Tai Lieu DCCT

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s
Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An
CHNG I :
M U
I.1. a cht cng trnh v nhim v ca n I.1.1 nh ngha : a cht cng trnh l mn hc nghin cu iu kin a cht xy dng cc cng trnh khc nhau v a vo s dng c hiu qu v n nh. Cc iu kin CCT 1. iu kin a mo. 2. iu kin cu trc a cht 3. iu kin cc tc ng a cht 4. iu kin a cht thy vn 5. iu kin vt liu xy dng.
I.1.2
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Nhim v ca a cht cng trnh :
Xc nh cc iu kin a cht ca khu vc xy dng, so snh, la chn v tr thch hp cho cng trnh. Nu ln cc iu kin thi cng, d on cc hin tng a cht c th xy ra khi thi cng hay s dng cng trnh. ra cc bin php phng nga v ci to cc iu kin a cht khng c li cho cng trnh. Cho bit kh nng cung cp vt liu xy dng ti a phng phc v cho xy dng cng trnh.
I.2. Ni dung ca a cht cng trnh

a cht cng trnh nghin cu nhng vn c bn sau : Nghin cu t lm nn thin nhin, mi trng v vt liu xy dng cho cc cng trnh Nghin cu cc hot ng a cht hin i (hin tng trt t, t chy, xi mn, cact, phong ha) ,tm hiu nguyn nhn pht sinh v iu kin pht trin ra bin php x l trong khi xy dng, s dng v khai thc cng trnh. Nghin cu nc di t khc phc cc kh khn do nc gy ra trong khi thit k v thi cng cc cng trnh Nghin cu cc phng php kho st CCT. Nghin cu a cht cng trnh xy dng lp quy hoch cc khu vc xy dng cc cng trnh khc nhau nh dn dng cng nghip, cu dng, cc cng trnh thy li
I.3. Phng php nghin cu a cht cng trnh

Mi mn hc c phn bit khng nhng bi i tng nghin cu m cn bi cc phng php m mn hc s dng thc hin nhim v ca n t ra. Khi nghin cu CCT ngi ta thng s dng tng hp 3 loi phng php ch yu sau y : 1. Phng php a cht hc
y l phng php quan trng nht v cho kt qu st thc nht trong vic nghin cu CCT
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Tm hiu s pht trin cc hin tng a cht trong qu kh c lin quan n s thnh to cc dng a hnh, tnh cht ca t v quy lut phn b sp xp ca n trong khu vc. T c th nh gi ng n nhng iu kin a cht ca khu vc xy dng cng trnh v d bo s thay i nhng iu kin di tc dng ca cng trnh, a cht cng trnh Khi thc hin pp ny ngoi vic phi thc hin cc cng tc khoan o vo cc tng thu thp cc ti liu v cc iu kin a cht m cn phi tin hnh th nghim trong phng v ngoi tri xc nh cc c trng c l ca t .
2. Phng php tnh ton l thuyt Lp cc phng trnh ton hc th hin bn cht vt l ca cc hin tng a cht, cc c trng vt l, c hc ca t . V khng phi lc no cng c th quan trc hay dng cc phng php thc nghim xc nh bn cht vt l c hc ca t nhng khu vc c a hnh phc tp. Pp ny c th cho kt qu nhanh chng v kh chnh xc. Ngi ta thng dng pp ny tnh ton mc n nh, ln ca cng trnh, lng nc chy vo h mng, mc n nh ca mi dc, tc ti to b 3. Phng php th nghim m hnh v tng t a cht c p dng trong trng hp lin quan n qui m ca cng trnh thit k hoc tnh cht phc tp ca iu kin a cht. Pp th nghim m hnh l lp m hnh trong phng th nghim hoc ngoi tri da trn s tng ng gia mi trng a cht t nhin ca khu vc xy dng v mi trng vt l c iu kin tng t. Pp ny gip ta nghin cu c chun xc hn cc hin tng a cht s xy ra trong qu trnh thi cng v khai thc Pp tng t a cht l s dng cc ti liu a cht ca khu vc c nghin cu y cho khu vc c iu kin a cht tng t. Pp ny c tnh cht kinh nghim da trn nguyn l t c hnh thnh trong cng iu kin, tri qua cc qu trnh a cht nh nhau th c cc c trng vt l, c hc tng t nhau.
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CHNG II : T II.1. V qu t v cc hin tng a cht din ra trong II.1.1 Cu trc bn trong ca Tri t
Qu t c hnh cu, xch o phnh ra, 2 cc hi dt i, do tc quay ca qu t quanh trc bc-nam kh ln. B mt qu t li lm bt thng, ni nh ln to thnh cc dy ni, v ni lm su to thnh cc i dng. Ni li nht l nh Chomolungma ca dy Hymalaya cao 8890m, ni lm nht l l h i dng Marian su khong 11.034m. o Kh quyn Tri t : l lp cc cht kh bao quanh hnh tinh Tri t v c gi li bi lc hp dn ca Tri t. o Thy quyn : bao gm cc bin, i dng, h, sng sui, chim b mt qu t. Ngoi ra cn nc trong cc l rng v khe nt ca t nc di t. V Tri t c chia thnh cc quyn ng tm. o Quyn ngoi cng ca qu t l quyn t , hay cn gi l v qu t, c b dy trung bnh khong 35km. quyn ny ch yu l macma ri n bin cht, trm tch. V T chim khong 1% th tch v 0.5% khi lng ca T. B dy v qu t thay i nh sau : y i dng : v qu t c b dy t 8-10km cc vng ng bng : v qu t c b dy thay i t 30-40km cc vng ni cao : v qu t c b dy thay i t 55-75km o Di l quyn manti phn b t lp v n su 2900km. Quyn ny chim 83% th tch v 67% khi lng T.Quyn manti th rn, vt cht l cc dng hp cht oxit silic, oxit mangan v oxit st. Manti c phn ra 2 loi nh sau : Manti trn : phn b t lp v qu t n su 800km, y chnh l ngun nhit ln bn trong ca v qu t do lng nguyn t phng x phn hy ln. Manti di : phn b su t 800-2900km, do lp vt cht ny phn b su v trng thi nn cht nn c nhit cao (2800-3800 0C) v p lc ln (100.000-1.300.000at) o Nhn qu t nm trung tm c su trn 2900km. Nhn qu t c cu to ch yu t cc hp cht ca st v niken. p sut trung tm qu t rt cao (t 3,5triu at) v nhit rt ln (40000C). Hin nay, ngi ta vn cha c nghin cu chnh xc v nhn qu t.
vo da 8-10km : y a dng : y a i 30-40km : ng ba g o n 55-75km : ng nu vu i
manti : t e vo n o u 2900km sa
nha : 2900-6370km n
II.1.2
Cc trngvt l ang hot ng ca tri t
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Do s vn ng, s phn b v thuc tnh ca cc vt cht trong v ngoi qu t m hnh thnh nn cc trng vt l c bn nh trng trng, t trng, trng nhit o Trng nhit : T nhn c 2 ngun nhit ch yu, mt t mt tri (ngoi nhit) v mt ngun t lng T to ra (ni nhit). Ngoi nhit ch yu sinh ra do nh sng mt tri hun nng phn bn trn v tri t. N thay i theo thi gian v khng gian. nh hng ca nhit mt tri khng su lm, khong vi chc mt v chiu su. Vo su trong lng tri t l chu nh hng ca ni nhit. Ngun nhit ny sinh ra do cc phn ng ha hc, ht nhn. (cc nguyn t phng x khi hot ng s nhit rt cao) o Trng t : Qu t l mt nam chm khng l c 2 cc Bc Nam gn trng vi 2 a cc. Hin ti a cc t gn trng vi cc a l. nhng vng phn b hay qung t tnh cao s hnh thnh t tnh bt thng. Nguyn nhn ca t trng Tri t : s i lu ca lp nhn ngoi v s t quay ca T to ra t trng T. V phn nhn nng duy tr t trng v n nh t trng sinh ra bi lp li ngoi lng. o Trng trng Mt vt trn mt t chu s tc ng ca 2 lc : lc ht ca T, lc ly tm sinh ra do s t quay ca T. Trng lc chnh l tp hp ca 2 lc , do bn knh ca T cc ngn hn xch o nn trng lc tng dn t cc n xch o. M .m F =G . g = F + Vi R2 Trong F : lc hp dn gia hai vt th M, m : khi lng R : khong cch gia 2 vt G : hng s hp dn v tr
II.1.3 -
Cc hin tng a cht ang xy ra trong T
Hin tng mcma : l hin tng cc khi dung nham nng chy su trong lng t theo cc khe nt dng ln xm nhp vo phn trn ca v tri t hay phun tro ln trn mt t. Hin tng kin to : l hin tng xy ra do ni ng lc pht sinh trong v tri t lm thay i cu trc cc lp t cu to nn v tri t, tch v tri t thnh nhiu mng v cc mng ny tng tc vi nhau to nn cc dng a hnh trn tri t. Hin tng xm thc : cc hot ng a cht - a l ngoi sinh lm mt i mt phn hay ton b t trn b mt, dn ti s h thp a hnh. Qu trnh xm thc din ra do cc tc nhn ch yu sau: 1) Tc nhn c hc - lc ca dng chy ph hu, xi l, mi mn v cun tri vn theo dng nc; 2) Tc nhn ho hc - nc ho tan v cc sn phm phong ho ri cun tri i, do gc cng b mn nhanh chng. Hin tng trm tch : l s ph hu c hc v ho hc cc do tc dng ca cc nhn t khc nhau trn mt hoc phn trn cng ca v T to ra cc sn phm ph hu. Sn phm ny c gi, nc, bng h mang i v tch ng li bin, h v 1 phn lng ng trn ng vn chuyn gi l hin tng trm tch.
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II.2. Khong vt v khong vt to II.2.1 Khi nim

Khong vt l nhng hp cht ha hc hoc cc nguyn t t sinh c hnh thnh trong qu trnh l-ha xy ra bn trong hay pha trn ca v tri t. Khong vt trong thin nhin c th kh (kh H2S, CO2), th lng (nc, thu ngn), th rn (thch anh, fenpat, mica). Khong vt rn hu ht trng thi kt tinh (tinh th). Trong s 3000 khong vt, ch c hn 50 khong vt tham gia to . Cc khong vt ny gi l khong vt to . Ty thuc vo vai tr ca cc nguyn t cu to nn khong vt ta c th chia ra khong vt chnh v khong vt ph. o Khong vt chnh ng vai tr ch yu trong vic cu to nn t . Cng v tnh cht ca t ch yu do cng v tnh cht ca loi khong vt ny quyt nh o Khong vt ph chim hm lng nh hn (c mt s khong vt l khang vt chnh ca ny nhng c khi l khang vt ph ca khc) Theo ngun gc hnh thnh, khong vt c chia ra khong vt nguyn sinh v khong vt th sinh. o Khong vt nguyn sinh : c thnh to do s ngui lnh ca macma hoc do kt ta t dung dch. o Khong vt th sinh : c thnh to t nhng khong vt khc (do phn ng ha hc ca nc vi khong vt nguyn sinh, do tc dng ca p sut, do nhit cao ) Theo mc ch xy dng, khong vt c phn loi da trn cc dng lin kt ha hc ca n. Bi v c trng cu to tinh th v bn cht mi lin kt ha hc gia cc nguyn t quyt nh nhiu tnh cht vt l v c hc rt quan trng.
II.2.2
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Mt s c tnh ca khong vt
a. Hnh dng tinh th ca khong vt Dng tinh th ca khong vt : tinh th l nhng vt rn trong cc phn t nh sp xp theo 1 quy lut u n to thnh dng khng gian Tnh oi xng cua tinh the bao gom: o Tam oi xng: (C) la mot iem tng tng nam trong tinh the, ma tai iem o moi ng thang i qua no, nam trong gii han tinh the c chia lam hai phan bang nhau o Truc oi xng: (L) la mot truc tng tng i qua tinh the e khi quay tinh the theo mot goc co nh xung quanh truc th lap lai tat ca cac yeu to cua tinh the nh v tr ban au. o Mat phang oi xng: (P) la mat phang tng tng i qua tinh the, chia oi tinh the ra hai phan bang nhau, moi yeu to cua tinh the hai phan eu oi xng nhau qua mat phang oi xng ta nh anh cua mot vat qua gng.
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Bng phn loi h thng tinh th
Mu ca khong vt Mu ca khong vt ch yu do thnh phn ha hc v cc tp cht trong n quyt nh.
b.
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Khi quan st mu khong vt cn ch n iu kin nh sng, trng thi ca khong vt Tuy nhin, du hiu ng tin cy hn nhn bit mu ca khong vt l mu ca bt khong vt. Ch cn vch mt khong vt trn mt tm s nhm, chng s li mt vt di c mu c trng cho bt khong vt y. c. trong sut v nh ca khong vt trong sut l kh nng ca vt th khi cho nh sng i xuyn qua. Khi nh sng chiu vo mi trng khc nhau s b khc x, thay i tc v tiu hao nng lng. Mt phn nh sng chiu ln khong vt s b phn x tr li trn mt khong vt to thnh nh ca khong vt. Cc loi nh c trng ca khong vt : o nh kim : khi s phn x ca nh sng trn b mt cao, l cc khong vt m c, c kh nng hp th nh sng mnh. V d : nhng kim loi trong t nhin nh vng, bc, c cc biu hin lin quan n kim loi v chng c nh kim. o nh phi kim : trn cc khong vt cn li c nhiu dng nh phi kim khc nhau. nh phn x lp lnh ca kim cng gi l nh kim cng; thy tinh thng thng, thch anh c nh thy tinh; mt s khong vt khc c m t nh l nh m, nh t, nh t d. Tnh ct khai v vt v Tnh ct khai (d tch) ca khong vt l kh nng b tch ra ca cc ht tinh th hay ht kt tinh theo cc mt song song. C cc mc d tch nh sau : o Ct khai rt hon ton : tinh th c kh nng tch ra rt d dng bng tay o Ct khai hon ton : dng cc loi vt dng (nh ba ) tc dng vo tinh th v n s v ra theo cc mt tch tng i bng phng o Ct khai trung bnh : trn nhng mt v ca tinh th, va thy cc mt tch tng i hon chnh, va thy vt v khng bng phng theo cc phng khc nhau o Ct khai khng hon ton : tinh th kh tch ra, thng thy cc vt v khng c quy tc Vt v : l cc mt v khng theo quy tc ca khong vt khi b p v. Phn ln cc vt v tng i g gh v bt quy tc. Da theo hnh dng vt v c th chia ra : o Vt v phng : v theo cc mt d tch. o Vt v dng v s : vt v ca thch anh o Vt v dng t : vt v ta nh t bt, v d nh vt v ca Kaolinit. o Vt v sn si : b mt vt v sn si nh vt v ca thch anh dng tr. e. cng ca khong vt cng l kh nng chng li tc dng c hc bn ngoi ln b mt ca khong vt. Tnh cht ny c lin quan n kin trc v s lin kt gia cc cht im ca khong vt. S lin kt ny cng chc th cng cng cao. nh gi cng tng i ca khong vt, ngi ta dng thang cng Mohs gm 10 cp , sp xp theo chiu tng cng, mi cp c i din bng mt khong vt ph bin. 1. Tan Mg3[Si4O10][OH]2 2. Thch cao CaSO4.2H2O 3. Canxit CaCO3 4. Flourit CaF2 5. Apatit Ca3[PO4]3(F,Cl,OH) 6. Octocla K[AlSi3O8] 7. Thch anh SiO2 8. Topaz Al2[SiO4][F,OH]2
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Al2O3 10. Kim cng C cng tuyt i c xc nh bng my rt kh khn ( cng tuyt i ca Tan 2,4kG/mm2; Canxit - 109 kG/mm2; Thch anh - 1120 kG/mm2; Kim cng - 10060 kG/mm2). Nhng iu cn ch : o Khng dng thang Mohs so snh cng A hn cng B my ln. xc nh c phi dng cng tuyt i. o Hu nh cc khong vt c cng t 2-7. Cc khong vt to thng c cng nh hn 7. cha khong vt c cng cao th thng c cng ln. f. T trng ca khong vt T trng ca khong vt c biu din bng t s gia trong lng khong vt chia cho trng lng ca th tch nc tng ng. T trng ca khong vt thay i trong phm vi tng i ln v c chia thnh 3 nhm : nh ( <2,5); trung bnh (2,5< <4); nng ( >4). Ta c bng sau biu th t trng ca mt s khong vt to chnh Khong vt T trng Khong vt T trng Thch anh 2,65-2,66 Plagiocla 2,60-2,78 Canxit 2,71-2,72 Muscovit 2,50-3,10 olomit 2,80-2,90 Biotit 2,69-3,40 Anihit 2,50-2,70 Piroxen 3,20-3,60 Thch cao 2,30-2,40 Ambifon 2,99-3,47 Octocla 2,50-2,62 Olivin 3,18-3,45 T trng ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc v cu trc ca tinh th. T trng ln khi khong vt cha nguyn t nng v c s sp xp nguyn t cht. g. Cc tnh cht khc C mt s tnh cht khc c th hu ch trong vic nhn bit mt s khong vt c bit. V d nh : t tnh, tnh phng x, v, mi, hoc xc gic. Manhetit l mt khong vt cha st nn c t tnh cao, gi l nam chm t nhin.
9. Corindon
II.2.3
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Phn loi khong vt
a. Phn loi khong vt theo kiu lin kt ha hc: Cc lin kt thng gp trong cht kt tinh o Lin kt cng ha tr : o Lin kt ion : o Lin kt Hydro o Lin kt Vandecvan b. Phn loi khong vt theo thnh phn ha hc : Thnh phn ca hu ht cc khong vt to ph bin c gii hn bi s phong ph ca cc nguyn t trong v tri t Thc t ch c 8 nguyn t cu to nn khong 98% trng lng ca v tri t. Lng cha cc nguyn t trong v tri t nh sau : Oxy (O)_46,6%; Silic (Si)_ 27,27%; Nhm (Al)_8,13%; St (Fe)_5%; Canxi (Ca)_3,63%; Natri (Na)_2,83%; Kali (K)_2,59%; Manh (Mg)_2,09%. Cc khong vt l thnh vin ca nhm c c trng bi nhng kt hp ca cc nguyn t trn. Khong vt c phn loi thnh cc lp v cc lp ny c phn nh thnh cc nhm da vo cu trc bn trong ca n. Gm 9 lp nh sau : 1. Lp nguyn t t sinh : Cu, Au
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2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
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Lp oxit v hydroxit : Fe3O4, SiO2, FeOH Lp cacbonat (mui ca axit cacbonic) : CaCO3, Dolomit (Ca,Mg)[CO3]2 Lp sunfat (mui ca axit sunfuric) : thch cao CaSO4.2H2O Lp sunfua (hp cht ca lu hunh) : pirit st FeS2 Lp halogenua (mui ca cc axit halogenhidric): halit NaCl Lp photphat (mui ca axit phophoric) : photphat CaP2O5 Lp silicat (mui ca axit silicic) : octocla K[AlSi3O8] Hp cht hu c : metan CH4
Sau y l m t mt s khong vt to ch yu : Lp silicat : y l lp khong vt quan trng, c s lng ln nht v ph bin trong t nhin, l khong vt to macma, bin cht trao i v c trm tch. Trong cc silicat mi ion Si+4 bao gi cng nm gia 4 ion O-2 cc gc ca mi t din. T din [SiO4]-4 l n v kin trc c s ca silicat. Cc nhm c phn bit bi s sp xp ca khi t din c s ny. 1. Khi t din c lp vi nhau Nhm olivin : (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 c c trng bi khi t din silic c lp v cc ion Mg+2 (hoc Fe+2) cch u nhau 2. Khi t din c lp v oxi tham gia lin kt to thnh chui Nhm piroxen (chui n) : Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)[(SiAl)2O6] : chui n cc khi t din silic c rng buc vi nhau bi cc ion Ca+2 v Mg+2. Nhm amfibon (chui kp) : Ca2Na(Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)[(Si,Al)4O11]2[OH]2 3. Khi t din lin kt theo 2 phng (silicat tm) : Tm t din : l cc tm mng gm cc khi t din silic m trong 3 ion oxi c chia s vi cc khi t din ln cn. Tm bt din : l cc tm mng cha cc cation nhm, manh, hoc cc cation c to nn bi 6 ion oxi ca cc nhm hydroxit. Nhm khong vt st : thnh phn ch yu l t st v t loi st. Ph bin v c trng nht trong nhm ny l o Kaolinit : Al4[Si4O10][OH]6 o Monmorilonit : (Al,Mg)2[Si4O10][OH]2.nH2O o Ilit : [(Si,Al)4O10][OH].nH2O im l d tch hon ton . o Biotit : K(Mg,Fe)3[AlSi3O10][OH]2 o Muscovit : KAl2[AlSi3O10][OH]2 4. Khi t din lin kt theo 3 phng (silicat khung) Nhm fenspat : trong thnh phn ha hc ca khi t din, cc ion Al3+ thay th cho Si4+. Plagiocla : cc khong vt gm hn hp Na[AlSi3O8] v Ca[Al2Si2O8] Octocla : KAlSi3O8 Lp oxit v hydroxit : cc khong vt thuc lp ny c ha tan trong nc thp, trng hp qu trnh oxi ha rt mnh s to thnh cc dung dch qu bo ha v thnh to cc khi n tinh v keo. Cc khong vt ny hu ht l cc hp cht c kin trc tinh th vi kiu lin kt ion. Trong kin trc tinh th cc anion v cation u bao bc ly ion O2- hoc ion OH-.
Nhm khong vt mica : c thnh phn ha hc phc tp v c c
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Thch anh SiO2 Limonit Fe2O3.nH2O Opan SiO2.nH2O Lp cacbonat : gm cc mui trung tnh, rt ph bin trong t nhin. Chng tn ti
dng cc mui kp, cc hp cht mui phc tp nhng l nhng hp cht c thnh phn xc nh. Trong nhm [CO3]2- cc cation nm trung tm c bn knh ion n, c in lng cao v mi lin kt cng ha tr vi ion oxic tnh km bn vng, tham gia vo cu to inh th nh nhng n v cu to c lp. Canxit CaCO3 Dolomit CaCO3.MgCO3 Lp sunfat : gm cc khong vt c khi lng ring thp, cng khng ln, c tnh ha tan cao. Lu hunh (S) khi b oxi ha to thnh SO v dng ion phc tp [SO3]-2 trong dung dch, khi b oxi ha mnh to thnh [SO4]-2 trong c S+4 v S+6. Anhydrid CaSO4 Gip (thch cao) CaSO4.2H2O Lp sunfua Pirit FeS2 Lp halogenua : cc khong vt c c lin kt ion in hnh, c kin trc tinh th ca cc hp cht khng nc. Khong vt lp halogenua c cc cation kim loi nh, in lng nh, bn knh ion ln, kh nng phn cc rt yu th khong vt trong sut, khng mu hoc ngoi sc, khi lng ring nh, d tan trong nc. Mui m Halit NaCl.
II.3. macma II.3.1 Ngun gc macma

