu qu nht.

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4.6.1.1. Nit
Hnh 4.2 trnh by s chuyn
n ha ca nit trong t. Trong hu ht cc loi t, trn
90% nit tn ti di dng nit hu c. Cc hp cht hu c cha nit l cc sn phm s cp
ca qu trnh phn hy xc ng, thc vt. Cc sn phm ny cui cng b phn hy thnh
NH3, NH4+, sau b oxy ha di tc dng ca cc vi khun trong t thnh NO2 ri NO3.
.
Phn m
Nit c c nh
do sm chp hoc
cc m chy

N2

Thc vt
c nh
m

ng vt
Xc thc vt

N2O

Phn
Nc tiu
Xc

N hu c
nitrat ha
R cy
hp th

NO2
NO3

Nitrat ha

NH4+

Trao i ion,
+

NH4+ {t}

Gi NH4

Thm tht thot

Hnh 4.2. S chuyn ha ca nit trong t

Khng nh photpho v kali, qu trnh phong ha khng to ra nhiu cc hp cht nit.

Cc loi vi sinh vt c kh nng c nh m cng khng cung cp nit cho nhu cu pht
trin ti a ca thc vt. V vy, hin nay mt lng ln phn bn cha nit ang c s
dng trong nng nghip.
Cc hp cht nit v c t phn bn hoc t nc ma rt d b tht thot do ra tri.
Do c gn kt cht ch vi mn trong t, nn nit trong cc hp cht ca mn ng vai tr
rt quan trng i vi ph ca t. Mn l ngun cha cc hp cht nit ca t. Cc hp
cht ny b phn hy t t, gii phng va lng nit cn thit cho thc vt hp th. Qu
trnh phn hy ny xy ra gn nh song song vi s pht trin ca thc vt, nhanh vo ma
m (lc thc vt pht trin mnh) v chm vo cc thng ma ng.
Thc vt v ng cc pht trin trn t c giu nit khng nhng ch cho nng sut
cao m cn cung cp sn phm giu protein v cht dinh dng.
Thng thng thc vt hp th nit dng nitrat. Mt s loi thc vt, v d cy la,
c th hp th nit dng amoni. Khi bn phn dng amoni, vi khun c trong t s
chuyn ha amoni thnh nitrat. Thc vt c th hp th v tch ly mt lng d nitrat, hin
tng ny thng xy ra i vi loi t c bn qu nhiu phn trong iu kin kh hn v
c gi l hin tng tng tch ly (hyperaccumulation). Thc n t loi thc vt hp th
qu nhiu nitrat c th c hi i vi ng vt nhai li nh tru, b, cu. Khi s dng k
thut chua ch bin thc n cho gia sc t cc loi thc vt ny, ngi ch bin cng c

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th b ng c do NO2 sinh ra t qu trnh kh nitrat. Trong thc t, ngi ta ghi nhn
nhiu trng hp t vong do nguyn nhn ny.
Khong 30 n 40% [15] lng nit c thc vt hp th l nit tng hp c lin
quan n cc ngun nhn to, bao gm cc loi phn bn, nit c nh c t vic t nhin
liu c cha nit v c vic tng cng canh tc cc cy h u c kh nng c nh m.
Trc khi c phn bn nhn to cha nit, nit trong t c cung cp ch yu t qu trnh
c nh m ca cc cy h u. Vi khun cng sinh trn r cc loi cy ny (u tng, c
linh lng, c ba l,) c kh nng c nh nit t kh quyn. Lng nit c nh c qua
con ng ny cng rt ln, 10 pound/mu Anh.nm ( 11,2 kg/ha.nm) [15], tng ng
vi lng nit t phn bn nhn to s dng trong nng nghip.
Vic s dng nhiu phn bn nit gy ra mt s hu qu v mt mi trng. Cc
hp cht ca nit b cc vi sinh vt trong t chuyn ha thnh N2O, NO v NO2 gy nhim
khng kh. Ngun nc mt v nc ngm cc vng nng nghip c th b nhim do
nitrat. Hu qu ca cc tc nhn gy nhim ny c trnh by trong cc chng v
nhim khng kh v nhim nc.
4.6.1.2. Photpho
Mc d ch chim mt t l nh trong thnh phn sinh khi thc vt, nhng photpho l
cht dinh dng khng th thiu c i vi thc vt. Cng nh nit, photpho ch c cy
trng hp th di dng v c. Thc vt hp th cc dng octophotphat khc nhau. pH ca

hu ht cc loi t, octophotphat thng tn ti ch yu dng H2PO4 v HPO42. Thc vt

hp th octophotphat tt nht pH gn trung tnh. Ngi ta cho rng, trong t chua,
octophotphat vn c th to kt ta vi Al(III) v Fe(III). Trong t kim, octophotphat phn
ng vi canxi cacbonat to thnh hydroxyapatite t tan:
3HPO42 + 5CaCO3(r) + 2H2O Ca5(PO4)3(OH)(r) + 5HCO3 + OH
Do c phn ng ny m phn bn photpho t b ra tri. V vy, vic s dng phn
bn photpho t gy ra tnh trng nhim nc.
4.6.1.3. Kali
pht trin thc vt cn hp th mt lng ln kali. Kali cn thit cho hot ng ca
mt s enzim v ng mt vai tr rt quan trng trong cn bng nc ca thc vt. Nguyn t
ny cng rt cn cho mt s chuyn ha cacbohydrat. Khi t thiu kali, nng sut cy trng
s gim mnh. Sn lng thu hoch cng cao th kali trong t cng b gim st. S dng
nhiu phn nit tng nng sut cy trng cng lm gim kali ca t. V vy, kali c th tr
thnh yu t dinh dng gii hn khi t c b sung nhiu cht dinh dng khc.
Kali l mt trong s cc nguyn t rt ph bin trong lp v Tri t (chim 2,6%),
tuy vy do kali thng lin kt cht trong cc khong silicat, v d trong khong leucite
K2O.Al2O3.4SiO2, do thc vt khng th hp th c. Thc vt ch hp th c cc
dng kali trao i lin kt trong khong st.
4.6.2. Cht dinh dng vi lng
Bo, clo, ng, st, mangan, molipden v km l cc nguyn t vi lng cn thit cho
s pht trin ca thc vt, tuy nhin nng cao chng li gy hi cho cy trng.
Hu ht cc nguyn t ny tham gia vo thnh phn ca cc enzim quan trng.
Mangan, st, clo v km c lin quan n qu trnh quang hp ca thc vt. Natri, silic v
coban cng l cc nguyn t vi lng cn thit i vi mt s thc vt.
Mt s loi thc vt c th tch ly mt lng rt ln cc nguyn t kim loi vi lng.
Nguyn t vi lng c gi l tch ly cao (hyperaccumulators) khi hm lng ca n trong
sinh khi thc vt kh ln hn 1 mg/g. Mt s loi thc vt c th tng tch ly

99
(hyperaccumulate) niken v ng. Mt trong nhng v d in hnh cho hin tng ny l loi
cy Aeolanthus biformifolius DeWild, pht trin trn vng t c hm lng ng cao vng
Shaba, Zaire c th tch ly n 1,3% ng tnh theo khi lng kh, do hoa ca n c
gi l Hoa ng.
Hin tng tng tch ly mt s nguyn t kim loi ca thc vt lm ny sinh
tng s dng thc vt c kh nng tch ly cao x l t b nhim kim loi. Ci bp
Trung Hoa (Brassica juncea v Brassica chinensis) khi pht trin trn t b nhim uranium
c th tch ly n 5 mg uranium trong 1 g bp ci kh . c bit khi thm citrat vo t, ion
ny s to c phc tan vi uranium nn thc vt cn c th tch ly c mt lng
uranium cao hn.
Phn c thm: Phn bn [15]
Phn bn dng trong nng nghip cha cc thnh phn chnh l nit, photpho v
kali. Ngoi ra, phn bn cn c th cha magi, sulfat v cc nguyn t vi lng. Phn
bn c k hiu bng cc con s ln lt ch thnh phn trm (w/w) ca nit (tnh
theo N), photpho (tnh theo P2O5) v kali (tnh theo K2O). V d, phn bn 6-12-8 cha
6% N, 12% P2O5, 8% K2O. Phn chung c thnh phn gn tng ng vi phn 0,50,24-0,5. Phn chung cn c phn hy sinh hc v gii phng ra cc cu t v
c thc vt c th hp th c (NO3, HxPO4x-3 v K+).
Phn nit: hu ht cc loi phn nit ngy nay u c tng hp da vo
phn ng:

N2 + 3H2 2NH3
khi c mt xc tc thch hp nhit 500C, p sut 1000 atm.
C th a trc tip NH3 vo t v n c th tan trong nc to ra ion amoni,
nhng do NH3 l mt kh c, nn phi dng thit b c bit cho mc ch ny. Trong
mt s trng hp, ngi ta s dng dung dch NH3 30% (w/w) thm trc tip
vo nc thy li.
Phn nit thng c trn th trng l amoni nitrat (NH4NO3) dng ht nh
c ph mt lp cht chng m. Amoni nitrat cha 33,5% nit. Mc d thun tin cho
vic s dng, nhng khi sn xut v bo qun loi phn ny cn phi tun theo cc ch
an ton nghim ngt v NH4NO3 d pht n. Hn hp amoni nitrat v du nhin liu
l mt loi cht n thng c s dng trong xy dng v khai thc .
Bn cnh amoni nitrat, ngy nay ur l dng phn nit c dng kh ph bin.
Phn ur c tng hp da vo phn ng:
CO2 + 2NH3 CO(NH2)2 + H2O
Mt s hp cht cng c dng lm phn bn nit nh natri nitrat, canxi nitrat,
kali nitrat, amoni photphat, amoni sulfat. Cc nitrat kim loi kim c xu hng kim
ha t, trong lc amoni sulfat li lm chua t
Phn ln: nhiu loi phn ln c sn xut t cc loi khong photphat.
Trong , fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F, l loi khong c s dng nhiu nht. Thc vt
khng hp th c photphat trong fluorapatite. Khong ny thng c x l bng
axit photphoric hay axit sulfuric sn xut supephotphat:
2Ca5(PO4)3F(r) + 14H3PO4 + 10H2O 2HF(k) + 10Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O
2Ca5(PO4)3F(r) + 7H2SO4 + 3H2O 2HF(k) + 3Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O + 7CaSO4
Supephotphat tan trong nc tt hn fluorapatite nhiu. Sn phm ph HF ca
cc phn ng trn c th gy nhim khng kh.

100

Cc khong photphat cn cha nhiu nguyn t vi lng cn cho thc vt nh bo,

ng, mangan, molipden v km. Nhng rt tic l trong qu trnh x l cc khong
photphat sn xut phn bn, hu ht cc nguyn t vi lng ny u b tht thot
mt phn ng k.
Amoni photphat l loi phn ln rt tt, tan nhiu trong nc. Phn amoni
polyphotphat lng cha mui amoni ca pyrophotphat, triphotphat v mt lng nh
anion polyphotphat. Cc polyphotphat c th to phc vi st v cc ion kim loi vi
lng, gip cho thc vt c th hp th c chng thun li hn.
Phn kali: cc loi phn kali l cc mui kali, trong c s dng ph bin
nht l phn kali clorua. C th sn xut phn kali clorua bng cch iu ch nhn to,
hoc khai thc t nc t trong qu trnh sn xut mui n t nc bin.
Mt s loi cy trng thng hp th mt lng kali vt qu nhu cu cn thit
pht trin. Hin tng ny lm mt mt lng ln kali t ng rung sau cc v ma
trong trng hp sn phm thu hoch l l hay thn cy.

