19

Cm bin
Kevin M. Lynch
Northwestern University
Micheal A. Peshkin
Northwestern University
Helit Eren
Curtin University of Technoloty
Pamela M. Norris v
Bouvard Hosticka
i hc Virginia
Jorge Fernando Figueroa
v H. R. (Bart) Everett
Stanley S. Ipson
19.1 Cm bin tuyn tnh v cm bin gc .............................. 1
19.2 Cm bin gia tc ............................................................... 9
19.6 o nhit ..................................................................... 26
19.7 Cm bin o khong cch v cm bin tim cn ............ 37
19.8 Cc h thng nhn bit nh sng, hnh nh v nhn dng 60
19.1 Cm bin tuyn tnh v cm bin gc
Kevin M. Lynch and Michael A. Peshkin
Hu nh tt c cc chuyn ng ph bin nht trong cc h thng c kh l dch chuyn thng dc theo mt trc c nh
v quay mt gc quanh trc c nh. Nhng chuyn ng phc tp hn c th c to ra bi vic kt hp nhng chuyn
ng n gin . Chng ny s gii thiu tm tt mt s cng ngh sn c o cc chuyn ng thng v chuyn ng
quay dc theo mt trc n. Cc phng thc o c sp xp theo cc hiu ng vt l c khai thc a ra cc phng
php o lng.
Tip xc
Loi n gin nht ca cm bin dch chuyn l mt cng tc c kh, n gi tr mt bit thng tin: chm hoc khng chm.
Mt cng tc in hnh bao gm mt n by, khi n c nhn s to ra mt lin kt c kh bn trong n, t to ra mt
mch in kn( hnh 19.1). C th s dng cc vi cng tc ny nh l nhng cm bin va chm dng cho cc mobile robot,
thng l gn mt vt liu d ch to vo mt n by (nh mt ci ru) bo v robot khi va chm vi cc vt cn cng.
Mt ng dng thng dng khc ca vi cng tc trong robot l cng tc hnh trnh, dng xc nh mt khp t ti im
gii hn trong hnh trnh cho php ca n.
HNH 19.1 Mt vi cng tc c bn HNH 19.2 Tn hiu to thnh t mt cng tc ng ngt
1
S tay C in t
Hnh 19.2 m t cu hnh c bn ca mt vi cng tc. Ci in tr treo gi tn hiu trng thi +V ti khi cng tc ng,
a tn hiu ti t. Tuy nhin khi cng tc ng, mt lot cc nh hng nh c th dn n tnh trng nhiu ca tn hiu.
Mt mch gim nhiu c to ra lm sch tn hiu ra.
Cc cng tc c th c hai loi: thng m NO, hoc thng ng - NC. Mt cng tc c th c nhiu chuyn mch (P -
poles) v 1 hoc 2 tip im (T - throw) cho mi chuyn mch. Mt chuyn mch dch chuyn nh mt cng tc c kch
hot, v ni vi tip im. V vy mt cng tc SPDT (mt chuyn mch hai tip im) s chuyn mt chuyn mch t tip
xc vi tip im ny sang tip sang tip xc vi tip im kia, v mt cng tc (double pole single throw) chuyn hai
chuyn mch t m sang ng (Hnh 19.3).
HNH 19.3 Cu to ca cc cng tc SPDT v DPST HNH 19.4 Cc k hiu mch quang in t v cu hnh
mt b pht/thu in hnh
Tia hng ngoi
Ngi ta c th s dng tia hng ngoi o cc dch chuyn thng hoc dch chuyn quay. in hnh nh diode pht tia
hng ngoi (LED), hoc l n pht quang (photoemitter), c dng nh mt ngun pht sng, v mt thit b cm ng
hng ngoi c dng pht hin tia sng. B thu c th l mt quang in tr hoc t bo quang in, mt bin tr c in
tr thay i theo cng ca tia ti (tia hng ngoi hoc tia khng nhn thy); mt diode quang, n cho php dng in
chy theo mt hng khi c tia hng ngoi, nu khng n hot ng nh mt phn t h mch; hoc transistor quang. Trong
mt transistor quang, tia hng ngoi ti hot ng nh dng in base ca transistor, dng in collector t l vi cng
ca tia hng ngoi nhn c (cho ti trng thi bo ho ca transistor). Cc k hiu mch cho cc phn t bin i c ch
ra trong hnh 19.4.