macma c hnh thnh do s ngui lnh v kt tinh t dung dch nng chy macma. Nu s ngui lnh xy ra di t th to macma xm nhp. Nu cc dng chy tro ln mt t th c gi l dung nham, sau ngui lnh trn mt t th to macma phun tro.
II.3.2
Thnh phn khong vt ca macma
Thnh phn khong vt ca macma bin i rt rng ln, cc khong vt kt tinh ni tip nhau khi nhit h thp v tc ng ln nhau to thnh cc khong vt mi. Khi nhit ca macma gim, c 2 qu trnh kt tinh o Cc khong vt c cu trc bn trong khng thay i trong sut qu trnh kt tinh, gi l dy phn ng lin tc. o Cc khong vt Fe, Mg, cc khong vt sau c cu trc bn trong thay i so vi cc khong vt trc, gi l dy phn ng khng lin tc Dy phn ng Bowen trnh by th t kt tinh cc khong vt t bazan nng chy
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N h ie o th a t p (k e tin h c u o c u g ) t i n T h a c h a n h M u s c o v it O c t o c l a ( f e n s p a t - k a li ) B i o ti t H o b le n A n g it N h ie o c a oli v i n t O (k e tin h a ti e ) t u n D a pha g y n n k h o g l i e tu c n n A n o c tit (f e n s p a t - c a n x i) D a ph a g y n n l ie tu c n A n b it ( f e n s p a t - n a t r i)
II.3.3
Kin trc v cu to ca macma
Kin trc l cp n kch thc, hnh dng v s phn b ca cc ht khong vt trong . Theo mc kt tinh, c th chia ra 4 loi kin trc chnh nh sau : 1. Kin trc n tinh : o Cc tinh th qu nh khng th quan st c bng mt thng v thng gp cc loi phun tro.Cc loi ht cc nh ny thng lin quan vi qu trnh ni la, v s ngui lnh tng i nhanh xy ra khi dung dch nng chy tro ln mt t. 2. Kin trc hin tinh o Cc tinh th c th nhn thy c v phn bit c mc kt tinh bng mt thng. Cc xm nhp thng c kin trc loi ny. 3. Kin trc pocfia o c to bi cc tinh th c 2 kch c khc nhau, tinh th c kch c ln c bao quanh bi khi nn tinh th ht mn. 4. Kin trc l rng o B mt khi dung nham ng cng c nhiu l rng.
II.3.4
Th nm ca macma
Th nm ca cho bit hnh dng, kch thc v t th ca khi trong khng gian cng nh mi quan h ca cc khi vi nhau. Cc dng th nm ca macma xm nhp o Dng nn : khi khi c hnh dng khng c qui tc nhng kch thc rt rng ln, din tch phn b t hng trm n hng ngn km2 v gii hn di thng khng xc nh c. vy quanh tip xc vi dng nn c c trng l khng b bin i v th nm.
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o Dng nm : khi khi macma c hnh nm hoc thu knh dy, din tch phn b rng
o o khong vi chc km2, cc vy quanh nht l pha trn b un np theo hnh dng nm. Dng lp : ch cc khi c hnh thnh do cc khe nt ca c dy nh, thng t vi n vi chc mt nhng phm vi phn b rng ln, c th ti vi trm mt. Dng mch : c hnh thnh do macma xm nhp v lp y khe nt gia cc mt tng . B dy thay i t vi centimt n vi chc mt. dng mch c nhiu nhnh, ch tip xc vi vy quanh thng c khe nt lm tng tnh thm nc ca t . Cc dng th nm ca macma phun tro Dng lp ph : l dng phun tro trn 1 din tch rt rng c th ti hng ngn km 2, thng c hnh thnh do dung nham tro ln trn mt t theo cc khe nt ko di ca v tri t. s tro dung nham thh nhiu t c th to lp ph lm nhiu tng vi b dy ln. Dng dng chy : hnh thnh do macma tro ln qua ming ni la lp y cc khe nt v cc khe rnh ca thung lng. c trng ca n l chiu di ln hn nhiu so vi chiu rng v ty thuc vo nht ca dung nham v hnh dng thung lng.
II.3.5
Phn loi macma
Da vo kin trc ca macma ngi ta phn loi nh sau : o Khong vt sng mu : cc khong vt c thnh to t dy phn ng lin tc (feenspat natri, fenspat canxi, octocla, thch anh) o Khong vt ti mu : cc khong vt c thnh to t dy phn ng khng lin tc khong vt Fe-Mg (olivin, augit ) Da vo thnh phn khong vt ngi ta phn loi macma nh sau : o axit : SiO2 c thnh phn chim n 65-70%. o trung tnh : SiO2 c thnh phn chim t 52-65%. o baz : SiO2 c thnh phn chim t 40-50%, nhng cha nhiu Fe v Mg o siu baz : SiO2 c thnh phn rt t, khng qu 40%, nhng lng Fe v Mg rt nhiu.
II.4. trm tch II.4.1 Ngun gc trm tch

trm tch l nhng th a cht pht sinh b mt qu t, thnh to t cc sn phm phong ha, tri qua qu trnh tch t lu di, phc tp, chu nhiu nh hng ca cc yu t ngoi v ni ng lc trong mi trng nc hoc trong mi trng khng kh. o Qu trnh hnh thnh vt liu trm tch : bao gm 2 hnh thc Ph hy c hc : do tc dng ca s chnh lch nhit , qu trnh bo mn v xm thc lm cho cc b v vn v c c im l khng bin i v thnh phn ha hc ca khong vt. Ph hy sinh ha : khi cc bin i thnh cc ht, phn nh hn b ph hy c hc nhng thnh phn ha hc b bin i, hnh thc ph hy ny thng do tc dng ha hc ca nc H2O, cacbonic CO2, oxi hay axit hu c. Vt liu trm tch trm tch gn p gn kt trm tch o Qu trnh trm tch : l qu trnh khi vt liu di chuyn n mt ni khc sau lng ng li ph thuc vo loi vt liu v phng thc vn chuyn (trng lc, nc, gi)
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o Qu trnh nn p : xy ra sau khi lng ng do tc dng ca cc lp pha trn n lm cho n mt nc v gim l rng, nhng thay i ny ban u ngay sau khi vt liu trm tch lng ng cho ti khi vt liu bt u gn kt li to thnh trm tch. o Qu trnh to : l qu trnh m vt liu c gn kt li do cc vt liu ha tan cc l rng ca cc vt liu hay t ni khc chuyn n khong trng gia cc ht lm cho chng kt ta ngng keo gi l xi mng. Ngoi ra di tc dng ca nhit v p sut, cc tinh th khong vt s ln dn ln gi l qu trnh kt tinh. Qu trnh co dn ca do nhit thay i, do nc chy ph v v mi hot ng khc lm cho v vn, cc vt liu ny c nc mang ra lng ng sng sui, bin. Sau qu trnh trm nn ca lp trn, s kt gn ca cc keo kt thin nhin s thnh to nn trm tch. Mt khc, trm tch cn c thnh to do cc qu trnh lng ng ca cc mui ha tan.
II.4.2
Thnh phn khong vt ca trm tch
Thnh phn vt cht ca cc sn phm phong ha khc nhau to ra cc trm tch khc nhau. Tuy nhin, so vi macma, thnh phn ha hc v khong vt trong mt s loi trm tch rt n gin. Thnh phn khong vt ch yu o Khong vt nguyn sinh : bao gm cc mnh c hay cc khong vt c c trong qu trnh ph hy c hc cc c, ph bin l thch anh, fenspat, ziacon, tuamalin o Khong vt th sinh : l cc khong vt oc hnh thnh t cc khong vt nguyn sinh b phn hy ha hc nh cc khong vt st. o Khong vt t sinh : bao gm cc khong vt c hnh thnh t cc dung dch keo v dung dch tht, phn ln cc khong vt t sinh l thnh phn chnh ca cc trm tch sinh ha hoc xi mng gn kt ph bin trong nhiu trm tch vn. i vi trm tch, ngoi thnh phn khong vt ta cn ch ti cc tp cht v ximng. S c mt ca tp cht c ngha quan trng i vi trm tch cacbonat, cn thnh phn ximng c ngha ln i vi trm tch vn
II.4.3
Kin trc v cu to ca trm tch
a. Kin trc ca trm tch Kin trc ca cc ht vn * Kch thc : >200mmm : kin trc hc, dm 200-20mmm : dm, cui 20-2mm : si, sn 2-0.05mm : ct 0.05-0.005mm : bi <0.005mm : st * Hnh dng : Gc cnh : khi cc ht mi b ph v, cha b vn chuyn nn khng b tc ng mi mn Na gc cnh : l cc ht mi b mi mn st gc do vn chuyn cha xa Trn cnh : l cc ht b dch chuyn tng i xa khng cn gc cc cnh Rt trn cnh : khi mc mi mn ln do vn chuyn 1 khong rt xa hoc do b ti trm tch nhiu ln. Kin trc ca ximng gn kt Xi mng lp y : khi thnh phn xi mng chim ht th tch cc l rng cc
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Xi mng tip xc : phn xi mng gn kt ch c ni tip xc gia cc ht vi nhau. Kiu xi mng ny do s ra tri cc thnh phn xi mng trong l rng v loi ny gn kt thiu. Xi mng c s : do thnh phn xi mng trm tch ng thi cng vi ht vn nm ri rc nhau v t l ximng ln hn ht vn nhiu ln. Kiu xi mng ny lm rt rn chc. Kin trc ca trm tch sinh ha Kin trc ca trm tch sinh ho dng kin trc tinh th do kt ta t mi trng nc nn thng c kch thc rt nh v cc tinh th s ln ln di tc dng ca p sut ca cc tng bn trn. Trn c s hnh dng ca ht c th chia ra cc loi : kin trc v nh hnh, kin trc n tinh, kin trc tha hnh, kin trc t hnh .. b. Cu to ca trm tch Cu to khi : theo cc phng, thnh phn ca cc khong vt sp xp 1 cch ng nht Cu to dng : khi cc ht sp xp nh hng theo phng dng chy hoc hng gi Cu to lp (ph bin) : l cu to c trng nht ca trm tch. Cc lp c thnh phn (thnh phn vt cht, ht, cu trc, mu sc) khc nhau v sp xp ln nhau thng gia cc mt lp c lin kt yu, c dy khng ng u t vi mt n hng trm mt. Trong t nhin thng gp cc kiu phn lp nh : phn lp nm ngang, phn lp ln sng.
II.4.4
Th nm ca trm tch
Th nm ngang ca cc lp : th nm ban u ca trm tch l th nm ngang. Th nm ngang thng gp cc lp hnh thnh min nn tc l nhng min m chuyn ng kin to ca v T yu hoc cc lp trm tch tr v cc lp ny cha tri qua chuyn ng kin to ng k. Th nm nghing ca lp trm tch c th l th nm nguyn sinh tc l th nm nghing c hnh thnh cng vi qu trnh trm tch. Do cc lp nm nghing theo b mt a hnh nghing sn ni trm tch, hoc do cc lp trm tch c hnh thnh ng thi vi qu trnh nng ln h xung ca y trm tch. Cc yu t xc nh th nm nghing o ng phng : l ng giao tuyn ca mt phng nm ngang v b mt lp , b mt nm ngang ny l b mt tng tng. Do c nhiu mt nm ngang nn s c v s ng phng song song vi nhau v cc cao khc nhau. o Gc phng v ng phng : l gc hp bi phng Bc cu im a t v ng phng theo thun chiu kim ng h (hnh v) o ng dc : l ng thng nm trong b mt lp vung gc vi ng phng c chiu hng v pha chn dc ca lp o ng hng dc : l hnh chiu ca ng dc ln mt phng nm ngang v c xc nh bng gc phng v hng dc. o Gc phng v hng dc ( hd) : l gc hp bi hng Bc ca kim a t v hng 1dc theo chiu thun kim ng h o Gc dc : l gc hp bi ng dc v hng dc.
II.4.5
Phn loi trm tch
Vt liu vn trm tch vn Vt liu keo trm tch sinh ho Vt liu ho tan
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1. trm tch vn gm nhng vt liu lng ng ti ch hoc vn chuyn i n 1 ni khc, sau c gn kt li bng cc loi ximng gn kt (Fe, Ca) Trn c s yu t ht, ngi ta chia lm 3 nhm vn vn th d>2mm : cui kt, si kt vn trung bnh d=2-0.5mm : ct kt vn nh d<0.05mm : bt kt 2. trm tch st : L sn phm ca qu trnh phong ho cc giu khong vt allumosilicat v chuyn thnh cc khong vt hon ton mi. Trm tch st khng phi l sn phm ca qu trnh phong ho c hc cng nh khng c lng ng t dung dch tht hay do s ngng keo m chng thnh to bng con ng khc. st cha ch yu l cc khong vt st st Kaolint st Momonolit st Illit 3. trm tch sinh ho : c thnh to t dung dch tht hoc dung dch keo i khi c s tham gia trc tip hoc gin tip ca sinh vt. Phn loi da vo thnh phn ho hc ca : trm tch cacbonat : vi, lomit trm tch nhm, silic
II.5. bin cht II.5.1 Ngun gc bin cht