4.7. S xi mn v thoi ha t
t l mt ngun ti nguyn rt nhy cm. t c th b xi mn do nc, gi, hoc b
thoi ha n mc khng th s dng cho nng nghip c.
4.7.1. Xi mn t
Nc v gi u c th gy ra xi mn t. Tuy vy, xi mn do nc thng xy ra
ph bin v mc cao hn. Hng nm, sng Mississippi xi mn hng triu tn t tng
mt v cun chng ra bin. Mt phn ba t tng mt M b xi mn v cun tri ra i
dng t khi bt u c hot ng canh tc trn lc a ny. Hin nay, s liu tnh ton cho
thy, trong mi nm, mi mu Anh (1 acre 4047 m2) M b mt i 14 tn t tng mt,
mt tc xi mn rt ng phi ch .
Nguyn nhn ch yu ca tnh trng t b xi mn l hot ng canh tc khng hp
l. Xi mn xy ra rt mnh cc ng rung trng cy theo lung. Khong t trng khng
c ph thc vt gia cc lung rt d b nc hoc gi cun i. Ngoi ra, vic t chc thm
canh lin tc trong nhiu nm, khng dnh thi gian cho qu trnh t khi phc, cng lm t
tr nn kit qu v v vy duy tr nng sut phi tng lng phn bn s dng.
Xi mn do gi thng xy ra cc vng t cao b nh hng ca tnh trng kh
hn. ngn chn tnh trng xi mn t do gi, c th trng c bo v lp t tng mt.
B r ca c l tc nhn chnh bo v v mt c hc cho lp t tng mt. Mt s bin php
khc cng ang c p dng trong nng nghip chng xi mn, v d bin php trng
tip v ma mi trn phn t canh tc ca nm trc nhng khng loi b cc loi rm r,
thn cy cn li ca v ma trc; bin php trng rung bc thang, quy hoch rung theo
ng vin cao .
Trng cy ly g l mt bin php va chng c xi mn hu hiu,va mang li li
ch kinh t cao. Bng cch chn ging tt, sn lng sinh khi kh thu c hng nm trn
mt hecta c th ln n 30 tn, khong 50% (w/w) sinh khi ny l cellulose. C th thy
phn cellulose sn xut glucose dng lm thc phm, hoc ln men glucose sn xut ru
dng lm nhin liu (gasohol) hay dng cung cp ngun cacbon v nng lng cho men s
dng trong quy trnh sn xut protein.
4.7.2. Sa mc ha
Sa mc ha l qu trnh gn lin vi tnh trng bc mu, hn hn, t khng cn kh
nng nui sng cy trng. Nguyn nhn ch yu ca tnh trng sa mc ha trn ton cu l cc
hot ng ca con ngi. Nui th gia sc n c nhng vng t kh hn v cn ci l mt

101
trong nhng nguyn nhn ng ch ca hin tng sa mc ha. Achentina, Sahara,
Uzbekistan, vng Ty Nam nc M, Syria v Mali l cc vng t hin nay ang b sa mc
ha mnh do cc hot ng nhn to.
Mt cch tng qut, sa mc ha l qu trnh c lin quan n rt nhiu yu t nh, xi
mn, s thay i thi tit, tnh trng kh hn, gim s mu m v hm lng mn, thoi ha
trong thnh phn ha hc ca t.
Nn ph rng l mt vn c lin quan n tnh trng sa mc ha. Nn ph rng
ang xy ra mc ng bo ng, c bit l vng rng nhit i, ni c mt hu ht
cc loi ng v thc vt ang tn ti hin nay trn Tri t. Cng vi s bin mt ca cc
loi ny, nn ph rng cn dn n s suy thoi t do xi mn v tht thot cht dinh dng.
4.7.3. t v ti nguyn nc
Bo tn t c lin quan cht ch v trc tip n vic bo v ti nguyn nc. Hu
ht lng nc ngt trn b mt Tri t u xut pht t nc ma ri trn mt t. Vng
t thu nc ma trc khi chy vo sng sui c gi l vng lu vc.
Tnh cht v tnh trng t trong lu vc do khng ch c nh hng quyt nh
n tnh cht ca nc m cn ng vai tr quan trng trong vic gi nc. Lu vc quyt
nh hng, tc dng chy, v mc thm nc vo cc ti nc ngm. Tc dng
chy qu ln, s lm hn ch qu trnh thm, gy ra l qut, lm xi mn t.
Cc bin php ci thin kh nng s dng t vng lu vc thng c thc hin
nhm mc ch hn ch s xi mn t. C nhiu bin php thc hin mc ch ny nh,
iu chnh dc ca lu vc; to c cu bc thang; xy ng dn nc; to h cha.
ng dn nc c th c ph c hoc cc loi cy c kh nng cn nc. To hnh lang
cy xanh theo cc ng vin cao , trng rng v kim sot hot ng chn th sc vt
cng c tc dng va bo tn t va bo tn c ti nguyn nc.

4.8. nhim mi trng t

Trong qu trnh sinh hot v sn xut, con ngi a vo t nhiu cht thi v
cht gy nhim. Cc cht ny khng nhng gy ra tnh trng nhim t m cn nh hng
nghim trng n cc ngun nc t nhin, bao gm c nc mt v nc ngm.
4.8.1. nh hng ca hot ng nng nghip
Trong s cc hot ng nhn to, sn xut nng nghip c xem l hot ng gy
nhiu nh hng nht n mi trng t.
4.8.1.1. S dng phn bn
Ch thm canh nng nghip lm suy gim ngun cht dinh dng ca t.
b sung ngun dinh dng cho cy trng, con ngi s dng phn bn ha hc vi s
lng ngy cng gia tng, iu ny lm thay i tnh cht, thnh phn t nhin ca t dn
n nhiu hu qu xu.
Vic s dng phn ha hc vo nng nghip trn th gii ngy cng tng (trung bnh
tng khong 2 triu tn /nm). Ngi ta c tnh ch c khong 50% nit bn vo t c
cy trng s dng, lng cn li l ngun gy nhim mi trng.
Ni chung, khi bn phn ha hc vo t, ch c mt phn phn c cy trng s
dng, mt phn c gi li trong t do b hp ph hoc chuyn ha ha hc, mt phn b
ra tri vo cc ngun nc mt hay ngm vo cc ngun nc ngm v mt phn khc b
bay hi vo khng kh di dng kh v hi.
4.8.1.2. S dng ha cht bo v thc vt
tng sn lng lng thc, gim bt tc ng ph hoi ca su bnh (trung bnh

102
hng nm c khong 10 20% sn lng lng thc b su bnh ph hi), lng ha cht bo
v thc vt c s dng trong nng nghip ngy cng tng. Trung bnh c khong 50%
lng thuc tr su c phun ri xung t, tn ti trong t v b li cun vo chu trnh
tcyng vtngi.
Trn th gii hin nay ang s dng khong trn 1000 loi thuc bo v thc vt,
chng b phn hy trong nc rt chm (t 6 thng n 2 nm) nn to ra d lng ng k
trong t. V d: d lng DDT sau khi phun mt nm l 80%, lindan l 60%, aldrin l 20%...
V vy, d lng ca cc loi thuc tr su trong t, c bit l trong cc sn phm nng
nghip c nhiu t chc quc t quan tm [6].
Cc loi thuc tr su, thuc dit c b phn hy trong t, nhng qu trnh phn hy
ca cc loi ha cht bo v thc vt ny l khng ging nhau v ph thuc nhiu vo iu
kin mi trng, s c mt ca cc loi vi sinh vt t,... Do , nh hng ca chng n
mi trng cng khc nhau.
Hin nay, nhiu quc gia yu cu phi cng b r cc thng tin v kh nng v qu
trnh phn hy trc khi cp php lu hnh cc loi thuc tr su mi. Cc yu t quan trng
thng c xem xt l, s hp ph thuc tr su ca t; kh nng ra tri thuc tr su vo
cc ngun nc (lin quan n kh nng gy nhim ngun nc); nh hng ca thuc tr
su n h sinh vt v vi sinh vt t; kh nng phn hy v to thnh cc sn phm c hi
hn.
Kh nng b hp ph vo t l yu t quan trng nht nh hng n tc v mc
phn hy ca cc loi thuc tr su. Kh nng b hp ph v tc phn hy li ph thuc
vo nhiu yu t khc nh, tan, bay hi, in tch, phn cc, khi lng v kch
thc phn t.
Qu trnh phn hy cc loi thuc tr su trong t xy ra ch yu nh ba con ng:
phn hy ha hc, phn hy quang ha v quan trng nht l phn hy sinh hc.
4.8.1.3. Ch ti tiu
Bn cnh vic s dng phn bn ha hc, ha cht bo v thc vt, ch ti tiu
bt hp l cng c th lm bin i thnh phn ha hc v tnh cht c l ca t.
Cc h thng ti tiu hot ng mnh trong ma kh c th lm h thp mc nc
ngm dn n nguy c xm nhp mn vo nc ngm.
Mt khc, ti qu nhiu nc c th gy ngp ng, xi mn, ra tri.
Mt trong nhng hu qu ng quan tm ca vic ti khng hp l l s mui ha
t (salinization of soil). l hin tng tch t cc loi mui khong tan c trong nc
trn b mt t. Hin tng mui ha lm gim nng sut cy trng, trong mt s trng hp
cn lm mt kh nng s dng ca t trong nng nghip do thc vt khng th hp th nc
trong t b nhim mui nng.
Nguyn nhn ca hu ht trng hp t canh tc b mui ha l do ti qu nhiu
nc, nhng khng c ch tiu thot hp l.
Nc thy li cng nh nc ma u c cha mt lng mui tan nh. Do nc b
bay hi, nn nng mui tan trong phn nc cn li s tng ln, nu nc b bc hi ht,
mui s cn li trn lp t b mt. cc vng t kh hn, ti qu nhiu cho t m khng
c ch ra v tiu thot thch hp th mui s tch t ngy cng nhiu trn b mt t lm
xut hin hin tng mui ha.
Ngi ta c tnh, khong 20% vng t nng nghip thng xuyn s dng nc
ti b nh hng bi hin tng mui ha, mt na trong s c nh hng ng k
n nng sut cy trng.
Hin tng ny cng c th xy ra mt s vng t bn kh hn v c mc nc

103
ngm gn vi mt t (< 3 m). Lc ny, nc ngm s thm ln b mt do lc mao qun v
bay hi, li mui khong trn mt t.
Hin nay, hin tng mui ha ang l vn rt ng lo ngi i vi nhiu vng t
canh tc trn th gii, v d vng Trung ng, vng tho nguyn pha Bc Trung Quc, vng
lu vc sng Colorado,...
khc phc hin tng mui ha, c th thc hin vic ra t bng cch cho nc
ngp trn vng t, sau tiu nc li cun mui i. Cch x l ny rt c hiu qu vi
t b mui ha, nhng c kh nng gy nhim cho cc ngun nc trong khu vc do phi
nhn mt lng mui tng thm rt ln.

Hnh 4.3. Mui tch t trn b mt t mt vng canh tc [21]

4.8.2. nh hng ca hot ng sinh hot v cng nghip

Sn xut cng nghip, giao thng vn ti khng nhng l ngun gy nhim khng
kh m cn nh hng xu n mi trng t. V d:

SO2 c to thnh do t nhin liu cha lu hunh c thi vo kh quyn.

Trong khng kh SO2 c th tham gia nhiu qu trnh khc nhau to thnh SO42 v theo nc
ma lng ng xung t.

Cc oxit nit b chuyn ha thnh nitrat trong kh quyn ri theo nc ma vo t.

Mt khc, t cng hp th cc kh NO v NO2 v cc kh ny cng b oxy ha chuyn thnh
nitrat trong t.

Bi ch trong kh thi t cc ng c t trong ca cc phng tin giao thng lng

xung v tch t trn mt t dc theo cc con ng c mt t i li cao.

nhng vng khai khong m, cc kim loi t m s pht tn ra nhng vng t

xung quanh, lm cho t cc vng ny b nhim nhiu kim loi.
Cc cht thi rn cng nghip v sinh hot (rc sinh hot, cc cht x, giy, g, kim
loi, cao su, gch va, cc cht thi do khai thc m, bn sinh hc khi x l nc thi...) u
c a vo t lm cho t b nhim bn, lm thay i thnh phn t v gy nhim
nc, nc ngm, gy bi v mi lm nhim khng kh.
mt s nc quy nh v chn lp cha c cht ch, cc cht gy nhim t cc
khu vc chn lp c th r r vo t. ng ch l cc khu gn khu cng nhip. Nhiu cht

104
hu c d bay hi (volatile organic compounds VOC) nh benzene, toluene, xylene,
diclorometan c pht hin trong t gn cc khu cng nghip
hn ch ngun gy nhim do cc cht thi rn, ngi ta phi x l cht thi rn
mt cch nghim ngt nh phn loi cc cht thi, thu hi v ti s dng cht thi. Cc cht
thi c hi nguy him phi c thiu t hoc chn ct h chn theo ng k thut, c
lp ngn cch vi t, c lp bao ph b mt, c ng thot v tiu nc b mt..., hn ch
khai thc ba bi, s dng hp l cc vng m khai thc nhm hn ch nhim t.
4.8.3. Mt s phng php x l t b nhim
Hin c nhiu phng php khc nhau x l t b nhim. Cc phng php ny
thng c chia thnh hai nhm chnh, nhm cc phng php x l ti ch v nhm cc
phng php x l t b nhim sau khi bc khi v tr [9].
Do t thng b nhim do nhiu tc nhn khc nhau, nn x l thng phi s
dng kt hp nhiu phng php. X l t b nhim do thng rt tn km v mt
nhiu thi gian.
4.8.3.1. X l ti ch (in-situ)
Khi s dng cc phng php x l ti ch, t nhim khng b o bi chuyn
n ni tin hnh vic x l, do nguy c pht tn cht nhim sang cc v tr mi c
hn ch ti a. C nhiu phng php x l thuc nhm ny:
Phng php bay hi (volatilization): dng lung khng kh to ra do h thng qut
thi vo t qua cc ng hoc li sc kh lm bay hi cc cht nhim c trong t. Cht
nhim bay hi c th c hp th bng than hot tnh thu hi. Phng php ny thng
dng vi cc cht nhim hu c d bay hi.
Phng php phn hy sinh hc (biodegradation): da vo cc vi sinh vt c sn
trong t nhin phn hy cc cht gy nhim. Tuy nhin hiu qu x l t yu cu,
ngi ta cn to iu kin gia tng mt vi sinh vt v hot tnh ca chng. Nhiu yu t
nh hng n hiu qu x l bng vi sinh vt, nh m, nhit , pH, cht dinh dng v
cc chng loi vi sinh vt khc cng c mt trong mi trng. Thng thng qu trnh phn
hy sinh hc xy ra tt trong iu kin mi trng hiu kh, pH trong khong 5,5 n 8, tt
nht l gn bng 7, nhit trong khong t 20 n 40C.
Cn ch rng, mt chng vi sinh vt thng ch c th phn hy c mt hoc mt
s cht gy nhim no v khng c tc ng i vi cc cht gy nhm khc c mt
trong mi trng. Ngoi ra, vi sinh vt cng c th ch c th phn hy c mt dng ca
cht gy nhim m khng th phn hy c cc dng cn li ca cht .
Phng php x l bng thc vt (phytoremediation): thc vt c dng x l
t v nc b nhim rt hiu qu. C hng trm loi thc vt c th s dng vo mc ch
ny. V d, hoa hng dng c th hp th urani, mt s loi dng x c th hp thu asen,
nhiu cy c vng ni c th hp thu mnh km, cy m tc hp th ch, c ba l hp th du,
cy dng phn hy cc loi dung mi s dng git kh.
Gn y ngi ta pht hin thy mt loi dng x c tn khoa hc l Pteris vittata c
kh nng hp th rt mnh asen. V vy, loi dng x ny c s dng rt hiu qu x
l t b nhim asen vng min Trung Florida. Hiu sut hp th asen ca loi dng x
ny c th ln n 1422 7526 mg asen/kg thc vt.
Phng php ngm chit (leaching): s dng nc kt hp vi cht hot ng b
mt (lm gim sc cng b mt, tng kh nng thm) ngm v chit cht gy nhim ra
khi t. Nc r do qu trnh x l c thu gom bng h thng thu gom, sau c x l
ring. Phng php ny t c s dng do cn dng rt nhiu nc x l, ng thi lm

