Lecture Note 1 - 1

| Chapter 1 | PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS | Page 1
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T Te ea ac ch hi in ng g M Mo od du ul le e
P PH HY YS SI IC CS S S SE EM ME ES ST TE ER R 1 1
M Ma at tr ri ic cu ul la at ti io on n P Pr ro og gr ra am m
M Mi in ni is st tr ry y o of f E Ed du uc ca at ti io on n, , M Ma al la ay ys si ia a

Name : .
IC No. : .
Matrix No. : .

Group : .

Lecturer : .
Physics Lecturer,
Tel : 06-3847778 samb. 139
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TABLE : Contents of SF 017 Physics Semester 1

Chapter Date Topic Check List [ ]

1 . Physical Quantities & Measurements. [ ]

2 . Kinematics of Linear Motion. [ ]

3 . Force, Momentum & Impulse. [ ]

4 . Work, Energy & Power. [ ]

5 . Static. [ ]

6 . Circular Motion. [ ]

7 . Rotational Motion. [ ]

8 . Gravitation. [ ]

9 . Simple Harmonics Motion (SHM). [ ]

10 . Mechanical Waves. [ ]

11 . Sound Wave. [ ]

12 . The Mechanical Properties of Matter. [ ]

13 . Fluid Mechanics. [ ]

14 . Temperature & Heat Transfer. [ ]

15 . Kinetic Theory of Gases. [ ]

16 . Thermodynamics. [ ]

Retention rate from various methods of learning :

Method Percentage

Lecture ..5%

Reading ..10%

Audio visual presentation ..15%

Demonstration ..30%

Discuss in group ..50%

Practice by doing ..75%

Teaching others ..90%


FLOW CHART : Recommended Student Learning Process.

Designed By : KMM Physics Lecturer.

Read and Try to Understand the Content of the Topic
Before Coming into the Lecture Class.
Pay Attention to the Lecture and Take Useful Notes /
Information To Get Better Understanding.
Retry all the examples discussed
During Lecture Session.
Try to Solve all the Exercises Provided
or From Any Other Reference Book / Website.

Do Self-revision by Making Short Notes / Answering all
the Questions Given in the Conceptual Map.
Do Discussion in a Small Study Group for Any
Misunderstanding.
Answer the Tutorial Questions as well as the Past Years
Final Examination Questions.
See Any Physics Lecturer
if Having Unsolvable Problems.

Get Ready For The Next Topic
(Dont Study Last Minute).
Do the information
complete to be substituted into
the main equation?

FLOW CHART : Strategy On Solving Problem In Physics

Designed By : KMM Physics Lecturer.

Think the related
subsidiary formula (any
equation that relates to
the sub-target)
Identify the sub-target
(unknown useful
quantity)
of the question
Read & understand
the question
Relate the question to
the related physics concept
Identify the target (quantity)
of the question
Sketch an appropriate diagram
to describe the situation
Determine the main
physics formula (any equation that
relates to the target)
List down all
the given information
Find out all
the hidden information
Do calculation
in standard SI unit
Get the answer
within the correct unit
Explain the
physical meaning
No
Yes

METHODS
USED
RESOLVED
INTO AXES
UNIT
VECTOR
PARALLE-
LOGRAM
TIP TO
TAIL
| CONCEPTUAL MAP |

CHAPTER 1 : PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS

Answer all the following questions and store permanently in your memory.

1. What is physical quantity?
2. What is scientific notation?
3. What is the difference between basic quantity and derived quantity?
4. State all the basic quantities with their respective symbol and unit.
5. What is dimensions?
6. State 3 uses of dimensions.
7. What is the difference between scalar quantity and vector quantity?
8. A vector can be represented graphically as an arrow. Explain this statement.
9. Explain the magnitude and direction of an arrow which representing a resultant vector.
10. State the 3 rules of vector additional operation.
11. State the formula to resolve a vector to its component.
12. State the formula of the magnitude and the direction of a resultant vector from its resolved vector.
13. What is unit vector?
14. State the formula of additional / subtraction of vectors through the unit vector method.
15. What is the difference between scalar product and vector product?
16. State the formula the formula of scalar and vector product.
17. State and explain the way to determine the direction of vector product.
18. What is the difference between resolved angle and angle between two vectores?

CHAPTER 1 : PHYSICAL QUANTITES & MEASUREMENTS

(5 Hours)

Terminology :

1. Physical Quantity : Kuantiti Fizik
2. Basic Quantity : Kuantiti Asas
3. Derived Quantity : Kuantiti Terbitan
4. Dimensions : Dimensi
5. Parallelogram Method : Kaedah Segiempat Selari
6. Triangle Method : Kaedah Segitiga
7. Product : Hasil Darab

Introduction :

1. The word physics comes from the Greek word which means nature.

Physics is the study of the physical objects and the natural phenomena. It involves the
process of doing experiments to observe how the nature is related to the laws and
principles.

2. The study of physics ranges from fundamental particle of size 10
-16
m to galactic objects
larger than 10
24
m.

Quantities & Units :

1. In order to describe the phenomena quantitatively, we introduce the so-called physical
quantities which have to be observed, measured and described by numbers.

2. Physical quantities are quantities that are measurable with instruments or derived from
other quantities. Each quantity is represented with a symbol and uses a standard size
called the unit.

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microscopic-scale normal-scale macroscopic-scale
3. Scientific notation :
= A way of presenting numbers with a value between 0 to 10 multiplied by ten raised to a
certain power.

