T. Ford. April 2008.

GENERIC 1

Design Technology.

AHL Topic 10 Mechanical Design (8 hours approx. 7 lessons)

International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO)

-_

Name: TG:

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Topic 10 – Mechanical Design.

Contents:

□ 10.1 General concepts.

□ 10.2 Mechanical Motion
□ 10.3 Conversion of motion

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Students please note:

Tick each section as you go. Use the checklist at the end to make sure you have learned
the unit. Your teacher may not necessarily cover each stage in this order and some stages
take longer than others to learn. You are expected to keep your own folder of notes and
portfolio of work related to this unit which you must bring to every lesson. This booklet is
designed as a guide only – studying is where the learning takes place! Bring this booklet
with you to every lesson.
10.1 General concepts.

10.1.1 Define mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency.

Here’s a quick workshop demonstration to help you understand this topic:

You will be given a piece of metal to bend and cut by hand. The bend must be to a 90
degree angle and the cut must completely shear the metal in two. How can it be done?

Try opening a tinned food product using three different types of tin opener.

Discussion: Why are some methods easier than others? Why is this when we are still only
using human muscle power to carry out the same task?

We use mechanisms to help make every day tasks easier to perform. However, we can’t
simply create energy from nowhere to do these jobs – so where does this extra ‘power’
come from? The following sections will help you to understand.

Look at these pictures:

The tin opener has to do two distinct things:

1) Pierce or cut the top of the can

2) Remove the lid by slicing the steel.

The picture on the right shows the small cutting

wheel doing this. Let’s examine each process in turn:

To pierce the can, two levers are pushed together which forces the
cutting wheel to pierce the lid. How? Where does it get its power?
The answer is in the lever.
Your hand is moving a long distance. The fulcrum (pivot) is moving a
small distance (shown by the length of the red arrows). The total
energy that you put into the lever over this long distance is
concentrated into a very small distance. In fact, the cutter only moves a few
millimetres but your hand moves much, much further.
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So;

1) The distance moved changes from large to small

2) The power produced changes from small to large.
3) The total amount of energy put in by the hand is the same total amount of energy
given out by the cutting wheel!

Let’s look at the second stage; removing the lid.

The smaller lever is rotated which turns two small cogs (teeth with
wheels). The cogs grip the edge of the can. They drive the cutting
wheel along the metal, slicing it away. This is also a lever. It is in
fact two levers on opposite sides of the fulcrum. The outside edges
move through a greater distance than the centre, so it’s the same
principle.

Lever 1 Lever 2

All mechanisms do this. They convert energy by collecting it up over a long distance and
concentrating it, or by taking concentrated energy and spreading it out over a longer
distance. It is always about converting energy and movement. In fact, all mechanisms are
actually levers! It will be interesting to see if you can identify the levers in this unit – they
are very well disguised!

10.1.2 Calculate mechanical advantage (MA), velocity ratio (VR) and efficiency
for simple mechanical systems.

Don’t be put off by these scientific terms. They actually mean very simple things:

Mechanical Advantage or MA : How much easier work is to do when you use a

mechanism.
Velocity Ratio or VR: How much difference there is between the distances moved.
Efficiency: How well all the energy is converted to do the job needed.

There are also formulae for calculating these things exactly. Sorry – but you need to learn
them!

Let’s work through some examples, they are actually very simple as
long as you understand everything said so far.

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The Load is the work that is being done. In this case, it’s the force needed to cut the
paper. Force is measured in Newtons (N).
The Effort is the force needed to be exerted by the hands to cut the paper.

We would expect the effort to be less than the load – the scissors are meant to make the
job easier after all.

Suppose the effort was 1N and the load was 5N

MA = Load / Effort. MA = 5/1 MA = 5

There are no units because it is a RATIO (a comparison). This means the scissors make
the job 5 times easier to do! Simple.

But where’s the trade off? We have gained power but what have we lost? Can you work it
out?

You’ve probably guessed that the distances moved have something to do with it. This is
where the Velocity Ratio (VR) comes in. It compares the distances moved. In this
example, the hands must have moved 5 times further than the blades at the point
where they cut the paper. Suppose the hands moved 150MM and the blades moved
30MM:

VR = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load

VR = 150/30

VR = 5

Again, there are no units because it is a RATIO (a comparison). This means the hands
move 5 times further than the blades at the point where they cut the paper.

Efficiency = MA/VR

Efficiency = 5/5

Efficiency = 1. That means that the total energy you put in is exactly what you get so
no energy is wasted. You can multiply it by 100 to get a percentage.

However, in reality, products are never 100% efficient. Energy can be converted into heat
and sound if there is a lot of friction at the fulcrum or if the cutting edges are not sharp. A
number which is less than 1 means that it is not 100% efficient.

Here’s another example:

The hand truck makes it easier to lift heavy loads. To lift
the box up by a small distance, the handles need to be
pushed down by a much longer distance.

Here is the data you need to work out MA, VR and

efficiency:

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Load: 50 N
Effort: 5 N
Distance moved by effort: 550 MM
Distance moved by load: 50 MM

Calculate MA, VR, Efficiency and how much energy has been lost: (teachers note: The
answers are in white text below, click, drag and change font colour to reveal the
answers).