105
pht sinh mt lng nc thi (nc r) ln phi x l rt tn km.
Hiu qu x l bng phng php ngm chit ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khc, nh
thm nc, xp, ng nht, cu trc v thnh phn khong ca t.
Phng php c nh cht nhim bng dng in (vitrification): cn c gi l
phng php thy tinh ha. Ngi ta s dng dng in ng rn v c nh cht gy
nhim trong t. Bng phng php ny, cht nhim c th c c nh trong mt thi
gian di n 10.000 nm. Phng php ny t c s dng trong thc t, do chi ph x l cao
v phi s dng mt lng ln in nng.
Phng php c lp (isolation/containment): cht gy nhim trong t b c lp
ti ch, bng cch to vch ngn bao quanh bng vt liu chng qu trnh di chuyn ca cht
gy nhim ra mi trng xung quanh. Vt liu c s dng lm vch ngn thng l t
st. tng kh nng hp th v ngn chn s di chuyn ca cht gy nhim hu c, t st
thng c trn thm cht ph gia hot ng b mt (t st trn ph gia hot ng b mt
c gi l t st hu c organoclays).
Phng php x l th ng (passive remediation): phng php ny li dng cc
qu trnh xy ra mt cch t nhin, nh cc qu trnh bay hi, thng kh, phn hy sinh hc,
phn hy do nh sng phn hy cc cht gy nhim. Phng php x l th ng n
gin, r tin, ch yu cu vic theo di v quan trc. Cc yu t v kh nng bay hi, hp ph,
phn hy sinh hc, phn hy do nh sng, kh nng thm ca t, mc nc ngm, kh nng
thm v bn cht ca cht gy nhim.
4.8.3.2. X l t b nhim sau khi bc khi v tr
t b nhim c o bc ln x l ngay ti hin trng hoc c vn chuyn
n khu vc x l ring. Do vic o bc t v vn chuyn t sang v tr x l khc, nn cc
phng php x l thuc nhm ny c nguy c gy pht tn cc cht gy nhim ra mi
trng.
Phng php x l bng mt t (land treatment): t nhim c o ln v ri
trn mt b mt t khc phn hy cc cht gy nhim bng cc qu trnh phn hy sinh
hc, phn hy do nh sng xy ra mt cch t nhin. nng cao hiu qu ca qu trnh x
l, ngi ta phi chun b sn mt bng vng t dng x l, nh sng lc loi b ,
sn, pH ca t c iu chnh n gn bng 7, thm cht dinh dng thch hp vo t
h tr cho hot ng phn hy v pht trin ca h vi sinh vt. B bao c xy dng quanh
khu vc bi x l, nhm hn ch nh hng ca nc chy trn.
t b nhim c th c trn thm vi loi t khc v ri trn b mt khu vc x
l thng kh tt v to iu kin tip xc tt hn cho vi sinh vt s dng.
Phng php nhit (thermal treatment): t nhim c o ln v cho tip xc
vi nhit, thng x dng l t cp nhit. Nhit cao lm phn hy v bay hi cc cht
gy nhim. Hi bay ra c thu gom c dn vo l t hoc dn sang h thng hp th
bng dung mi.
Phng php trn vi nha ng asphalt (asphalt incorporation): trong phng
php ny, t b nhim c trn vo hn hp nha asphalt nng lm ng. iu kin
nhit cao trn hn hp asphalt, cht gy nhim c th b bay hi, phn hy, phn
fconf li b c nh trong khi nha ng asphalt.
Phng php ng khi (solidification/stabilization): thm cht ph gia thch hp
vo t b nhim c bc ln c nh cc cht nhim trong t, sau chn lp
ton b khi t x l. Phng php ny ch hn ch c s di chuyn ca cht gy
nhim, m khng phn hy trit c chng. y l phng php thng c s dng
vi trng hp t b nhim cc cht v c.

106

Phng php chit ha hc (chemical extraction): t b nhim c trn vi

dung mi, cht hot ng b mt, hoc hn hp dung mi v cht hot ng b mt x l
cc cht gy nhim. Dung mi/cht hot ng b mt li ko cht gy nhim v c tch
ra khi t. Sau , t c ra, thng kh ui dung mi/cht hot ng b mt. Dch
chit c lc tch cc ht t nh i theo v c x l tch cht gy nhim. y l
phng php t tin, ch c s dng trong mt s trng hp c bit.
Phng php bc v chn lp (excavation): t b nhim c bc khi v tr v
em chn lp bi chn lp c lp v chng thm, thng l t st, hn ch s di chuyn
ca cc cht gy nhim ra mi trng xung quanh. Ngoi nhc im phi c bi chn lp
tn din tch, phng php x l ny cn cha c cng nhn v mt php l, do vn cha
x l c cht gy nhim, c nguy c gy nhim cho nc ngm, nc mt, gy hi cho
con ngi.

Cu hi
1. Ti sao thng xy ra s di ng ca st v mangan trong t b ngp ng?
2. Mn nh hng th no n tnh cht ca t?
3. Ti sao c th dng lu hunh ci to t kim?
4. C th s dng thc vt x l t b nhim mt s kim loi nng hay khng?
5. Vic bo tn t c lin quan th no n vic bo tn ngun ti nguyn nc?
6. Hot ng nng nghip c nh hng th no n tnh trng xi mn t?
7. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng mui ha t v cch khc phc?
8. Ti sao nhiu loi thc vt khng th pht trin c trn t b mui ha?
9. Phng php c lp v phng php bc v chn lp x l t b nhim khc
nhau th no?
10. t st hu c l g? Ti sao li dng t st hu c lm lp vch ngn trong
trng hp t b nhim cc cht hu c?

107

5.

HA CHT C TRONG MI TRNG

5.1. Ha cht c trong mi trng

Trn th gii hin nay c trn 4 triu loi ha cht khc nhau c s dng, hng nm
c khong 30.000 cht mi c pht minh v a vo s dng. Trong s cc ha cht trn c
khong 60000 70000 loi c dng thng xuyn v rng ri [8]. Vic s dng hng ngn
ha cht phc v cho sn xut cng, nng nghip v i sng chnh l mi nguy him e da
n sc khe con ngi.
Bn cnh nhng tc dng tch cc ca cc ha cht trong nghin cu khoa hc, lm
cho sn xut, mc sng v sc khe tng ln, ng gp vo s pht trin nn kinh t x hi,
cng c nhiu ha cht c hi.
Khi xm nhp vo mi trng, cc cht kh c s nhanh chng b pht tn vo khng
kh, trong lc cc cht lng hoc rn c th b cun tri vo cc ngun nc mt (hoc
nc ngm) v do c vn chuyn i rt xa ngun thi ban u. V vy, phm vi nh
hng ca cc ha cht c hi i vi mi trng l rt rng v rt ng phi quan tm.
hn ch tc hi ca cc cht c, nhiu quc gia a ra cc quy nh rt nghim ngt v
nng ca cc ha cht c hi trong cht thi.
Cc cht c c th c phn loi thnh cc nhm da vo tc hi, cng dng, hoc
bn cht ha hc ca chng:
Da vo tc hi: cht gy t bin gen, cht gy ung th,...
Da vo cng dng: ph gia thc phm, ha cht bo v thc vt,...
Da vo bn cht ha hc: kim loi nng, cacbonyl kim loi, hp cht c clo,...
Bng 5.1 trnh by cc nguyn t c hi c trong cc ngun nc thin nhin v nc
thi. Cc nguyn t ny nng thp li rt cn thit cho qu trnh pht trin ca cc c th
sng, chng c tc dng nh cc cht dinh dng cho i sng ng thc vt, nhng nng
cao, chng l nhng cht c tc dng c hi rt nguy him.

5.2. c hc mi trng
c hc mi trng l ngnh nghin cu v s tn ti v nh hng ca cc ha cht
c i vi mi trng [10].
Mc d theo nh ngha ny, i tng nghin cu ca c hc mi trng bao gm
c cc cht c c ngun gc t nhin nh nc c ca ng vt, c t ca vi khun, c t
thc vt, nhng trong thc t ngnh ny ch thng tp trung quan tm n cc cht c c
ngun gc nhn to.
c hc mi trng thng c chia thnh 2 ngnh nh:

c hc sc khe mi trng (Environment Health Toxycology): nghin cu cc tc

hi ca ha cht trong mi trng i vi sc khe con ngi.
c hc sinh thi (Ecotoxycology): nghin cu tc hi ca cc cht nhim n h
sinh thi v cc thnh phn ca n (c, ng vt hoang d,...).
nghin cu tc hi ca cc ha cht c trong mi trng, cn phi c kin thc
tng hp ca nhiu lnh vc khc nhau. Cc nghin cu ny nhm mc ch gii thch tc hi
ca cc cht c ang c trong mi trng ng thi d on nh hng c hi ca cc cht
c mi trc khi chng c thi ra mi trng.
Cc cht c gy hi cho mi trng thng c ba tnh cht nguy him sau: chm
phn hy, kh nng tch ly trong c th sinh vt v c tnh cao.

108
Bng 5.1. Cc nguyn t c hi trong nc thin nhin v nc thi [8]
Nguyn t
As

Ngun thi ra

Thuc tr su
Cht thi ha hc

Tc dng gy c

c, c kh nng gy ung th

c, lm o ln vai tr sinh ha ca cc
enzim; gy cao huyt p, suy thn, ph hy
Cht thi cng nghip m kim loi
cc m hng cu. Gy c cho ng thc
T cc ng dn nc
vt di nc
Cht thi cng nghip m

Cd

Be

Cng nghip than

Nng lng ht nhn

Cng nghip v tr

Gy ng c cp tnh v mn tnh; c kh
nng gy ung th

Cng nghip than

B

Cr

Sn xut cht ty ra tng hp

Cc ngun thi cng nghip

Cng nghip m, sn xut cc hp L nguyn t vi lng cn cho c th,

cht crm, cng nghip thuc da
Cr (VI) c kh nng gy ung th
Cng nghip m

Cu

Cht thi CN v sinh hot

Cng nghip m
Cc ngun a cht t nhin

Florua

Cht thi cng nghip

Cht b sung cho nc
Cng nghip khai thc m

Pb

Hg

Cng nghip than , t xng, h

thng ng dn
Cht thi cng nghip m
Thuc tr su, than
Cht thi cng nghip m

Mn

Mo

Se

Zn

c, c bit vi mt s loi cy

Tc ng ca VS vt ln khong
kim loi pE nh
Cht thi cng nghip
Cc ngun t nhin
Cc ngun a cht t nhin
Than , lu hunh
Cht thi cng nghip
Cng nghip m
H thng ng dn

Nguyn t cn thit cho s sng dng

vt, khng c lm i vi ng vt, c
vi cy ci nng trung bnh
nng 1 mg/L ngn cn s ph hy
men rng. nng (5 mg/L ph hy
xng v gy vt rng
c, gy bnh thiu mu, bnh thn, ri
lon thn kinh
c tnh cao
t c i v ng vt
c cho thc vt nng cao
c i vi ng vt
dng vt rt cn cho s pht trin ca
thc vt
nng thp rt cn cho s pht trin
ca thc vt, nng cao gy c hi
c vi thc vt nng cao, cht cn
thit cho cc enzim kim loi
(metalloenzime)

109

5.3. Tnh bn vng ca c cht trong mi trng

C nhiu qu trnh sinh hc hoc phi sinh hc trong t nhin lin quan n s phn
hy ca cc cht c trong mi trng. Nhiu loi ha cht khi xm nhp vo mi trng th
b phn hy, do c thi gian sng v c tc hi hn ch cho mi trng xung quanh.
Nhng bn cnh cc cht c d b phn hy cn c nhiu cht c rt bn trong mi trng
v c kh nng gy hi lu di (DDT, PCBs, TCDD,... l nhng v d in hnh v loi cht
c ny).
Thi gian bn hy ca mt s cht c kh phn hy (bn vng) c nu ra trong
Bng 5.2. Pht thi lin tc cc cht c loi ny vo mi trng, c th lm nng ca
chng tng ln n mc c hi do s tch ly theo thi gian. Ngay c khi ngng s dng
v thi chng, th cc ha cht c ny vn cn l mi nguy lu di i vi mi trng.
C th ly v d trng hp nhim thuc tr su h Ontario (l mt trong nm h
ca Ng i H, Bc M) trong thp nin 50 n thp nin 70, th k 20. Nhng nghin cu
khu vc ny cho thy, sau 20 nm, tng lng thuc tr su tch t trong h vn cn n
khong 80% so vi ban u.
nhim thuc tr su DDT v diclofol h Apopka, Florida, sau 10 nm vn cn nh
hng nghim trng lm gim kh nng sinh sn ca loi c su sinh sng y.
Bng 5.2. Thi gian bn hy ca mt s ha cht c bn vng trong mi trng [10]
Ha cht c

Thi gian bn phn hy

Mi trng

DDT

10 nm

TCDD

9 nm

Atrazine

25 thng

Nc

Benzoperylene (PAH)

14 thng

Phenanthrene (PAH)

138 ngy

Carbofuran

45 ngy

Nc

5.3.1. Phn hy phi sinh hc

Nhiu qu trnh trong t nhin c th lm thay i cu trc ca cc ha cht. Nhiu
qu trnh phn hy phi sinh hc chu nh hng ca nh sng (quang phn photolysis) v
nc (thy phn hydrolysis).