Normally, the value of a physical quantity is represented by the Unit Prefixes :

Factor Prefix
a
Symbol Factor Prefix
a
Symbol
10
24
10
21
10
18
10
15
10
12
10
9
10
6
10
3
10
2
10
1

yotta-
zeta-
exa-
peta-
tera-
giga-
mega-
kilo-
hecto-
deka-
Y
Z
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-6
10
-9
10
-12
10
-15
10
-18
10
-21
10
-24

deci-
centi-
milli-
micro-
nano-
pico-
femto-
atto-
zepto-
yocto-
d
c
m
u uu u
n
p
f
a
z
y

The most commonly used prefixes are shown in bold type.
Example : 0.001 m = 1.0x10
-3
m = 1.0 mm
1000 m = 1.0x10
3
m = 1.0 km

4. Unit Conversion :

It is sometimes necessary or more useful
to change from one set of units to another :

Mass Length
1 kg = 1000 g = 6.02x10
26
u
1 slug = 14.6 kg
1 u = 1.66x10
-27
kg
Volume
1 m
3
= 1000 L = 35.3 ft
3
= 264 gal
1 m = 100 cm = 39.4 in = 3.281 ft
1 mi = 1.609 km = 5280 ft
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 nm = 10
1 light-year = 9.46x10
15
m
Time Angular Measure
1 day = 86,400 s
1 year = 365.25 days
rad = 180
o
= 0.5 rev

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Force Pressure
1 N = 10
5
dyne = 0.2248 lb
1 ton = 2000 lb
1 Pa = 1 N m
-2

1 atm = 1.013x10
5
Pa = 76 cm Hg
= 1.013 bar
1 mmHg = 1 torr
Energy Power
1 hp = 746 W = 550 ft lb s
-1

Magnetism
1 J = 10
7
erg = 0.239 cal
1 kW.h = 3.6x10
6
J
1 eV = 1.6x10
-19
J
1 T = 10
4
gauss = 1 Wb m
-2

Basic quantity and Derived quantity :

1. Physical quantities are classified in to 2 types : Basic quantity and Derived quantity.

3. Basic Quantity :
A basic quantity (also known as base quantity or fundamental quantity) is a quantity
which cannot be derived from any other quantities.

Table below shows all the basic quantities :

Physical Quantity SI unit Symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Electric Current
Amount of Substance
Luminous Intensity
meter, m
kilogram, kg
second, s
kelvin, K
ampere, A
mol
candela, cd
l
m
t
T
I
n
I

4. Derived Quantity :
A derived quantity is a quantity that is derived from the combination of several basic
quantities by multiplication, division, differentiation or integration (according to defining
equation).

Table below shows some examples of derived quantities :
Derived
Quantity
Defining
Equation
Unit Name
Unit
Symbol
Unit Expressed
by Basic Units
Velocity v = s / t
meter per
second
m s
-1
m s
-1

Acceleration a = v / t
Meter per
second
persecond
m s
-2
m s
-2

Work W = Fs joule J kg m
2
s
-2

Force F = ma newton N kg m s
-2

Pressure p = F / A pascal Pa kg m
-1
s
-2

Energy E = Fs joule J kg m
2
s
-2

Power P = E / t watt W kg m
2
s
-3

Frequency f = 1 / T hertz Hz s
-1

Electric Charge Q = It coulomb C A s
Voltage V = E / Q volt V kg m
2
s
-3
A
-1

Resistance R = V / I ohm kg m
2
s
-3
A
-2

Note : Some ranges in physical studies.


Dimensions :

1. A new quantity can be derived from 2 or more basic quantities. These basic quantities
are combined in some specified way such as addition, subtraction, multiplication or
division.

2. The dimensions of a physical quantity indicate the way it is related to the basic
quantities. Usually, the dimension of a physical quantity is shown as [X].

Basic Quantity Dimensions Symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Electric Current
[ l ]
[ m]
[ t ]
[ T ]
[ I ]
L
M
T

I

3. In mechanics, a physical quantity is normally involved with only mass, length and time.
Hence, its dimensions can be expressed in the following way :
[X] = M
x
L
y
T
z
where x, y and z are dimensionless constant.

4. Some physical quantities may have no dimensions (dimensionless quantity).

5. Applications (uses) of Dimensions :
a) To check the homogeneity of an equation (an equation is homogeneous if the
dimension on both sides of the equation and all parts at right side are equal).
b) To construct an equation with the given quantities.
c) To determined the dimensions as well as the SI unit for certain unknown
constants.

Technique 1 : Checking The Homogeneity of an Equation
(Zahidi, 2008)

Step Technique Explanation
1 Part division of right side.
Divide the right of the equation into several parts if it
involves the additional and/or subtraction operations
(N operations N + 1 parts).
2
Dimensional check up for every
part.
Check the dimensions of every part at the right side
of the equation separately.
3
Dimensional check up for the
left side.
The left side of the equation is normally a quantity
and called the main quantity. Check the dimensions
of this main quantity
4 Dimensional Comparison.
Compare the dimensions of the main quantity (left
side) with the dimensions of all parts of the right sides
of the equation (compare step 2 with step 3).
5 Conclusion (determination).
The equation is homogeneous if the dimension on
both sides of the equation and all parts at right side
are the same and vise versa.

Technique 2 : Constructing a Physical Equation
(Zahidi, 2003)

1 Factors identification.
Identify all physical quantities (factors) that might be
considered to be related to the main physical
quantity.
2 Proportional relationship.
Write a directly proportional relationship between the
main quantity and the product of all the factors.
3 Power factor.
Insert the power factor (dimensionless constant) to all
the factors (such as x, y, z ect.)
4
Conversion into mathematical
relationship (raw equation).
Convert the proportional relationship to the form of
mathematical equation ( =) by inserting a
constant, k (normally dimensionless). This is actually
the form of equation needed to achieve.
5
Dimensional determination of
main quantity and all factors.
Determine the dimension of the main quantity (left
side) as well as all the factors involved (right side). If
the number of dimensions is unbalanced (normally
for the main quantity), insert new dimensions with
power factor of 0 (mathematical concept).
6 Distribution
Distribute the equation into smaller parts involving
identical dimensions to determine the value of the
power factor.
7
Substitution into the raw
equation.
Substitute all the values of power factor to its factors
respectively.
8 Simplification of the equation. Rewrite (reform) the equation into the simplest form.