Nu thit b pht v thit b d t hng v nhau th chng c th c s dng nh mt b ngt tia pht hin ra bt
k vt g i qua chng. Thit b ny c gi l thit b ngt quang (hnh 19.5). Nu b phn pht v thu di chuyn t do theo
ng thng ni chng, th cng ca tn hiu nhn c c th c s dng o khong cch gia chng. Tuy nhin,
cc b pht hin tia hng ngoi cng c th nhy cm vi c nh sng xung quanh. phn bit tia sng ca b pht vi nh
sng nn, c th iu bin ngun pht (c ngha l ng hoc m tn s cao), v cc thit b thu c thit k ch p
ng vi tia hng ngoi c iu bin.
Mt b pht sng v b d t cng hng v mt pha c th o th khong cch ti mt b mt gn nh cng
ca tia phn x khi va vo b mt. Thit b gi l thit b phn x quang (hnh 19.6). Mt cm bin nh vy c th c
dng cho cc robot di ng pht hin cc b mt hp th hay phn x nh sng mt khong cch khng i. Cc b lc
phn cc tia sng c th dng vi b d v pht b d ch pht hin ra nh sng c phn x bi mt b mt c bit.
HNH 19.5 B ngt quang bn dn QVA11234 HNH 19.6 Cm bin phn x quang bn dn QRB1114
2
Cm bin
HNH 19.7 B d v tr (PSD) (UDT cm bin Inc)
Cc thit b ngt quang v cc cc thit b phn x quang c th c ng gi sn hoc ch to ring bit t mt n
LED hng ngoi v mt diode quang hoc mt transistor quang, sau khi chc chn rng thit b d l nhy cm vi bc sng
sinh ra bi n LED.
Cc khi thit b phn x quang cng c sn cc b d v tr (PSD) hin i hn, n s bo v tr ca tia sng hng ngoi
trn b mt o (hnh 19.7). V tr c nh ca n LED c quan h vi PSD, cng nh v tr nh ca tia hng ngoi trn PSD,
cho php s dng php tam gic ho xc nh khong cch ti ch. Cc cm bin o khong cch nh vy c sn xut
bi Sharp v Hamamatsu.
HNH 19.8 Encoder tng i
Cc Encoder quang hc
Mt encoder quang s dng mt b ngt quang bin chuyn ng thnh mt chui xung in. Nhng chui xung ny
m ho chuyn ng, v cc xung c m hoc c gii m bi mt mch in a ra s o dch chuyn. Chuyn
ng c th l thng hoc quay, nhng chng ta tp trung nhiu hn vo cc encoder quang quay thng thng.
C hai encoder quang quay c bn l encoder tng i (incremental encoder) v encoder tuyt i (absolute encoder).
Trong mt encoder tng i, mt a (a m) c gn vo mt trc quay trn gia hai b ngt quang hc (hnh 19.8). a
c th l nha trong hoc knh vi c t cc vch hng tm, hoc nha m vi cc khe nh, v vy khi a quay th cc
vch ny s ngn hoc cho qua tia sng hng ngoi ti thit b d quang hc. (Cn c mt mt n ng yn ging nh a m
t gia b pht v b thu) Cc dy xung thu c t cc b d ny c tn s tng ng vi vn tc gc ca a. Nhng tn
hiu ny c k hiu l A v B, v chng lch pha nhau chu k. Cc tn hiu c th n t cc b ngt quang hc thng
hng vi hai rnh tch bit ti cc im ng vi cc gc khc nhau ca a, hoc c th c sinh ra bi cng mt rnh, vi
cc b ngt quang hc c t tng i vi b ngt khc a ra cc chui xung pha.
Thng qua vic m s lng cc xung v s lng ca cc ng xuyn tm trong a bit, ta c th o c tc
quay ca trc. Hng quay c xc nh da trn quan h pha ca cc chui xung A v B. V d, A tng khi B = 1 c th
ch ra l chuyn ng quay ngc chiu kim ng h, trong khi A tng khi B = 0 ch ra chuyn ng quay thun chiu kim
ng h. Hai tn hiu pha ny c bit nh l cc tn hiu cu phng.
Cc encoder tng i thng c mt u ra tn hiu th ba gi l tn hiu ch s, k hiu l I hoc Z. Tn hiu ch s c
ly t mt rnh ring bit sinh ra mt xung n trn mt vng quay ca a, nh hng tuyt i. Trong thc t, c th
thay th nhiu b ngt quang hc bng mt ngun n v mt thit b d tn hiu n.