Quang phn: nh sng, ch yu l nh sng t ngoi, c kh nng ph v lin kt

ha hc, do ng gp mt cch ng k vo qu trnh phn hy ca nhiu ha cht trong
mi trng. Phn ng quang phn thng xy ra trong khng kh hay trong nc mt, v
cng nh sng trong cc mi trng ny l ln nht. Phn ng quang phn ph thuc vo
c cng nh sng ln kh nng hp th nh sng ca phn t cht gy nhim. Cc hp
cht vng thm khng no, cng nh cc hp cht hydrocacbon thm a vng rt d b phn
hy bi nh sng, do chng c kh nng hp th quang nng. Nng lng nh sng cn y
mnh qu trnh oxy ha cc cht gy nhim thng qua qu trnh thy phn hoc qu trnh
oxy ha. Phn ng oxy ha quang ha parathion (mt loi thuc tr su c photpho) c
trnh by trong Hnh 5.1.

Thy phn: nc (kt hp vi nh sng v nhit) c th ph v cc lin kt ha hc.

Phn ng thy phn thng i km vi s kt hp mt nguyn t cacbon vo phn t, ng
thi gii phng mt thnh phn tng ng v in tch. Cc lin kt este, nh lin kt este c
trong parathion hoc cc loi thuc tr su c photpho khc, rt d b thy phn, do cc

110
hp cht loi ny c thi gian bn phn hy trong mi trng rt ngn. Tc thy phn ca
cc ha cht trong mi trng nc ph thuc vo nhit v pH. Tc thy phn tng khi
tng nhit . Tc ny cng cao trong mi trng pH rt thp hoc rt cao.

Thy phn

Quang phn

S
(OC2H5)2

NO2

Parathion
Diethylphosphorothioate
S
O
(OC2H5)2

(OC2H5)2
O

NO2

Paraoxon

P O

+
HO

NO2

para-nitrophenol
Hnh 5.1. nh hng ca nng (quang phn) v ma (thy phn)
n s phn hy ca parathion

5.3.2. Phn hy sinh hc

Mc d nhiu cht gy nhim c th b phn hy phi sinh hc trong mi trng,
nhng qu trnh phn hy ny thng xy ra vi tc rt chm. Nh tc dng ca cc vi
sinh vt, tc phn hy cc cht c ha hc c tng ln mt cch ng k. Vi sinh vt,
m ch yu l vi khun v nm, phn hy cc ha cht ly nng lng t qu trnh phn
hy . Cc qu trnh phn hy sinh hc xy ra di tc dng ca cc enzim v thng kt
thc bng s khong ha hon ton cc cht c trong mi trng thnh nc, cacbon dioxit
v cc cht v c n gin
5.3.3. Qu trnh suy gim nng khng do phn hy
Hm lng ca nhiu cht gy nhim trong mi trng c th b suy gim i mt
cch ng k, nhng khng phi do cc qu trnh phn hy, m do thay i s phn b ca
chng t khu vc ny sang khu vc khc ca mi trng.
Cc cht nhim d bay hi c th bay hi t t, nc vo khng kh v di chuyn
n mt vng khc. Ngi ta cho rng, mt s ha cht bo v thc vt c clo d bay hi nh
lindane v hexachlorobenzene phn b khp ni trn ton cu nh vo cch pht tn ny.
Nhiu cht nhim trong nc b hp ph ln ht cht rn l lng, sau lng vo
trm tch, lm cho nng ca chng trong ct nc gim xung.

111
Cc cht d tan trong nc s b nc chy trn ra tri v thm xung t lm
nhim nc ngm. V d, trc y atrazine l mt loi thuc dit c c s dng rt ph
bin M, cc nghin cu sau cho thy rng 92% nc cc h c nghin cu u c
cha atrazine. Atrazine tan nhiu trong nc nhng li t b t hp th, nn thm xung t
v i vo cc ti nc ngm. Nghin cu thc a cho thy, nc ngm cc khu vc c s
dng atrazine u b nhim loi ha cht ny [10].

5.4. Tch ly sinh hc

Kh nng tn ti lu di trong mi trng ca mt s ha cht c thc ra khng ng
lo ngi nhiu, nu cc cht c ny khng i vo c c th sinh vt. iu ng quan tm l
nhiu cht c bn vng, kh b phn hy, c kh nng xm nhp, tch ly trong c th sinh
vt. Khi vo c th sinh vt, cht c cng c th phi cn thi gian tch ly n lc t
c mc nng gy c.
5.4.1. Tch ly sinh hc

Tch ly sinh hc c nh ngha l qu trnh trong sinh vt tch ly cc ha cht

trc tip t mi trng v sinh (nc, t, khng kh) hoc t ngun thc n vo c th [10].
Cc cht c thng c xm nhp vo c th sinh vt qua cc mng trong c th
nh mng phi, mang (c), ng rut. Da v cc thnh phn khc trn da, nh vy, lng, ...
thng c tc dng hn ch s xm nhp ca cc loi ha cht c hi, nhng cng c mt s
ha cht c kh nng xm nhp vo c th qua ng da rt mnh.
Mun vo c c th sinh vt, cc ha cht khng nhng phi thm qua mng m
cn phi i qua c lp m trn mng, v vy kh nng tch ly cc ha cht c hi c lin
quan n kh nng tan trong cht bo (tnh a du lipophilicity) ca chng. Mi trng
nc thng chnh l ni cc ha cht c kh nng ha tan trong cht bo chuyn t mi
trng v sinh vo mi trng hu sinh (c th sinh vt). iu ny c th c gii thch
bng hai l do:

Sng, h, bin l ni nhn mt lng rt ln cc ha cht thi t qu trnh sn xut

v sinh hot.

Trong qu trnh h hp, ng vt thy sinh chuyn mt lng nc rt ln qua mng

h hp (mang c), iu ny to iu kin rt thun li cc ha cht thm nhp vo c th.
Sinh vt thy sinh c th tch ly mt lng ln cc ha cht tan c trong cht bo.
Nng ca cc ha cht ny trong c th sinh vt nc c th cao gp hng trm n hng
ngn ln nng ca chng trong nc (Bng 5.3). Mc tch ly cc ha cht tan c
trong cht bo ph thuc vo hm lng cht bo trong c th sinh vt.
Bng 5.3. Tch ly sinh hc trong c ca mt s cht gy nhim [10]
Ha cht

H s tch ly

DDT

127000

TCDD

39000

Endrin

6800

Pentachlorobenzene

5000

Lepthophos

750

Trichlorobenzene

183

H s tch ly: t s gia nng cht c trong c v

nng ca n trong nc trng thi cn bng

C ch tch ly sinh hc nhiu khi cng lm chm tc hi ca cht c, do cc cht

112
ny ch khuch tn t t n c quan ch gy c khi phn m cha cht c trong c th
b s dng vo mc ch khc; v d, khi m b chuyn ha trong thi k chun b sinh sn.
V vy, nhiu trng hp mc du trong c th sinh vt tch ly sn mt lng ln cc cht
c trong m, nhng sinh vt cha h b tc hi, ch n khi bc vo tui chun b sinh sn
th chng mi b ng c v cht. Ngoi ra, cc cht c loi ny cn c th di chuyn t sinh
vt m sang sinh vt con qua trng, sa v gy c cho sinh vt con.

Hnh 5.2. Tng quan gia hm lng cht bo trong c th ca nhiu loi ng vt h
Ontario (thuc Ng i H) v hm lng PCBs trong ton b c th [10]

5.4.2. Nhng yu t nh hng n s tch ly sinh hc

S tch ly sinh hc ca mt cht nhim trong mi trng ph thuc vo nhiu yu t:

Kh nng b phn hy trong mi trng. y l yu t u tin ng quan tm nht

ca mt cht c. Cc cht d b phn hy trong mi trng s khng th tn ti trong mt
thi gian di c th tch ly vo c th sinh vt, tr trng hp cht nhim ny c
thi lin tc vo mi trng,
Nng trong mi trng,
Tnh a du (lipophilicity). L mt yu t rt quan trng quyt nh kh nng tch
ly sinh hc ca cc cht c.
Tuy nhin, cc ha cht tan c trong cht bo cn c xu hng b hp ph mnh
vo trm tch, nn nng ca chng trong nc gim, dn n gim kh nng tch ly sinh
hc. V d, do b axit humic hp ph nn kh nng tch ly sinh hc ca benzo[]pyren c
thi dng (sunfish) b gim khong 3 ln [10]. cc h ngho dinh dng, do c t cht rn
l lng, nn tch ly DDT trong c sng cc h ny cao hn c sng trong h ph dng c
cha nhiu cht rn l lng.

Kh nng chuyn ha sinh hc. Khi b hp th vo c th sinh vt, dng v s

tn ti ca cht nhim cng nh hng n s tch ly sinh hc. Cc cht d b chuyn ha
sinh hc thng d tan trong nc hn trong cht bo. Cc cht ny t khi b tch ly trong m
v thng d b o thi khi c th.
Nh c th thy trong Bng 5.4, cc cht d b chuyn ha sinh hc c kh nng tch

113
ly sinh hc thp hn nhiu gi tr d tnh da vo tnh a du ca chng.
Bng 5.4. Gi tr phn tch v gi tr tnh ton ca h s tch ly sinh hc trong c
ca mt s ha cht c kh nng chuyn ha sinh hc khc nhau
H s tch ly sinh hc

Chemical

Kh nng chuyn
ha sinh hc

D on

Xc nh

Chlordane

Thp

47900

38000

PCB

Thp

36300

42600

Mirex

Thp

21900

18200

Pentachloro-phenol

Cao

4900

780

Tris(2,3-dibromo-propyl)phosphate

Cao

4570

5.5. c tnh
5.5.1. c cp tnh
c cp tnh c nh ngha l c th hin sau khi phi nhim mt thi gian
ngn vi cht c.
Thng thng ch c th gp cc trng hp ng c cp tnh i vi ng vt v
ngi trong cc s c (v d: tai nn giao thng lm cht c r r t phng tin vn chuyn
vo khng kh, t, sng h,...) hoc do vic s dng ha cht thiu cn thn (v d: phun
thuc tr su bng my bay khng ng v tr).
c tnh ca mt cht thng c c trng bng cc i lng nh LC50 v LD50.

LD50 (median lethal dose): ch liu lng ca mt cht c c th lm cht 50% s

ng vt th nghim, n v tnh thng l mg/kg ng vt.

LC50 (median lethal concentration): ch nng ca mt cht c c th lm cht

50% s ng vt th nghim, n v tnh l mg/L dung dch ha cht. LC50 thng c dng
nh gi c tnh ca cc cht c dng lng hoc cht c tan trong dung dch nc.
C th so snh c ca cc cht da vo thang c, khi bit gi tr LD50 ca
chng. Cng vic ny thng d gy nhm ln, do c kh nhiu thang xp loi c khc
nhau ang c s dng hin nay.
Hai thang xp loi c ang c dng nhiu nht hin nay l thang Hodge &
Sterner v Goselin, Smith & Hodge. Cc thang xp loi c ny c trnh by trong
cc Bng 5.5 v Bng 5.6.
T cc bng ny c th thy ngay s khc bit trong cch xp loi c ca hai
thang . V d, mt cht c c LD50 theo ng n ung l 2 mg/kg, c xp loi 2 l loi
cht rt c theo Hodge & Sterner, nhng li c xp vo loi 6 l cht siu c
theo thang Gosselin, Smith and Hodge. V vy, khi sp xp c ca cc cht, cn nu r
ang s dng thang phn loi no.
T cc i lng ny khng th suy ra c nng ti a cho php ca cc cht c
trong mi trng. C th thy ngay rng, nng ti a cho php phi thp hn nhiu gi tr
LC50 ca cht c ang kho st. Tuy vy, cc i lng LC50 v LD50 cung cp mt gi tr
thng k nh gi c cp tnh tng i ca cc ha cht c. Bng 5.7 trnh by
khong gi tr LC50 v LD50 tng i ca cc ha cht c vi c v cc ng vt trn cn.
c cp tnh ca cc cht c trong mi trng c xc nh thc nghim trn
cc loi la chn i din cho cc bc dinh dng trong h sinh thi (v d, ng vt c v,
chim, c, ng vt khng xng sng, thc vt c mch nha, to). V d, T chc Bo v

114
Mi trng M (US-EPA) yu cu phi th nghim trn t nht 8 loi khc nhau trong nc
ngt v nc mn (16 th nghim) bao gm c, ng vt khng xng sng v thc vt xy
dng tiu chun cht lng nc cho mi loi ha cht.
Bng 5.5. Phn loi c theo Hodge & Sterner [24]
Phn loi
c

LD50 (n ung)
Cp c (chut - liu n)
mg/kg

LC50 (h hp)
(chut - phi
nhim 4 gi)
ppm

LD50 (qua da)