Contextual example : Constructing equation of the period, T of oscillation of a
simple pendulum.

The period of oscillation, T of a simple pendulum is said to be
influenced by mass, m, length of string, L and the acceleration
due to gravity, g.

1. Main quantity : T
Factors : m, L, g

2. T m L g

3. T m
x
L
y
g
z

4. T = k m
x
L
y
g
z

5. [ T ] = [ k ] [ m

]
x
[L

]
y
[ g ]
z

(T)
1
= (1) (M)
x
(L)
y
(LT
-2
)
z

(T)
1
= (M)
x
(L)
y
(L)
z
(T
-2z
)
(T)
1
= (M)
x
(L
y +z
) (T
-2z
)
(T)
1
(M)
0
(L)
0
= (M)
x
(L
y +z
) (T
-2z
)

6. Dimensions of time :
T
1
= T
-2z
z = -1/2
Dimensions of mass :
M
0
= M
x
x = 0
This means mass does not affected the period.
Dimensions of length :
L
0
= L
y +z
y + z = 0
y + (-1/2) = 0
y =
7. T = k L
1/2
g
-1/2

8. The equation is T = k
g
L

Note : The value of k just only be determined through
experimental way.

The actual equation of the period of oscillation of a
simple pendulum is :
T = 2
g
L

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Technique 3 : Determination of Dimensions and SI unit of a Constant
(Zahidi, 2003)

1 Identification of the constant. Identify the constant of unidentified dimensions.
2 Reformation of equation.
Reform the involved equation. Let the unknown
quantity to be the main quantity (left side equation).
3 Dimension the equation.
Dimensions the both sides of the equation.
Determine the dimensions of the right equation. If the
equation consists of additional or subtraction
operation of several parts, dont add or subtract the
dimensions of all the parts, whereas the dimensions
of all the parts are equal!. However, dimensions can
be multiplied and divided.
4 Determination of dimensions.
The dimensions of the quantity is now equal to the
dimensions of the right side of the equation.
5 Determination of SI unit.
The SI unit of the unknown quantity can be derived
based on the dimensions.

Contextual example : Determining the dimensions and SI unit of the coefficient of
viscosity.

According to Stokes law (discussed in chapter 13 later), the speed of a sphere through a
liquid is given by :
v =
9
)g ( 2r
2

where r = radius of the sphere.
= density of the sphere.
= density of the liquid.
= coefficient of viscosity (a constant).
g = acceleration due to gravity.

1. The unknown constant = .
2. =
9v
g 2r
9v
g 2r
2 2

3. [ ] =
9v
g 2r
9v
g 2r
2 2

Then, it can be simplified as [ ] =
9v
g 2r
2
or [ ] =
9v
g 2r
2
, either one.
Then, [ ] =
[9][v]
[][g [2][r]
2
=
) LT )( 1 (
) LT )( ML ( ) L )( 1 (
1
2 3 2

4. Then, the dimension of is M L
-1
T
-1

5. Then, the SI unit of is kg m
-1
s
-1
.

Scalar and Vector Quantity :

1. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude only and has no direction.

2. A vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

Table below shows some examples of scalar and vector quantities :
Scalar quantities Vector quantities
Distance, Length
Speed
Mass,
Inertia, Moment of
Inertia
Area, Volume
Density
Time, Period,
Frequency
Temperature
Heat, Energy, Photon
Intensity
Work
Power
Charge
Electric Current
Voltage, e.m.f
Resistance
Capacitance
Capacitive Reactance
Inductance
Inductive Reactance
Impedance
All constant
Displacement
Velocity
Weight, Tension, Force
Acceleration
Momentum
Impulse
Pressure
Gravitational Field
Electric Field
Magnetic Filed

3. A vector quantity can be labeled by writing :

a) a bold-faced type letter (X), or
b) a normal letter with an overhead arrow ( X
r
)

The magnitude of a vector can be labeled by writing :

a) a plain italic letter, X or
b) | X |

A vector quantity can be represented graphically as an arrow (directed line).

The length OP = Magnitude of vector A.
The angle = Angle that indicates the direction
of vector A with x-axis.

O
P

A
Vector Operations

1. There are three (3) mathematical operations involving 2 or more vectors :
a) Additional.
b) Subtraction.
c) Products.

2. Every operation can be solved by using 2 general methods :
a) Graphical method (scaled diagram).
b) Mathematical method (vector resolution).

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors :

1. Consider two vectors, A and B as follow :

Note :
Negative vector means the vector of the same magnitude (same length of the
arrow) but directed opposite to that of its original vector.

2. Graphical Method :
Vector A and B can be added or subtracted graphically by using the following methods :

a) Parallelogram Method :
The resultant vector is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram (with
proper scale).

R
1
= A + B R
2
= A B = A + (-B)

Note :
Make sure the tip of vector A and B (and all individual vectors) is
concentrated at the same point (origin).

b) Tip to Tail (poligon) Method :
The resultant vector is represented by an arrow which is connecting the tip of the
first vector to the tail of the last vector.

R
1
= A + B R
2
= A B = A + (-B)

Note :
Make sure the tail of the 1
st
vector is connected to the tip of the 2
nd
vector
and so on.
A
B
A
B
- A
- B
A
-B
R
2

R
1

A
B
A
-B
R
2

R
1

Note : Example of Tip to Tail Method.