Answers:
MA = 50/ 5 = 10
VR = 550/50 = 11
Efficiency = MA/VR = 10/11 = 0.91 or 91%
Energy lost = 9%

Summary:

If you understand this then everything else is straightforward. Always remember that
energy cannot appear or disappear, it has to be converted. All mechanisms convert
energy and motion – but the total amount put in and the total amount we get out is
always the same. Because MA and VR are ratios, you can also work them out by
comparing speed. This is important to remember when we look at gears.

A really good revision website is at:

http://www.designandtech.com/resistantmaterials/#mechanisms

10.1.3 Describe first, second and third-class levers and 10.1.4 Discuss the
relevant efficiencies of the three classes of lever.

There are three types of lever. The only difference between them is the relative positions
of the Load, effort and Fulcrum:

First class: Second class: Third class:

Using page 136 of Design and Technology (Caborn, Mould & Cave), label clearly the
positions of the load and the effort in the diagrams above.

The third class lever may look a little strange but all will become clear…

For each type of lever shown below, try to work out which class of lever it is. Be careful,
some objects may have multiple levers!

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(teachers note: The answers are in white text below, click, drag and change font colour
to reveal the answers).

Example: Class (1st, 2nd or 3rd )?

Scissors…
First class. Fulcrum in centre, load and effort on opposite sides.

Bottle opener…
Second class. The fulcrum is at the end, The lid (load) is pushing
down against the opener, the hand (effort) is pushing up.
Broom…
Third class. The fulcrum is provided by the wrist or elbow at one
end of the broom. The effort is provided by the hand further along.
The load resists the effort.
Rickshaw…
Second class. The fulcrum is at the end (wheel), The load
(passengers and box) are pushing down, the effort is pushing up.
Fishing rod…
Third class. The fulcrum is provided by the wrist or elbow at one
end of the rod. The effort is provided by the hand further along.
The fish is the load pulling down while the effort tries to pull up.
Crowbar…
First class. Fulcrum in centre (the point where the crowbar makes
contact with the ground), load and effort on opposite sides ( the
load is the wood resisting being moved, the effort is provided by
the arm moving downwards).
See-saw…
First class. Fulcrum in centre, load and effort on opposite sides (like
the scissors).
Tweezers…
Third class. The fulcrum is provided at one end. The effort is
provided by the fingers in the centre which push together. The load
resists the effort by pushing out.
Nutcrackers…
Second class. The fulcrum is at the end, the load (nut) is pushing
against the effort.

Question:

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Many people would say first class because they are the only levers with a fulcrum in between the load and effort so that’s an
acceptable answer. However, both the first and second class levers give a mechanical advantage, they make work easier to do by
moving the load smaller distances. The third class lever does not! It actually decreases mechanical advantage and makes the load
feel even heavier! But why…?

Look at the fishing rod. The fish will ‘feel’ much heavier and is hard to lift out of the water. However, a small movement form the
hand (effort) produces a larger movement further along the fishing rod, making it much easier to control the fish when it is in the
water.

The tweezers need to grip small objects tightly. A small movement form the effort results in a larger movement where the
tweezer grips are, making it much easier to accurately use.

Finally…sweeping up is hard work and now we know why: The broom can be accurately controlled using only small movements
form the arm – we can sweep a larger area without needing to move much. However, the effort we need to put in is large.

The better answer = third class. Your arm is a third class lever too.

Which class of lever do you think is the ‘odd one out’ and why? Think carefully before you
commit yourself.

Answers on above (teachers note: The answers are in white text in the box above, click,
drag and change font colour to reveal the answers)

10.1.5 Explain that, when a lever is in equilibrium, the net moment is zero.

What is a moment?

…we all have them. A moment in mechanical terms is a turning force. Look at the
picture below:

Moment = Force X Distance

A moment is the product of the force

exerted by the load (Newtons or N) and the
distance it is from the fulcrum (in Metres).

Suppose the man exerts a force of 100N

and is 1.5M away from the fulcrum. He
produces a moment (turning force) of 100 X
1.5 = 150 Newton Metres (NM)

Question: Suppose the little girl exerted a force of 40 N. How far from the fulcrum will she
need to be to make the see-saw balance?

See if you can work it out before checking the answer below.
Answer:
Moment = Force X Distance
150NM = 40 X Distance
Distance = 150/40
Distance = 3.75M
The girl will need to be 3.75 metres from the fulcrum to make the see-saw balance
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The NET MOMENT is the difference between the moments on the left and the moments
on the right. In this example, the net moment is 0 and the see saw balances.

What would happen if the girl was 3M from the fulcrum? Again see if you can work it out
before checking the answer below.

Answer:
Moments on the left = 40 X 3 = 120NM
Moments on the right = 100 X 1.5 = 150NM
The net moment is 30 NM to the right so the man will go down and the girl will go up.

10.1.6 Calculate mechanical advantage and effort for first-, second- and third
class levers.

You can do some revison on this topic at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/design/systemscontrol/mechanismsrev1.shtml

Calculate the missing element in each example (teachers note: The answers are in white
text below, click, drag and change font colour to reveal the answers)

MA = 0.5 Effort = Load/MA

Load = 2N = 2 / 0.5
Effort = ? = 4N
Remember to include the units – NEWTONS
(N)

MA = ? MA = Load / Effort
Load = 10N = 10/33
Effort = 33N = 0.30
No units – it’s a ratio.

MA = ? MA = Load / Effort
Load = 48N = 48/12
Effort = 12N = 4
No units – it’s a ratio.