(th - liu
n)
mg/kg

Liu cht ngi

Gn ng

Cc c

<1

< 10

<5

1 grain 0,0648
g

Rt c

1 50

10 100

5 43

4 ml

Kh c

50 500

100 1000

44 340

30 ml

c nh

500 5000

1000 10.000

350 2810

600 ml

Thc t
khng
c

5000 15.000

10.000
100.000

2820 22.590

1 lt

t c hi

15.000

100.000

22.600

1 lt

Bng 5.6. Phn loi c (liu c qua ng n ung c th gy cht ngi)

theo Gosselin, Smith & Hodge [24]
Phn loi c

Cp c

Liu lng (mg/kg)

i vi ngi 70 kg

Siu c

1 grain 0,0648 g

Cc c

5 50

4 ml

Rt c

50 500

30 ml

Kh c

500 5.000

30 600 ml

c nh

5.000 15.000

600 1.200 ml

Thc t khng c

> 15.000

> 1200 ml

Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn c sp xp cc loi sinh vt da vo mc nhy cm ca

chng vi cc cht c. Trong thc t khng c loi sinh vt no c nhy cm n nh vi
c cp tnh ca cc loi ha cht. Mt khc, th nghim ch c thc hin cc loi sinh
vt vi gi thit l cc loi i din cho cc sinh vt cng bc trong h sinh thi, nhng
gi thit ny thng l khng ng.
Bng 5.7. Phn loi c cp tnh ca ha cht c i vi c v ng vt [10]
C
LC50 (mg/L)

Chim/ .vt c v
LD50 (mg/kg)

Cp c

V d v cht c

> 100

> 5000

Tng i khng c

Bari

10 100

500 5000

t c

Cadmi

1 10

50 500

Rt c

1,4-Dichlorobenzene

<1

< 50

Cc c

Aldrin

5.5.2. C ch gy c cp tnh
Cc cht c trong mi trng thng th hin c tnh cp tnh qua nhiu c ch

115
khc nhau. Di y s trnh by v d v mt s c ch gy c ca mt s cht c ha hc
thng gp hin nay.
c ch cholinesterase: Tc dng c ch cholinesterase l c ch gy c cp tnh
thng gp ca cc thuc tr su nhm c clo, c photpho v nhm carbamate. Hin tng
ng c cp tnh do c ch cholinesterase c v chim do vic s dng thuc tr su loi ny
trong nng nghip cng nh trong cc mc ch khc rt thng gp hin nay.
Hn m: Cc ha cht cng nghip thng gy ng c cp tnh (c bit i vi
vi ng vt thy sinh) biu hin di dng hn m. Hn m xy ra khi ha cht c tch ly
trong mng t bo gy nh hng n chc nng hot ng bnh thng ca mng. Biu hin
thng thy ca s hn m l tnh trng hot ng l , gim phn x vi cc kch thch bn
ngoi, thay i mu da ( c). B hn m ko di c th dn n t vong. ng vt b ng
c, hn m nhng cha cht, s hi phc khi cc ha cht c b o thi khi c th.
Khong 60% cc loi ha cht cng nghip tht thot vo mi trng nc th hin
c tnh cp tnh thng qua tc dng gy hn m. Cc ha cht loi ny thng c i vi
nhiu loi khc nhau v u thng l cc loi hp cht a du do c th tch t lp m
trn mng n nng bin i chc nng ca mng. Cc ha cht gy c qua tc
dng gy hn m thng gp l cc loi ru, keton, benzen, ete v andehyt.
Tc ng vt l: Cc s c mi trng gy ra ng c cp tnh theo kiu tc ng
vt l thng gp nht hin nay l cc s c gy ra do du trn. Cc vt du trn trn b mt
nc bm vo v to thnh mt lp bao ph cc loi ng vt hot ng vng mt nc
(nh chim, ng vt c v bin,).
Cc con vt b nn thng cht do mt nhit. C th cc loi ng vt c lng thng
c kh nng chu lnh trong nc, do khng kh gia cc lp lng to thnh mt lp cch
nhit kh tt. Khi thm du, cc lp lng b dnh cht vo nhau, lc ny lp lng khng cn
xp v c tc dng cch nhit na, v vy con vt s khng chu c gi lnh, nhanh chng
b mt nhit v cht.
Bn cnh nguy c cht do mt nhit, ng vt cn c th b ng c du. n ung, ra
lng, ht th khng kh cha hi du cng c th lm tch ly hydrocacbon n mc c hi.
ri c bin, ng c du cn gy ra cc chng bnh khc nh bnh bt kh trong
phi (pulmonary emphysema), xut huyt ng rut v hoi t gan.
5.5.3. c mn tnh
c mn tnh c nh ngha l c th hin sau khi phi nhim mt thi gian
di vi cht c.
Ng c mn tnh thng xy ra vi liu cha gy cht v thng nh hng c
hi n s pht trin, kh nng sinh sn, h min dch v h ni tit ca c th sinh vt. i
vi mt s cht c, ng c mn tnh c th gy t vong, trong lc ng c cp tnh cc cht
ny li khng gy cht. V d, phi nhim thi gian di vi cc ha cht c tnh a du mnh
s dn n tnh trng tch ly sinh hc cc loi ha cht ny trong c th n mc nng
gy cht.
Ngoi ra, nh trnh by trong cc phn trn, lng cht c tch ly trong m m sau
mt thi gian di cng c th b gii phng ra v gy t vong trong thi k ng vt chun b
sinh sn.
c tnh mn tnh c c trng bng cc i lng:

Mc khng pht hin c hiu ng (no observed effect level, NOEL): l liu
lng c cht ti a khng gy ra hiu ng r rt trn ng vt th nghim khi phi nhim
lin tc trong mt thi gian di. NOEL thng c dng hng dn xy dng tiu chun
v cc mc gii hn cho php i vi mt c cht.

116

Mc thp nht c th pht hin c hiu ng (lowest observed effect level,

LOEL): l liu lng c cht thp nht cn c th gy ra cc hiu ng quan st c trn
ng vt th nghim khi phi nhim lin tc trong mt thi gian di
Gi tr mn tnh (chronic value, CV): l gi tr trung bnh nhn ca NOEL v
LOEL.

i lng ACR (acute:chronic ratio): l t s LC50/CV. Cc cht c ACR nh hn

10 thng c c tnh mn tnh thp hoc khng c.
Bng 5.8. c cp tnh v c mn tnh ca mt s loi thuc tr su
xc nh trong phng th nghim trn cc loi c [10]

(g/L)

ACR

c
mn tnh

Cc c

4,3

39

10

Cc c

0,3

33

Malathion

3000

Rt c

340

8,8

Khng c

Carbaryl

15000

t c

378

40

(g/L)

c
cp tnh

Endosulfan

166

Chlordecone

Thuc tr su

LC50

CV

5.6. Tc dng c hi ca mt s cht

5.6.1. Ha cht bo v thc vt
Ha cht bo v thc vt (HCBVTV) c s dng rt ph bin trong nng nghip
cng nh trong i sng. Chng thng c chia thnh nhiu nhm nh thuc dit nm, thuc
dit c, thuc tr su, thuc xng bo v ng cc, thuc dit chut v loi gm nhm.
HCBVTV l loi cht nhim c bit trong mi trng, v chng l cc loi ha cht
c con ngi a vo mi trng tiu dit mt vi dng sinh vt trong t nhin.
V l thuyt, mt HCBVTV l tng phi c tnh chn lc cao, ngha l ch tiu dit
mt vi loi sinh vt ch, nhng li khng gy hi cho cc loi khc. Trong thc t, hu ht
cc loi HCBVTV u khng chn lc.
Bn cnh cc li ch nh khng ch c mt s loi gy hi, nng cao nng sut cy
trng, HCBVTV lun gy ra nhiu lo ngi v kha cnh mi trng v sc khe. Cc ha cht
c hi ny c th thm nhp vo chui thc n, vo mi trng nc, mt s HCBVTV rt
bn c th tch ly trong mi trng, c bit l kh nng tch ly sinh hc trong c th sinh
vt, con ngi.
T chc US-EPA chia HCBVTV thnh 3 nhm. Nhm I, gm nhng cht rt c
c LD50 (theo ng n ung) nh hn hoc bng 1,0 mg/kg th trng, loi ny thuc nhm
b hn ch s dng; Nhm II, gm cc HCBVTV c LD50 (theo ng n ung) nh hn hoc
bng 500 mg/kg th trng; Nhm III, gm cc cht khng c c LD50 (theo ng n ung)
nh hn hoc bng 15.000 mg/kg th trng. Ngoi ra, US-EPA cn phn loi cc HCBVTV
da vo kh nng gy ung th.
5.6.1.1. Tc dng c hi ca thuc tr su c clo
Thuc tr su c clo c a vo s dng t nhng nm thuc thp nin 40 v 50 th
k 20, bao gm nhng loi thuc tr su kh quen thuc nh DDT, methoxychlor, chlordane,
heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, toxaphene, mirex v lindane. Thuc tr su c clo l cc
cht c thn kinh, gy ng c cp tnh, do c tc dng ngn cn s dn truyn xung thn
kinh.

117
Mc d c pht minh vo nm 1874, nhng tc dng dit cn trng ca DDT
(diclodiphenyltricloetan) (Hnh 3.8) ch c Paul Mueller, nh ha hc ngi Thy S,
pht hin vo nm 1939 (nh , nh ha hc ny c nhn gii Nobel).
Trong Chin tranh Th gii th 2, qun i M dng mt lng ln DDT dit
mui v cn trng truyn bnh st rt. Sau chin tranh, DDT c dng rt rng ri trong
nng nghip, y t v gia nh. T chc Y t Th gii (WHO) s dng DDT nh mt cng
c c lc trong chng trnh kim sot st rt ton cu.
Do chm b phn hy trong mi trng v cc tnh cht c hi khc, nn DDT v cc
loi thuc tr su c clo khc b cm s dng vo nm 1972 M.
Tc dng ha sinh ca DDT i vi mi trng c nghin cu k. Tng t nh
cc thuc tr su khc, DDT tc ng ln h thn kinh trung ng, lm t lit h thn kinh,
dn n cht. DDT tan vo trong m m, tch ly trong mng m bao quanh t bo thn kinh
v can thip vo s chuyn dch ca cc xung thn kinh dc cc t bo thn kinh. Kt qu dn
n s ph hy h thn kinh trung ng, git cht su b.
Acetylcholine l cht c tc dng kch thch cc t bo thn kinh. Enzim
acetylcholinesterase tham gia vo qu trnh phn hy acetylcholine, ngn cn qu trnh kch
thch t bo thn kinh.
Qu trnh phn hy acetylcholine do enzim acetylcholinesterase xy ra qua 2 bc
(phn ng 1 v 2), cui cng ti to enzim acetylcholinesterase [8]:
CH3

(1)

EOH

enzim
acetylcholinesterase

CH3

CH2CH2N(CH3)2
acetylcholine

CH3

(2)

EO

EO

+ H2 O

+ HOCH2CH2N(CH3)2

C
O

enzim acetyl

(nhanh)

choline

EOH + CH3COOH

Thuc tr su c clo c th c ch enzim acetylcholinesterase do lm tch t

acetylcholine gy kch thch t bo thn kinh.
C ch tc dng ha sinh ca cc loi thuc tr su c clo vi c th con ngi cha
c bit mt cch chc chn. Ngi ta cho rng chng b ha tan trong cc mng m bao
quanh dy thn kinh v can thip vo s chuyn vn ca cc ion vo hay ra cc dy thn kinh,
iu ny dn n s chuyn dch cc xung thn kinh, lm xut hin cc cn co git v c th
dn n t vong.
DDT c tch ly trong chui thc n v i vo c th ngi nh sau: trong phiu
sinh vt bin c cha khong 0,04 ppm DDT; cc ng vt n phiu sinh vt v tch ly li
trong c th, c nng gp 10 15 ln, ngha l chng c cha khong 0,4 ppm DDT; c to
n sinh vt tri ni, trai v chim n c li tch t li trong c th n 0,17 0,27 ppm ( c) v
3,15 75,5 ppm ( chim). Qu trnh ny c tm tt trong Hnh 5.3.
Cc thuc tr su loi c clo nh DDT, 666 kh bn vng, tn ti trong mi trng
mt thi gian di. Mc d DDT khng tc dng ln h thn kinh con ngi theo c ch nh
i vi h thn kinh cn trng, song DDT c kh nng tch ly trong c th v c tc dng
c hi lu di i vi sc khe.