The rules of vector addition operation :
Rules Formula
Commutative A + B = B + A
Associative (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Distributive n(A + B) = nA + nB

Example : Commutative Rule

B
A
A + B
B
A
B + A
Example : Associative Rule

Example : Distributive Rule

3. Mathematical Method :
Vector A and B also can be added or subtracted by using vector resolution. Basically, a
vector can be resolved into its components in two ways :

a) Components in the x, y, z axes.
Resolving Vector Into 2 Perpendicular Components :

A = A
x
+ A
y

where mathematically the magnitude of
the resolved vector :
| A
x
| = | A | cos
| A
y
| = | A | sin

with is called resolved angle
upon x-axis.

and mathematically the magnitude of
the resultant vector :

| A | =
2
| |
y
2
x
A | | A +
with = tan
-1
|
|
\
|
| A |
| A |
x
y

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B
(A + B)
C (A + B)
(A + B) + C
B
(B + C)
C
A
A
A + (B + C)
(B + C)
B
1.5 (A + B)
A
1.5B
(1.5A + 1.5B)
1.5A
(A + B)
Resolution of vectors in each quadrant :

Quadrant x-component y-component
I A
x
= A cos
1
A
y
= A sin
1

II B
x
= -B cos
2
= B cos(180
o
-
2
) B
y
= B sin
2
= B sin(180
o
-
2
)
III C
x
= -C cos
3
= C cos(180
o
+
3
) C
y
= -C sin
3
=

C sin(180
o
+
3
)
IV D
x
= D cos
4
= C cos(360
o
-
4
) D
y
= -D sin
4
= C sin(360
o
-
4
)

b) Components in the i, j, k unit vectors.
A vector quantity A can also represented by an identical vector as follows :

A = A
x
i + A
y
j ( 2D )
Or A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k ( 3D )

where i, j dan k are called as the unit vector.

Note :
All unit vectors have magnitude equal to 1 and direction as follows :
a) i in the positive x direction.
b) j in the positive y direction.
c) k in the positive z direction.

Relationship between vector components and identical vectors :
A
x
= A
x
i
A
y
= A
y
j
A
z
= A
z
k

x
y
1

2

4

3

A
B
C D

i
j
A
x

A
y

Two (2) vector are easier to be added as well as to be subtracted by expressing in
their unit vector as follows :

If A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k
and B = B
x
i + B
y
j + B
z
k

then :

A + B = (A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k) + (B
x
i + B
y
j + B
z
k)
= (A
x
+ B
x
)i + (A
y
+ B
y
)j + (A
z
+ B
z
)k

A - B = (A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k) - (B
x
i + B
y
j + B
z
k)
= (A
x
- B
x
)i + (A
y
- B
y
)j + (A
z
- B
z
)k

Vector Products

1. There are two (2) types of vector product :
a) Scalar product.
b) Vector product.

2. Scalar ( or Dot ) Product :
= Multiplication of a vector by the same or other vector, as a result of which produces a
scalar.

A B = (A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k) (B
x
i + B
y
j + B
z
k)
= (A
x
B
x
) + (A
y
B
y
) + (A
z
B
z
)

The product also can be written as :

A B = | A || B | cos
AB
; where
AB
= angle between A and B

Note : The scalar product is commutative :
A B = B A

Contextual Examples : Work, W = F s

3. Vector ( or Cross ) Product :
= Multiplication of a vector by the same or other vector, as a result of which produces a
new vector.

A x B =
z y x
z y x
B B B
A A A
k j i

= (A
y
B
z
B
y
A
z
)i (A
x
B
z
B
x
A
z
)j + (A
x
B
y
B
x
A
y
)k

The product also can be written as :

A x B = | A || B | sin
AB
; where
AB
= angle between A and B

The direction of the vector product can be determined by two ways :
a) Right Hand Rule.
b) Corkscrew Rule.


A
(1
st
Vector)
B
(2
nd
Vector)
A x B
(Vector Product)

Right Hand Rule :

A (First Vector) Direction of First Finger
B (Second Vector) Direction of Second Finger
Vector Product Direction of Thumb

Corkscrew Rule :

Note : The vector product is not commutative :
A x B = -B x A

Contextual Examples : Torque, = r X F
Magnetic Force, F = qv X B

| Examples | Chapter 1 | Physical Quantities and Measurements |

Unit Conversion :

Example 1 :

What is the difference between 1 m s
-1
and 1 ms
-1

Answer :

a) 1 m s
-1
is 1 meter per second.

meter

b) 1 ms
-1
is 1 per milisecond.

mili

Example 2 :

What is the difference between m and m

Answer :

a) m represents meter (unit of length)
b) m represents mass (symbol of mass)

Example 3 :

By using SI unit, explain the physical meaning of the following statements :

a) A motor works at rate 1.61 hp.
b) A man has weight of 143 lbs.
c) An F1 car has maximum speed of 218 miles per hour (mph).

Answer :

a) P = 1.61(746 W) = 1200 W.
b) W = N
2248 . 0
143
|
\
|
= 636.12 N (contributed by mass, m = 65 kg)
c) v = 218 mi per hour =
hour 1
mi 218
=
s 3600
) m 10 x 609 . 1 ( 218
3
= 97.43 m s
-1
.