Cc chp gii m c dng gii m cc chui xung. u vo ca cc chip l cc tn hiu A v B, v u ra l mt hoc
nhiu chui xung c a vo mt b m. V d nh b LS7083 s ca M cho ra hai chui xung, mt cho chuyn ng
quay theo chiu kim ng h v mt cho chuyn ng quay ngc chiu kim ng h, chng s c gi ti cc u vo ca
b m 74193 (Hnh 19.9). Cc phng php gii m chun cho u vo cu phng l cc phng php vi phn gii
1X, 2X v 4X. Trong phng php 1X, gi tr ca b m s tng ln mt n v khi c mt sn ln hoc xung ca ch mt
chui xung, do tng s m ca encoder cho mt vng quay ca a bng tng s vch trn a. Trong phng php 4X,
3
S tay C in t
gi tr ca b m c tng ln mt n v khi c mt sn ln hoc xung ca mt trong hai dy xung, v vy phn gii
gc c gim 4 ln. Mt encoder vi 1000 vch trn a m gii m c theo phng php 4X vi phn gii gc l
0 0
360 / (4 1000) 0,09 = .
HNH 19.9 Encoder quang, chip gii m cu phng s LS7083 ca M, v b m (US Digital Inc.)
HNH
19.10 a ca encoder tuyt i m Gray 8 bit, (BEI Technogies Industrial Encoder Division)
Trong khi mt encoder u ra n (single-ended output encoder) a ra tn hiu A, B v c th l Z, th mt encoder u
ra vi phn (differential output encoder) cung cp thm cc u ra b A, B v Z. Cc u ra vi phn, khi c dng vi thit
b thu vi phn, c th lm tng tnh chng nhiu in ca encoder.
Mt hn ch ca encoder tng i l khng c cch no bit c v tr tuyt i ca trc khi cp ngun m khng
quay n n tn khi nhn c xung ch s. Gii php cho nhng vn ny l encoder tuyt i. Mt encoder tuyt i
dng k b ngt quang hc v k vch m sinh ra mt t nh phn k bit biu din duy nht 2
k
v tr khc nhau ca a, v a
ra phn gii gc l
0
360 / 2
k
(hnh 19.10). Khng ging nh encoder tng i, mt encoder tuyt i lun a ra gc
chnh xc.
Cc vch trn cc rnh c sp xp sao cho khi encoder quay theo mt hng, mt t nh phn tng hoc gim tu thuc
vo mt m nh phn. Mc du c th dng m nh phn t nhin tuy nhin m Gray l mt gii php thng dng hn. Vi
m nh phn t nhin, vic tng ln 1 bit c th thay i nhiu hoc tt c c cc bit, v d nh 7 thnh 8 trong h thp phn
l 0111 thnh 1000 trong h nh phn t nhin. Vi m Gray, ch mt bit thay i tng hoc gim, v d nh 7 thnh 8 trong
h thp phn l 0100 thnh 1100 trong m Gray. chnh xc trong sut qu trnh chuyn dch m Gray ch l mt bc m
hoc
0
360 / 2
k
. Vi m nh phn thng thng, mt s sp xp sai lch d rt nh gia cc ng v v cc ngt quang hc
c th gy nn vic c li t 0111(7) thnh 1111(15) trong khi gi tr cn chuyn ti l 1000(8).
Nhn chung, encoder tng i cho php phn gii tt hn mc gi thp v l s la chn thng dng nht cho nhiu
ng dng trong cng nghip v robot.
Tr khng
Mt trong nhng cch n gin nht v t tn km nht o cc chuyn ng quay hoc chuyn ng thng l vic s
dng bin tr hay cn gi l ci phn th. Chng ta tp trung vo cc phn th quay, nhng nguyn l iu khin cng tng
t nh trong trng hp thng.
Bin tr quay gm mt ci cc cha 3 cc( hnh 19.11(a,b)). Hai cc cui, gi l cc 1 v cc 3, ni vi mi im cui
ca phn vt liu c tnh tr khng, ging nh dy dn cc b bng nha, gm, hoc mt dy di v mng. ( tng tnh rn
chc, si dy di c cun li thnh nhiu vng to thnh cun dy, nn n c gi l ci phn th cun dy).
Cc s 2, c ni vi mt cn gt, trt qua vt liu khi trc ca cc quay. Tr khng ton phn R13 ca cc l bng vi
tng tr khng R12 gia cc 1 v cn gt, v tr khng R23 gia cn gt v cc 3. Thng thng, cn gt c th quay t mt
u ca vt liu c tr khng ( R13 = R12) ti u kia ( R13 = R23). Trc ca cc quay mt hoc t hn mt vng c th to nn
chuyn ng y ca cn gt, lc ci cc c gi l cc mt vng quay. Nu chuyn ng y c to ra bi
nhiu vng quay ca trc th gi l cc nhiu vng quay.