118
Phiu sinh vt
0,04 ppm

Chim n c

0,17 0,27 ppm

3,15 75,5 ppm

c trai s
0,4 ppm
Hnh 5.3. S tch ly DDT qua chui thc n trong mi trng nc [8]

5.6.1.2. Tc dng c hi ca thuc tr su c photpho v cacbamat

Cc loi thuc tr su c photpho (organophosphorus pesticides OPs) l este ca
axit photphoric hay thiophotphoric (Hnh 3.9). Cc hp cht loi ny c nghin cu t
nhng nm thuc thp nin 30 v 40, th k 20 v bt u c dng lm thuc tr su vo
cui Chin tranh Th gii th 2. Ngy nay, OPs l loi thuc tr su c s dng rt rng ri
dit cn trng, su b.
Thuc tr su cacbamat l cc este ca axit N-methyl cacbamic (CH3NHCOOH), hoc
trong mt s trng hp l axit N,N-dimethyl cacbamic. c tnh ca cc thuc tr su
cacbamat ph thuc vo nhm th v tr nhm OH. Mt s cacbamat l cc thuc tr su
ph rng. Thuc tr su cacbamat uc s dng rng ri trong nng nghip, lm vn v
thng c dng di dng bt mn. Cc loi thuc tr su cacbamat khng b xp vo loi
cc ha cht bn vng, trong mi trng chng rt d b thy phn v phn hy.
Cc loi thuc tr su c photpho v cacbamat c ch enzim acetylcholinesterase do
chng c th tc dng vi enzim acetylcholinesterase ging nh acetylcholine, to thnh
enzim phosphoryl hoc enzim cacbaryl (phn ng 3 v 5), gy tch t acetylcholine trong t
bo thn kinh.
OR

OR

(3)

EOH + X

EO

OR'

hp cht c photpho

+ HX

enzim photphoryl
OR

OR
EO

OR'

(4)

+ H2O

OR'

(chm)

EOH +

HO

OR'

R'

R'

(5)

EOH + RO

EO

O
cacbamat

C
O

+ ROH
H

enzim cacbaryl

119
R'

(6)

EO

C
O

(chm)

+ H2O

R'
EOH + HO

C
O

N
H

Qu trnh phn hy cc hp cht trung gian enzim photphoryl v enzim cacbaryl xy

ra chm hn nhiu so vi qu trnh thy phn enzim acetyl, do lm gim nng enzim
hot ng (chm ti to enzim acetylcholinesterase, EOH). Hu qu l acetylcholine khng
c phn hy nhanh, gy kch thch t bo thn kinh lm cht cn trng.
Ngoi kh nng gy ng c cp tnh, mt s OPs cn lin quan n mt chng bnh
thn kinh, c tn gi tt l OPIDN (organophosphorus-induced delayed neuropathy). Triu
chng lm sng in hnh ca bnh l tnh trng mt kh nng iu khin c ngoi bin, ch
yu chi di, sau khi tip xc vi OPs qua ng tiu ha t 7 n 10 ngy. Cho n nay,
bn cht ca bnh OPIDN vn cha c hiu r, nhng c v nh bnh ny khng lin quan
n s c ch enzim acetylcholinesterase. C th cc OPs nh hng n mt enzim thn
kinh khc (vai tr ca enzim ny trong c th cha c bit r).
Thuc tr su c photpho v cacbamat c c tnh cao hn loi c clo, nhng chng
b bin i nhanh trong mi trng. Sn phm phn hy ca cc hp cht ny khng c. V
vy, thuc tr su c photpho v cacbamat vn ang c s dng.
5.6.1.3. Tc dng c hi ca metyl izocyanat (MIC)
Metyl izocyanat (CH3NCO, vit tt l MIC) l nguyn liu sn xut thuc tr su
loi cacbamat. MIC l cht lng, d bay hi, im si 43 45C, ht m mnh. MIC c
tng hp bng phn ng gia metyl amoni clorua vi phosgene (COCl2). Sn phm to ra
c phn hy bng cch un nng vi vi sng s thu c MIC:
CH3NH3Cl + COCl2 CH3NHCOCl + 2HCl
to
2CH3NHCOCl + 2CaO 2CH3NCO + CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2
MIC to thnh lun c ln khong 2% phosgene cha b phn ng ht. (Phosgene,
COCl2, l cht kh rt c, tng c s dng trong Chin tranh Th gii I).
Khi tip xc vi MIC, c th b tc ngc, kh th, do c quan h hp b kch thch
mnh. V MIC lun c ln phosgene, nn khi b nhim c MIC thng cng b nhim c
phosgene, do nn nhn c th cht trong vng 24 gi. Cc triu chng khi b nhim c
phosgene: co tht kh qun, ho tc v au ngc, 80% nn nhn cht ngay trong 24 gi u,
nhng ngi cn li cng s b cht do chng vim phi.
Theo cc ti liu ca T chc Y t Th gii, hng nm trn th gii c khong 750.000
ngi b nhim c thuc tr su, trong s c khong 140.000 ngi cht. Cc nc ang
pht trin hng nm dng khong 30% lng thuc tr su trn ton cu, song s ngi b
nhim c thuc tr su cc nc ny li chim 60% s ca nhim c trn ton th gii [8].
5.6.2. Kim loi
t, , qung, nc v khng kh u c cha kim loi, nhng nng ca chng
thng thp v khng tp trung. Cc hot ng nhn to mi l ngun gy nhim kim loi
ng quan tm. Ngy nay, kim loi c s dng trong cng nghip, nng nghip, cng
nghip sn xut dc phm. Vic s dng rng ri kim loi trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau,
lm tng nguy c nhim c khng ch i vi cng nhn hot ng trong cc ngnh sn
xut lin quan n kim loi, m cn i vi ngi tiu dng bnh thng.
Mc d, cc kim loi c c c tnh khc nhau, nhng cng c th thy mt s tnh
cht c chung thng gp nhiu kim loi. th hin c tnh, kim loi phi i qua c
mng v thm nhp vo t bo.

120
Kim loi dng hp cht tan c trong du c th thm qua mng t bo (v d thy
ngn dng metyl thy ngn); kim loi lin kt vi protein (nh cadmium-metallothionein)
c th thm nhp vo t bo qua qu trnh nhp bo (endocytosis - l qu trnh trong mt
cht i vo bn trong t bo nhng khng theo con ng thm qua mng t bo, lc ny
mng t bo gp li v thu tm cht bn ngoi t bo to thnh mt bng c mng bao bc
bn trong t bo); mt s kim loi khc (v d nh ch) c th c hp th bng con ng
khuch tn th ng (khuch tn qua mng do s chnh lch nng bn ngoi v bn trong
t bo theo hng lm gim gradient nng ).

Hnh 5.4. Qu trnh nhp bo (endocytosis) v qu trnh xut bo (exocytosis)

Tc dng gy c ca cc kim loi thng lin quan n tng tc gia kim loi v
thnh phn ch trong t bo. Cc ch b tn cng thng l cc qu trnh sinh ha ring bit,
mng t bo hay mng ca cc thnh phn trong t bo.
5.6.2.1. Cc c ch gy c ph bin v b phn c th b tn hi
c ch hoc kch hot enzim: mt trong cc c ch gy c chnh ca kim loi l
tng tc vi enzim, gy c ch hoc kch hot enzim. Kim loi c th gy c ch enzim
bng hai con ng chnh sau:
Kim loi c tc dng vi nhm sulfhydryl (SH) ca enzim, nh phn ng sau
gia ion thy ngn (II) vi enzim:
SH

+ Hg2+

[Enzim]
SH

S
[Enzim]

Hg

+ 2H+

Kim loi c thay th cc kim loi c mt trong enzim. V d: ch thay th km

trong enzim axit -aminolevulinic dehydratase (ALAD) v do gy c ch qu trnh tng
hp hem (l mt nhm khng cha protein, c nhn st c bao bc bi cc d vng hu c
porphyrin; l thnh phn quan trng ca hemoglobin v cc enzim c cha hem nh cc sc
t t bo - cytochrome).
Kh nng gy ung th: mt s kim loi c kh nng gy ung th cho ngi v ng
vt. V d: hp cht ca asen, mt s hp cht ca crom, niken l cc tc nhn c kh nng
gy ung th i vi ngi; beri, cadmi v cisplatin (Pt(NH3)2Cl2) c th cng l cc tc nhn
c kh nng gy ung th.
Ngi ta cho rng, s d mt s kim loi c kh nng gy ung th l do chng c th
tng tc vi ADN trong c th ng vt.
C quan ni bo: cc kim loi c c th hy hoi cu trc v chc nng ca cc ni

121
bo quan. V d, c ch cc enzim ca th li ni cht (endoplasmic reticulum); tch t kim
loi trong th men (lysosome); c ch enzim h hp trong th ht si (mitochondria)
Thn: do l c quan bi tit chnh ca c th, nn thn thng l c quan b nh
hng bi cc cht c nh kim loi trong c th. Cadmi, thy ngn thng l cc kim loi
c c nh hng mnh n thn.
H thn kinh: h thn kinh cng thng b tc ng ca cc kim loi c, c bit l
cc kim loi dng hp cht hu c. V d metyl thy ngn, do c th tan c trong cht
bo, nn d i qua mng t bo v xm nhp vo h thn kinh.
Ngc li cc dng thy ngn v c d tan trong nc hn, nn t c kh nng xm
nhp vo h thn kinh, m thng ch l cc cht c gy hi cho thn.
Tng t nh vy, cc hp cht ch hu c thng l cc cht c thn kinh, cn cc
dng ch v c li gy c ch enzim.
H ni tit v kh nng sinh sn: do c quan sinh sn ca ngi hot ng theo mt
c ch phc tp lin quan n thn kinh ni tit v hc mn, v vy bt k mt cht c no
c kh nng tham gia vo cc qu trnh ny u c th nh hng n h sinh sn. Ch v
cadmi l cc kim loi c gy tc hi h sinh sn con ngi.
H h hp: tip xc vi kim loi dng bi c th hy hoi phi. Phi nhim cp tnh
c th lm kch thch v gy tn thng ng h hp. Phi nhim mn tnh c th lm x
ha (nhm) hoc gy ung th (asen, crom, niken).
5.6.2.2. Tc dng c hi ca asen
Thng thng nng ca asen trong khng kh v nc thp, ngun phi nhim asen
chnh i vi con ngi l thc phm.
Tuy vy, mt s vng trn th gii, nh i Loan, Nam M, Banglades,nng
ca asen trong nc ngm kh cao. C dn sinh sng v s dng nc ngm cc vng c
nng asen cao thng b mc cc bnh nh bnh sng ha, tng sc t da, Phi nhim
mc nng cao hn c th dn n cc hu qu nghim trng nh b hoi t u ngn tay,
ngn chn, bnh blackfoot, ung th

Hnh 5.5. Nhim c asen gy hoi t bn tay v mt ngn tay [30]

Hin nay, khong 80% cc hp cht ca asen c dng lm thuc tr su, cc loi

122
thuc dit nm, dit c. Ngoi ra, asen cn c dng sn xut dng c thy tinh, sn,
cht mu, vt liu bn dn.
Asen c th tn ti trong cc hp cht ba mc oxy ha: asen (+5) trong cc hp cht
asenat; asen (+3) trong asenit; v asen (-3) trong kh asin. c tnh ca cc dng asen khc
nhau tng dn theo th t sau: As(+5) < As(+3) < As(-3).
Trong mi trng, vi sinh vt c th chuyn ha asen thnh dimethylasenate, cht ny
c th tch ly sinh hc trong c, nghu s v lm nh hng n con ngi qua chui thc n.
Cc hp cht ca asen (+3) tan c trong du m v c th thm nhp vo c th
bng cc con ng tiu ha, h hp v tip xc qua da. Trong vng 24 gi sau khi c hp
th, asen phn b i khp c th,lin kt vi cc nhm SH ca protein t bo. Ch mt phn
nh i vo t bo thn kinh. Asen cng c th thay th photpho v tch t trong xng nhiu
nm.
Asen (III) c v n tn cng vo cc nhm SH ca enzim, lm cn tr hot ng ca enzim:
SH
[Enzim]

S
[Enzim]

+ AsO33 SH

CH2

CH2

S
CH2

SH

CH2

+ AsO33-

CH2

As O + 2OH

As
S

CH2

SH

(CH2)5

(CH2)5

O + 2OH

Protein

Protein
(dihyrolipoic axit - protein)

(phc b thu ng hoa)

AsO43 c tnh cht tng t PO43 s thay th ion PO43 gy c ch enzim, ngn cn
to ra ATP l cht sn sinh ra nng lng.
CH2

OH

CH

CH2

OPO32PO43-

OH

CH

ATP
O

OPO32-

OPO32-

Glyxeraldehyt
3 - phosphat

1,3 - Diphosphat
Glyxerat

Adenosine
Triphosphat

Nu c mt AsO43 th qu trnh ph xy ra, to thnh 1aseno, 3photphat glyxerat, nn

s to thnh 1,3diphotphat glyxerat khng xy ra, do khng hnh thnh v pht trin ATP:
CH2