Example 4 :

Complete the following unit conversion :
a) 5 cm km
b) 0.5 mm
2
cm
2

c) 50 um
3
mm
3

Answer :

a) 5 cm =
|
|
\
|
km 1
km 1
x cm 5 =
|
|
\
|
m 10 x 1
km 1
x m 10 x 5
3
2
= 5 x10
-5
km

b) 0.5mm
2
= (0.5 mm)(1 mm)
= (0.5 x10
-3
m) (1 x10
-3
m)
= 5 x10
-7
m
2

= 5 x10
-7
m
2
x
|
|
\
|
2
2
cm 1
cm 1

= 5 x10
-7
m
2
x
|
|
\
|
) cm 1 )( cm 1 (
cm 1
2

= 5 x10
-7
m
2
x
|
|
\
|

) m 10 x 1 )( m 10 x 1 (
cm 1
2 2
2
= 5 x10
-3
cm
2

c) 50um
3
= (50 um)(1um)(1um)
= (50 x10
-6
m)(1 x10
-6
m) (1 x10
-6
m)
= 5 x10
-17
m
3

= 5 x10
-17
m
3
x
|
|
\
|
3
3
mm 1
mm 1

= 5 x10
-17
m
3
x
|
|
\
|
) mm 1 )( mm 1 )( mm 1 (
mm 1
3

= 5 x10
-17
m
3
x
|
|
\
|

) m 10 x 1 )( m 10 x 1 )( m 10 x 1 (
mm 1
3 3 3
3
= 5 x10
-8
mm
3

Dimension :

Example 1 :

Which of the following equations is dimensionally homogenous?
a) s = ut + at
b) s = ut + at
2
c) s = 2ut + at
2

Answer :

a) The equation is dimensionally homogenous if :
[ s ] = [ ut ] = [ at ]

Then :
[ s ] = L
[ ut ] = [ u ][ t ] = (LT
-1
)(T) = L
[ at ] = [ ][ a ][ t ] = (1)(LT
-2
)(T) = LT
-1

Since [ s ] = [ ut ] [ at ] The equation is not homogenous (physically invalid).

b) The equation is dimensionally homogenous if :
[ s ] = [ ut ] = [ at
2
]

Then :
[ s ] = L
[ ut ] = [ u ][ t ] = (LT
-1
)(T) = L
[ at
2
] = [ ][ a ][ t ]
2
= (1)(LT
-2
)(T)
2
= L

Since [ s ] = [ ut ] = [ at
2
] The equation is homogenous (and physically valid).

c) The equation is dimensionally homogenous if :
[ s ] = [ 2ut ] = [ at
2
]

Then :
[ s ] = L
[ 2ut ] = [ 2 ][ u ][ t ] = (1)(LT
-1
)(T) = L
[ at
2
] = [ a ][ t ]
2
= (LT
-2
)(T)
2
= L

Since [ s ] = [ ut ] = [ at
2
] The equation is homogenous (but physically invalid).

Note :
- Any equation which is not homogenous definitely invalid physically.
- A homogenous equation however is not necessary physically valid.
- The validity of a homogenous equation can only be determine experimentally.

Example 2 :
Using dimensional analysis, derive an expression for the gravitational force, F of an object which
shows how F is related to the mass, m of the object, the mass, M of the earth and the distance, r
between the centre of both masses.

Example 3 :

The rate of heat flow along a 1D metal rod is given by :

t
Q
= - ) T (T
x
kA
i f

where A = area of cross sectional of the metal rod.
T
f
= temperature at the cold end.
T
i
= temperature at the hot end.
x = length of the rod.
k = thermal conductivity of the metal.

a) Determine the dimensional expression of k.
b) Determine the SI unit of k.


Vector Resolution :

Example 1 :

Two forces act upon a body at a point O as shown in FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

a) Resolve these forces along the y-axis and x-axis respectively.
b) Determine :
i) the sum of both components.
ii) the resultant force (including magnitude and direction) of the system.

Answer :

a) x-component :
A
x
= +A cos
1
= 10 cos(90 25)
o
= 4.23 N
B
x
= -B cos
2
= 30 cos(15
o
) = -28.98 N

y-component :
A
y
= +A sin
1
= 10 sin(90 25)
o
= 9.06 N
B
y
= +B sin
2
= 30 sin(15
o
) = 7.76 N

b) i) Sum of x-component, F
x
= 4.23 + (-28.98) = -24.75 N
Sum of y-component, F
y
= 9.06 + 7.76 = 16.82 N

Note :
- Question (a) and (b) actually can be simplified using a tabling method as follow :

Vector x-component y-component
A
B
A
x
= +A cos
1
= 10 cos(90 25)
o
= 4.23 N
B
x
= -B cos
2
= -30 cos(15
o
) = -28.98 N
A
y
= +A sin
1
= 10 sin(90 25)
o
= 9.06 N
B
y
= +B sin
2
= 30 sin(15
o
) = 7.76 N
F
x
= -24.75 N F
y
= 16.82 N

ii) Resultant force, | F | = ( ) ( )
2
y
2
x
F F

+ = ( ) ( )
2 2
82 . 16 75 . 24 + = 29.92 N
Angle, = tan
-1
|
|
|
\
|
x
y
F
F
= tan
-1
|
\
|
75 . 24
82 . 16
= -34.20
o
(quadrant II)

y
x
A = 10N
B = 30N
25
0

15
0

O

Or graphically presented as follow :

Example 2 :

Two vectors A and B respectively can be represented as follow :
A = 5i - 6j + 7k
B = 2i + 3j - 4k

Calculate :

a) A + B
b) A - B
c) m(A + B) ; where m = 3
d) (A - B) ; where m = 3
m
e) A B and what do you think if B A
f) A X B and what do you think if B X A
g) angle between A and B

Answer :

a) A + B = ( 5i - 6j + 7k ) b) A - B = A + (-B) = ( 5i - 6j + 7k )
+ ( 2i + 3j - 4k ) + ( -2i - 3j + 4k )

7i - 3j + 3k 3i - 9j + 11k

c) Based in question (a) : 3(A + B) = 3 ( 7i - 3j + 3k )
= 21i - 9j + 9k

d) Based in question (a) :
( )
3
B A +
= ) B A (
3
1
+ =
3
1
( 7i - 3j + 3k )
=
3
7
i - j + k

e) A B = ( 5i - 6j + 7k ) B A = ( 2i + 3j - 4k )
( 2i + 3j - 4k ) ( 5i - 6j + 7k )
= [10( ii)] + [-18( jj)] + [-28(kk)] = [10( ii)] + [-18( jj)] + [-28(kk)]
= [10(1)] + [-18(1)] + [-28(1)] = [10(1)] + [-18(1)] + [-28(1)]
= -36 = -36