MA = ? MA = Load / Effort
Load = 13 = 13/3
Effort = 3 = 4.33
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No units – it’s a ratio.

MA = 0.35 Effort = Load/MA

Load = 0.5 = 0.5/0.35
Effort = ? = 1.43N

Remember to include the units – NEWTONS

(N)

MA = 2 Effort = Load/MA
Load = 187 = 187/2
Effort = ? = 93.5N
Remember to include the units – NEWTONS
(N)

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Gears
10.1.7 Describe gear systems.

A gear system is a collection of different gears mounted so that they contact (mesh) their
teeth together. The diameter of the gears can be changed to increase / decrease rotary
speed.

A gear system can transfer the input rotary energy from a shaft or axle to a different
angular direction (bevel gear) and or rotate it in a different direction (clockwise / anti
clockwise) the speed of rotation along with the torque level can also be adjusted (faster /
slower rotation).

A number of gears together is called a gear train.

Some simple gear types:

Simple Gear Train Bevel Gear Gears ‘meshed’

Compound Gear Timber windmill gears

Gear systems or ‘gear trains’ are designed for specific applications.

• Basically:

• The smaller the gear the faster the rotational velocity (but with lower torque).
(the easier it would be stop using your brakes)

• The larger the gear the slower the rotational velocity (but with higher torque).
If you require high torque you need larger gears…
(the harder it would be to stop using your brakes)

• Think about a car or bicycle….

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• high gear (small gears low torque) for high speed on level ground.

• low (large gears, max torque) for going up hill

GEARS AND GEAR SYSTEMS

V. Ryan © 2001

GEAR TRAINS
This is a good example of a ‘gear train’. A gear train is
usually made up of two or more gears. The driver in this
example is gear ‘A’. If a motor turns gear ‘A’ in an
anticlockwise direction;
Which direction does gear ‘B’ turn ?

Which direction does gear ‘C’’ turn ?

Does gear ‘C’ revolve faster or slower than gear ’A ? -

explain your answer.’

So far you have read about ‘driver’ gears,

‘’driven’ gears and gear trains. An ‘idler’
gear is another important gear. In the
example opposite gear ‘A’ turns in an
anticlockwise direction and also gear ‘C’
turns in an anticlockwise direction. The
‘idler’ gear is used so that the rotation of
the two important gears is the same.
Is the speed of gears A and B the same ?

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In one sentence below explain what an ‘idler’ gears does.

DRAWING GEARS

It would be very difficult to draw gears if you had to

draw all the teeth every time you wanted to design a
gear system. For this reason a gear can be represented
by drawing two circles.

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10.1.8 Calculate velocity ratio for gear systems.

THE BASICS - GEAR RATIO (VELOCITY RATIO)

V. Ryan © 2003

Many machines use gears. A very

good example is a bicycle which has
gears that make it easier to cycle,
especially up hills. Bicycles normally
have a large gear wheel which has a
pedal attached and a selection of
gear wheels of different sizes, on
the back wheel. When the pedal is
revolved the chain pulls round the
gear wheels at the back.

Look at the gear wheel with the

pedal attached and compare it in
size to the gear wheels in the centre
of the back wheel. What do you
notice about them?

Can you name any other machines

that use gears?

Most people have cycled a bicycle up a hill. The steeper the hill gets the more
difficult it is to pedal and normally a cyclist will change gears to make it easier.
When the cyclist changes gear, the chain moves from a small gear to a larger
gear with more teeth, making it easier to push the pedals round. The more
teeth the back gear has, the easier it is to cycle up hill although the bicycle
moves forward more slowly.

What will happen if a cyclist going up a hill changes gear from a larger to a
smaller gear wheel? Will it be easier or harder to pedal?

GEAR RATIO (VELOCITY RATIO)

The reason bicycles are easier to cycle up a hill when the gears are changed is
due to what is called Gear Ratio (velocity ratio). Gear ratio can be worked out
in the form of numbers and examples are shown below. Basically, the ratio is
determined by the number of teeth on each gear wheel, the chain is ignored
and does not enter the equation.

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EXAMPLE:
If the pedal gear revolves once how many
times will the sprocket gear revolve?

The example above shows that every time the pedal gear revolves once the
sprocket gear on the back wheel revolves twice making it easier to cycle up
hill.

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10.1.9 Describe the function of different types of gears in a range of objects.

Use rack-and-pinion, bevel and worm gears.

Different types of gears carry out different jobs within a gear train principally to
change direction or speed of rotation, change direction of drive, increase or
decrease torque of final drive or change the speed or to change a rotary to other
required movement.

Rack and pinion:

A very simple arrangement with a gear (pinion) mounted and in contact with a rack
(a strip of metal with corresponding teeth on the top, just like a gear but in one
long strip) the strip is mounted in a sliding carriage to allow it to freely move in one
direction and then back again. This movement is linear but also reciprocating.

This simple mechanism has been used for centuries and can be found in
applications where a horizontal or vertical movement is required that can be
precisely and easily controlled. Eg steering system on a car, table movement on a
pillar drill.

RACK AND PINION

A ‘rack and pinion’ gears system looks quite
unusual. However, it is still composed of two gears.
The ‘pinion’ is the normal round gear and the ‘rack’
is straight or flat. The ‘rack’ has teeth cut in it and
they mesh with the teeth of the pinion gear.