OH

CH
C

CH2

OPO32-

H
Glyxeraldehyt
3 - phosphate

AsO43-

OH

CH
C

OPO32ATP

OAsO321-arseno,3 - phosphate
glyxerat

Adenosine
Triphosphate

123
Asen (+3) nng cao lm ng t cc protein, c l do asen (+3) tn cng cc lin
kt c nhm sulfua.
Sau khi b nhim c cp tnh t 30 pht n 2 gi, nhiu triu chng ng rut nng
s xut hin. Cc triu chng nh nn ma, tiu chy ra mu, au bng d di, au v c cm
gic chy bng thc qun. Sau mt s triu chng c th i km nh tnh trng gin mch,
co thc c tim, ph no, au thn kinh ngoi bin. Cui cng nn nhn c th b vng da, ri
lon thn v c th cht trong vng t 24 gi n 4 ngy do ri lon tun hon.
Nhim c mn tnh thng i km vi cc triu chng khng r rng nh tiu chy,
au bng, tng sc t v tng sng ha. Cui cng c th dn n hoi t u ngn tay, ngn
chn; thiu mu; ung th da, phi v t bo mi.
Cc cht chng c i vi asen l cc ha cht cha nhm SH nh 2,3 dimercapto
propanol (HSCH2CH(SH)CH2OH) (BAL), cht ny c kh nng to lin kt vi AsO33,
nn khng cn As (III) lin kt vi nhm SH trong enzim.
5.6.2.3. Tc dng c hi ca cadmi
Trong t nhin cadmi ch yu i km vi ch v km trong qung. Cadmi b pht tn
vo mi trng gn cc m ang khai thc hoc khu vc luyn kim. Trong cng nghip
cadmi c s dng lm cht mu trong sn, cht do, m in, ch to hp kim, pin sc.
Ngun gy nhim c cadmi thng l nc ngm b nhim do cng nghip luyn
kim, s dng trong cng nghip, s dng bn nc thi th lm phn bn. Li cu, xin
m c, sn phm ng cc, l rau, l nhng ngun gy nhim cadmi trong thc phm.
Nhim c cp tnh gy au rt vng tip xc. Sau khi n ung v b nhim c
cadmi, cc triu chng chnh thng gp l bun nn, nn, au bng. Nhim c qua ng
h hp c th dn n ph phi.
Nhim c mn tnh thng c quan tm c bit v cadmi b o thi khi c th
rt chm, thi gian bn phn hy trong c th vo khong 30 nm. V vy, phi nhim nng
thp c th dn n tnh trng tch ly cadmi trong c th.
Phn ln cadmi thm nhp vo c th con ngi c o thi t t qua thn, khong
1% c gi li trong thn, do cadmi lin kt vi protein to thnh metallotionein c thn.
Phn cn li trong c th dn dn c tch ly cng vi tui tc. Khi lng Cd2+ c tch
ly ln, n c th th ch ion Zn2+ trong cc enzim quan trng gy ra ri lon tiu ha v
cc chng bnh ri lon chc nng ca thn, thiu mu, tng huyt p, gy dn xng, ph
hy ty xng, gy ung th.
S c nhim c cadmi xy ra tnh Toyama, Nht Bn, vo nhng nm 1940 do hot
ng khai khong lm nhim cadmi trn sng Jinzu v cc ph lu. Nc sng c s
dng cho thy li v dng sn xut nc ung. Hu qu lm hng trm ngi dn sng
trong khu vc b mc chng bnh do nhim c cadmi c tn gi l bnh itai-itai. Hu ht
nn nhn u b tn thng thn v long xng, nhiu ngi cht. V nhim c
Toyama c xem l v nhim c cadmi nghim trng nht t trc n nay.
5.6.2.4. Tc dng c hi ca ch
Trung bnh ngi dn cc thnh ph ln mi ngy a vo c th 10 g Pb t khng
kh, 15 g Pb t nc (dng ha tan hoc dng phc) v 200 g Pb t cc ngun lng thc
thc phm; bi tit ra ngoi khong 200 g Pb, cn khong 25 g c gi li trong xng.
Tc dng c hi ch yu ca ch l gy c ch mt s enzim quan trng ca qu trnh
tng hp mu ngn chn qu trnh to hng cu. Ch c ch ALA-dehidraza enzim (I), do
giai on to thnh porphobilinogen (II) (l cc sn phm trung gian trong qu trnh to hng
cu) tip theo khng th xy ra c. V vy, ch ph hy qu trnh tng hp hemoglobin v

124
cc sc t khc nh cc sc t t bo (cytochromes).

CH2 C

HOOC CH2

C CH2 CH2 COOH

HOOC CH2 C

C C

CH COOH
H2N

NH2

CH2

(I) delta-aminolevulinic axit

(ALA dehydrase enzym)

(II) porphobilinogen

Hnh 5.6. Cng thc cu to ca ALAdehydraza enzim v porphobilinogen

Ch cn gy hi n h thn kinh, c bit i vi tr s sinh v tr em ang tui

pht trin h thn kinh. Ngay c khi ch phi nhim ch mc thp, tr c biu hin
hiu ng thi qu, gim ch , thiu nng tr tu, suy gim th lc. Khi b phi nhim mc
nng cao hn, nn nhn (c tr em v ngi ln) c th b bnh no. Ch ph hy ng
mch nh v mao mch lm ph no v thoi ha thn kinh. Triu chng lm sng gy ra do
nhng tc hi trn c th l trng thi l , co git, hn m.
Do c tnh cht ha hc tng t Ca nn trong c th Pb tch ly xng, y ch
kt hp vi photphat trong xng ri di chuyn vo cc m mm v th hin c tnh ca n.
Ngoi ra, ch cn nh hng n h sinh sn, gy sy thai, nh hng c hi cho tr s sinh.
Khi hm lng trong mu khong 0,3 ppm, ch ngn cn qu trnh s dng oxy oxy
ha glucoza to ra nng lng cho qu trnh sng, do lm cho c th mt mi. Khi nng
trong mu nm trong khong > 0,5 0,8 ppm, ch s gy ri lon chc nng ca thn v ph
hy no. nng cao hn (> 0,8 ppm) ch c th gy thiu mu do thiu hemoglobin.
Cc cht chng c ca ch l cc ha cht c kh nng to phc chelat tan vi Pb2+.
V d, dung dch phc chelat ca canxi c th dng gii c ch v phc chelat ch bn hn
phc chelat canxi nn Pb2+ s th ch Ca2+ trong phc chelat, kt qu l phc chelat ch c
to thnh tan v o thi ra ngoi qua nc tiu. Cc ha cht c dng gii c ch l
EDTA, 2,3-dimercaptopropanol, penicillamin..., chng to vi ch cc phc chelat sau:
O
C
O
CH2
C CH2
N CH2
O
Pb
N CH2
O
C CH2
CH2
O
O
C
O

O
Phc Pb - EDTA

H2C

CH CH2OH

OH

O C

Pb

HC

H
N

S
H2C

S
CH CH2OH

H3C

Pb

CH3

Phc Pb - BAL
(BAL: 2,3 - mercapto propanol) Phc Pb - (d-penicillamin)

Hnh 5.7. Phc chelat ca ch vi cc cht chng c

5.6.2.5. Tc dng c hi ca thy ngn

Thy ngn c nhiu ng dng rng ri trong cng nghip, nh sn xut NaOH, Cl2
bng cch in phn dung dch mui n bo ha vi in cc thy ngn. Ngnh cng nghip
sn xut cc thit b in nh sn xut n thy ngn cao p, pin thy ngn, cc rle in...
cng dng nhiu thy ngn. Trong nng nghip, ngi ta dng mt lng ln cc hp cht c
thy ngn chng nm v lm sch cc ht ging. Cc hp cht thng dng l:

125
Metyl nitril thy ngn:

CH3HgCN
NH2

Metyl dixian diamit thy ngn:

H3C Hg N C NH2
H2N C N

Metyl axetat thy ngn:

Etyl clorua thy ngn:

CH3HgOOCCH3
C2H5HgCl

Cc hp cht thy ngn dng lm sch ht ging, khi gieo ht ging xung t, cc
hp cht ny s c phn tn rng trn t. Sau , thy ngn i vo thc vt, ng vt v
chuyn vo thc n ca ngi.
Thy ngn l mt kim loi c c tnh cao. Vo nhng nm 1953 1960, ti Nht c
nhiu trng hp b nhim c nng do n phi c nhim thy ngn t vnh Minamata. Nc
trong vnh ny b nhim thy ngn l do nc thi ca nh my ha cht. C ca vnh c cha
27 102 ppm thy ngn di dng metyl thy ngn (xem Phn c thm mc 3.5.2.1. Cc
ion v c ha tan). Nm 1972, 450 nng dn Irc cht do n phi loi la mch b nhim
thy ngn t thuc tr su. Hai s kin trn chng t thy ngn l cht gy c rt mnh.

Hnh 5.8. Bn tay b bin dng ca nn nhn b ng c Hg Minamata [22]

Tnh c ca thy ngn ph thuc vo dng hp cht ha hc ca n.

Thy ngn kim loi tng i tr v khng c, nu nut thy ngn vo bng th
sau n li c thi ra ngoi, khng gy hu qu nghim trng. Nhng hi thy ngn nu
ht phi th rt c. Khi ht phi hi thy ngn, thy ngn s i vo no qua mu, hy hoi h
thn kinh trung ng.
Thy ngn (I) Hg22+ vo c th th s tc dng vi ion Cl c trong d dy to thnh
hp cht khng tan Hg2Cl2 ri b o thi ra ngoi, nn Hg22+ khng c.
Thy ngn (II) Hg2+ rt c, n d dng kt hp vi cc amino axit c cha lu
hunh ca protein. Hg2+ cng to lin kt vi hemoglobin v albumin trong huyt thanh v c
hai cht ny u c cha nhm SH. Song Hg2+ khng th chui qua mng sinh hc nn n
khng th thm nhp vo cc t bo sinh hc.
Cc hp cht hu c ca thy ngn c c tnh cao nht, c bit l ion metyl thy
ngn CH3Hg+, cht ny tan c trong m, phn cht bo ca cc mng v trong no ty.
Trong ankyl thy ngn, lin kt cng ha tr gia Hg vi C rt bn vng, khng d

126
dng b ph v nn ankyl thy ngn kh bn. c tnh nguy him nht ca ankyl thy ngn
(RHg+) l c th thm qua c cc mng ngn cn v thm nhp vo m ca bo thai qua
nhau thai. Khi m b nhim metyl thy ngn th tr con sinh ra thng chu nhng thng tn
khng th hi phc c v h thn kinh trung ng, gy nn bnh tm thn phn lit, co git,
tr tu km pht trin.
Hg lin kt vo mng t bo ngn cn qu trnh vn chuyn ng qua mng, nhng
li cho K i qua mng. i vi t bo no, qu trnh va nu lm suy gim nng lng t bo,
gy ri lon vic truyn cc xung thn kinh. Nhim c metyl thy ngn cng dn ti s phn
chia nhim sc th, ph v nhim sc th v ngn cn s phn chia t bo. Cc triu chng
nhim c thy ngn bt u xut hin khi nng metyl thy ngn (CH3Hg+) trong mu vo
khong 0,5 ppm. c tnh c hi ca thy ngn v cc hp cht thy ngn c trnh by
tm tt trong Bng 5.9.
Bng 5.9. c tnh ha hc v sinh ha ca thy ngn v cc hp cht ca n [8]
Loi

c tnh ha hc v sinh ha

Hg

Nguyn t thy ngn tng i tr, khng c. Hi thy ngn khi ht phi rt c
To c hp cht khng tan vi clorua (Hg2Cl2) c c thp

Hg22+
Hg

c, nhng kh di chuyn qua mng sinh hc

2+

RHg+

Rt c, thng thng dng CH3Hg+, nguy him cho h thn kinh no, d di
chuyn qua mng sinh hc, tch tr trong cc m m

R2Hg

c tnh thp, nhng c th chuyn thnh RHg+ trong mi trng axit trung bnh

HgS

Khng tan v khng c, c trong t

Trong mi trng nc, thy ngn v mui ca thy ngn c th b mt s vi khun

k kh chuyn ha thnh metyl thy ngn hay dimetyl thy ngn (CH3)2Hg. Dimetyl thy
ngn trong mi trng axit trung bnh s chuyn ha thnh metyl thy ngn (CH3Hg+) tan
trong nc. Qu trnh lan truyn thy ngn v cui cng i vo c th ngi c th tm tt
trong s sau:
Hg2+

VK k kh

CH3Hg+

Phiu sinh vt

Nng tng hn 103 ln

Ngi

C ln

C nh

Cn trng

Chim

Hnh 5.9. S khuch i sinh hc ca thy ngn trong chui thc n [8]

C th ngn chn c tnh trng nhim thy ngn nu tun th cc qui tc do T

chc Bo v Mi trng ca M v Thy in ngh:
Chuyn hng cng ngh mi thay v s dng in cc thy ngn trong cng nghip
sn xut NaOH v Cl2,
Cm sn xut v s dng thuc tr su loi ankyl thy ngn,

127

Hn ch sn xut v s dng cc loi thc tr su khc c cha thy ngn, ch

c s dng chn lc mt s vng,
Trm tch nhim thy ngn trong sng h c th to ra ion metyl thy ngn tan vo
nc. Thy in, ngi ta th nghim bao ph trm tch y bng cc vt liu nghin
mn c kh nng hp ph cao trnh qu trnh ti ha tan thy ngn vo nc. Cng c th
chn lp trm tch nhim thy ngn trong cc vt liu v c tr.
5.6.3. Tc dng c hi ca mt s cht c khc
5.6.3.1. Tc dng c hi ca cacbon monooxit (CO)
Cacbon monooxit l mt kh c, n to hp cht bn vi hemoglobin. CO c th th
O2 trong hemoglobin to ra cacboxy-hemoglobin, do lm gim kh nng ti O2 ca mu:
O2Hb + CO COHb + O2
Khi cp cu ngi b nhim c CO, trc ht phi a nn nhn ra ch thong v
cho th oxy phn ng gii hp CO xy ra:
HbCO + O2 HbO2 + CO
Bng 5.10. nh hng c hi ca CO i vi con ngi cc nng khc nhau [8]
Nng CO
(ppm)

HbO2 HbCO

10

Ri lon kh nng phn on, gim tm nhn

100

15

au u, chng mt, mt mi

250

32

Ngt, bt tnh

750

60

Cht sau vi gi

1000

66

Cht rt nhanh

% chuyn ha

nh hng c hi i vi con ngi

5.6.3.2. Tc dng c hi ca cc oxit nit (NOx)

Trong kh quyn thng tn ti hai oxit nit chnh l NO v NO2.
NO cng c kh nng to lin kt vi hemoglobin nh CO, lm gim hiu sut vn
chuyn oxy ca mu. Song, trong khng kh b nhim, lng NO thp hn nhiu ln so vi
kh CO, v vy tc ng ca n n hemoglobin cng nh hn nhiu.
NO2 c hi hn i vi sc khe con ngi. C ch gy c ca NO2 cha c bit
r. Ngi ta cho rng, mt s enzim nh catalase v lactic dehydrogenase c th b phn hy
di tc dng ca NO2.
Thuc chng ng c NO2 thng c s dng l cc cht chng oxy ha nh
vitamin E.
Bng 5.11. nh hng c hi ca NO2 vi con ngi cc nng khc nhau [8]
Nng NO2
(ppm)