bin cht c hnh thnh t s bin tnh ca mcma, trm tch, thm ch t cc bin cht tr, do s tc ng ca p lc, p sut cao v cc cht c hot tnh ho hc (nc v axit cacbonic). Di s tc ng ca cc tc nhn bin cht, cc thnh phn ca c th ti kt tinh trng thi rn v sp xp li. Tc dng bin cht khng nhng c th ci bin cu trc ca m cn lm thay i thnh phn khong vt ca n. Qu trnh bin cht : c 3 tc nhn chnh o Nhit : l tc nhn c bn nht ca qu trnh bin cht, tc dng ca n l gy nn nhng phn ng gia cc khong vt, nng cao hot tnh ho hc ca cc khong vt cng nh lm thay i tnh cht vt l ca o p sut: tc ng ca p sut th thay i ti cc su khc nhau trong v tri t. Ti su nh, tng i lnh v gin nn chng c th b nt n v nghin nh khi chu p sut cao. Ti su ln hn, mm hn nhiu do nhit cao. Di tc dng ca p sut, c xu hng bin dng do dng do. Trong vng bin dng do, p sut c nh hng ti cc loi khong vt mi hnh thnh. in hnh l cc nguyn t bn trong cu trc khong vt c sp xp cht hn khi khong vt kt tinh di p sut cao. o Dung dch bin cht : trong qu trnh bin cht thng c s tham gia ca cc dung dch bin cht v lun thy trong bin cht c nc v cacbonic, dung dch ny phn b trong khe nt hoc l rng ca khong vt c tc dng mang n hoc mang i cc thnh phn vt cht lm cho hin tng bin cht xy ra nhanh hn. Cc kiu bin cht : Bin cht tip xc : l s bin i ca cc vy quanh khi tip xc vi khi macma xm nhp trong v tri t. Bin cht khu vc : l loi bin cht c c trng l vng bin i rng hn. Cc nghin cu a cht v bin cht cho bit hm lng khong vt ca trong vng bin cht khu vc bin i mt cch c h thng. Cng ban u nhng cc mc bin cht khc nhau c th to ra cc khong vt bin cht khc nhau
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II.5.2
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Thnh phn khong vt ca bin cht
Thnh phn khong vt ca bin cht gn ging vi thnh phn khong vt ca mac ma. Trong chng cng ph bin cc loi khong vt nh : piroxen, thch anh, fenpat....Ngoi ra, c th gp cc khong vt m trong macma rt him hoc khng c : granat, disten Trong bin cht, ng vai tr ln l nhng khong vt m trong macma l khong vt th sinh nh clorit, cacbonatCc khong vt cha nc, cc hydrat keo s b mt nc to thnh cc hp cht n gin hn, n c xu hng gim th tch (mt nc) v vytrng lng ring ln hn Nhn chung cc khong vt ca bin cht c cng cao, nhng khng n nh i vi tc dng phong ho, mt s khong vt do c tinh th dng tm, dng vy hoc c tnh trn trt lm gim nhiu cng ca bin cht.
II.5.3
-
Kin trc v cu to ca bin cht
Kin trc kt tinh : n tinh v hin tinh. Cc khong vt ca ban u c th c kt tinh (trng hp bin cht t trm tch gn kt) hoc ti kt tinh (i vi macma v trm tch ho hc). Kin trc milonit : do cc c b nghin nt thnh bt v sau c cc khong vt khc gn kt li. Loi kin trc ny thng khng n nh vi nc, khi gp nc rt mau b tan ra. Kin trc phin : c khong vt trong bin cht nh hng song song nhau. Phn phin lm cho bin cht c c im di hay lp,v v th n c hnh thc ging vi phn lp ca trm tch. Cc loi cu to ca bin cht o cu to phn phin : l cu to khi khong vt sp xp theo dy hay lp c hnh thc ging nh phn lp ca trm tch. Cu to5 phn phin thng lin quan n bin cht khu vc. cu to phin : l cu to khi khong vt dng vy c sp xp theo phng ko di ca tinh th vung gc vi phng p lc cu to gnai : cc khong vt dng tr, dng tm , dng phin c sp xp thnh cc dy ring bit, xen k cc dy ny c cc khong vt dng ht. o cu to khng phn phin (khi) : c im ca cu to ny l cc khong vt phn b ng u khng nh hng. Cc khong vt ny c kiu bin cht khu vc do thiu cc thnh phn ho hc cn thit lm cho cc khong vt khng th kt tinh
II.5.4
Th nm ca bin cht
bin cht c dng th nm ging vi ban u to nn n (dng lp ca trm tch, dng nm, dng mch ca macma) bin cht tip xc c dng th nm ring, n thng dng cc vnh ai c cc mc bin cht khc nhau bao quanh khi mac ma gy ra bin cht. Do n c th gy ra s khng ng nht v tnh cht vt l v c hc.
II.5.5
Phn loi bin cht
Da vo cu to ca v cc thnh phn khong vt, ngi ta phn ra cc loi bin cht sau :
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bin cht c cu to phin : phin : phim biotit gnai : gnai clorit bin cht c cu to khi : quaczit : ct kt thch anh bin cht to ra hoa : vi, dolomit bin cht tothnh
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CHNG III : KIN TO V A MO III.1. Cc phng php xc nh tui ca t III.1.1 Thi gian a cht
Thi gian a cht (tui ca t ) : l khong thi gian t khi t c hnh thnh cho n nay o Tui ca macma : c tnh t khi dung nham ngui lnh v ng cng li o Tui ca trm tch : tnh t khi c s trm tch xy ra (v vy trm tch c tui tr hn khong vt to ra n) o Tui ca bin cht : tnh t lc cc tc nhn bin cht bt u tc dng o i vi cc hin tng a cht : tui c tnh t khi cc hin tng a cht (thng trm, un np, t gy) bt u tc dng. Thi gian a cht c th c xc nh trn 2 ch tiu : o Tui tuyt i : l s tui c xc nh mt cch chnh xc thng qua cc phng php vt l, ho hc, th nghim cc tnh cht ca t xc h tui. Thc t, vic xc nh tui tuyt i rt kh khn v tn km o Tui tng i : l xt s tng quan, quan h gi tr gia cc vi nhau bng vic xt th nm cng nh mi quan h trc sau ca cc tng v cc hin tng a cht. Vic xc nh tui tng i ca t n gin v hiu qu hn
III.1.2
-
Phng php xc nh tui tng i
* Phng php ng v phng x C s xc nh : mi n v phng x phn hu theo mt tc khng i. Tc phn hu phng x c m t bng chu k bn r (bn phn hu) tc l thi gian phn hu i vi bt k 1 ng v nht nh no. Nguyn tc : da vo s c mt ca cc nguyn t phng x hay cc ng v phng x ca n t xc nh thi gian phng x, thi gian ph hu ca n. Ngi ta xt chu k bn r ca cc nguyn t phng x , ng thi l tui ca t . i vi cc loi c th dng cc nguyn t phng x c chu k bn r di (Thori, Uran ), cn i vi cc loi tr hn th dng cc nguyn t phng x c chu k bn r ngn hn (Cacbon) Chu k bn r ca cc nguyn t phng x c trong t : K40 Pb87 U235 U238 C14 (ng v m) 1.3 t nm 4.7 t nm 0.7 t nm 4.5 t nm 5730 nm Ar40 Sr87 Pb207 Pb206 N14 (ng v con) xc nh tui ca t cn phi o c lng ng v m v lng ng v con. T xc nh c thi gian bn r. xc nh c tui tuyt i ngi ta thc hin cng vic o lng ng v bng ph k khi lng Qu trnh phng x ca cc nguyn t phng x trong t nhin vi 1 tc rt u n v khng ph thuc vo iu kin ngoi cnh.
III.1.3
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Phng php xc nh tui tuyt i
* Phng php c sinh L phng php xc nh tui t da vo cc ho thch ca sinh vt c trong t
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Ho thch l cc di tch (di th) ca cc sinh vt sau khi cht, xc hoc nhng du vt ca cc hot ng sng l nhng chng c c lu gi li , theo mt thi gian xc ca chng b phn hu, ch nhng b phn cng nh v cy, xng c bao bc bi cc trm tch v tri qua qu trnh ho thch tr thnh , nhng vn gi li nhng hnh thi kt cu hay cc du vt hot ng ca nhng sinh vt thi k c bo lu. Phc h ho thch : 1 t hp t nhin ca tt c cc loi ho thch c trng hoc ca mt nhm ho thch ring bit gp trong 1 phn hay ton b 1 phn v a tng. Phn v a tng l 1 lp a tng khng b gin on v lin tc vi nhau (c tnh ng nht). Trong mi phc h, ho thch thu c trong 1 a tng s c nhng khong thi gian xut hin v mt i khc nhau. Da vo tp hp cc ho thch ny xc nh tui tng i ca t Pp ny thng p dng i vi cc trm tch v cc macma khng ho thch (do macma thnh to trong iu kin nhit cao nn cc sinh vt khng th tn ti bn trong c), cn bin cht hay cc trm tch c th cc ho thch b phn hu * Phng php thch hc C s : so snh thnh phn thch hc (thnh phn khong vt, thnh phn ho hc, kin trc, cu to, th nm, ) cc khu vc khc nhau. Nu khu vc c t ging nhau v thnh phn kin trc, cu to v cc c im khc th c cng 1 tui Pp ny s dng hiu qu nu trong mt ct a tng chun c cc a tng c nghin cu k v lm c s cho vic so snh vi cc tng khc cc mt ct khc nhau tng chun (mt ct a tng chun) l 1 tp hp phn tng c nhng c trng r rng v thch hc, khong vt n nh trong vng a l v d dng nhn bit trong mt ct a cht pp ngy thng p dng cho macma v bin cht. tuy nhin i vi trm tch cha tm thy ho thch cng c th xc nh tui bng cch lin h vi cc tng tng t c xc nh tui ni khc * Phng php a tng Pp ny da trn quan h th nm ca cc tng vi nhau xc nh tui tng i ca t v cc hin tng a cht khc Nguyn l xp chng ca t : cc tng hnh thnh sau c tui t hn v nm trn cc tng hnh thnh trc Nguyn l ct nhau ca t : bt k no ct hoc xuyn qua tp th 2 th cng tr hn b ct (dng hu ch xc nh tui ca macma v bin cht) u tin, ta phi phn chia a tng. Tc l nghin cu, m t cc c trng ca cc lp , cc tng v mi quan h ca chng trong mt ct ang xt. Sau , chng ta s i chiu trnh t a tng cc mt ct khc nhau xc lp mi quan h a tng i vi trm tch, khi cha b o ln th nm, cc tng thnh to sau s nm trn cc tng thnh to trc i vi macma phun tro cng xc nh ging nh cc trm tch i vi macma xm nhp, c th da vo mi quan h vi trm tch vy quanh xc nh tui. xm nhp ct tng trm tch hoc lm bin cht vy quanh th c tui nh hn. Nu khng c cc hin tng trn th macma xm nhp c tui c hn i vi cc hin tng a cht nh un np, t gy, phong ho th thng qua vic phn tch mt ct a cht , phn tch mi quan h ca chng i vi cc tng s xc nh c gii hn tui ca chng
III.1.4
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Nin biu a cht
L 1 nin biu th hin lch s pht trin a cht, c sinh vt t khi T c hnh thnh cho n nay
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Nin biu c chia thnh cc i, k, th tng ng ca cc tp c hnh thnh trong i, k, th l cc gii, h , thng Lch s pht trin ca v T c chia ra lm 5 i : i Thi c, i Nguyn sinh, i C sinh, i Trung sinh v i Tn sinh Nin biu a cht khng xc nh chnh xc tui a cht bng n v thi gian m ch nu ln trnh t gi tr ca cc tng a cht
Thi gian bt u cch ngy nay (tr.nm)
Th
Ko di (tr.nm)
Tn Sinh 1.6
t Negen
23.9 Paleogen 66.6 Trung 144 sinh 208 245 286 C sinh 360 408 438 505 545 Nguyn 900 sinh 1600 2500 3900 Thi c Kreta Jura Trias Permi Cacbon Devon Silur Ordovic Cambri nguyn sinh mun nguyn sinh trung nguyn sinh sm
Holoxen Pleitoxen Plioxen Mioxen Oligoxen Eoxen Paleoxen
0.01 1.6 3.9 18.4 12.9 21.2 8.6 77 64 37 41 74 48 30 67 40 355 700 900 1400
III.2. Cc gi thit a kin to v nh hng ca n n xy dng cng trnh Hin tng kin to : l hin tng xy ra do ni ng lc pht sinh trong v tri t lm thay i cu trc cc lp t cu to nn v tri t, tch v tri t thnh nhiu mng v cc mng ny tng tc vi nhau to nn cc dng a hnh trn tri t.
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Gi thit a kin to : nu ln ngun gc ca cc chuyn ng kin to, tc ng ca chng i vi s hnh thnh v pht trin cc bin dng cu to ca T trong khng gian v thi gian. Ngun gc cc chuyn ng kin to c lin quan ch yu vi cc nhn t v qu trnh l ho xy ra bn trong T m khoa hc cha trc tip nghin cu c. C th a ra 2 gi thit ln : gi thit ng v gi thit tnh * Nhm gi thit tnh Nhm gi thit tnh (cc dao ng theo phng thng ng) gi l chuyn ng thng trm ca v T. Dng chuyn ng ny thng xy ra di dng cc dao ng nh nhng trn 1 phm vi rng ca v T, v kt qu ca n lm bin i v tr cc lc a v i dng Khi b mt v T c nng ln, bin rt ra nn lc a c m rng. Ngc li khi b mt v T h thp xung, bin trn vo lc a lm thu hp phm vi lc a do vy v tr ca lc a v i dng t trc n nay u c nh v khng thay i * Nhm gi thit ng C s ca gi thit ng l v T c kh nng trt t do trn mng ca chng. Vn ng ca v T xy ra ch yu theo phng nm ngang v theo phng ng ch l bin d ca phng ngang. Lc tc dng ca theo phng ngang vi cng mnh lm cho t trn b mt v T b x y theo phng ngang lm cho t b np gp hoc b t ra v dch chuyn thay i v tr i ni khc. Kt qu ca vn ng ngang ny thng to ra cc dy ni ln ca th gii.
III.2.1
-
Kin to mng
* M hnh kin to mng: Thuyt kin to mng l mt hc thuyt theo c ch ng. Thch quyn ca Tri t c phn ra 1 s mng m ranh gii gia chng l cc i tch gin i dng, ni c hot ng kin to, ng t, ni la mnh nht. Dc theo ranh gii ny xut hin cc t gy toc, t gy chm, hoc nhng dch chuyn ngang. * Mng kin to : L mt phn ca thch quyn. B mt Tri t c th chia ra thnh by mng kin to chnh v nhiu mng kin to nh. 1. Mng Thi Bnh Dng 2. Mng u - 3. Mng n - c 4. Mng chu Phi 5. Mng Bc M 6. Mng Nam M 7. Mng Nam Cc Cc mng kin to c dy khong 100 km (60 dm) v bao gm hai loi vt liu c bn: lp v i dng v lp v lc a. Nm di chng l mt lp tng i do ca lp ph c gi l quyn mm chuyn ng lin tc. Lp ny trong lt ca mnh li c mt lp rn chc hn ca lp ph nm di n. Thnh phn ca hai dng lp v khc nhau mt cch ng k. Lp v i dng ch yu cha cc loi bazan, trong khi lp v lc a ch yu cha cc loi granit vi t trng thp c cha nhiu nhm v ixt silic (SiO2). Hai dng ny ca lp v cng khc nhau v dy, trong lp v lc a dy hn mt cch ng k. S chuyn ng ca quyn mm lm cho cc mng kin to b chuyn ng theo mt tin trnh gi l s tri dt lc a, n c gii thch bng thuyt kin to mng. S tng tc gia
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cc mng kin to to ra cc dy ni v ni la, cng nh to ra cc trn ng t v cc hin tng a cht khc. - Ranh gii gia cc mng kin to khng trng vi ranh gii cc chu lc. Hin nay ngi ta bit rng Tri t l hnh tinh duy nht trong h Mt Tri c hin tng kin to mng, mc d c mt s gi thuyt cho rng Ha Tinh c th cng tng c cc mng kin to trong qu kh trc khi lp v ca n b ng cng li ti ch. III.3. a mo, nh hng ca a mo n xy dng cng trnh a mo l a hnh ca 1 khu vc xt trn cc mt ngun gc, hnh thi v l 1 b phn cn thit ca nghin cu CCT a hnh l 1 khi nim c s dng m t din mo b mt lp v cng ca T. N l tp hp ca cc dng a hnh nh : i, sng, sui,.V nhim v ca a mo l phi gii thch v phn loi cc dng a hnh v cc tp hp ca chng. Ngoi vic m t din mo ca b mt T cn phi tm hiu ngun gc pht sinh v lch s oht trin ca n. Dng a hnh c th nh cao ln so vi mt ngang gi l a hnh dng, hoc c th lm xung gi l a hnh m. Cc dng a hnh cng l nhng thnh to c pht sinh, pht trin v cui cng thoi ho to ra nhng dng a hnh khc. S pht sinh, pht trin ny ph thuc cht ch vo 2 nhm ng lc ch yu : ni lc v ngoi lc Ni lc : qu trnh vn ng kin to ca v T, cc qu trnh l ho trng lng t, hot ng ca ni la, ng t v cu trc a cht Ngoi lc : cc tc nhn nh gi, dng chy, sng bin cng lm bo mn v to nn cc dng a hnh trn b mt T Tuy l 2 qu trnh lun xy ra song song nhau nhng vai tr ca ni lc mang tnh ch ng, bi v chnh ni lc lm cho a hnh mp m khng bng phng, to ra nhng khi tri ln hay mng h xung (vc thm), trn qu trnh chu nh hng ca ni lc s ph thuc vo iu kin kh hu gim bt dn s mp m
III.4. Cc dng bin v ca v T