It shows that A B = B A

y
x
F = 29.92 N
34.2
0

O
Fy = 16.82 N
Fx = 24.75 N
f) A X B =
4 3 2
7 6 5
k j i

= [(-6)(-4) (3)(7)] i - [(5)(-4) (2)(7)] j + [(5)(3) (2)(-6)] k

= [(-24) (21)] i - [(-20) (14)] j + [(15) (-12)] k
= 3i - 34j + 33k

B X A =
7 6 5
4 3 2
k j i

= [(3)(7) (-6)(-4)] i - [(2)(7) (5)(-4)] j + [(2)(-6) (5)(3)] k

= [(21) (24)] i - [(14) (-20)] j + [(-12) (15)] k
= -3i + 34j - 33k

It shows that A X B = -( B X A)

g) Based on equation | A B | = |A||B|cos

= cos
-1
B A
| B A |

= cos
-1
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
+ +

2 2 2 2 2 2
) 4 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 7 ( ) 6 ( ) 5 (
36

= cos
-1

) 39 . 5 )( 49 . 10 (
36
= = cos
-1
(0.637)
= 129.57
o

Example 3 :

Three vectors A, B and C respectively can be represented as follow :
A = 5i - 6j + 7k
B = 2i + 3j - 4k
C = 3i - 2k

Show that :
a) A + B = B + A to obey the comutative rule.
b) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) to obey the associative rule.
c) 2(A + B) = 2A + 2B to obey the distributive rule.

Answer :

a) A + B = ( 5i - 6j + 7k ) B + A = ( 2i + 3j - 4k )
+ ( 2i + 3j - 4k ) + ( 5i - 6j + 7k )

7i - 3j + 3k 7i - 3j + 3k

It shows that the comutative rule is obeyed.

b) Based on equation (a) :
A + B = 7i - 3j + 3k
Then, (A + B) + C = ( 7i - 3j + 3k ) + ( 3i + 0j - 2k ) = 10i - 3j + k

B + C = ( 2i + 3j - 4k ) + ( 3i + 0j - 2k ) = 5i + 3j - 6k
Then, A + ( B + C ) = (5i - 6j + 7k) + (5i + 3j - 6k) = 10i - 3j + k

It shows that the associative rule is obeyed.

c) Based on question (a) :
A + B = 7i - 3j + 3k
Then, 2(A + B) = 2(7i - 3j + 3k) = 14i - 6j + 6k

2A + 2B = 2( 5i - 6j + 7k ) + 2( 2i + 3j - 4k)
= ( 10i - 12j + 14k) + ( 4i + 6j - 8k) = 14i - 6j + 6k

It shows that the distributive rule is obeyed.

Example 4 :

Two vectors A and B respectively can be represented as follow :
A = 20 unit (directed eastwards)
B = 15 unit (directed north-westwards)

Determine (by using resolved vectors into axes and unit vector) :
a) A + B
b) A B
f) A X B

Answer :

The vectors can be presented graphically as follow.

a) Method 1 : Resolved into axes :

Vector x-component y-component
A
B
A
x
= +A cos
1
= 20 cos0
o
= 20.0 unit
B
x
= -B cos
2
= -15 cos(45
o
) = -10.61 unit
A
y
= +A sin
1
= 20 sin0
o
= 0
B
y
= +B sin
2
= 15 sin(45
o
) = 10.61 unit
Sum 9.39 unit 10.61 unit

Hence, A + B = Resultant vector = ( ) ( )
2 2
61 . 10 39 . 9 + = 14.17 unit
Angle, = tan
-1
|
\
|
39 . 9
61 . 10
= 48.49
o
(quadrant I)

x
A = 20 unit
B = 15 unit
45
0

O
y
Method 2 : Unit vector :

From the table, the vectors can be written as :

A = 20i + 0j + 0k
B = -10.61i + 10.61j + 0k

Hence, A + B = ( 20i + 0j + 0k) + ( -10.61i + 10.61j + 0k ) = 9.39i + 10.61j + 0k

with the magnitude, A + B = ( ) ( )
2 2
61 . 10 39 . 9 + = 14.17 unit
and angle, = tan
-1
|
\
|
39 . 9
61 . 10
= 48.49
o
(quadrant I)

b) Method 1 : Resolved into axes :

Angle between A and B = 180
o
45
o
= 135
o
.

Hence, A B = A B cos = (20)(15)cos(135) = -212.13 unit


A B = ( 20i + 0j + 0k ) ( -10.16i + 10.61j + 0k )
= [-101.6( ii)] + [0( jj)] + [0(kk)]
= -212.13 unit

c) Method 1 : Resolved into axes :

Angle between A and B = 180
o
45
o
= 135
o
.

Hence, A X B = A B sin = (20)(15)sin(135) = 212.13 unit
Direction :
Based on above figure, and by using right hand rule or corkscrew rule outwards the plane.
positive z axis.


A X B =
0 61 . 10 61 . 10
0 0 20
k j i

= [0] i - [0] j + [(20)(10.61) (0)] k

= 0 i - 0 j + 212.13 k
= 212.13k (magnitude = 212.13 unit, direction = positive z axis)

MEASUREMENT & UNCERTAINTY
(This topic is being discussed during practical session)

1.0 Introduction :

Measurements are trials to determine the actual value of a particular physical quantity. The
difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement is called
error.

To measure is to make an acceptable estimate. A suitable and even the best measuring
instrument (apparatus) must be determined to be used.