Thi gian
phi nhim

Mc c hi i vi con ngi

50 100

Di 1 gi

Vim phi khi phi nhim 68 tun

150 200

Hy hoi kh qun, cht nu phi nhim 35 tun

500

2 10 ngy

Cht

128
5.6.3.3. Tc dng c hi ca kh sunfur (SO2)
Kh sunfur gy tc hi ch yu ng h hp, kch thch v gy ngt. Hu ht mi
ngi u b kch thch khi nng SO2 trong khng kh bng hoc cao hn 5 ppm. Nhng
ngi nhy cm c th b kch thch ngay nng thp hn 1 2 ppm SO2. Nhim c SO2
nng cao hn 5 10 ppm SO2 c th gy co tht ph qun mnh.
nhim SO2 km vi khi c th gy ra hin tng synergism, c bit trong cc s
c sng khi kiu London.
Mc d nng gy cht ngi kh ln, n 500 ppm, nhng kh SO2 vn c xem
l tc nhn gy nhim khng kh ng k nht, do n c th gy tc hi n ngi gi, ngi
c bnh ng h hp, tim mch.
i vi thc vt, nng cao, SO2 ph hy cc m l, lm h hi vng ra v vng
nm gia cc gn l. Khi m tng i trong khng kh tng ln th tc hi ca SO2 i vi
thc vt cng tng ln. Tc hi ny tr nn nghim trng khi nhng l nh trn lp biu b b
mt dng trao i kh b n ra. Tip xc lu di vi kh quyn cha SO2 nng thp s
nguy him vi cy trng hn tip xc vi nng cao trong thi gian ngn.
5.6.3.4. Tc dng c hi ca ozon v PAN
Ozon v PAN (peroxyaxetyl nitrat CH3COOONO2) l sn phm ca qu trnh
quang ha. C hai kh ny u gy tc hi i vi mt v c quan h hp ca con ngi. Con
ngi ch cn tip xc vi khng kh cha 50 ppm O3 trong vi gi cng c th dn ti t
vong do b trn dch mng phi. nhng nng thp hn khng dn n cht ngi, nhng
gy tch ly cht lng trong phi v ph hoi cc mao qun ca phi. Tr em cng nh cc
ng vt cn non rt nhy cm vi tc ng c hi ca ozon.
Tc dng ha sinh ca ozon v PAN ch yu l do to ra cc gc t do. Nhm SH
(sulphydril) trn cc enzim b cc tc nhn oxy ha ny tn cng, ngoi ra cn c th b axtyl
ha bi PAN.
Cc tc nhn oxy ha quang ha lm t lit s hot ng ca cc enzim nh izocitric
dehydrogenase; malic dehydrogenase v glucose6photphatedehydrogen ase. Cc enzim
ny c lin quan n chu trnh axit citric v lm phn hy glucose, l cht to ra nng lng t
bo. Cc tc nhn oxy ha ny cng ngn cn hot tnh ca cc enzim tng hp xenluloza v
cc cht bo trong thc vt.
5.6.3.5. Tc dng c hi ca cyanua (CN)
Cyanua c trong ht ca cc loi qu nh to, m, anh o, o, mn,... Cyanua trong
thc vt thng lin kt vi cc gc ng gi l amygdalin. ng amygdalin b enzim hay
axit thy phn to ra cyanua (v d: trong d dy):
O C6H10O4 C6H11O5
CH
C N

cac n v glucose

+ 2H2O

HCN + 2C6H12O6 + C6H5CHO

Glucose

Benzaldehyt

Amydalin

Cyanua c ch cc enzim oxy ha lm ngn cn mt giai on trung gian ca qu trnh

s dng oxy to ra ATP. Qu trnh to ra ATP (adenozin triphotphat) xy ra qua cc bc
sau:
Bc 1: Fericytochrom oxydaza (mt protein cha st, vit tt l Fe(III)oxit) b
glucoza kh thnh ferrocytochrom oxydaza (vit tt l Fe(II)oxit):
Fe(III)oxit + glucoza Fe(II)oxit + glyxeraldehyt

129
Bc 2: Fe(II)oxit nhng e cho oxy v bin thnh Fe(III)oxit:
Fe(II)oxit + O2 + 2H+ Fe(III)oxit + H2O
Sau glyxeraldehyt kt hp vi PO43, to ra ADP (adenozin diphotphat), cht ny
tip tc kt hp vi PO43 to thnh ATP l cht sn sinh ra nng lng:
3-

4
ADP
ATP
Nu c mt xianua th Fe(III)oxit s kt hp vi CN:
Fe(III)oxit + CN Fe(III)oxitCN
lm bc 1 b ngn cn, do cc bc sau khng xy ra c to thnh ATP. Thm vo
CN cn to phc vi cc hp cht hematin khc.
iu tr nhim c cyanua, ngi ta tim NaNO2 vo mch mu, hoc cho nn
nhn ngi amylnitrit, khi xy ra cc phn ng ln lt nh sau:
NO2 oxy ha hemoglobin HbFe(II) thnh methemiglobin HbFe(III), cht ny khng
vn chuyn c O2 ti cc m nh hemoglobin HbFe(II):

PO

NO

2
HbFe(II)
HbFe(III)
(phn ng ny c xem l nguyn nhn gy c ca NO2, lm thiu oxy, c khi dn n t
vong).

HbFe(III) s ly CN ca phc ferricytochrom oxydaza vi CN:

HbFe(III) + Fe(III)oxitCN HbFe(III)CN + Fe(III)oxit
iu tr tip vi S2O32 loi b CN:
HbFe(III)CN + S2O32 SCN + SO32 + HbFe(II)
Phn ng ny cn xc tc l men cha nhm SCN (rhodanase) hay mitocrondrial
sulfua transferase.
5.6.3.6. Cc cht gy ung th (carcinogens)
Cc nghin cu dch t hc cung cp nhiu bng chng cho thy con ngi khi
phi nhim mt s loi ha cht, tc nhn c hi xc nh s mc bnh ung th.
Thut ng carcinogens c dng ch cc ha cht , tc nhn (tia phng x, tia bc
x,...), c kh nng gy ung th ngi v ng vt.
Da vo kh nng gy ung th, T chc Th gii Nghin cu v Ung th (IARC
International Agency for Reseach on Cancer) v T chc Bo v Mi trng (EPA) phn loi
cc cht c thnh cc nhm (Bng 5.12).
Bn cnh cc cht c xp vo loi c kh nng gy ung th (carcinogen), cn c
mt s cht bn thn khng c kh nng gy ung th, nhng khi kt hp vi mt tc nhn
khc li c kh nng gy ung th, cc cht loi ny c gi tn l co-carcinogens.
nh gi kh nng gy ung th ca mt tc nhn nghi vn, ngi ta thng s
dng kt qu nghin cu dch t hc v nghin cu trn ng vt loi gm nhm. Bng chng
quan trng nht kt lun v kh nng gy ung th ca mt tc nhn no thng c
da vo kt qu nghin cu dch t hc.
Tuy vy, cc nghin cu ny thng rt phc tp v thng phi cn thi gian hng
chc nm (20 n 30 nm) t lc phi nhim vi tc nhn n lc cc triu chng lm sng
u tin v chng bnh ung th c pht hin. Do thi gian cn theo di qu di, nn nghin
cu dch t hc thng c th b nh hng bi nhiu yu t phi nhim b sung cng nh
cc yu t nh hng khc khng kim sot c, lm cho kt qu nghin cu kh c th ni
l hon ton chnh xc.

130
Bng 5.12. Phn loi cc cht gy ung th theo IARC v EPA [10]
IARC

EPA

Nhm 1

Nhm A

bit chc s gy ung th cho ngi ( c bng chng v dch t

hc chng minh c s lin quan gia tc nhn phi nhim v vic pht
bnh ung th nn nhn)

Nhm 2A

Nhm B

Gn nh chc chn gy ung th cho ngi

Nhm B1

Cha c nhiu bng chng v dch t hc v kh nng gy ung th

ngi, khng tnh n cc bng chng trn ng vt th nghim.

Nhm B2

C bng chng dch t hc v kh nng gy ung th trn ng vt th

nghim, nhng cha c hoc khng c bng chng tha ng v kh nng
gy ung th trn ngi.

Nhm 2B

Nhm C

C th s gy ung th cho ngi. Khng c bng chng v kh nng gy

ung th ngi, t bng chng i vi ng vt.

Nhm 3

Nhm D

Khng th nh gi c v kh nng gy ung th cho ngi. Cha c

hoc khng c bng chng tha ng v kh nng gy ung th ngi v
ng vt.

Nhm E

Gn nh chc chn khng gy ung th cho ngi. Khng c bng chng v

kh nng gy ung th trong 2 th nghim hon chnh trn 2 loi ng vt khc
nhau hoc u khng c bng chng v kh nng gy ung th trn th nghim
y v dch t hc v th nghim trn ng vt.

Nhm 4

Danh mc cc ha cht, tc nhn c IARC xp loi l tc nhn gy ung th c

trnh by trong Bng 5.13. Bng ny cn cung cp cc thng tin v cc ngh nghip c b phi
nhim vi cc loi ha cht tng ng.
Bng 5.13. Danh mc cc tc nhn, cht, hn hp cht gy ung th ngi
v ngnh ngh c nguy c b phi nhim [10]
Aflatoxyns
4-Aminobiphenyl
Asen v mt s hp cht asen
Aming
Azathioprine
Benzene
Benzidine
Beri v mt s hp cht ca beri
N,N-bis-(2-Chloroethyl)-2-naphthylamine (chlornaphazine)
Bis(chloromethyl) ether v chloromethyl methyl ether
1,4-Butanediol dimethylsulfonate (Myleran)
Cadmi v mt s hp cht ca cadmi
Chlorambucil
1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea (MeCCNU)
Crom v mt s hp cht ca crom

131

(Bng 15.3 tip theo)

Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporin A (cyclosporin)
Diethylstilbestrol
Virut Epstein-Barr
Erionite
Liu php Estrogen
Estrogens, khng thuc loi steroid
Estrogens, thuc loi steroid
Etylen oxit
Etoposide kt hp vi cisplatin v bleomycin
Helicobacter pylori
Virut Hepatitis B (gy vim gan B, mn tnh)
Virut Hepatitis C (gy vim gan C, mn tnh)
Thuc nam c cha hot cht t loi Aristolochia (mt loi dy leo)
HIV, nhm 1
Virut Papilloma, nhm 16
Virut Papilloma, nhm 18
Virut t bo lymphotropic T, nhm 1
Melphalan (2-amino-3-[4-[bis(2-chloroethyl)amino]phenyl]-propanoic a.)
Methoxsalen vi liu php UV-A (PUVA)
MOPP v cc liu php ha hc kt hp khc k c cc tc nhn ankyl ha
Mustard Gas (Bis (2-chloroethyl) sulfide; dng lm v kh ha hc)
2-Naphthylamine
Neutron
Cc hp cht Nicken
Opisthorchis viverrini (mt loi sn l)
Thuc nga thai
Tia phng x
Tia phng x
Radon
Schistosoma haematobium (mt loi k sinh trng)
Silica
Bc x Mt tri
Bt Talc cha khong dng si aming
Tamoxyfen (mt loi dc phm iu tr ung th v)
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin

132

(Bng 15.3 tip theo)

Thiotepa [tris(1-aziridinyl)phosphine sulfide]
Thori dioxit
Treosulfan
Vinyl clorua
Bc x tia X v tia
Hn hp
ung c cn
Hn hp gim au cha phenacetin
Nhai tru vi thuc l
Tro than v hc n t than
Du khong (mineral oils)
C mui
Shale oils (loi du tch ra t trm tch cha cht hu c)
Mui than
Khi thuc v cc sn phm thuc l khng khi
Mn ca
Tnh hung phi nhim
Sn xut nhm
Sn xut phm nhum auramine
Sn xut v sa cha giy da
Kh ha than
Kh ha than cc
Sn xut g
B phi nhim radon khi khai thc hematit
c, luyn st thp
Sn xut isopropanol
Sn xut thuc nhum fucsin
Th sn
Cng nghip cao su
Khi axit v c mnh c cha axit sulfuric

Khng phi ch nhng loi ha cht nhn to mi gy ung th ngi, ngay trong t
nhin cng c nhiu tc nhn c th gy ung th, nh si aming, aflatoxyn B1, qu cau,
niken v mt s hp cht ca asen cng c kh nng gy ung th ngi.
Cc cht c gy ung th tc ng ln ADN, cn tr chng truyn cc ch dn cn
thit cho vic tng hp cc cht iu khin qu trnh sinh trng ca t bo, do lm cho t
bo pht trin v t chc, chn p cc t bo khc, gy ung th.

133

Cu hi
1. i tng nghin cu ca c hc mi trng l g?
2. Cc tnh cht nguy him cn lu ca cc cht c?
3. Cht c loi a du hay a nc thng c kh nng tch ly sinh hc? Ti sao?
4. Gii thch ngha ca cc i lng LC50, LD50, NOEL, LOEL. nh gi c cp
tnh thng s dng cc i lng no?
5. Khi so snh c ca cc cht da vo gi tr LC50 hay LD50 cn lu iu g?
6. DDT tc ng th no n h thn kinh ca cn trng?
7. Gii thch v nu v d v nh hng ca cc cht c ha hc n cc enzim.
8. Cc c ch gy c ph bin ca accs kim loi c?
9. Trnh by c tnh ca cc thy ngn v cc dng hp cht ca n.
10. Gii thch tc dng c hi ca CO, NOx, SO2, CN.

134

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