Ta bit cc dng th nm ca t bao gm th nm ngang, th nm nghing Do cc chuyn ng kin to ca v T, cc trm tch sau khi c hnh thnh b thay i th nm, t th nm ngang chuyn sang th nm nghing, un np, t gy Th nm ngang : th nm ban u ca t . Th nm ngang thng gp nhng min m cc chuyn ng kin to ca v T yu hoc lp cha tri qua cc qu trnh chuyn ng kin to no ng k Th nm nghing : th nm nghing ca lp c th l th nm nguyn sinh (c hnh thnh ngay t ban u theo a hnh dc). th hin v tr ca mt lp nm nghing, cn xc nh cc yu t th nm nghing ca lp ng phng gc phng v ng phng ng dc gc dc ng hng dc gc phng v hng dc * Th nm un np ca lp : Np un l nhng dng un cong ca cc trm tch hay phun tro ch yu sinh ra do kt qu bin dng do ca di tc dng cu cc lc kin to (ch yu l p y ngang) Np un c chia thnh 2 dng chnh : Np un li : l dng un cong ca cc lp , hng b li ln pha trn. V th phn trong (phn nhn ca np un li c cc c nht)
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Np un lm : l dng un cong ca cc lp , hng b li v pha di nn nhn ca np un lm c cc tr nht - Cu trc ca un np Sn ca np un gi l cnh (ch : i vi nhiu loi np un, cnh ca np un va thuc np un lm va thuc np un li pha bn cnh) Ni un cong nht to nn np li hay np lm c coi l vm ca np un v ng ni cc im un cong gi l nh ca np un (v ni c cao ln nht) Mt phng cha nh ca np un v phn np un thnh 2 phn bng nhau gi l mt trc - Cc dng np un : (da vo dc ca cnh v ca mt trc np un so vi mp nm ngang) Np un thng ng (np un cn) : cc cnh ca np un u dc v 2 pha. c 2 cnh u c cng dc v mt trc ca np un hp vi phng ngang 1 goc vung Np un nghing (np un khng i xng) cc cnh ca np un cng dc v 2 pha nhng vi gc dc khc nhau. Do vy, mt trc np un cng nghing 1gc <90 0 so vi mp nm ngang. Np un nm : cc cnh v mt trc ca np un hu nh nm ngang Np un : cc cnh v mt trc ca np un u dc v 1 pha Np un chi u : th t a tng b o ngc - Nguyn nhn : Khi lc ngang ca chuyn ng kin to cc lp b trt theo b mt cc lp Tp hp cc b dn, nt n cc vm cng to ra np un Trng hp thnh to np un cong c km theo s chy do * Th nm t gy - Di cc lc tc dng kin to, trong xut hin cc ng sut vt qu gii hn bn ca n lm cho cc b ph hu dn hoc do. Khi ph hu dn th trong xut hin cc mt nt cng, cc khi b cc mt nt phn chia c th b dch chuyn dc theo cc mt nt - Trng hp cc b nt v b dch chuyn cc mt nt gi l hin tng t gy. t gy thun : l nhng t gy rong , mt t gy dc v pha trt xung (t gy trt theo hng dc c cnh trn c khuynh hng di chuyn xung di v cnh di tri ln ) t gy nghch : t gy trt theo hng dc c cnh trn di chuyn ln pha trn cn cnh di dch chuyn xung di
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CHNG IV : CC TNH CHT C L CA T IV.1. Tnh cht nc ca t IV.1.1 Tnh thm

L s vn ng ca cht lng trong mi trng l rng hoc khe nt bo ho nc. Tnh thm ca t c xc nh bng h s thm K (m/s, m/ng) o Khng thm : st, cng khng nt n (K < 0,001m/ng) o Thm yu : st pha ct, ct pha st, ct mn (K = 0,1 1 m/ng) o Thm tt : ct nh n th, si, sn (K = 1 >100 m/ng)
IV.1.2
-
Tnh mao dn
L hin tng nc dng ln trong cc l rng nh ca t do lc cng b mt tc ng nhng b mt phn cch gia vt cht c trng thi vt l khc nhau (nh gia cht lng kh, rn - lng) Biu hin ca tnh cht mao dn ca t : chiu cao ct nc c th gi c bi lc mao dn (sc cng b mt) v lc dnh do mao dn. Sc cng b mt (lc cng trn 1 n v chiu di ct ngang b mt) c phng tip tuyn vi mt cng nc. : gc t (c trng phn t gia nc v ht rn) Lc ko cng mt nc 2 r (do 2 lc tc dng 2 bn thnh ca ng), chiu ln phng thng ng c P = 2 r. cos => chnh lc ko cng P ny lm nc dng ln trong ng Trng lc ca ct nc trong ng lm ko nc h xung G = r2 .Hmd . . g r : bn knh ng mao dn Hmd : chiu cao mao dn khi cn bng g : gia tc trng trng : khi lng ring ca nc chiu cao mao dn t gi tr cc i khi P = G => 2 r. cos = r2 .Hmd . . g => chiu cao mao dn H md =
2.. cos r..g
T cng thc trn ta nhn thy chiu cao mao dn ph thuc vo bn knh ng, khi lng ring ca cht lng v vt liu lm ng (v gc t chu nh hng ca vt liu lm ng v loi cht lng) cao mao dn ca mt s t t Hmd ct trung ct mn ct pha st st pha ct st 15-35 35-160 100-150 150-400 400-500
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Ti liu a cht cng trnh Chng I : M u
nh hng ca mao dn : gy m t cho cng trnh, tnh cht c l ca t gim xung Nguyn nhn: lc tng tc ca nc v kh vi cc ht t, th hin s tm t cc ht t, to nn trong cc l rng nhng mt khum v mt s hin tng khc. Chiu cao dng mao dn t l nghch, cn tc dng th t l thun vi ng knh cc mao qun. Trong t st dng ti hng mt, trong nhng loi t khc, hng centimt n vi mt.
IV.1.3
Tnh cha nc ca t
+ t l mt tp hp cc ht khang vt th rn, cc l rng cha nc v khng kh - Th rn gm cc ht khang vt thng gi l ht t. Tnh cht ca t phn ln ph thuc vo ln, hnh dng ht v cc thnh phn khong vt khc ca chng - Trong t iu kin t nhin lc no cng cha 1 lng nc nht nh. Lng nc ny l pha lng trong t. Nc c tc dng mnh vi cc ht khong vt trong t. - Nu cc l rng trong t khng cha y nc th khng kh s lp y cc ch . V khng kh ny chnh l pha kh ca t . + Do vy, thun tin, ngi ta a ra m hnh t gm 3pha c tch ri ra vi cc lng ring bit nhng vn gi c t l chun xc gia chng M hnh t chi tit biu th cc lng th tch v khi lng khc nhau.
k h o l n g i
th e tc h
n Qk = 0 k h o g k hVk Q Qn Qh n c Vr Vn Vh V
ra n
* Tnh cht nc ca t c nh gi bi 2 ch tiu a/ m t nhin (W) : m t nhin ca t c biu th bng t s gia khi lng nc cha trong t iu kin t nhin vi khi lng ca ht t Q W = n .100% Qh Qn : khi lng nc c trong t Qh : khi lng phn ht rn b/ bo ho (G) : l t s gia m t nhin v m bo ho (bo ho khi nc chim ton b l rng) W V G = tn = n Wbh V r Da vo bo ho nc phn chia t loi ct lm 3 loi : 0 < G 0.5 t hi m 0.5 < G 0.8 t m 0.8 < G 1 t bo ha
IV.1.4
-
Tnh khng n nh vi nc ca t (trng n v co ngt)
a/ Tnh trng n : Tnh trng n l hin tng tng th tch ca t khi tc dng tng h vi nc hay dung dch
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Cc c trng ca t trng n + Bin dng trng n : bin dng ca t trc v sau khi t trng n (c th so snh v chiu cao mu t hoc th tch mu t trc v sau khi trng n) V Vs h hs Rtn = tn x100% = tn x100% Vs hs Vtn , htn : th tch v chiu cao ca t khi trng n Vs , hs : th tch v chiu cao ca ca mu t + p lc trng n : l p lc pht sinh trong qu trnh trng n. p lc ny c o bng lc tc dng ln mu t khi lm t v nn khng n hng, v c bin dng trng n bng khng. + m trng n : l m ng vi trng thi m qu trnh hp th nc hay dung dch lng khc ca t ngng li (khi s trng n kt thc) m ms Wtn = tn .100% ms mtn : trng lng mu t sau khi trng n ms : trng lng t kh tuyt i t trng n c bit l t trng n khng u khng nhng ch lm gim cng ca t thng qua s ph v ni lin kt gia cc ht m nhiu khi cn ph hoi c khi t thng qua h thng cc khe nt pht sinh trong qu trnh trng n. b/ Tnh co ngt Ngc vi trng n l co ngt, do t b thot nc Tnh co ngt ca t l s gim th tch ca t khi b hong kh Trong xy dng cng trnh, c bit l khi thi cng h mng, t nn c th n, c th co lm cho tnh cht vt l, c hc ca t nn b thay i, khng cn ph hp vi thit k v l nguyn nhn gy ra h hng cng trnh
IV.2. Tnh cht vt l ca t IV.2.1 Tnh l rng v khe nt

Tnh l rng ca t : c trng bi cc ch tiu sau : rng : l t s gia th tch phn rng ca t vi th tch ton b t . V n = r .100% V Vr : th tch phn rng (th tch ca phn khng kh v nc trong t ) [m3] V : th tch tan b t bao gm phn rn, khng kh v nc trong t ). [m3] - rng thay i trong cng 1 loi t cc trng thi kt cu khc nhau (xem qua bng sau) rng (%) Kt cu t Cht Cht va Cht t Ct ln si, ct ht to v ht va < 35 35 40 > 40 Ct ht nh v ht mn, ct pha st < 38 38 44 > 44 nh St, st pha ct, ct pha st nng < 30 30 45 > 45
a.
H s rng : l t s gia th tch phn rng v th tch ca phn ht t

e= Vr Vh
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Vr : th tch phn rng (th tch ca phn khng kh v nc trong t ) [m3] Vh : th tch phn ht rn trong t [m3] H s rng l 1 ch tiu c th cho bit s b c tnh cng ca t do dng nh gi cht ca t (xem bng phn loi theo cht) H s rng cht Cht Cht va Cht t t Ct ln si, ct ht to v ht va < 0.55 0.55 0.7 > 0.7 Ct ht nh v ht mn, ct pha st < 0.6 0.6 0.75 > 0.75 nh Ct bt (ct bi) < 0.6 0.6 0.8 > 0.8 St, st pha ct, ct pha st nng < 0.4 0.4 0.8 > 0.8
*** Trong thc t i vi t loi ct v t loi st , vic dng rng v h s rng cha th hin trng thi l rng ca t m cn phi dng cc ch tiu tng i i vi t loi ct th phi xc nh cht tng i D : e e D = max emax emin emax : h s rng ca ct khi kt cu xp nht (trng thi rng nht) emin : h s rng ca ct khi kt cu cht nht e : h s rng ca ct trng thi t nhin Da vo cht tng i D, ngi ta chia ra 3 trng thi nh sau : 0 < D 0.33 : trng thi ri xp 0.33 < D 0.67 : trng thi cht va 0.67 < D 1 : trng thi cht nht
rxo i p 0 0.33 chav t a 0.67 chanha t t 1 D
i vi t loi st th dng ch tiu c ca t dnh. Ta so snh c ca t st c kt cu t nhin vi c ng vi kt cu trng thi chy v do W Wch : t trng thi chy Wd > W Wch : t trng thi do W Wd : t trng thi cng
cg n Wd de o Wch cha y W
Ch tiu c tng i B nh sau : W Wd B= Wch Wd Wch : m gii hn khi t chuyn t trng thi do sang trng thi chy Wd : m gii hn khi t chuyn t trng thi cng sang trng thi do W : m gii hn ca t trng thi t nhin Da vo c tng i B c th bit c trng thi vt l ca t st : : trng thi chy B 1 1 > B 0 : trng thi do B <0 : trng thi rn *** Trong thc t, t trng thi t nhin khng hon ton l t ct hoc t st. C s pha trn gia cc loi ct v st vi nhau nn vic nh gi c ca t dnh cn phi xt trong cc trng hp ny.
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phn bit cc trng thi trn ln gia t ct v t st ta xt n ch s do I d = Wch Wd

ar t i capha se t t sepha ca t t se t
17
Id
i vi ct pha v st pha th phm vi bin i ca m t hn st n hn do ln, nn vic nh gi cc trng thi c phn nh thnh mt s trng thi khc nh sau : Ct pha st : B 0 : trng thi cng 0 < B < 1 : trng thi do : trng thi chy B >1 St pha ct : B 0 : trng thi cng 0 < B 0.25 : trng thi na cng 0.25 < B 0.5 : trng thi do cng 0.5 < B 0.75 : trng thi do mm 0.75 < B 1 : trng thi do chy : trng thi chy B >1 nt n ca t -b Nt n l hin tng b ph hoi v mt cu to cng nh thnh phn lm cho chng khng cn c tnh lin tc na -b Tnh nt n ca c nh gi qua 2 ch tiu sau : nt n: l s lng khe nt ca trn 1 n v chiu di (mt) khe h: khe h l t s gia din tch khe h to bi cc khe nt v din tch k c khe nt trn 1 mt ct no - khe h thng c xc nh trn sn dc, vch h o, nc ng hm vi din tch khe t 4-8m2. - Phn loi nt n ca : Kk 2% : nt n yu 2% < Kk 5% : nt n va 5% < Kk 10% : nt n mnh 10% < Kk 20% : nt n rt mnh
b.
IV.2.2 -
Dung trng ca t
Dung trng ca t l khi lng ca 1 n v th tch t. Ty theo lng cha tng i ca cc pha trong t, c th phn dung trng ra thnh cc loi nh sau : a. Dung trng t nhin (dung trng t) : l khi lng ca mt n v th tch t trng thi t nhin - Dung trng t nhin l t s gia khi lng t trng thi t nhin v th tch ca n Q Q + Qn W = = h V Vh + Vr Qh : khi lng phn ht ca t (g) Qn : khi lng phn nc trong t (g)
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Vh : th tch phn ht trong t (cm3) Vr : th tch phn nc v khng kh trong t (cm3) Dung trng t nhin ca t thay i trong phm vi 1,5-2,0 g/cm 3, i vi cng chc th dung trng t nhin xp x bng dung trng ht. Dung trng t nhin c trng cht kt cu ca t v vy cho php nhn xt gin tip v bn, tnh bin dng v n nh. Ngoi ra, dung trng t nhin cn c s dng trc tip trong tnh tan cng trnh. Dung trng bo ha nc l dung trng t nhin ln nht, l khi lng 1 n v th tch t trng thi no nc (tc l ton b l hng ca t u cha y nc) Q Q + Qr bh = bh = h V V Qh : khi lng phn ht ca t (g) Qr : khi lng phn nc trong t k c phn khng kh b nc chim ch (g) V : th tch t t nhin (cm3) b. Dung trng kh : l khi lng kh (ct t ) ca mt n v th tch t t nhin. -b Dung trng kh l t s gia khi lng t trng thi kh chia cho th tch ton b t . Q Qh k = h = V Vh + Vr Qh : trng lng phn ht ca t (g) Vh : th tch phn ht trong t (cm3) Vr : th tch phn nc v khng kh (phn rng) trong t (cm3) -c Dung trng kh tng i n nh v n khng ph thuc vo m. l rng cng nh(mc nn cht cng cao), t cha nhiu khong vt nng th dung trng kh cng cao. -d Dung trng kh c dng lm ch tiu kim tra ch yu v mc nn cht ca t trong thn cng trnh bng t (p, , nn ng). Mt s cng trnh p t nc ta thit k vi dung trng kh gk=1,45-1,70 g/cm3 c. Dung trng ht : l khi lng ca 1 n v th tch ht rn ca t . -b Dung trng ht l t s gia khi lng ht rn v th tch ca phn ht Q h = h Vh Qh : trng lng phn ht ca t (g) Vh : th tch phn ht trong t (cm3) -c Dung trng ht ch ph thuc vo thnh phn khang vt, khng ph thuc vo kin trc, cu to, m. Dung trng ht ca t thng thng thay i trong phm vi 2,0-3,0 g/m3. Cc baz c dung trng ht ln hn t 3,0-3,3 g/cm3. -d Dung trng ht cn ph thuc vo s c mt cc tp cht trong thnh phn t . V vy mi loi t c th c mt s gii hn bin i dung trng. d. Dung trng y ni : l khi lng trong nc ca n v th tch t trng thi t nhin Dung trng y ni hay dung trng ca nc nm di mc nc ngm c tnh bng khi lng ca n v th tch t c k n lc y ni ca nc
dn = bh n
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gbh : dung trng bo ha ca t (g/cm3) gn : dung trng nc (g/cm3)
IV.2.3 -
T trng ca t
L t s gia khi lng t v khi lng nc c cng th tch. h Cng thc : = (l i lng khng c th nguyn) n h : dung trng ht ca t (g/cm3) n : dung trng nc (g/cm3)
IV.2.4
Bng lin h cc ch tiu vt l ca t xac Cong thc

e=
e=
Ch tieu can nh He so rong e
. n (1 + 0,01W )
e=
h 1 k
o rong n (%) o bao hoa G Dung trong hat (g/cm3)
n 1n e n= .100 % 1+ e
G=
h =
. W .0,01W . n .(1 + 0,01W ) W k

1 0,01n
G=
0,01W . e
h = . n
Dung trong kho k = h (1 0,01 .n) (g/cm3) Dung trong ay noi ( 1). n dn = (g/cm3) 1+ e
k =
W
1 + 0,01W
dn = bh n
IV.3. Tnh cht c hc ca t IV.3.1 Tnh bin dng trong t

Di tc dng ca ti trng , th t b co p li v thay i hnh dng cng nh kch thc. Th tch cc l hng trong t b gim nh do cc ht khong vt dch chuyn tng i tng i vi nhau, do bin dng ca chnh cc ht t v do nc hay kh cha trong cc l rng t thng thng c nn cht ch yu do th tch l rng gim, nn bin dng nn ca t c biu hin qua tr s bin i ca h s rng, cn i vi t bo ho nc th c biu hin thng qua tr s bin i ca m. Tnh bin dng ca t thng nh gi bng cc ch tiu nn ln. Cc ch tiu c trng ca bin dng nh : h s nn ln, modun bin dng cho php ta d tnh ln, n nh v kh nng chu ti ln nht ca nn t
IV.3.2
-
bn ca t
bn ca t c th hin bng sc chng ct thng qua lc dnh kt v gc ma st trong . Cc ch tiu ny gip ta c th thit k nghing ca mi dc t p
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sao cho hp l, nh gi kh nng n nh ca mi dc, tnh p lc t sau lng tng chn, sc chu ti ca nn t . bn ca t thng c nh gi qua cc ch tiu : cng chng nn v ko, cng chng trt i vi : trong cng lc chng trt ph thuc vo bn lin kt gia cc ht. Trong t , lc chng trt rt ln v cc ht khong lin kt cht vi nhau. Lc chng trt trong cng m bo n nh cho cng trnh xy dng ln n. i vi t ri : lc chng trt trong t ri rc ch yu ph thuc vo lc ma st xut hin khi cc ht dch chuyn ln nhau. i vi t loi st (t dnh) sc chng ct khng ch ph thuc vo lc ma st trong m cn ph thuc vo lc dnh ca cc ht. V cc ht t c lin kt vi nhau bng cc loi keo kt dnh nn chu tc dng ca lc dnh. Cc ht sp xp theo cc gc cnh v c kh nng trt ln nhau khi chu ti trng ngoi, do vy n cng chu nh hng ca lc ma st gia cc ht vi nhau to nn gc ma st trong..
IV.4. Phn loi t IV.4.1 Phn loi t theo quan im CCT a.