2.0 Properties of Measurement :

A measurement depends on following properties :

1. Accuracy of the apparatus.
= An ability of the apparatus to give readings close (or almost equal) to the actual
value of a quantity.

2. Sensitivity of the apparatus.
= An ability of the apparatus to respond (or to detect) a small change in the value of a
measurement.

3. Consistency of the apparatus.
= An ability of the apparatus to register the same (almost the same) reading when a
measurement is repeated.

High consistency Small deviation from the mean value.
Example :

Equipment Range Sensitivity
Metre ruler (0.0 - 100.0)cm 1mm
Vernier caliper (0.0 150.0)mm 0.1mm
Micrometer screw gauge (0.00 25.00)mm 0.01mm
Spherometer (0.00 7.00)mm 0.01mm
Length
Traveling microscope (0.00 220.00)mm 0.01mm
Stop watch (analog) (0.0 900.0)s 0.1s
Time
Timer (0.000000 100.000000)s 0.000001s

The use of Range of a measuring apparatus :
To determine the suitable apparatus can be used to measure a reading. An apparatus is suitable
to measure a reading if the range is grater than the sample.

Example :
The suitable apparatus to measure the thickness of a reference book are metre ruler, vernier
calipers and micrometer screw gauge.

The use of Sensitivity of a measuring apparatus :
To determine the best apparatus can be used to measure a reading. An apparatus is the best
apparatus if it has the smallest division of the scale.

Example :
The best apparatus to measure the thickness of a reference book is micrometer screw gauge.

0 5 10 15 20
mm
0
45
0.01mm
1
2
0 5 10 15 20
mm 25
20
0.01mm
1
2
2.1 Taking reading skill :

1. Vernier caliper :

Example :

Main scale = 1.1 cm
Vernier scale = 0.04 cm (i.e. 4 x 0.01 cm)
Actual reading = 1.14 cm

2. Micrometer screw gauge :

Example :

Main scale = 11.0 mm
Vernier scale = 0.48 mm (i.e. 48 x 0.01 mm)
Actual reading = 11.48 mm

Example :

Main scale = 7.5 mm

0 1 2
cm
3
0.01cm
1
2


7
0
-7
2
1
mm
0.01mm
30
0
10
20
40
50
60
70
80
90

7
0
-7
1
mm
0.01mm
20
0
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2
3. Spherometer :

Example :

Main scale = 3.0 mm (upwards)
Actual reading = 3.27 mm (height)

Example :

Main scale = - 4.0 mm (downwards)
Vernier scale = - 0.87 mm (opposite direction)
Actual reading = - 4.87
= 4.87 mm ( -ve = depth)

4. Traveling microscope :

Example :

Main scale = 7.1 cm = 71.0 mm
Vernier scale = 0.41 mm

Example :

Main scale = 7.25 cm = 72.5 mm
Vernier scale = 0.21 mm (lower scale)

OR Main scale = 7.20 cm = 72.0 mm
Vernier scale = 0.71 mm (upper scale)

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5
.6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
0.01mm
7
8 9
cm
1
2
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5
.6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
0.01mm
7
8 9
cm
1
2
3.0 Error :

There is no such thing as a perfect measurement! All measurements have errors and
uncertainties, no matter how hard we might try to minimize them. Error and uncertainty in a
measurement can arise from three possible origins: the measuring device, the environment and
the observer. Basically, there are two different types of errors : SYSTEMATIC ERROR &
RANDOM ERROR

Systematic Error
Characteristics
The reading is always bias in one specific direction
(greater / less than the actual value).
Sources
Device
1. Zero error.
2. Fault in the device
(metal expands when
the temperature
increases).
Environment
1. Gravity is not a
constant.
2. Uniform air
resistance
Observer
1. Reaction varies from
one person to
another :
- reaction time.
- short / long-signed.
Precaution Use perfect device.
1. Use correct value of
gravity.
2. Create a closed
system.
1. Reaction almost
constant for a
particular person
(carry out carefully).

Random Error
Characteristics
The reading is unbiased
(can be greater / can be less than the actual value).
Sources
Device
1. Quivering pointer
(ammeter, voltmeter).

Environment
1. Changes in the
surrounding during
experiment).
Observer
1. Parallax error.
2. Wrong count
(number of
oscillation).
Precaution
Taking several precise readings
and then calculate the mean.

The way to overcome the zero error :

- Actual reading = (Final reading zero error)

- Value of zero error = difference value between 0 and the initial reading.
- Sign of zero error :
+ve (if initial reading is greater than 0).
-ve (if initial reading is less than 0).
Example :

Zero error = 0.02mm Zero error = + 0.04mm
Then, actual reading : Then, actual reading :
= (Final reading ( 0.02))mm = (Final reading ( + 0.04))mm
= (Final reading + 0.02))mm = (Final reading 0.04))mm
0 5 10 15 20
mm
0
45
0.01mm
0 5 10 15 20
mm
5
0
0.01mm
4.0 Significant Figure / Digit :

The number of significant figures in the measurement of a physical quantity :
= the number of digits before the estimated digit + the estimated digit itself.

Example :
By using vernier caliper, the diameter of a marker pen is recorded as, d = ( 2.74 + 0.01) cm.

The degree of precision that a measured value possesses in a number of significant figures
carries by the value. The most significant figures a value carries, the higher is the degree of
precision.