If gear ‘A’ rotates how would you describe the

movement of the rack ?

The pinion rotates and moves the rack in a straight line - another way of
describing this is to say ‘rotary motion’ changes to ‘linear motion’.
A good example of a ‘rack and pinion’ gear system can be seen on trains that are
designed to travel up steep inclines. The wheels on a train are steel and they
have no way of gripping the steel track. Usually the weight of the train is enough
to allow the train to travel safely and at speed along the track. However, if a train
has to go up a steep bank or hill it is likely to slip backwards. A ‘rack and pinion’
system is added to some trains to overcome this problem. A large gear wheel is
added to the centre of the train and an extra track with teeth is added slope, this
is called a ‘rack’. As the train approaches a steep hill or slope the gear is lowered
to the track and it meshes with the ‘rack’. The train does not slip backwards but it
is pulled up the steep slope.

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 A good example of a ‘rack 17and
pinion’ train is the Nilgiri
mountain railway in India.

RACK AND PINION - DRILLING MACHINE

V. Ryan © 2002

Opposite is an example of
a rack and pinion as seen
in the school workshop
and machine shops
throughout the world.

As the handle is turned the

table moves up and down
the central pillar of the
drill. This makes it easy to
move the table and takes
the minimum of effort.

This is a simple but interesting application of a rack and pinion

mechanism. The less well designed machine drills do not have
this and consequently brute force is needed to move the table
up and down. Often this is difficult and requires some strength.
The rack and pinion reduces the force needed to move the
table and most importantly protects the machine operator and
his/her back from excessive strain.

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Above is one of the less well designed machine drills. The table
on these machines can weigh a significant amount and if they
are used often by the same operator damage to the back can
occur.

A well designed mechanism such as the rack and pinion is

precise and saves effort and time. Sometimes it is a good idea
to invest in a slightly more expensive piece of machinery
especially as health and safety is very important.

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GEAR MODELS - RACK AND PINION MODEL

V. Ryan © 2003

Rack and pinion gear systems involve the use of a round gear called
a pinion and a flat gear called a rack. A simple model of this type of
gear system is shown below. Using the same or similar gear
modelling kit (lego technic), set up the arrangement of gears shown
in the photographs.

1. Put the back board and base in

position.

2. Add the pinion (round gear)

and rotate by hand.

3. Add the ‘gauge’ above the

pinion. This will be used later to
measure how far the gear moves.
Check the pinion can still rotate.

4. Add the ‘rack’ (flat gear) so

that it meshes with the pinion.
Check the pinion can still rotate.

If the pinion revolves in a

clockwise direction which way
does the rack move? (Left or
right).

If the pinion revolves in a anticlockwise direction which way does the

rack move? (Left or right).

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Using the ‘gauge’ - if the pinion moves three teeth, how many teeth
does the rack move?

5. Explain one use of a rack and pinion gear system. Draw a diagram
to help explain your answer.

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Bevel drive:

BEVEL GEARS

V. Ryan © 2002

Bevel gears can be used to change the direction

of drive in a gear system by 90 degrees. A good
example is seen as the main mechanism for a
hand drill. As the handle of the drill is turned in a
vertical direction, the bevel gears change the
rotation of the chuck to a horizontal rotation.

A TYPICAL HAND ENLARGED VIEW OF THE BEVEL GEARS OF A

DRILL HAND DRILL MECHANISM

The bevel gears in a hand drill have the added advantage of

increasing the speed of rotation of the chuck and this makes it
possible to drill a range of materials.

With the aid of diagrams and notes explain how a bevel gear is used
as part of a mechanism/machine you have seen or used.

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Worm drive

This is the slowest method of driving a gear and consists of two components, the
worm drive, a horizontal or vertically mounted shaft driven casting which meshes
with a correspondingly cast gear. A very accurate, slow method of drive. Due to the
angle of the driving faces this system can only move in one direction.

WORM GEARS

V. Ryan © 2002

The arrangement of gears seen left is

called a worm and wormwheel. The
worm, which in this example is brown in
colour, only has one tooth but it is like a
screw thread. The wormwheel, coloured
yellow, is like a normal gear wheel or
spur gear. The worm always drives the
worm wheel round, it is never the
opposite way round as the system tends
to lock and jam.

The picture to the right is a typical set-up

for a motor and worm gear system. As
the worm revolves the worm wheel (spur
gear) also revolves but the rotary motion
is transmitted through a ninety degree
angle.

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The gear ratio of a worm gear is worked out through the following formula:

number of teeth on wormwheel

number of teeth on worm

The worm acts as a single toothed gear so the ratio is;

number of teeth on wormwheel

1

EXAMPLE:
If the wormwheel has 60 teeth:
60
1

Gear Ratio = 60:1

(Rotary velocity is also reduced by 60:1)
Quite simply, this means a worm gear reduces the speed of the spur gear by sixty
times. If you need a gear system whereby the speed is reduced by a considerable
amount - a worm and wormwheel are worth considering.

1. Describe how a worm and wormwheel could be used as part of a design for
a mechanical device or toy. Use diagrams and notes.

2. If the wormwheel has 80 teeth, what is the gear ratio ? Show your working
below.

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10.1.10
Explain a design context in which a compound rather than a simple gear
train would be appropriate. Consider the gearing system on a metal lathe
designed to be changed to cut a specific type of thread. Consider ratios,
mechanical advantage and changes.