Nhm cng Cc loi macma, bin cht, trm tch ha hc v trm tch gn kt chc cha b phong ha Nhm ny c t trng ln (2.65 3.1 g/cm3), rng nh (khong vi phn trm), hu nh khng thm nc, cng chu nn cao (500 4000kG/cm 2),sc chng ct ln (200 4000 kG/cm2) y l loi hon ho nht v mt xy dng cng trnh. Chng c phn bit bi bn v n nh cao, bin dng b v ngm nc yu. Cc khonh phn b cc loi nh vy l thun li xy dng bt c cng trnh no m khng gp nhng hn ch ng k, v thng khng phi p dng cc bin php m bo n nh ca cng trnh. Nhm na cng Bao gm cc loi cng b phong ha, nt n mnh, cc trm tch gn kt yu Tnh cht xy dng ca nhm ny ph thuc vo mc phong ha, thnh phn khong vt v mc gn kt ca T trng t 2.2 2.65, rng khong 10-15%, c kh nng cha nc v thm nc nhiu. d b nc ph hoi. Khc vi cng bi bn v n nh thp, bin dng ln, ngm nc ng k hoc cao. Chng thng b nt n nhiu, cn cc b ha tan th thng c hang hc, tuy vn c bn cao mu th nghim. Trong nhiu trng hp, nhng khonh phn b na cng u l thun li cho vic xy dng cc cng trnh khc nhau, k c nhng cng trnh quan trng, nhng u phi tun th nhng iu hn ch nht nh v phi p dng nhng bin php cng trnh phc tp m bo n nh v khai thc bnh thng ca cng trnh Nhm t ri rc So vi cng v na cng c c trng bi bn, n nh thp v bin dng ln. Mt s loi t thuc cc nhm ny u ngm nc mnh. Nhng nhm t ri xp v t mm dnh bao gm cc kiu ngun gc khc nhau ca t trm tch. Chng c c im l trng thi vt l v tnh cht bin i nhiu. iu kin xy dng cng trnh trn nhng loi t thng km theo nhiu hn ch ln.
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b.
-
c.
-
d.
-
e.
-
Nhm ny bao gm : dm, cui, si, ct. c tnh chung l khng c lin kt kin trc gia cc ht, t trng nh 1.4-1.9, rng ln 25-40%, c kh nng cha nc v thm nc cao. Tnh n nh ca t ph thuc vo cht ca chng. Nhm t mm dnh Bao gm : st, st pha, ct pha. Nhm t c tnh cht c bit Bao gm : bn, than bn, t mui ha, ct chy, th nhng. Cc loi t ny thng yu v mt xy dng
IV.4.2
Phn loi t theo TCVN
Da vo ch s do ngi ta phn ra loi t dnh (Id 1) v t ri (Id <1) a. t dnh : da vo ch s do, ngi ta phn t dnh ra 3 loi : Ct pha ( ct) 1 Id 7 St pha ( st) 7 < Id 17 St Id >17 b. t ri Da vo hm lng ht chim u th c ng knh >2mm - Hm lng ht chim trn 50% : t hn ln ( dm, cui, sn, si) - Hm lng ht chim nh hn 50% : t ct - Da vo hm lng v ng knh ht m phn loi t ri nh sau : 0.1 75% Ct nh < 75% Ct bt 0.25 > 50% Ct va 0.5 >50% Ct th 2 >50% Si >25% Ct si 10 >50% Dm cui d(mm)
c.
t bn t bn khi tha cc iu kin sau y : W > Wch v e > egh Loi bn Bn ct Bn st Bn st H s rng e e 0,9 e1 e 1,5
d.
t cha tn tch thc vt Tn t cha tn tch thc vt q ( than bn) t c cha tn tch thc vt t ct c cha tn tch thc vt 0,03 < q 0,1 t dnh c cha tn tch thc vt 0,05 < q 0,1 t dng than bn t c t than bn 0,1 < q 0,25 t c than bn va 025 < q 0,4 t c nhiu than bn 0,4 < q 0,6 t than bn 0,6 < q
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q : t s khi lng ca tn tch thc vt trong mu t sy 100o 105oC v khi lng ca phn ht rn ca mu t.
IV.4.3 a.
-
Phn loi t theo USCS
Nguyn tc phn loi : Da trn thnh phn kch thc ht chim u th c ng knh 0,074mm trong t phn chia thnh 2 nhm : ht th v ht mn i vi nhm ht th : da trn cc ht c ng knh 4,76mm phn chia thnh cc ph nhm i vi nhm ht mn : da trn cc gi tr gii hn chy, gii hn do, ch s do phn chia thnh cc ph nhm Tn ca cc loi t c kt hp 2 nhm k t sau : Tn t Cui, si Ct Bi St Hu c K hiu G (gravel) S (sand) M (silt) C (clay) O (organic) Cp phi Tt Km Do cao Do thp Than bn K hiu W (well graded) P (poor graded) H (high plasticity) L (low plasticity) Pt (peat)
b.
Tm tt phn loi Da vo hm lng ht c kch thc 0,074mm (ry No200) phn thnh 2 nhm ln nh sau : * t ht th: Hm lng cc ht c kch thc t 0,074mm tr ln chim trn 50%. Gm 2 nhm l cui si (G) v t ct (S) - t cui si (G) : hm lng ht c kch thc ln hn 4,76mm chim trn 50% - t ct (S) : hm lng ht c kch thc ln hn 4,76mm chim nh hn 50% Mi loi c chia thnh 4 nhm : - t cha t hoc khng cha ht mn, khng c loi ht no chim u th v hm lng, cp phi tt, c kt hp bng ch W Kt hp vi hai ch ci ca tn t c GW v SW khi hm lng ht mn chim t hn 5% tng trng lng t v tha iu kin v cp phi: Cu > 4 (i vi si sn), Cu > 6 (i vi ct) & Cc =1-3 d 60 H s khng u : Cu = - nh gi ng u ca cc ht t d10
2 d 30 d10 .d 60 da : ng knh m ht c kch thc bng hoc nh hn chim a% tng khi lng t kh. t cha t hoc khng cha ht mn, c mt loi ht chim u th v hm lng, cp phi km, c k hiu bng ch P Kt hp vi hai ch ci ca tn t c GP v SP khi hm lng ht mn chim t hn 5% tng trng lng t v khng tha iu kin v cp phi t. t ht th cha mt lng ng k ht mn (ch yu l ht bi) khng c tnh do, c k hiu bng ch M Kt hp vi ch ci ca tn t c GM v SM khi hm lng ht mn chim hn 12% tng trng lng t t ht th c cha mt lng ng k ht st k hiu bng ch C
H s phn loi : Cc =
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Kt hp vi ch ci ca tn t c GC v SC khi hm lng ht mn chim hn 12% tng trng lng t v ch s do phn ht mn >7 i vi t ht th c lng ht mn chim t 5% n 12% tng trng lng t hoc khng thuc hn nhm no th dng k hiu kp nh GP-GC, GW-SW, Hm lng ht mn < 5% (cha t hoc 5% - 12% trong tng trng khng cha ht mn) lng t Cp phi Cp phi s tt km GW,SW GP,SP GP-GC >12% (cha nhiu hat mn) Ht bi Ht st (c (khng c tnh do) tnh do) GM,SM GC,SC
* t ht mn
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Chng V
NC DI AT
Khai niem c ban ve nc di at
1.
Nc di t bao gm cc loi nc c trong l rng, khe nt v cc hang hc ca cc lp t . Nc cn tham gia vo thnh phn cu to mng tinh th ca khong vt to ra cc . Lng nc ngm di t nhiu hay t tu thuc vo iu kin c th ca tng ni (a hnh, thnh phn t , lng ma ) Nc di t c nh hng rt mnh n tnh cht vt l v c hc ca t : o Chng lm thay i trng thi, bn v tnh bin dng, tnh n nh ca khi t o Gy ra cc tc dng ho tan, n mn hoc cun tri cc ht t theo dng thm o L mt trong nhng nguyn nhn quan trng gy ra hin tng ln, trt t mi dc, hin tng ct chy hoc xi ngm o Gy kh khn cho vic thi cng h mng, lm mt n nh nn mng cng trnh. Nc di t l ngun ti nguyn rt qu gi, phc v i sng cho con ngi, cho s tn ti v pht trin nn cng nghip v nng lm nghip Ngun gc hnh thnh nc di t
o Nc c ngun gc kh quyn ( nc thm) c thnh to do nc kh quyn ngm vo trong t , do nc sng h, chy theo cc khe nt, l hng ca t hoc hi nc xm nhp t khng kh ri ngng t li - Qu trnh c bn quyt nh thnh phn ho hc ca nc c ngun gc thm l s ho tan v ra la t , s ho ln vi nc c ngun gc bin, s trm ng mui; s c c do bc hi, qu trnh ho l ho keo v hot ng ca vi sinh vt o Nc c ngun gc bin (nc trm tch) - c hnh thnh trong qu trnh thnh to t trm tch bin. V vy, thnh phn ho hc rt phc tp. - S bin i thnh phn ha hc ca nc i dng bt u trong cc loi bn y. Do s vn ng kin to, s thnh to cc tng trm tch bn trn, qu trnh bin i ca nc c ngun gc bin xm nhp t i dng, bin, vng vnh vo cc c thnh to hoc nc b p y ra t cc b nn cht (st kt, ct kt) thc y qu trnh thay th nc c ngun gc thm c t trc, s pha trn v trao i cation o Nc c ngun gc macma (nc nguyn sinh) - L nc nguyn sinh c tch ra trong qu trnh to v tri t v qu trnh hot ng ca th macma xm nhp v phun tro - Nc nguyn sinh thuc qu trnh sau macma ch chim khong 5-10% nc di t o Nc c ngun gc bin cht (nc th sinh) - L nc ti sinh hoc tch c ra t v hydrat ca ht t, trong qu trnh bin i nhit hoc bin cht ng lc (do p sut ln). - Nc th sinh cng c th c hnh thnh do cc phn ng ho hc khi iu kin ho l ca mi trng trong t thay i cc phn ng ho hc c s tch nc. Thc t rt kh xc nh ngun gc nc di t v cc loi nc c thnh phn ho hc ging nhau, nhng li c ngun gc khc nhau. Tuy nhin, c th da vo c im ca thnh phn nguyn t vi lng, cc cht ho tan hoc cc cht ng v n nh ca tng loi nc di t phn bit.
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2. -
Cc dng nc tn ti trong t Trong t nhin, t thng cha mt lng nc nht nh v tn ti cc dng : th hi, nc kt tinh (thng xut hin vng n i v hn i tuyt), nc lin kt ha hc, nc lin kt vt l, nc mao dn v nc trng lc (nc t do). 1. Nc lin kt ha hc : nm trong thnh phn cu to mng tinh th ca khong vt. o Lng nc lin kt ha hc thay i ph v tnh ng nht ca vt cht, cn cc tnh cht vt l th thay i t t ( trong sut, chit sut, t trng ) o Trong thc t xem nh nc thuc phn ht rn ca t v loi nc ny khng nh hng trc tip n tnh cht ca t . 2. Nc lin kt vt l : nc lin kt mt ngoi ca ht t do lc tng tc gia cc phn t nc vi b mt ht t, ch yu l lc ht tnh in. Lng nc lin kt vt l thay i ty thuc vo tnh a nc ca khong vt, phn tn mn ca ht t, thnh phn v hm lng ca cc cht ha tan trong nc l rng ca t 3. Nc mao dn (l 1 dng nc t do): tn ti trong cc l rng v khe nt nh (khe nt c b rng <2mm) ca t di sc cng ca b mt lc mao dn. 4. Nc trng lc : khng lin kt vi b mt ht v khng chu lc cng b mt. N c kh nng di chuyn di tc dng ca trng lc tc l di nh hng ca s chnh lch p lc.
Chat lng nc di at 1. Thnh phn ha hc ca nc di t
Thnh phn ha hc ca nc di t l mt h thng rt a dng v phc tp, lun lun trng thi ng do hot tnh ha hc ca cc hp cht c trong nc v do cc iu kin nhit ng hc trong t. Tuy vy tnh cht c bn ca nc khng bin i. Qu trnh hnh thnh thnh phn ha hc ca nc di t o Qu trnh ra la v ha tan : tc dng l chuyn vo dung dch thnh phn t cc khong vt nhng khng ph v mng tinh th ca khong vt o Qu trnh hn hp nc ca cc loi nc di t c khong ho v thnh phn ho hc khc nhau v rt ph bin trong thin nhin. o Qu trnh lng ng cc mui do cc loi nc hn hp vi nhau gy ra hin tng kt ta o Qu trnh c c nc lm tng lng cc cht d ha tan, do s bc hi v d pht tn .. o Qu trnh khuch tn lm di chuyn cc cht ho tan, lm ng u nng trong ton b h thng o Qu trnh trao i cation trong nc o Qu trnh hot ng ca cc vi sinh vt lm cho thnh phn kh v mui ha tan trong nc thay i. o Ngoi ra cn mt s qu trnh khc cng nh hng n thnh phn ha hc ca nc di t. a. Cc thnh phn ha hc chnh trong nc
Do nc tip xc trc tip vi t , nn n cha hu ht cc nguyn t c trong v tri t.. Cho n nay ngi ta mi pht hin c 62 nguyn t trong nc thin nhin
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khong ho ca nc l tng hm lng cc cht khong thu c khi phhn tch ho hc mt lt nc. Ta c th xc nh tr s lng khong ho bng lng cn kh khi un cn kh 1 lt nc ( 105-110o) Kiu ho hc v tnh cht c bn ca nc di t do cc hp phn sau quyt nh : Cl -, SO42-, HCO3-, CO32-, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+. Cc hp cht ca nit v cc nguyn t khc nh K,Si,Fe,Al l nhng nguyn t ph bin rng ri trong v T v trong nhng iu kin thin nhin quyt nh s to thnh cc kiu nc di t c bit . Ion Cl- (clorua) : trong v T thng cha 1 t clorua v Cl- ny l 1 hp phn (nguyn t) c bn ch tn ti trong cc khong vt ca macma v bin cht. Tuy nhin lng Cl tch t ln trong nc i dng ch yu l t cc kh ni la. Ion SO42- (sunfat) : tng i ph bin trong nc di t, c bit trong nc khong ho yu. Hm lng ca SO42- b gii hn khi c mt ca ion Ca2+, v chng d to thnh mui CaSO4 ho tan yu. Nc sunfat thng cha H2S (hydrosunfua). trong cc tng cha nc nng, ion ny sinh ra do s phn hu ca cc cht hu c l nguyn nhn gy ra s nhim bn ca nc. Ion HCO3- (bicacbonat) , CO32- (cacbonat) : hm lng ca chng trong nc khng cao lm, nguyn nhn ch yu la do s ra la ca vi, st vi khi trong nc c cha kh CO2. Ion Na+ : ph bin rng ri trong nc di t. Ngun cung cp natri trong nc di t l nc bin v cc i dng, qu trnh phong ho cc xm nhp, s ho tan cc tinh th mui phn tn trong t , cc phn ng taro i ion Ion K+ : thng rt t gp trong nc di t mc d cc mui ca n c ho tan ln. iu ny c gii thch l do kali tham gia vao qu trnh thnh to cc khong vt th sinh (khng ho tan trong nc). Ngun cung cp kali ca nc di t l do cc qu trnh phong ho cc xm nhp v cc khong vt c cha kali hoc do s ho tan cc mui kali Ion Mg2+ : thng gp trong nc di t vi hm lng khng ln lm. S c mt ca cc ion magi ch yu lin quan n nc bin hoc t kh quyn. Ion Ca2+ : thng gp trong nc di t c khong ho khc nhau. Ion canxi i vo nc di t do qu trnh phong ho cc xm nhp, c bit l s ra la cc vi Ngoi cc thnh phn ch yu k trn, trong nc di t cn c mt mt s thnh phn ng vai tr th yu trong thnh phn ho hc to nn nc di t, l cc hp cht nit, silic, alumin
b. Biu din kt qu phn tch thnh phn ha hc ca nc Cch chuyn i t mg/l sang mg ng lng/l
g l n = n g n u e n t l n gy g h a tr o
m = g /l
x (m /l) g g l n n g
g Vd : tm m /l ca 20,04mg/l Ca2+.
ng lng cua canxi = 40 = 20 2 2 0.04 m g n ln g g/l = =1.002 m g /l 20
Biu din kt qu phn tch thnh phn ho hc ca nc bng cng thc cuc lp
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kh
(g/l)
(g/l)
A T, PH, Q C
Pha trc phn s ghi khong ho M, cc cht kh, v cc nguyn t vi lng Pha sau phn s ghi nhit T, PH, v lu lng Q (m3/ng) g A : hm lng % m /l cc anion theo th t gim dn g C : hm lng % m /l cc cation theo th t gim dn g c tn nc ch gm anion v cation c hm lng ln hn 20% m /l theo th t t tri qua phi, t anion n cc cation Vd :
M 0 ,5
H S (C O ) M = 2 0,22 2 0,02 1,051
(SO 2 - ) .( H O ) C 4 80 3 16 T , PH , Q 7 1092 32o (C 2 +) .( M 2 +) a g 72 17
( a 2 +) C
( C HO -) .( C - ) l 3 7 ,2 0 1 ,3 8 8 oC ,2 +) .( N a .( M 2 +) g 5 ,4 4 2 ,2 5 1 ,4 8
c tn : bicacbonat canxi natri 2. Cht lng nc trong sinh hot Nc dng trong sinh hot ch yu phc v cho nhu cu n ung v sinh hot nn loi nc khng cha cc nguyn t c hi i vi c th v cc vi khun gy bnh. Yu cu ca nc dng trong sinh hot : o Yu cu v m thut : Nc phi trong sut, khng mu, khng c mi,v l o Yu cu v cc c hi : nc phi sch v mt ho hc, khng cha cc cht nguy him nh axit, kim v cc cht c khc, khng cha nhiu cc cht kh ho tan, khng c qu cng v khng c cc cht phng x o Yu cu v vi sinh vt : hm lng vi sinh vt gy bnh ng rut khng cao v khng gy nguy hi n sc kho ngi s dng. V mt ny thng c nh gi theo cc ch tiu gin tip. Da vo s c mt ca vi khun coli nh gi v s nhim bn ca nc. Vi khun ny khng gy bnh nhng s c mt ca n chng t c mt ca cc vi trng gy bnh (thng hn, kit l ) . Thng thng ngi ta nh gi trn 2 ch tiu : Cli khun : l lng nc tnh theo cm3 c cha 1 vi khun coli Cli n v : l lng coli c mt trong 1 lit nc
3. Cht lng nc trong xy dng cng trnh ** Phn tch nh gi thnh phn ho hc ca nc trn 2 ch tiu sau : a. PH : PH ca nc c tnh theo hm lng H+ c trong nc PH = -lg[H+] - Da vo PH ngi ta c th nh gi tnh cht (hot tnh) ca nc di t. Nc di t thng c PH = 5-8. PH cng cao th tnh axit ca nc cng mnh, gy ra cc qu trnh ho tan hoc n mn VLXD v t b. cng ca nc di t : - c xc nh theo hm lng Ca2+ v Mg2+ trong 1 lt nc. cng ton phn l tng hm lng cc ion Ca2+ v Mg2+ tnh cho 1 lt nc
[Ca 2+ ] [ Mg 2+ ] + cng ton phn 40 24
nh gi cng ca nc ngi ta phn bit ra hai loi cng nh sau: o cng tm thi : l hm lng Ca,Mg, lng ng (kt ta) dng mui cacbonat ( CaCO3, MgCO3) sau khi un si nc v c tnh ra n v cng.
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o cng vnh cu : l hm lng Ca2+ v Mg2+ cn tn ti trong nc sau khi nc un si v c tnh ra n v cng Lm mm nc bng phng php ho hc l a cc ho cht c kh nng kt hp vi cc ion Ca2+ v Mg2+ c trong nc to ra cc kt ta CaCO3, MgCO3, Mg(OH)2, v loi tr chng ra khi nc bng bin php lng ng. Cc ho cht c s dng c th l vi Ca(OH)2, xoa Na2CO3, xt Na(OH). c. n mn S n mn ph thuc vo nng ion hydro cng nh cc kh ho tan trong nc nh oxi, H2S, CO2 v mt s cc mui khc. Tc dng n mn ca nc di t th hin qua thi gian n mn v ph hng cc ng chng bng thp ca h khoan, cc b phn bng kim loi ca thit b phc v cho cng trnh, hay n mn b tng i vi cc cng trnh di nc. Tc dng n mn ca nc c biu hin s ph hoi b tng do s kt tinh ca cc cht mi, km theo s tng th tch v ra la khi btng mt s thnh phn ca n, c bit l cacbonat canxi Cc cht sinh ra trong qu trnh thu ha thng b ho tan mnh. Mt s cht mi sinh ra trong qu trnh thu ho c th kt hp vi cc cht c trong nc di t hnh thnh cc cht khc hoc b ho tan hoc lm tng th tch khi btng Cc dng n mn thng gp : o Dng n mn ra tri : Nc ho tan Ca(OH)2 l thnh phn t do c trong xi mng hay do silicat tri canxit bi thu ho sinh ra. ho tan ca Ca(OH)2 khng ln lm nhng tri qua qu trnh nhiu nm tip xc vi nc hoc mi trng nc lun thay i th cu kin b tng b rng i nhanh chng. Khi nc c kh nng chui vo bn trong v ho tan thnh phn Ca(OH) 2 ri cun i mt tnh dnh kt ni b lm gim cng ca ximng. Hin tng n mn ny cng tng khi nc c p lc cng ln. o Cc dng n mn mui : nc di t thng cha cc thnh phn c dng mui nh MgSO4, CaSO4, NaCl, MgCl2. Cc mui ny s phn ng vi cc thnh phn khong do ximng thu ho sinh ra. 3CaSO4 + 3CaO.Al2O3.31H2O 3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.31H2O MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 +H2O CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH)2 MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2 Cc cht mi to thnh c tnh n th tch v lm mt cng ca b tng o Dng n mn axit : nc di t thng cha mt s loi axit : HCl, H2SO4 Cc axit ny phn ng vi Ca(OH)2 to thnh cc sn phm c kh nng tng th tch v d ho tan vi nc. o Dng n mn cacbonic : nc c cha nhiu CO2 ho tan khi tc dng vi ximng s c cc phn ng sau : Ca(OH)2 +CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O = Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 l cht d b ho tan trong nc nn sau phn ng th Ca(OH) 2 do xi mng thu ho sinh ra u ho tan bin mt v do cu kin b tng ngy cng rng.
Phn loi nc di t theo iu kin tng tr 1. Nc trong i thng kh (Nc thng tng) i thng kh l lp t gii hn t mt t n b mt nc ngm thm nc nhng khng thng xuyn bo ho nc.
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a. b. -
c. -
Trong i ny khng kh c th t do lu thng nn gi l i thng kh nhng khng hon ton bo ho nc. B dy v cu to ca i thng kh ph thuc vo cu to v c im a phng, cu trc v thnh phn thch hc ca trong i. Nc trong i thng kh (nc thng tng) l loi nc di t nm gn mt t nht, nm trn nhng thu knh cch nc khng ln trong i thng kh. Do nm trong i thng kh nn nc thng tng b dao ng rt mnh lit theo cc iu kin kh tng thu vn ca khu vc cho nn vo ma kh chng c th hon ton b kh kit. Nc ly L mt loi nc thng tng, cha trong t ly v c quan h mt thit vi nc ma, nc mt v nc ngm C nhiu nguyn nhn sinh ra nc ly, v d chng c hnh thnh khi nhng cnh rng b ly li, nhng ni b chy rng, nhng ng c ly li hay nhng vng nc c mc cy v sinh than bn. Nc th nhng Lp trn cng ca i thng kh c lin quan n i sng thc vt trn mt t gi l lp th nhng. Nc trong lp th nhng gi l nc th nhng. Nc th nhng cha mt lng rt ln hp cht hu c v vi sinh vt. N ng vai tr rt quan trng trong vic lm tng ph nhiu ca t. Nc th nhng l i tng nghin cu ca cc chuyn gia nng nghip v th nhng hc. Nc thu knh Dng nc ngm trong i thng kh khi gp t cch nc hoc thm nc km b gi li to thnh lp nc c b dy khng ln v phn b hn ch trn b mt ca thu knh cch nc, c gi l nc thu knh. ng thi ca nc thu knh ph thuc vo lng nc ngm ca ma, lng ngm ca nc thi. Ngoi ra n cn ph thuc vo b dy, quy m phn b v su ca thu knh cch nc. Nc thu knh thng tn ti theo ma, lng khng ln, ng thi ca n bin i rt mnh nn khng c ngha ln i vi cung cp nc. Nc thu knh c nh hng n cng trnh xy dng : nc cn tr qu trnh thi cng hay do ng thi thay i mnh lm nh hng n s n nh ca cng trnh xy dng. Nc ngm c mt thong t do Khi nim
2. a.
b.
Nc ngm l loi nc trng lc di t trong tng cha nc th nht k t trn mt xung. Pha trn tng nc ngm thng khng c lp cch nc bao ph v nc trng lc khng chim ton b b dy ca t thm nc, nn b mt ca nc ngm l 1 mt thong t do iu ny quyt nh tnh cht khng p ca nc ngm. Trong 1 s trng hp, trong i thng kh c thu knh cch nc nm ln b mt nc ngm s lm cho nc ngm chu p lc cc b. Khi khoan hay o vo tng cha nc s gp mc nc ngm. Mc nc ny gi l mc nc xut hin v cng chnh l mc nc n nh. Nu ta ni cc mc nc ngm trn mt mt ct no li ta s c ng mc nc ngm ca mt ct tng ng. Phm vi phn b nc ngm ph thuc vo iu kin a l t nhin, iu kin i hnh, a mo, a cht ca khu vc. c tnh
Trang 40 / 67
Nc ngm vn ng di tc dng ca chnh lch mc nc, n chy t ni c mc nc ngm cao hn n ni c mc nc ngm thp hn. Do khng c tng cch nc pha trn nn nc ma, nc mt trn c th d dng tm qua i thng kh cung cung cp cho nc ngm trn ton b din tch min phn b ca n. Chnh c im ny lm cho ng thi nc ngm (tc l s bin i mc nc, lu lng, nhit , thnh phn ca nc theo thi gian) bin i mnh m theo cc yu t kh tng thu vn Trong ma ma, nc ma ngm xung cung cp cho nc ngm lm mc nc ngm dng ln cao. Do vy b dy tng cha nc tng ln. Ma kh th ngc li. V ngun gc ca nc ngm, thng l ngun gc ngm, tc l do nc ma, nc mt ngm xung. Trong 1 s trng hp c ngun gc ngng t v kh ph bin l ngun gc hn hp t nc ngm v nc di su i ln theo cc t gy kin to. Nc ngm c p (Nc Actzi)
3. a. -
Khi nim Tng cha nc nm gia 2 y cch nc, c ct p lc cao hn y cch nc trn v vn ng thm do chnh lch ct p. Do b lp cch nc hoc lp t c tnh thm km ph lin tc bn trn, to ra p lc v khng c mt thong t do. Nc actzi c p lc do b lp cch nc lin tc che ph pha trn. Do vy, khi khoan o n tng cha nc th mc nc di t dng ln trong ging khoan hoc l khoan. Khi iu kin a cht v a cht thu vn thun li th nc s trn ln hoc phun ra thnh ging hoc l khoan t chy. c tnh
b. -
N thng nm su hn nc ngm v trn b che ph bi 1 lp cch nc hoc tng i cch nc lin tc. Lp cch nc trn gi lnh cch nc, cn lp cch nc di gi l y cch nc. Khong cch ca t cha nc kp gia nh v y cch nc gi l b dy tng cha nc. Mt trong nhng c im c bn ca nc actezi l c p lc, nn khi khoan o n tng cha nc th mc nc s dng ln trong l khoan cao hn nh ca tng cha nc. Mc nc p lc pht hin c khi khoan thng vo y cch nc trn gi l mc nc xut hin. Mc nc xc nh c v tri trong h khoan sau 24h l mc nc n nh. Ngha l v tr xut hin nc di t lun su hn mc nc n nh trong l khoan. Khi khai thc nc, n th hin ng thi n hi v t b nhim bn do c cc tng cch nc bn trn.
Trang 41 / 67
CHNG VI : VI.1.
TNH TON THM NC DI T
C s ng lc hc ca dng thm VI.1.1. Quy lut c bn v vn ng thm ca nc di t Ta cp n 3 loi tng cha nc : o Tng cha nc thng tng (i thng kh) o Tng cha nc khng p o Tng cha nc c p (actezi) Trong thy lc, s vn ng ca nc c xc nh da vo h s Reynolds
Re =
vd
: khi lng ring n v ca cht lng (kg/m3) v : vn tc dng thm (m/s) : h s nht ng hc d : ng knh ng (mt ct knh chy) o Dng chy tng (Re <2300) : l dng chy vi cc tia ng dng song song vi nhau v c vn tc khng ln o Dng chy ri (Re>2300) : l dng chy vi cc tia ng dng c vn tc ln, xen cun vo nhau v to thnh xoy a s nc di t vn ng thm c dng chy tng (phn tch v sao chy tng) VI.1.2. C s ng lc hc ca dng thm
Nc di t ch vn ng theo l rng v khe nt ca t . Nhng khi a vo tnh ton thm, ngi ta gi thit dng nc di t chim ton b tng cha nc (gm l rng v phn ht rn) a) Tc dng thm - Tc thm l cng ca dng nc di t hay th tch nc chy qua trong mt n v thi gian, trn mt n v din tch mt ct ngang ca dng nc .
v= Q F
Trong : v tc thm (m/s) Q cng dng chy (m3/s) F din tch mt ct (m2) b) cao thy lc - cao thy lc mt im ca dng nc di t l tng cao ca im cho trc, trn mc quy c v cao p lc ti im , biu th bng ct nc
H =Z + u v2 + n 2g
H cao thy lc; Z cao ca im M nm trn mc so snh mc chun 0 0. gn - trng lng ring ca nc di t; u/gn - ct nc p lc do p lc nc l rng g gia tc trng trng
Trang 42 / 67
Dng thm chu sc cn ln nn vn tc ca dng chy trong t thng rt nh v vy thng b qua ct nc vn tc trong cc bi ton thm. Ct nc gy ra dng thm trong khi t ch gm hai thnh phn u. chnh ct p trn chiu di dng thm L: u u h = hA hB = A + Z A B + Z B n n Gradient thy lc I (tn tht p lc)
i= H L
L: chiu di dng thm m c chnh p lc trong khong chiu di . c) H s thm - H s thm K l s o dn nc ca t , m theo nh lut thm tuyn tnh Dacxi, n xc nh mi lin h gia gim thy lc v tc thm ca nc di t. N ng thi ph thuc vo tnh cht ca t (kch thc l rng, kch thc ht, hnh dng, thnh phn mi trn ca ht, v.v), cng nh tnh cht ca nc di t ( nht, khong ha, nhit v.v). H s thm c s o ca tc . V s lng n bng tc thm khi gim thy lc bng mt. d) Thm n nh v thm khng n nh - Chuyn ng ca nc di t c th n nh hoc khng n nh theo thi gian. - Thm n nh c hiu l qu trnh thm c cc thng s dng ngm ( cao thy lc, tc thm, v.v), khng thay i theo thi gian. Trong t nhin iu kin nh th rt t xy ra. - Thc t th mi chuyn ng ca nc di t u khng n nh hoc t nht l n nh gi. Trong trng hp chuyn ng n nh, ta gi thit chung rng, cc ng dng xc nh c ng chuyn ng thc t ca cc phn t nc. e) Thm tng - Thm tng l chuyn ng ca nc di t m tn ti quan h tuyn tnh gia tc thm v gim thy lc theo nh lut Dacxi. Thm tng l chuyn ng thc ca nc khng c s xo trn cc phn t nc gia cc lp v khng c bt k mt s dao ng no. f) Thm ri - Thm ri l s thm ca nc di t vi tc vt qu tc cc hn, m cc phn t nc chuyn ng khng phn lp, ln xn. Khi thm ri, cc phn t nc dao ng ngang rt mnh v cng c th ngc vi hng ca dng nc. Tc thm ri t l thun vi cn bc hai ca gim thy lc.
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g) Thm chuyn tip v thm hn hp - Gia thm tng v thm ri l thm chuyn tip ( gim thy lc c s m nh hn 1 v ln hn . Trong iu kin t nhin, thm chuyn tip rt t xy ra. Song do tnh khng ng nht ca t , ngi ta li gp thm hn hp. VI.1.3. Cu trc dng thm
Cu trc dng thm c c trng bi 2 yu t: - ng dng (y): L ng m nc vn ng dc theo n. Trong chy tng ng dng l ng thng c th song song hoc khng. - ng th (f): L ng m ti mi im trn n p lc ging nhau. ng th vung gc vi ng dng. - Trong tnh ton thm, dng thm c bn, ph bin gm: o Dng thm phng ng: Dng thm qua p, knh... ng dng bin dng theo mt phng ng, theo mt bng chng song song vi nhau. o Dng thm phng ngang: Tng cha khng b xuyn ct... ng dng bin dng theo mt bng, trn mt phng ng chng song song vi nhau. VI.1.4. nh lut thm Darcy - Nc di t hu nh vn ng thm l dng chy tng do vy, lu lng dng thm cng c xem l lu lng dng thm n nh - Dng thm n nh l dng thm c lu lng khng i theo thi gian a) i vi t ri - Vn tc dng thm t l nghch vi gradien thy lc. vt = kt . i - Trong : kt : h s thm (m/s) l vn tc thm khi i = 1, i : gradien thy lc dc thy lc.
n gin, coi rng nc thm l rng m c tit din ca ht t, nhng thc t nc ch thm l rng t . F = Fr + Fh Trong : F l tit din thm, Fr l tit din l rng, Fh l tit din ht t Q Q vt = vt* = F vt* > vt m Fr = nF = F Fr 1+
Trang 44 / 67
Vy vn tc nc thm thc t ln hn l thuyt. V mt an ton, ngi ta thng s dng vt. b) i vi t dnh
Hin tng t thm xy ra trong t dnh khc vi t ri. : i bin i t 0 i0 : vt = 0 : Hin tng thm cha xy ra 1 : i0 < i < i2 : vt 0 : Hin tng thm xy ra nhng mi quan h gia v t v i l phi 2 tuyn. 2 : i > i2 : tuyn tnh : Quan h gia vt v i ging nh trong t ri. 3 - Trong xy dng, thc t ch yu xy ra trong on t 2-3, do s dng trong t dnh, nh lut Darcy c dng: vt = kr (i i0) vi i0: gradien thy lc ban u tnh ton.
0 1
VI.2.
Xc nh lu lng cho dng thm phng n nh VI.2.1. Lu lng thm n nh cho tng cha nc khng p a) y cch nc nm ngang
Xt mt n v tit din thm c b rng l 1m. q = K.F.I = K.h.I (F = 1m x h)
Trang 45 / 67
Xc lp h trc ta : I = Thay vo q = K .h.
dh (gi tr ca h gim cn gi tr ca x tng) dx
dh hay qdx =K .h.dh dx
Ly tch phn t tit din (1) n tit din (2)
q dx = K h.dh
x1 h1
x2
h2
q( x2 x1 ) = K
2 h2 h12 2
q=K
q=K
2 h12 h2 2L
2 h12 h2 2( x2 x1 )
Nu x2 x1 = L ( khong cch gia 2 h khoan)
Chn im M bt k, cch tit din (1) mt khong l x 2 2 h 2 h2 h 2 hx Ti tit din (1) : q1 = K 1 ; Ti tit din qua M : qM = K 1 2L 2x 2 2 h h2 h 2 hx2 Dng chy n nh nn q1 = qM: K 1 =K 1 2L 2x
hx = h12 x 2 (h12 h2 ) L
b) y cch nc nm nghing
Xt mt n v tit din thm c b rng l 1m. h +h q = K.F.I = K.htb.I htb = 1 2 2 vi I =