There are several rules which detail how many significant figures a number has :

1. All non-zero digits are significant.
(e.g. 3.12 has 3 s.f., 45.229 has 5 s.f.)
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
(e.g. 3.012 has 4 s.f., 45.0009 has 6 s.f.)
3. Zeros beyond the decimal point at the end of a number are significant.
(e.g. 3.340 has 4 s.f.)
4. Zeros preceding the first non-zero digit are not significant. There are merely
placeholders.
(e.g., 0.0034 has only 2 s.f.)
5. Digits in the exponent in exponential notation are not significant.
(e.g. 1.34 x10
7
has 3 s.f. (1.34) not 4)

Processing significant figures :
(a) Additional and subtraction :
When two or more measured values are added and/ or subtracted, the final calculated
value must have the same number of decimal places as that measured value which has
the least number of decimal places.
Example :
2.345 cm + 1.25 cm = 3.595 cm 3.60 cm.

(b) Multiplication and division :
When two or more measured values are multiplied/ divided, the final calculated value
must have as many significant figures as that measured value which has the least
number of significant figures.
Example :
2.345 cm X 1.25 cm = 2.93125 cm
2
2.93 cm
2

Note : Sometimes, the final answer may be obtained only after performing several intermediate
calculations. In this case results produced in intermediate calculations need not be
rounded off. Round off only the final answer. Rounded off values too early may result in
greater cumulative errors.

Two digit before the
estimated digit
One estimated digit
(i.e. digit 4)
Number of significant
figures = (2+1) = 3
5.0 Uncertainty :

In an experiment, measuring a physical quantity is important but not all measured values are
exactly same as the actual values. It is because of errors we made and the apparatus we used
may not in perfect conditions. Therefore, the uncertainty of a measurement must been taken, so
that the information about the accuracy of a measurement can be obtained and it has to be
recorded together with the result of the experiment.

For a quantity (best value), x with the uncertainty, x, its measurement is recorded as below:
- relative uncertainty =
x
x

- percentage uncertainty =
x
x
x100%.

The result should be written as (x + x) unit.

Basically, there are four different types of uncertainty:

1. Uncertainty in a single reading.
2. Uncertainty in repeated readings.
3. Uncertainty in a straight line graph.
4. Uncertainty in a function.

a) Single reading :

o If the reading is taken from a single point or at the end of the scale we used :
x = x (the smallest division from the scale).

o If the reading are taken from two points on the scale :
x = 2 x x (the smallest division from the scale).

o If the apparatus is using the vernier scale :
x = 1 x (the smallest division from the scale).

Equipment
/ apparatus
Type of
reading
Smallest
scale
Example
of reading
Thermometer
Metre ruler
Stopwatch
Micrometer screw gauge
Vernier caliper
Timer
Single point
Two points
Two points
Vernier scale
Vernier scale
Vernier scale
0.1
o
C
0.1cm
0.1s
0.01mm
0.1mm
0.000001s
(37.50 + 0.05)
o
C
(24.0 + 0.1)cm
(23.9 + 0.1)s
(2.43 + 0.01)mm
(2.4 + 0.1)mm
(23.972659 + 0.000001)s

b) Repeated reading :

For a set of n repeated measurements, the best value is their average value.
<x> =
n
x
n
1 i
i
=
, x =
n
| x x |
n
1 i
i
=
> <

Example :

No Time (+ 0.1s)
1
2
3
10.3
10.1
10.4
Best value (mean), <t> =
3
4 . 10 1 . 10 3 . 10 + +
= 10.26667s = 10.3s
Uncertainty t =
3
| 4 . 10 3 . 10 | | 1 . 10 3 . 10 | | 3 . 10 3 . 10 I + +
= 0.1s
The result, t = (10.3 + 0.1)s

c) Straight line graph :

When plotting a straight line graph, the line always does not pass through all the points.
Therefore it is important to determine the uncertainties m and c for the gradient of the
graph, m and the y-interception respectively.

Method to determine m and c :

- Consider the data obtained are :

X x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
1
x
1
x
n

Y y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
y
5
x
1
x
1
y
n

- Find the centroid, ( ) y , x :
x =
n
x
n
1 i
i
=
, y =
n
y
n
1 i
i
=

- Draw the best straight line through all the point and the centroid.

- Draw the second and third straight lines to obtain the maximum and minimum
gradients. Hence :

m =
2
m m
min max

and c =
2
c c
min max

. .
y
x
centroid
m
m
max

m
min

c
max

c
min

c
d) Functions :

Basically, the uncertainty for any function is represented by a formula as follow :
If the function is r = f(x,y,z,) then the uncertainty :
r = z
dz
dr
y
dy
dr
x
dx
dr
+ +

Function Best Value Uncertainty
Addition / subtraction r = x + y + z r = x + y + z
Multiplication with constant k r = kx r = kx
Multiplication / division r =
z
xy
r = r
z
z
y
y
x
x
|
|
\
|
+

Index r = x
n
r = n r
x
x
|
\
|


Example :
If the function is g =
2
mt 2
1

Then, the uncertainty :
g = f(m,t)
g = t
dt
dg
m
dm
dg
+ ..(i)

dm
dg
= ) g (
dm
d

dt
dg
= ) g (
dt
d

=
|
|
\
|
2
mt 2
1
dm
d
=
|
|
\
|
2
mt 2
1
dt
d

= ) m (
dm
d
t 2
1
1
2

|
|
\
|
= ) t (
dt
d
m 2
1
2
|
\
|

= ) m (
t 2
1
2
2

|
|
\
|
= ) t 2 (
m 2
1
3
|
\
|

= -
|
|
\
|
2 2
m t 2
1
..(ii) = -
|
|
\
|
m t
1
3
..(iii)

Substitute (ii) and (iii) into (i), we obtain :
g = m
m t 2
1
2 2

|
|
\
|
+ t
m t
1
3

|
|
\
|

Or g =
m
m
m t 2
1
2

|
|
\
|
+
t
t
m t
1
2
2
2

|
|
\
|

g =
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+
m t 2
1
t
t
2
m
m
2

g = g
t
t
2
m
m
|
\
|
+

Lecture Note 1 - 1

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| Chapter 1 | PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS | Page 1

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