A compound gear is essentially two different diameters of gears joined together in

one component and this means that from one input an additional ,different ratio,
output can be achieved without the requirement for an additional gear to be placed
in the gear train, this is desirable as less gears means less drive or gear train ‘slack’
in the system as each gear does not mesh absolutely perfectly and this minute
misalignment adds up over a gear train.

10.1.10 Explain a design context in which a

compound rather than a simple gear train
would be appropriate
Compound gear trains involve several pairs of
meshing gears. They are used where large speed
changes are required or to get different outputs
moving at different speeds.

Centre lathes, like the ones found in school

workshops have compound gear trains that
transmit rotary motion from an electric motor
through to the headstock spindle. The lead screw, which allows the tool post to
travel on automatic feed, also operates from this compound gear train.

Compound gear trains often have two or more gears mounted on the same shaft. A
good example of this is a car gear box, which has to fit into a confined space, has to
allow the driver to select various gear ratios and
also has to change from forward to reverse.

Gear ratios (or velocity ratios, VR) are calculated

using the same principle as for simple gear
trains, i.e. VR = number of teeth on the driver
gear divided by the number of teeth on the
driven gear.

However, the
velocity ratio for
each pair of gears must then be multiplied together
to calculate the total velocity ratio of the gear train:

Total VR = VR1 x VR2 x VR3 x VR4 etc.

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10.1.11 Discuss the function of different types of gears in a range of
objects.

Use rack-and-pinion, bevel and worm gears.

Rack and pinion:

A traditional method of creating a steering mechanism
Consider other uses for this type of movement within a mechanical system

Bevel gear:
A method of transferring drive through 90 degrees
Consider other uses for this type of movement within a mechanical system

Worm drive:
The slowest method of transferring high speed rotary drive to manageable
speed. Typically used for speed reduction from electric motor to final drive in
toy vehicles.

In the table below write the most common use for each method of mechanical
movement transfer.

Rack and pinion

Bevel gear

Worm Drive

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Belts

10.1.12 Describe a belt or chain drive system. Consider profile, load, changes in
load, and speed.

Pulley systems use a belt to transmit motion and force from the driver shaft to the driven
shaft. The continuous V-belt is the most common type used. It fits tightly into the groove
on the pulley wheels to keep slipping to a minimum.

V-belts come in a variety

of widths and thicknesses
as shown on the left. Also
shown are the two
construction methods of
V-belts.

The belt drives or is driven by the pulley via friction, the angled sides of the belt fit
exactly into the groove on the pulley and it is these two surfaces that drive not the
flat underside of the belt.

Belt drives also provide a built in protection to the mechanism if too much
torque is created (ie the machine encounters a blockage) the belts will slip slightly.

Speed changes are made by using different size pulleys on the driver and driven
shafts. By comparing the size of the two pulleys you can calculate the velocity ratio
of the system.

10.1.13 Calculate velocity ratio for belt or chain drive systems.

Driver pulley 35 diameter

Driven pulley 140 diameter

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Jkj
Velocity ratio= Driven pulley diameter
Driver pulley diameter

VR = 140 VR = 4:1
35
VR Ratio

10.1.14 Compare belt or chain drives and gear systems

Consider profile, load, changes in load, and speed.

Belt drives
One problem with belt drives is that the belt can slip, causing driven shaft to rotate
slower than expected. Where it is vital that the rotation of the driven shaft is kept in
sequence with the driver shaft a toothed belt can be used.

Chain drives
These use a chain to transmit rotary motion
from the driver shaft to the driven shaft.
Sprockets are the toothed wheels on which
the chain runs on. Unlike some pulley systems
the chain and sprocket cannot slip. Bicycles and
motorbikes use a chain and sprocket system
because of its strength and because they do
not slip.

For example:
Driver sprocket has 15 teeth and the Driven sprocket has
60 teeth

No. of teeth on driven sprocket 60

VR = ______________________________ =

No. of teeth on driver sprocket 15

VR RATIO = or 4:1 or 4

High torque low speed

Gear systems
Gears are
toothed wheels,
fixed to the
driver and driven
shafts, which
mesh together. A
number of gears
connected
together are called a gear train.
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There are several types of gear systems all designed to turn the shaft at set
calculated speeds.

The shafts will turn in opposite directions and as the gears are different sizes they
will turn at different speeds.

To get them to turn in the same direction, a third gearwheel has to be fitted
between them. This is called an idler gear.

Compound gear trains involve several pairs of meshing gears. They are used
where it is necessary to make large speed changes or to get different outputs
moving at different speeds.

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10.1.15 Design a system to provide belt tension to a belt-and-pulley

system.

Without tension between the

pulleys the belt cannot function
therefore a method of tension
adjustment is required via
moving the idler wheel

Sketch a simple method of adjusting the idler pulley so it can create more or less tension
on the belt.

Outer frame of mechanism

Belt

Idler pulley

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10.1.16 Describe a pulley system.

PULLEY SYSTEMS - 1

V. Ryan © 2004

Pulley systems are used when there is a need to transmit rotary motion. The
diagram below shows a simple system comprised of two pulley wheels and a
belt. It is a simple mechanical device to winch up and down a rope. When
the motor is turned on it revolves the driver pulley wheel. The belt causes
the driven pulley wheel to rotate as well, winding out the rope.