x2
dH dx
q = K .htb .
H2
dH hay qdx = K .htb .dH dx
q dx = Khtb
x1
H1
dH
q ( x2 x1 ) = K .htb .( H 2 H1 )
q = K .htb .
H1 H 2 L
q = K.
h1 + h2 H1 H 2 . 2 L
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Chn im M bt k, cch tit din (1) mt khong l x h + h2 H1 H 2 . Ti tit din (1) : q = K . 1 2 L h + hx H1 H x . Ti tit din qua M : qM = K . 1 2 L h1 + h2 H1 H 2 h + hx H1 H x . = K. 1 . Dng chy n nh nn q1 = qM : K . 2 L 2 L Vi hx = Hx z VI.2.2. Lu lng thm n nh cho tng cha nc c p
a) y cch nc nm ngang
Xt mt n v tit din thm c b rng l 1m. q = K.F.I = K.M.I (F = 1m x M) M : chiu su ca tng cha nc c p vi I =
x2
dH dx
q = K .M .
H2
dH hay qdx = K .M .dH dx
q dx = KM
x1
H1
dH
q ( x2 x1 ) = K .M ( H 2 H1 )
Vy q = K .M
H1 H 2 ( x2 x1 )
q = K .M
H1 H 2 L
Chn im M bt k, cch tit din (1) mt khong l x Ti tit din (1) : q1 = K .M