Pulley wheels are grooved so that the belt

cannot slip off. Also, the belt is pulled
tight between the two pulley wheels (in
tension). The friction caused by this
means that when the driver rotates the
driven follows.

Below sketch a side and end view of a belt rotating around a pulley, annotate to show the
faces of the pulley where the belt is driven.

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Most pulley wheels have a central

shaft on which they rotate. To
keep the wheel firmly attached to
the shaft it is usual to use what is
called a ‘key’.
The diagrams to the left shows a
keyed shaft which is pushed
through the centre of the pulley
wheel. A small rectangular key is
then ‘tapped’ into position,
holding the shaft and the pulley
wheel together. This fitting means
that the pulley wheel cannot slip
on the shaft.

10.1.17 Calculate mechanical advantage for pulley systems.

PULLEYS AND LIFTING - IMPORTANT FORMULAS

V. Ryan © 2004

When using pulleys for lifting the formulas for mechanical advantage and velocity
ratio are very important. The formulas are shown below.

FORMULAS RELATING TO MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

Mechanical advantage is defined as the ratio of load to effort. Pulley systems rely
on this important relationship between load and effort. The formula seen below
is best understood by writing it within a triangle. This helps when it is necessary
to change the formula to find either; mechanical advantage or the load or the
effort. In this way three formulas can be generated from the single formula
inside the triangle.

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FORMULAS RELATING TO VELOCITY RATIO

Velocity Ratio (sometimes called movement ratio)- is defined as the ratio of the
distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load. The formula
seen below is best understood by writing it within a triangle. This helps when it
is necessary to change the formula to find either; velocity ratio or the distance
moved by the load or the distance moved by effort. In this way three formulas
can be generated from the single formula inside the triangle.

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Inclined plane

10.1.18 Describe an inclined plane. Consider inclined planes, screw threads and
wedges.

An inclined plane is a surface where there is a slope on the end points, or in other
words on a surface where the height is different It is one of the six simple
mechanisms. We all know that work done is force and distance, and by moving an
object gradually on an inclined plane, less force is needed than lifting it up vertically.

An inclined plane can be used in many ways to make a job easier. In the simple
example shown above, the load can be raised to the top either by pulling it up the
slope or by lifting it vertically.

Screw Thread
Screw threads make use of the inclined plane principle. The diagrams show how by
wrapping an inclined plane around a cylinder you get the helix form as on a screw
thread.

The threads are used in several different ways:

• To provide powerful movements (car jacks)
• To hold things in place (bolts and screws)
• To position things accurately (binoculars)

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Wedges
When cutting hard materials, you can of course choose to crush it. However, to gain
more precision and using less effort, a wedge can be used. Saws and wedges
transfer the circular or linear motions of such inclined planes to the surface being cut
and multiply the force being applied.

Holes drilled for wedges

Steel wedges inserted

Wedges hammered in

Wedges start to split the

stone

Large 3000kg stone block

is split

The action of hammering the wedge into the stone with a linear action forces the inclined
planes of the wedge sides to push the material apart. The force applied by hammering the
wedge in is multiplied by the small surface point and inclined planes.

10.1.19
Explain the advantage of an inclined plane.

One famous use of inclined planes is the building of the

pyramids. It is believed that the Egyptians used slopes to
lower the force needed to move the huge rock blocks. It
transfers horizontal forces eventually into vertical forces in
the sacrifice of a longer distance needed. The mechanical
advantage is also very high as it can be adjusted to the
needs.

Mechanical advantage=

For the ideal machine, the work input = work output

There is no friction; hence there is 100% efficiency in converting the work done by
the effort into the work done on the resistance.
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An example is shown below

Two ropes laid down a ramp attached to a raised platform. A barrel is rolled onto the
ropes and the ropes are passed over the barrel and handed to two workers at the
top of the ramp. The workers pull the ropes together to get the barrel to the top.
The barrel is a movable pulley and the MA = 2.

Try the simple experiment above , using some string and a heavy cylinder, use the
cylinder as a moveable pully.

If the there is enough friction where the rope is pinched between the barrel and the
ramp, the pinch point becomes the attachment point. This is considered a fixed
attachment point because the rope above the barrel does not move relative to the
ramp. Alternatively the ends of the rope can be attached to the platform.

Inclined plane: MA = length of slope ÷ height of slope

Generally, the mechanical advantage is calculated thus:

MA = (the distance over which force is applied) ÷ (the distance over which
the load is moved)

The Force exerted IN to the machine × the distance moved IN will always be equal
to the force exerted OUT of the machine × the distance moved OUT. For example;
using a block and tackle with 6 ropes, and a 600 pound load, the operator would be
required to pull the rope 6 feet, and exert 100 pounds of force to lift the load 1 foot,
therefore:
(force IN 100 × distance IN 6) = (force OUT 600 × distance OUT 1) or,
WORKin = WORKout”

http://moodle.student.cnwl.ac.uk/moodledata_shared/CDX%20eTextbook/dswmedia/
brakes/brake/funda/leveradvantage.html

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10.2 Mechanical motion

2 hours

10.2.1 Describe linear, rotary, intermittent, oscillating, reciprocating and

irregular motion

Linear Motion
Linear motion is motion in a straight line. Steady linear
motion is known as velocity (uniform motion in a straight
line).
An example of linear motion is the cutting arm of a paper
guillotine (photo below) as it travels from one side of the
machine to the other.
Rotary Motion
Motion in a circle is called rotary motion. The number of
complete revolutions made per minute (rpm), is called
rotary velocity.

Intermittent Motion
Intermittent motion is motion which starts and stops
regularly. For example, in a cinema projector the film
needs to be moved on one frame at a time then held
stationary while the light projects it onto the screen.
This is usually done with a Geneva stop as shown here.
Intermittent motion is usually the end result of a
mechanism rather than the starting point for conversion.

http://www.flying-
pig.co.uk/mechanisms/pages/intermittent.html
Oscillating Motion
Oscillating motion is motion backwards and forwards in a
circular arc. E.g. playground swings (photo) and clock
pendulums.

Reciprocating Motion
Reciprocating motion is linear motion backwards and
forwards in a straight line. Sewing machines make use of
this type of motion.

Jigsaws and scroll saws which are often used in school

workshops have blades that cut by reciprocating motion.

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Irregular Motion
Irregular motion is motion which has no obvious pattern to
its movement. It is often needed in automata to recreate
the movements of living things.

Irregular motion is usually created using a cam or series of

cams
Irregular motion is not often used as the starting point for
a mechanism. It can, however be translated and
transformed as shown below.
http://www.flying-
pig.co.uk/mechanisms/pages/irregular.html

10.2.2 Explain how linkages can be used to change the direction of motion
of components.

A linkage in combination with a fulcrum can easily be used to change the

direction of motion. The input motion be it linear, reciprocating or rotary can
be converted to provide an output motion that is different.

If you want to change the direction of movement or

force through 90° you can use a linkage device
called a bell crank (so called because it was used in
victorian times in linkages used to operate doorbells
and servants bells). A common device which uses
this mechanism is the brakes of a bicycle. Here the
force from the handlebar lever is turned through 90°
to squeeze the brake block against the wheel rim.

If the fulcrum is at an equal distance from the input

and output then the movement of the output will be
equal to the movement of the input. Otherwise the
movement will be different and the system will have
some degree of mechanical advantage

This mechanism is
composed of three
important parts:

The crank which is the

rotating disc, the slider
which slides inside the
tube and the connecting
rod which joins the parts
together.

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As the slider moves to the right the connecting rod pushes the wheel round
for the first 180 degrees of wheel rotation. When the slider begins to move
back into the tube, the connecting rod pulls the wheel round to complete
the rotation.

One of the best examples of a crank and slider

mechanism is a steam train. Steam pressure
powers the slider mechanism as the connecting rod
pushes and pulls the wheel round.

The cylinder of an internal combustion engine is

another example of a crank and slider mechanism

REVERSE MOTION LINKAGE: As

the top rod moves to the left the
bottom rod moves to the right. The
bars move in opposite directions.
Another way of describing this linkage
is the direction of movement in one
rod is reversed in the other rod. The
fixed pivot is the centre of rotation.

PARALLEL MOTION LINKAGE: As

the large rod at the top of the diagram
moves to the left the two small rods at
the bottom move to the right. All the
rods are parallel to each other.

CRANK AND SLIDER LINKAGE: The

rods move forwards and backwards in
slider. The fixed pivot anchors the
linkages to one place.

BELL CRANK LINKAGE: This linkage

allows horizontal movement to be
converted to vertical movement. It also
works the opposite way round. A
practical example of this is the brake
mechanism on a bicycle.

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10.2.3 Discuss mechanical motion in a range of contexts. Consider a

hydraulic digger, a bicycle, a car jack and a hand drill.

Mechanical motion transfers movement from one input motion to another output motion.
Along with the concept of mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and experience, humans
have developed mechanical methods to achieve tasks that would otherwise be incredibly
difficult or impossible by other means.

Early, in fact prehistoric man most likely used the first lever to gain mechanical advantage
over a much larger load, imagine the Egyptians and thousands of slaves pulling a huge
block of stone for pyramid construction and some one having the idea of putting it on
rollers….much easier!

This development and refinement has continued over centuries driven by physical needs,
food, agriculture and also due to conflict and war.

One of the major advances in the refinement of precision engineering came about due to
the requirement of watch manufacture and the need to create a time piece that was
accurate and could be used for naval navigation see John Harrison
http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_john_harrison.htm

In modern terms the majority of mechanisms we see around us are refinements of

historic designs that have been adapted to fit a different or more modern requirement.

Most mechanisms or mechanical solutions in modern terms are broadly designed to make
tasks physically easier or quicker, enable the use of less labour or make a task more cost
effective. It is a modern fact that in the majority of developed or developing countries the
operation of a machine is more efficient that relying on human labour.

The original power source for any mechanism was obviously human however we now
have numerous power sources available such as electric motors and petrol / diesel
powered engines. These provide the motive power through connection to gears, linkages
and other mechanical connections to achieve mechanical advantage and complete tasks.

One modern aspect of mechanical motion is the combination of fluid (hydraulic),

pneumatic (air) technologies and more traditional linkages, this can be illustrated within a
mechanical excavator but as a starting point a basic understanding of how hydraulic
systems work is required.

Hydraulic systems can exert a large amount of pressure or force from a relatively small
input. Hydraulic systems basically work on the fact that it is impossible to compress a fluid
and within a closed system when the fluid is compressed it displaces to another part of
the system and can operate a piston. This linear action can be transferred mechanically by
linkages to many outputs.