H1 H 2 H Hx ; Ti tit din qua M : qx = K .M 1 L x
Dng chy n nh nn q1 = qx:
H1 H 2 H1 H x = L x
H x = H1
x ( H1 H 2 ) L
Trang 47 / 67
b) y cch nc nm nghing
Cch gii quyt Xt mt n v tit din thm c b rng l 1m. M M1 dH .x v I = q = K.F.I vi F = 1m x M = M 1 + 2 dx L q.dx M 2 M 1 dH = KdH .x . q = K . M 1 + M 2 M1 (1) M1 + .x L dx L L M M1 M M1 .du .x du = 2 .dx hay dx = t u = M 1 + 2 M 2 M1 L L Ly tch phn t tit din (1) n tit din (2)
qL (1) M 2 M1
q = K.
u2
x1 = 0 u1 = M1 ; x2 = L u2 = M2
2 du = K dH u u1 H1
M 2 M 1 H1 H 2 . M L ln 2 M1
Ti
Chn im M bt k, cch tit din (1) mt khong l x M M 1 H1 H 2 q = K. 2 . M2 tit din (1) : ; Ti L ln M1
tit
din
qua
q = K.
M x M 1 H1 H x . Mx x ln M1
Trang 48 / 67
Dng chy n nh nn q1 = qx :
M 2 M 1 H1 H 2 M x M 1 H 1 H x . = . M2 Mx L x ln ln M1 M1
Mx M 1 H1 H 2 M 2 M 1 H x = H1 . . .x M2 L M x M1 ln M1 ln
VI.2.3.
Trng hp tng cha nc gm nhiu lp
a) Dng chy song song vi mt phn lp (i) Tng cha nc gm 2 lp vi h s thm lp trn km hn lp di
Tng di c h s thm nh hn tng trn, chu p lc tng nc bn trn tng di c coi l tng c p.
dH dh q = q1 + q2 = K 2..M . + K1..h. dx dx
q1 : lu lng n v ca tng trn, c mt thong t do. q2 : lu lng n v ca tng di, nc c p
qdx = ( K 2..M .dH + K1..h.dh ) = q dx = K 2 M

x1
x2
H2
H1
dH K hdh
1 h1
h2
q ( x2 x1 ) = K 2. .M ( H1 H 2 ) + K1..
2 h12 h2 2
Vi x2 x1 = L
q=
2 K 2. .M h 2 h2 ( H 1 H 2 ) + K 1. . 1 L 2L
(ii) Tng cha nc gm nhiu lp
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Trong trng hp ny ta c: q = q1 + q2 + q3 + + qn ; h = h1 = h2 = h3 = = hn do : i = i1 = i2 = i3 = = in Lu lng qua mi tng: q1 = F1 . k1 .i vi F1 = B.d1 q2 = F1 . k2 . i vi F2 = B.d2 q3 = F1 . k3 . i vi F3 = B.d3 qn = F1 . kn . i vi Fn = B.dn Tng lu lng: q = q1 + q2 + ... + qn = (k1.d1 + k2.d2 + k3.d3 + .+ kn.dn)B.I Lu lng dng thm l q = K.F.I (vi B =1m) q = K.H.I H = d1 + d2 + d3 + + dn Nh vy ta c:
K TB = k1.d1 +k 2 .d 2 +... +k n .d n d1 +d 2 +... +d n
b) Dng chy vung gc vi mt phn lp (i) Tng cha nc gm 2 lp c h s thm thay i t ngt theo phng ca dng thm
Lu lng thm qua thm bc 2 : q = K1 Lu lng thm qua thm bc 1 : q = K 2
2 2q h12 h2 h12 h22 = L1 K1 2L1 2 2q hs2 h2 L2 hs2 h22 = K2 2L2
Trang 50 / 67
L L 2 2 T suy ra : h1 h2 = 2q 1 + 2 K 1 K2
q=
h12 h22 L L 2 1 + 2 K K 2 1
Tnh chiu cao hs : K1
2 h12 hs2 h 2 h2 = K2 s 2 L1 2 L2
hs =
2 K1L2 h12 + K 2 L1h2 K1L2 + K 2 L1
(ii) Tng cha nc gm nhiu lp
Trong trng hp ny ta c: q = q1 = q2 = q3 == qn ; h = h1 + h2 + h3 + + hn do : i = i1 + i2 + i3 + + in Lu lng qua mi tng : q1 = F1 . K1 . i1 vi F1 = d1 . B q2 = F2 . K2 . i2 vi F2 = d2 . B q3 = F3 . K3 . i3 vi F3 = d3 . B . qn = Fn . Kn . in vi Fn = dn . B
q q q q = + +... + KTB .d .B K1.d1.B K 2 .d 2 .B K n .d n .B

KTB = d1 + d 2 + ... + d n K1 K 2 K + + ... + n d1 d 2 dn
Nh vy ta c :
VI.3. -
Xc nh lu lng cho dng thm gn ging khoan ng VI.3.1. Cc c trng dng thm gn ging khoan thng ng n gin trong tnh ton, ch tnh ton ging vi iu kin: ging khoan thng ng vung gc vi tng cha nc, tng cha nc ng nht, dng chy n nh. Khi bm ht nc t ging khoan th mc nc trong ging b h thp xung v to ra xung quanh ging phiu h thp mc nc hay mc p lc. Ty theo ng nht ca tng cha nc m phiu h thp c th i xng hoc khng i xng. Bn knh phiu h thp mc nc l bn knh nh hng R. Khi ging khng khai thc th mc nc trong ging khoan l mc nc tnh. Khi khai thc vi lu lng Q khng i mc nc s h thp n nh c gi l mc nc ng. Dng thm c lin quan mt thit vi cu to ng lc ca ging. Ty theo kt cu ca ng lc, ging khai thc nc c chia lm hai loi:
Trang 51 / 67
Ging hon chnh: L ging c chiu su xuyn qua ton b chiu dy tng cha nc. Nc vn ng vo ging ch qua phn ng lc xung quanh ging. Ging khng hon chnh: L ging c chiu su khng xuyn qua ton b chiu dy tng cha nc, v nc vn ng vo ging qua phn ng lc xung quanh ging, ng thi c th vn ng t y ging vo. Trong tnh ton lu lng khai thc nc ca ging cn thit phi bit bn knh nh hng R. mc chnh xc cho php, ngi ta c th dng cc cng thc kinh nghim sau y tnh ton gi tr ca bn knh nh hng R: CT I.Sulxe : khng xt n lu lng bm ht nc, ch quan tm n thi gian bm ht nc (khng ph thuc vo S h thp mc nc khi bm ht)
R = 6 HKt
( m)
a : 47 74; t: thi gian bm ht (gi) m: h s thot nc (ty theo loi t) Cui si sch: 0,35 0,3; t ct: 0,15 0,10; st pha: 0,1 0,01 H : chiu dy tng cha nc (m) t : thi gian bm ht (h) K : h s thm CT Coden : R =
12 t QK
( m) - c xt n lu lng bm ht
CT Kusakin : vi qui m khai thc nh v trong tng cha nc khng p R = 2 S H .K K(m/ng) R =575 S H .K K(m/s) CT Zikhard : vi tng cha nc c p K(m/ng) R =10 S K R =3000 S H .K K(m/s) VI.3.2. Xc nh lu lng thm vo ging khoan hon chnh
a) Trng hp tng cha nc khng p
- Lu lng thm ca ging khoan Q = K.F.I Tit din l hnh tr trn F = 2rh Gradien thy lc I =
dh dr
Q = K .2r.h.
dh dr
Qdr = K .2.h.dh r
Trang 52 / 67
Tch phn 2 v r = ro h = ho = H S r=R h=H R H 2 dr R H 2 ho Q = 2.K h.dh Q ln = 2 .K r ro 2 r h

o o
Q = .K
2 2 H 2 ho H 2 ho (2 H S ) S = 1,366 .K = 1,366 .K R R R ln lg lg ro ro ro
Nu c 1 ging quan trc
Q = 1,366 .K
2 h12 ho r lg 1 ro 2 h2 h12 r lg 2 r1
Q = 1,366 .K
Xc nh chiu cao mc nc ti 1 im bt k Nu ch c 1 ging khai thc (vi H=Hx v R=x)

x r Hx = h + 1,366 K
2
Q lg
Nu c 1 ging quan trc (vi h=h1 v r=r1)

H x = h2 + (h12 h 2 ) lg lg r1 r x r
b) Trng hp tng cha nc c p
- Lu lng thm ca ging khoan Q = K.F.I Tit din l hnh tr trn F = 2rM Gradien thy lc I =
dh dr dh Qdr Q = K .2r.M . = K .2.M .dh dr r
Trang 53 / 67

H
dr Q = 2.M h.dh r ro ho
Q ln
2 R H 2 ho = 2 .K ro 2
Q=
2..KM ( H ho ) 2,73 KM ( H ho ) 2,73 K .M .S = = R R R ln lg lg ro ro ro
Q=
2,73 K .M .( h1 ho ) r lg 1 ro 2,73 K .M .( h2 h1 ) r lg 2 r1
Q=
Xc nh chiu cao mc nc ti 1 im bt k Nu ch c 1 ging khai thc (vi H=Hx v R=x)

Q x Hx = + h lg 2,7 K .M 3 r
Nu c 1 ging quan trc (vi h=h1 v r=r1)

Hx = h + h1 h x lg r r lg 1 r
VI.3.3. -
Xc nh lu lng thm vo ging khoan khng hon chnh
a) Phng php Focgeimer Do dng chy vo ging khng hon chnh b un cong nhiu hn so vi ging han chnh chho nn dng thm b sc cn ln hn khi nc chy vo ging, do lu lng thm b gim i 1 lng nht nh Tng cha nc khng p : Qkhc = Qh.c . ak
k =
l 4 2h l h h
Tng cha nc c p : Qkhc = Qh.c . ac

c =
l M
4
2M l M
l : chiu di ng lc h : b dy tng cha nc khng p M : b dy tng cha nc c p b) Phng php Zamarin Khi tng cha nc c b dy ln hn so vi chiu di phn cng tc ca ng lc, phi xc nh chiu su ca i nh hng (Ha) tnh t mc nc tnh tr xung v gi tr ca L = S + l Xc nh gim mc nc trong ging S v chiu di phn cng tc ca ng lc l Bng xc nh Ha = S + ha L = f(S) Ha = f(L) L = 5S Ha = L= 1,3L 3,3S Ha = L= 1,5L 2,0S Ha =
Trang 54 / 67
L= 1,25S L=S
1,7L Ha 1,8L Ha = 2L c) Phng php Gerinski-Vavuski (i) Trng hp tng cha nc v hn (coi nh l dng im)
Xung quanh dng im ca mt nc l mt cu ng tm. Cc tia ng dng hi t vo tm. Vn tc ti 1 im A bt k trn mt cu: Q v= vi : bn knh mt cu , Q : lu lng thm 2 4 o Theo nh lut Dacxi
v = K . dS do
dS : gim p lc trn phn t di dng thm Q.do Q.do dS = dS = 2 2 4Ko 4Ko Ly tch phn 2 v -
dS =
0
Q 4K
d
2
S=
Q 4K
(ii) Khi xem ng lc c chiu di l (dng chy c xem l 1 ng) Xt 1 phn t nh dz, phn t coi nh 1 im Lu lng qua phn t dQ =
dQ 4K
Q .dz 2m
2
dS =
dS =
Qdz 8Km r + z
2
dS =
0
Q 8Km
+m m
dz r + z2
2
ly tch phn ta c S =
Q 2m ln 4Km r
Q=
4KmS KlS = 2,73 2m l ln ln r r
VI.3.4. -
Tnh ton h thng ging khoan c nh hng ln nhau
Khi khai thc nc dng cho sinh hot hoc cng nghip, cn b tr khong cch gia cc ging t gy nh hng nhau l hp l nht l 2R.
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tho kh h mng hoc h thp mc nc ngm i khi cc ging c nh hng ln nhau _ phu h thp mc nc ca cc ging gy ra hin tng giao thoa mc nc, lu lng nh hn tng lu lng cc ging bm hot ng ring bit.
a) Tnh ton h thng ging khoan hon chnh trong tng cha nc khng p Gi s c n ging khoan sp xp xung quanh im A v cch n nhng khong x 1, x2, , xn
Q1 R lg 1,366 .K x1 Q2 R 2 2 lg Trng hp c ging HK2 hot ng H h2 = 1,366 .K x2

2 2 Trng hp c ging HK1 hot ng H h1 =
2 2 Trng hp c ging HKn hot ng H hn =
R Qn lg 1,366 .K xn
Khi tt c cc ging cng hot ng, ta c nh sau: Q1 R Q2 R Qn R H 2 h2 = lg 1 + lg 2 + ... + lg n 1,366 .K x1 1,366 .K x2 1,366 .K xn h : chiu cao mc nc ti A khi cc ging cng hot ng Q = Q1+Q2++Qn R=R1=R2 = = Rn
H 2 h2 =
-
Q1 (n lg R lg x1.x2 ... xn ) 1,366 .K .n
Trng hp b tr cc ging cch u im A (xem nh b tr trn ng trn bn knh xo) vi x1= x2 = = xo

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Trng hp ging b tr trn chu vi hnh vung hoc hnh ch nht th coi cc ging ny c b tr trn ng trn c bn knh
S A = H h =
xo =
b) Tnh ton h thng ging khoan hon chnh trong tng cha nc c p Tnh ton tng t
Q 1 (lg R lg x1.x2 ... xn ) 2,73 .K .M n
Tng lu lng ca h thng ging khoan hon chnh
Q = 2,73 .K .M
H h R lg xo
Tng t nh i vi tng khng p trong trng hp b tr theo hnh trn, hnh vung hay hnh ch nht VI.3.5. Trnh t thit k h thp mc nc ca 1 h thng ging khoan
VI.4.
Xc nh bn knh nh hng ca h thng ging h thp mc nc cn thit. Xc nh bn knh ging ln. Xc nh tng lu lng ca h thng ging. Xc nh kh nng thu nc ca 1m ng lc. Tnh tng chiu di ng lc cn thit cho c h thng. Tm s lng ging n. Chn cch b tr v khong cch gia cc ging. Kim tra lu lng ca mt ging m nhn v nng lc thc t ca mt ging ring bit. Tin hnh kim tra chiu cao mc nc ti cc im bt k, nu khng tha yu cu tho kh h mng th phi thit k tnh ton li. Cc phng php xc nh h s thm K VI.4.1. Phng php bm nc th nghim trong ging khoan a) c im ca phng php
So vi th nghim trong phng th thit b v thao tc phc tp hn, tn nhiu thi gian v chi ph cao hn nhng chnh xc hn. S dng ging khoan thm d v ging quan trc o lu lng v gim mc nc trong qu trnh th nghim. Qu trnh th nghim gm t nht 3 giai on cho n n nh v c trnh by bng th quan h Q = f(S). b) Th nghim bm ht trong tng cha nc c p (i) Phng php x l s liu theo R.Whitlow
B tr mt ging th nghim v 2 ging quan trc v o gim mc nc 10 30/ln. Nu 3 ln o lin tip c Sn-2 = Sn-1 = Sn = const coi nh n nh. r Q ln 2 2. .KM (h2 h1 ) r1 Q= K = r 2. .M (h2 h1 ) ln 2 r1 Khi ging th nghim l ging quan trc: r 1,2r do ht nc xung quanh ging b xo ng. h h1 = H 0,8S1 do ma st dn n c bc nhy mc nc.
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Q (ln r2 ln 1.2r ) 2..M ( h2 H +0.8S1 )
K =
(ii) Phng php x l s liu theo phng trnh Thesis

Phng trnh c bn ca Thesis
S= 0.183Q 2.25at lg T r2
Trong : T: h s dn nc (m2/ngm); a: h s truyn p (i vi nc c p) hay h s truyn mc nc (i vi nc khng p) c trng cho tc pht trin phu h thp. ( : h s nh nc) hay a = 0.183Q 2.25a 0.183 lg + lg t Bin i phng trnh trn ta c S = T T r2 0.183Q 2.25 a 0.183Q lg t A = v C = S = A + Clgt 2 T T r o c gim mc nc S1, S2, S3 ... ti cc thi im t1, t2, t3 v v th S = f(lgt)
a= KM Kh
Gi tr A : khong cch t gc Q n giao im ca th v trc tung Gi tr C : C = tg T=

0.183Q C
lga = 2 lg r 0.35 +
A T K= C M
c) Th nghim bm ht trong tng cha nc khng p (i) Phng php x l theo R.Whitlow b tr 1 ging th nghim v 2 ging quan trcv o gim mc nc
h2 h12 Q = .K r Quan h gia gim mc nc v lu lng nh sau : ln 2 r1
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T phng trnh trn ta c :
K =.
Q h2 2 h12
ln
r2 r1
Trng hp coi ging th nghim l ging quan trc :