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In a car braking system when the brake pedal
is depressed the fulcrum turns the pedal into a
2nd class lever and exerts pressure on the
piston which transfers the fluid via
displacement to the wheel piston which puts
pressure on the pads which press onto the
brake disc, as the pressure increases on the
pedal the pressure increases on the pads
which creates more friction and slows the
vehicle.
In a similar way the mechanical excavator
transfers motive power via displacement of
fluid in flexible pipes to a piston which is
linked to a lever which then operates a digging
arm or ‘boom’ and or the final digging ‘bucket’.

The log splitter works by the

engine E, powering a hydraulic
motor
Brake pedal, brake light switch, brake booster, Brake D, which
master transfers oil via
cylinder
a valve
Brake pedal, brake light switch, brake booster, Brake C, to cylinder
master the cylinder or
piston B this extends the wedge
(inclined plane) into the log and
splits it, the piston can then be
retracted by operating the valve
and oil direction the other way.

Fulcrum The use of a bell crank

enables a much greater
Bucket range of rotational
Hydraulic movement from a relatively
cylinder small input motion.

Bell crank

Linkage

Boom
Hydraulic
cylinder

Hydraulic or fluid powered machines offer high powered, compact, flexible and reliable
transfer of power. It would be difficult or potentially impossible to achieve these
capabilities using purely mechanical means.

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10.2.4 Define torque.

A rotational force commonly measured in units of newton metres.

Torque is best defined as a ‘twisting’ force. The act of twisting or being twisted is
known as torsion.

Torque is an important force in anything that is driven, the higher the torque the
more force used to move a rotating object.

Torque wrench used to set the

correct torque measurement in
newton metres.

Water wheel low torque required

to power it.

Output
(small, high Rotating shaft
torque)

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The larger the wheel ie. The larger the lever the easier it is to move or rotate the
output from this is transmitted via a shaft to a much smaller output wheel which is
higher torque and is moving much faster.

10.2.5 Discuss the design features of a ratchet and pawl system.

A ratchet and pawl is the most basic refinement of an early winch. By the additional of a
simple lever which locates into wedge shaped angled planes on the ratchet it turns the
simple winch into a device which locks incrementally and allows the operator to move the
load in a much safer stage by stage manner, if the handle is released the load will only
lower a very small amount until the pawl locks. To lower the load the pawl is simply
retracted which allows the ratchet to free wheel.

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10.2.6 Describe simple cam shapes and their advantages.

Cam shapes essentially must be smooth and allow the follower to pass over them easily.
There are two major types of cam design:

Lobe cam
Pivot point
Eccentric cam

The eccentric cam is simply a circular disc that is rotated off its central natural axis which
therefore gives a wider range of movement.

The nearer the axis to the edge of the disc the greater the movement but also the more
difficult it is to move the follower.

A lobe cam is rotated around its central axis and the perimeter of the disc is shaped to
create defined movement in the follower.

Lobe cams can also take the shape of a heart or snail to provide different types of
repetitive movement.

A snail cam allows a slow build and increase in height of the follower then a sudden drop

A heart cam provides 3 seperate up and down movements.

10.2.7 Identify cam followers and state their use.

10.2.8 Explain the use of a series of cam and follower mechanisms to achieve a
set purpose.
Below is a mechanical toy based on a CAM mechanism. As the handle on the eccentric
cam is turned the top part of the egg shell lifts to reveal a face. The basic construction of
the toy is also shown below. The ‘flat’ follower moves upwards and downwards as the
cam rotates. Although the design is simple it must be made accurately or the mechanism
will stick.

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10.3 Conversion of motion

2 hours

10.3.1 Identify how mechanisms allow conversion of one form of motion to

another.
For example, rack and pinion, bell cranks, toggle clamps, linkages and levers.

Mechanisms cannot be seen as individual entities, the component parts (cams,

sliders, bell cranks, gears) and power sources are connected to perform whatever task is
required. It is this use of known ‘standard’ components with design adjustments that
allows the engineer to create mechanisms to perform specific tasks.

Some examples of simple known mechanisms are below:

Rack and pinion:

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Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

Bell crank

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

Toggle clamp:

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

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Levers

First class:

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

Second class:

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

Third class:

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

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Linkages:

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

Describe what happens in technical terms in the above mechanism.

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10.3.2 Identify the mechanisms in a bicycle. Consider chain drive, levers, linkages
and gears.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
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BICYCLE BRAKES: Look at the

diagram carefully. As the brake lever
on the bike is pulled the cable moves
upwards and forces the brake blocks
against the rim of the wheel. Explain
the type of linkage involved - using
notes and diagrams. Look at the page
'linkages' to help you decide.

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10.3.3 Design combinations of mechanisms to achieve specific tasks. Consider

the following tasks:• alter the axis of rotation • change the type of movement •
increase force and decrease speed • decrease force and increase speed.

Experiment with the lego kits provided and then build a copy of one of the
mechanisms and adjust the design to trial changes.

Lego and identify and make.

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10.3.4 Discuss how designers make use of simple mechanisms in the home.
Consider water tap, garlic crusher and foot operated trash/rubbish bin.

Identify mechanisms in the home:

Sketch the images below and identify the mechanisms and linkages, fulcrum,
class of lever etc.

1)

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2)

3)

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4)

5)

You should now be able to identify a range of mechanisms, look around your home or
around your immediate environment to see how mechanism s help you !

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