K . 2.5Q ( H S n )( 2 H + S h )
(ii) Phng php x l theo phng trnh Thesis Phng trnh Thesis cho tng nc khng p c dng
(2H - S)S = 0.366 Q 2.25at lg K r2
t A = 0.366
Q 2.25at 0.366 Q lg v C = 2 K K r
(2H S)S = A + Clgt gim mc nc S1, S2, S3 ti cc thi im t1, t2, t3 v v th.
lg a = 2 lg r 0.35 + K =
0.366 Q C
A C
VI.4.2.
Phng php xc nh trong phng th nghim
a) Th nghim bng dng c gradient p lc khng i Th nghim ct nc c nh c dng xc nh h s thm ca t ht th nh ct v cui c K > 10 m/s. Thit b thm c s nh sau:
-4
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Tng lu lng nc thu c : Q = A.v.t = A(k.i)t Q : lu lng nc thu c trong thi gian t(s) A : Din tch mt ct ngang ca mu t Thay gradient thy lc vo cng thc trn Q = A k
QL h t hoc K = Aht L
b) Th nghim bng dng c gradient p lc thay i Th nghim vi ct nc gim dn dng xc nh h s thm ca t ht mn nh ct mn, bi v t st c tnh thm km K = 10 10 m/s. Khi cho nc thm qua mu t. Ti thi im t = t tng ng vi chnh lch ct nc h1. Ti thi im t = t tng ng vi chnh lch ct nc h , mt lng nc thm qua mu t.
-4 -7 1 2 2
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Lu lng nc chy qua mu t ti thi im t : q = k Trong : q : lu lng dng chy a : din tch mt ct ngang ca ng o p A : din tch mt ct ngang ca mu t Phng trnh trn c vit li : dt =
aL dh Ak h
h dh A = a L dt
Sp xp li ri tch phn theo phng trnh trn, ta c :

k= h aL ln 2 A(t 2 t1 ) h1 h 2.3aL hay k = lg 1 A(t 2 t1 ) h2
Ak aL
t2
t1
dt =
h2
h1
dh h
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CHNG VII : VII.1. -
CC HIN TNG A CHT LIN QUAN N XY DNG
Hin tng phong ha t VII.1.1. Khi nim phong ha
Tc dng phong ha l tc dng ph hy do cc nhn t trong kh quyn, thy quyn v sinh quyn. Cc c to thnh di su trong iu kin ging nh iu kin lc hnh thnh ngha l tn ti cng su trong iu kin nhit v p lc cao th chng s trng thi cn bng. Nhng nu v mt l do no , cc y b phi ra b mt t chu nhng iu kin mi: iu kin v nhit v p lc thp v cc iu kin vt l ca mi trng xung quanh khc hn mi trng khi chng cn nm su th cc dn dn b bin i. Qu trnh bin i gi l qu trnh phong ha. Khi phong ha, cc b bin i v thnh phn, kin trc v c v tnh cht vt l v c hc ca . Cc phong ha c h s thm thay i, dung trng phong ha thng gim, rng n tng ln, bn gim xung. Ni chung cc tnh cht vt l v c hc c chiu hng xu i so vi gc. VII.1.2. Cc kiu phong ha t
a) Phong ha vt l L qu trnh lm cc b bin i m khng km theo s bin i v thnh phn khong vt m ch bin i v kin trc, cu to ca v bin t nguyn khi thnh cc, vn, ht. C th phn bit 4 kiu phong ha vt l. (i) Phong ha nhit ng lc thc y cc qu trnh phong ha nhit l s nung nng bi bc x mt tri: cc lp t nhng su khc nhau c nhit khc nhau, do b gin n khc nhau, khin cho lin kt gia cc lp b ph hy dn ri v thnh nhiu mnh vn. Cc loi c cu to tinh th, v d granit hoc c dng cu to ht nh ct kt, cui kt, v.v, c cc ht vi thnh phn khong vt khc nhau, do c hp ph nng lng mt tri v gin n khc nhau, dn n s ph hy cc khi cng chc thnh nhng ht vn, nh trong trng hp thnh to ct kt acko cc vng kh nng. Nhn chung, cc loi c mu sm v c thnh phn a khong b phong ha mnh lit hn c. Mt khc, trong nhng iu kin t ging nhau th khi dao ng nhit cng t ngt v c bin cng ln, hiu ng phong ha nhit cng mnh. Nh vy, i vi loi phong ha ny, dao ng nhit gia ngy v m ng ch hn c. Phong ha nhit hot ng rt mnh cc kh hu kh nng cc vng sa mc v bn sa mc, cc vng m t, do lp ph thc vt v th nhng pht trin mnh, b mt gc c che ph, bin dao ng nhit gia ngy v m nh, nn qu trnh xy ra yu hn. (ii) Phong ha bng gi V thc cht, y cng l mt hin tng phong ha nhit, nhng ch xy ra nhng vng lnh c dao ng nhit qua im 0, nham thch b ph hy ch yu do th tch nc thay i khi chuyn ha t trng thi lng sang trng thi ng bng.
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Trong bao gi cng c t nhiu l hng v khe nt, ni c th lu gi nc v hi nc. Khi nhit h thp ti 00, nc trong khe nt ng bng, ng thi th tch ca n tng thm, do tc ng ln thnh khe nt nhng p lc rt ln. V vy, sau mi ln nc trong khe nt ha bng, bn thn khe nt li b gin ra thm mt cht. Nu hin tng ha bng tan bng xy ra nhiu ln, khi b phong ha bng gi c th b v thnh nhiu nhng tng v mnh vn. (iii) Phong ha c hc do mui khong kt tinh Trong cc min kh hu kh khan, do hin tng bc hi rt mnh m lun xy ra vn chuyn nc mao dn ln mt t. Trn ng di chuyn, nc mao dn c th ha tan cc loi mui khong v khi nc bc hi, mui khong s ng li. Trong qu trnh mui khong kt tinh, thnh mch mao dn cng phi chu p lc ln khin cho b mt t b rn nt v v vn. Do hin tng ny m nhiu mnh trong sa mc tuy b ngoi c v cng chc nhng li c th b bp vn d dng. Trong cc min kh hu kh khan, do hin tng bc hi rt mnh m lun xy ra vn chuyn nc mao dn ln mt t. Trn ng di chuyn, nc mao dn c th ha tan cc loi mui khong v khi nc bc hi, mui khong s ng li. Trong qu trnh mui khong kt tinh, thnh mch mao dn cng phi chu p lc ln khin cho b mt t b rn nt v v vn. Do hin tng ny m nhiu mnh trong sa mc tuy b ngoi c v cng chc nhng li c th b bp vn d dng.
(iv) Phong ha c hc do sinh vt Trong qu trnh sng ca mnh, cc sinh vt, v nht l h thng r cy, cng gy tc dng ph hy t . R cy cm su vo khe nt, ln dn ln v cng lm cho cc khe nt ny ngy cng m rng. Hin tng ny cn c th quan st rt r trn vch vi. b) Phong ha ha hc Phong ha ha hc l qu trnh ph hy c km theo s bin i thnh phn ha hc v khong vt. Nhng tc nhn ch yu ca phong ha ha hc l hot ng ha hc ca nc v cc hp cht ha tan trong nc, ca mt s hp cht ha tan trong nc, ca mt s hp phn khng kh, nh CO2, O2 v tc dng ha sinh ca sinh vt. Nc t nhin c kh nng hot ng ha hc ca nc l v n c b phn phn li thnh cc ion H+ v OH-. c bit khi trong nc c CO2 ha tan th kh nng hot ng ha hc ca n cng r rt. V nhng l , tc dng phong ha ca nc th hin mnh hn ti cc vng nng m, cn 101 cc vng kh hu lnh, kh nng y km dn v khi nhit h xung di 00C th hu nh khng cn na. Nhng hin tng phong ha ha hc thng gp l cc qu trnh ha tan, thy phn, oxy ha, hydrat ha, v.v.. (i) Qu trnh thy phn Trong qu trnh thy phn xy ra hin tng thay th cc ion kim loi kim v kim th ca cc alumosilicat bng cc ion H+ ca nc v sinh ra cc hydrosilicat nhm v gii phng cc oxyt kim v kim th ngm nc. V d: octocla to thnh hydrosilicat nhm K2Al2Si6O16 + 2H2O = H2Al2Si6O16
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(ii) Qu trnh hydrat ha Qu trnh hydrat ha l qu trnh trong cc phn t nc kt hp vi cc khong vt khng cha nc bin chng thnh cc hydrat. V d: Fe2O3 + 2H2O Fe2O3 . H2O (Hematide Limonite) CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4 . H2O (Anhydrite Thch cao) (iii) Qu trnh oxy ha Cc khong vt to thng c thnh to trong mi trng thiu oxy di su, nn hoc l khng c cha oxy, hoc ch kt hp vi n thnh nhng hp cht ha tr thp. Khi b a ln b mt, nn chng tc dng d dng vi cc cht oxy ha trong kh quyn v trong lp v phong ha tr thnh hp cht cha oxy dng ha tr cao hn, bn vng hn trong mi trng mt t giu oxy. V d : Pyrite Limonite (FeS2) Fe2O3 . 2H2O (iv) Hin tng ha tan i vi mt s khong vt v nh mui m (NaCl), thch cao, nc c kh nng ha tan rt mnh, i vi mt vi t khc nh vi, olomit nc cng gy tc dng ha tan nhng vi tc nh. Cng v mc phong ha ha hc ph thuc vo thnh phn t , ngoi ra vai tr kh hu c ngha rt ln, chng hn trong iu kin kh hu nhit i m, qu trnh ny cn c th tin ti giai on tn cng, l giai on latert, cn trong iu kin n i m th n ch dng li giai on st, trong iu kin kh nng ca cc sa mc v bn sa mc, phong ha ha hc pht trin rt km, v phong ha cha ch yu thnh phn mnh vn. Cc vi sinh vt cng ng vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh phong ha ha hc. Khi cn sng cng nh khi cht i, c th sinh vt, nm to xanh, to diatomit, a y tit ra nhiu axit cacbonit v cc axit hu c khc c tc dng ph hy t . VII.1.3. c im tng tn tch
Qu trnh m lm cho b bin i trn b mt hnh thnh lp khc lp gc gi l v phong ha. Phong ha cng xung su cng gim i, do mc bin i ca cng gim i theo chiu su. Da vo mc lp y cc cht nht trong khe nt ca , da vo mc d kh khi bp vn , da vo s bin i thnh phn khong vt ca , da vo s thay i cc tnh cht vt l v c hc ca , thng v phong ha c chia thnh 4 i: i vn bt (i ht mn) : i ny cc m hon ton bin thnh t, hon ton khng cn thy nhng vn nh ca m na, cn trong t th bao gm cc khong vt c hnh thnh do qu trnh phong ha, h s thm rt nh, hu nh bng 0, nn ln ln, sc chng ct nh, t c tnh dnh v c kh nng trng n khi gp nc. i vn nh (i ht vn) : B ngoi khc xa vi m. t bao gm cc vn nh hoc cc ht ring bit, cc mu nh ca i phong ha thng bao gm cc khong vt ca m v mt s ln khong vt c hnh thnh do qu trnh phong ha. i ny kh nng thm nc tng hn vn bt, sc chng ct ca i ny cao hn i vn bt v nn ln nh hn.
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i dng tng : i ny c xut hin khe nt phong ha, thnh phn khong vt
c bn cha thay i my so vi m v mt s khong vt c hnh thnh do qu trnh phong ha ch phn b vch cc khe nt m thi. Cc tnh cht ca t y c tng ln so vi i vn nh. i nguyn khi : B mt ging m cha phong ha nhng sc lin kt gia cc ht cng gim nhiu. Trong xut hin cc khe nt kn m mt thng kh nhn thy c, cc tnh cht c l ca hu nh khng khc my so vi m. VII.1.4. VII.2. iu tra nghin cu v x l tng phong ha trong xy dng
Chn v tr xy dng cng trnh (v v phong ha khng u nhau theo chiu ngang hay thng ng). Xc nh chiu dy phong ha cn phi bc b. Chn c bin php ngn nga phong ha (nhng phi bit tc phong ha v tc nhn gy phong ha). Hin tng t chy VII.2.1. Khi nim
Nhng du hiu c trng ca ct chy: trng thi t nhin, ct chy thc c mu xm sng, xm lc, xm xanh, vi cc sc thi m hoc nht, ty theo lng cha cc tp cht hu c v cc thnh phn khc. Ra ngoi khng kh, mu ca chng thay i nhanh v khng ng u. Chng tr thnh sng hn, pht vng, i ch pht hng do s oxy ha. Khi b bc l bi cng trnh khoan o hoc cc h mng, ct chy bt u chy nh mt cht lng nht. Nu nh trng thi ng sut ch do trng lng bn thn, th ct chy chy chm, cn nu nh do tc dng ca p lc thy ng hoc p lc thy tnh c gi tr ln v rt ln, th chng s vn ng nhanh hoc rt nhanh v n y ln. c im tiu biu l khuynh hng bin i xc bin, tc l ha lng khi b rung v chn ng do tc ng c hc, ri sau khi tc ng chm dt, chng t khi phc li mt phn hoc ton phn trng thi ban u vi tc no . Khi b hong kh, ct chy tr thnh loi t dnh kh cng sng mu hn so vi trng thi ban u v kh c th bp vn bng tay. iu ny chng t ct chy khng ch cha ht bi m cn cha mt lng ht st nht nh. VII.2.2. iu kin pht sinh ct chy
iu kin v kt cu ca t: d 60 10 d pht sinh ct chy. d10 iu kin v dng thm: Igh = (D 1)(1 n) Trong : D l t trng ca ct, n l rng ca ct. Nu Ithc t > Igii hn xy ra ct chy VII.2.3. Bin php ngn nga
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Khi xy dng trong khu vc c ct chy cn phi xc nh: S phn b v iu kin th nm ca chng. iu kin a mo khu vc phn b ct chy. Thnh phn tnh cht c l ca ct chy, c bit l cht kt cu. c im a cht thy vn ca khu vc c ct chy, chiu su mc nc. Mt s bin php ngn nga nh h thp mc nc ngm, gim p lc thy ng. C th dng mt h thng ging, h khoan, rnh; bo v mi dc, mi h t khng b nc chy lm tri t. VII.3. Hin tng xi ngm t VII.3.1. Khi nim
Hin tng xi mn ngm ch yu xy ra trong ct ri rc di tc dng ca dng thm lm cho nhng ht nh trong khi t b cun tri i khi l rng gia cc ht ln, cn cc ht ln th vn gi nguyn v tr. Hin tng ny lm cho b mt t tt xung thnh cc h ging nh ci phu. Hin tng xi ngm ny gy nguy him cho cc cng trnh thy cng. N thng pht sinh h lu cc cng, pht sinh trong bn thn , p t, khi cc cng trnh lm vic vi u nc cao, lm cho cng trnh b r r dn n hin tng tri t mnh lit, lm sp cng trnh. cc mi dc thin nhin cng c th pht sinh xi ngm v l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn pht sinh dc trt. VII.3.2. iu kin pht sinh xi ngm
iu kin v kt cu ca t: Thnh phn cp phi ht. Trong t phi c 2 loi ng knh d 60 D 20 pht sinh xi ngm. 20 hay Cu = ht chim u th v d10 d iu kin v dng thm: dc gii hn cc ht ct bt u b y i c xc nh theo cng thc: Igh = (D 1)(1 n) + 0,5n Trong : D l t trng ca ct, n l rng. Nu Ithc t > Igii hn xy ra xi ngm. VII.3.3. Bin php ngn nga
iu tit dng chy, lm cho cc cng trnh tiu thot nc, ngn nga khng cho nc chy trong cc tng t . Thit b tng lc phng cc ht b cun tri. Thay i kt cu cng trnh lm gim tc dng ngm di nn hay trong bn thn cng trnh. Dng cc bin php nhn to nhng phng php keo kt bng cht silic, nha ng ci to tnh cht ca t . VII.4. Hin tng cc t VII.4.1. Khi nim
Cct l hin tng a cht t nhin sinh ra do tc dng ha tan ca nc di t v nc trn mt trong cc d ha tan to ra trn b mt v bn trong khi nhng hnh thi c bit nh: hang ng ngm, sng ngm, nhng h trng dng phu hoc nhng ging dng phng bn trong khi .
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Do , lm kt cu ca thay i : kh nng thm nc tng v kh nng chu lc ca gim. l 2 vn m a cht cng trnh cn phi gii quyt khi xy dng cng trnh trn vng Cact. VII.4.2. iu kin hnh thnh v pht trin cct
- Gm 4 iu kin : o Cc phi c tnh ha tan: bao gm cc mui khong NaCl, KCl, CaSO4, CaSO4.2H2O, CaCO3, CaMg(CO3)2, v.v o Hin tng cact ph bin nht trong cc carbonate ( vi) v loi ny ph bin nht trong v Tri t. o Cc nt n: nh c cc khe nt nn nc mi vn ng c v to c hnh thi cact. o Nc phi c kh nng n mn.Nc phi vn ng: s vn ng ca nc quyt nh hnh thi v mc pht trin cact. - Nc vn ng trong cact lm cho hnh thi Cact khc nhau theo chiu su v thng c chia lm 4 i: o i I: i bo ha kh Nc vn ng ch yu theo phng thng ng. Do hnh thi cact l nhng ging hnh phu hoc thng ng. o i II: i vn ng theo ma V ma kh, nc vn ng theo phng thng ng. V ma ma, nc vn ng theo phng nm ngang. Do hnh thi cact l nhng ging thng ng hoc nhng con sng ngm. o i III: i bo ha nc Nc vn ng theo phng nm ngang. Hnh thi cact l nhng con sng ngm. khu vc y sng nc vn ng i ln. o i IV: i vn ng su Nc vn ng theo phng nm ngang, hnh thi cct l nhng con sng ngm. Cng v pha sng mc pht trin Karst cng tng v c s hn hp gia 2 loi nc: nc ngm v nc sng to ra mt loi nc c kh nng n mn. VII.4.3. iu tra nghin cu v x l tng cc t trong xy dng
Dng bin php iu tit dng chy v thit b tiu nc ngn chn khng cho nc trn mt v nc di t chy vo tng b Karst ha nhm hn ch ngn nga Karst pht trin. Ph v nh cc hang hc Karst. p v t st vo nhng hang hc Karst ngn nc chy ra. Xy cc tng chn nc ngn nc t cc rnh Karst. Dng xi mng keo kt nn cng trnh, pht xi mng qua cc h khoan bt kn cc k nt v hang hc Karst to thnh mt mng khng thm tng thm cng ca .
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Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Nhim v ca a cht cng trnh :

I.2. Ni dung ca a cht cng trnh

I.3. Phng php nghin cu a cht cng trnh

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

vo da 8-10km : y a dng : y a i 30-40km : ng ba g o n 55-75km : ng nu vu i

Cc trngvt l ang hot ng ca tri t

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Cc hin tng a cht ang xy ra trong T

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

II.2. Khong vt v khong vt to II.2.1 Khi nim

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Bng phn loi h thng tinh th

Mu ca khong vt Mu ca khong vt ch yu do thnh phn ha hc v cc tp cht trong n quyt nh.

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Phn loi khong vt

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Nhm khong vt mica : c thnh phn ha hc phc tp v c c

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

II.3. macma II.3.1 Ngun gc macma

Thnh phn khong vt ca macma

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Kin trc v cu to ca macma

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Phn loi macma

II.4. trm tch II.4.1 Ngun gc trm tch

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Thnh phn khong vt ca trm tch

Kin trc v cu to ca trm tch

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Phn loi trm tch

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

II.5. bin cht II.5.1 Ngun gc bin cht

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Thnh phn khong vt ca bin cht

Kin trc v cu to ca bin cht

Phn loi bin cht

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s

Ti liu a cht cng trnh GV: Phm Th Thy An

Phng php xc nh tui tng i

Phng php xc nh tui tuyt i

* Phng php c sinh L phng php xc nh tui t da vo cc ho thch ca sinh vt c trong t

Khoa Cng Trnh B Mn K thut c s