4
Cm bin
s dng bin tr, ta ni cc 1 vi mt ngun V, cc 3 ni t, v s dng in th lm mt php o gc quay. in
th c o ti cn gt l V(R23/R13) v l mt hm tuyn tnh theo gc quay ca trc.
HNH 19.11 (a)
Khi trc ca mt b phn th quay, ci qut s dch chuyn t u ny ti u cn li ca vt liu in tr. (b) Bn trong mt
b phn th, biu din mi lin h gia ci qut v di in tr
HNH 19.12 S nguyn l (Space Age Control, Inc)
Mt cm bin tuyt i n gin dng cho mt di rng cc khong cch l mt chui cc cc hoc cm bin dy ko
( hnh 19.12). N bao gm mt si dy c qun trn mt ng, vi mt phn th kim sot cc gc quay ca ng. Mt l
x n hi gi cho dy lun cng. Bng vic s dng cm bin kt hp vi nhiu cc a vng c th o c di ln ti
hng mt. Vi khong cch ngn (vi cm) ta cng dng k thut tng t s dng cc cc 1 vng v mt ng nh. C hai
trng hp u b qua vic khng thng hng hoc s di ng ging mt cung trn. Chui cc cc d dng ph hu cc dy
trong cc ng dng nu trn, nhng phn t cm bin l nh v kn. Cc nh sn xut bao gm RDP Electronics, SpaceAge
Control, v UniMeasure.
Mt loi khc ca cm bin tr khng l cm bin un linh ng. Mt loi mc c tnh dn in gia hai cng tc in
trn mt vt liu c tr khng thay i in tr khi vt liu b b cong hoc ko di. c s dng trong b phn in vi
mt in tr c nh, in p tng t c th c s dng nh mt php o un. Ging nh vic s dng cm bin
pht hin mi lin h hoc ging nh mt php o th mo m ca b mt m n c gn vo.
Cm bin o nghing (trng trng)
Ta c th dng mt cng tc thu ngn cung cp mt bit thng tin v hng so vi vc t trng trng. Mt git nh
thu ngn t trong mt bng in thu tinh m hoc ng in gia hai u ph thuc vo hng ca cm bin. C th s
dng mt vi cng tc thu ngn theo cc hng khc nhau dng xc nh th nghing. Tn hiu t mt cng tc thu
ngn c th b ny ln ging nh tn hiu t mt cng tc c kh (hnh 19.2).
Thit b o nghing c th c dng o mt gc nghing. V d nh cm bin gc nghing s dng tnh in phn.
Cc nh sn xut gm c The Fredericks Company v Spectron Glass. M hnh hai trc c 5 in cc que song song trong
mt v bc c bt kn, v c in y mt phn bi mt cht lng dn in. Bn in cc t bn gc mt hnh vung,
v mt ci c t gia. nghing ca cm bin thay i s phn b ca dng in thng qua in cc trung tm s u
tin cc in cc ngm su hn trong cht lng.
Cm bin nghing c th c cha vi cht lng c tnh do bin i, lm gim thiu ting n. Bi dng mt chiu
khi chy qua cht lng s gy nn hin tng in phn v c th gy hng cm bin, do vy phng php o tnh dn ca
dng xoay chiu c s dng. Theo , cc h tr in t l ng k.
Tnh dn in ca cht lng ph thuc nhiu vo nhit . Cc h tr in t cho cm bin o nghing phi da vo t l
ca tnh dn in gia cc cp cc. Mc du cc cm bin o nghing in phn iu chnh qua mt vng nhit rng,
nhng n b nhiu lon ln bi tnh khng u ca nhit qua cc t bo.
C th to ra mt loi khc ca thit b o nghing n gin t mt bin tr quay c gn vo mt qu lc. C mt vn
ny sinh trong gii php ny l s sai lch c th lm ngng chuyn ng ca con lc khi m n khng theo phng thng
ng. Mt tng lin quan n vic ny l s dng mt encoder quang hc tuyt i vi mt con lc. Cc cm bin hon
5
S tay C in t
chnh iu khin theo mt nguyn tc c th c ci tin vi cc la chn tt hn, nh l mt ci lm gim cng t
trng gim s qu v s dao ng. V d nh thit b o nghing tuyt i US Digitals 12-bit A2I.
D nhin, mt thit b hot ng theo trng trng khng c kh nng phn bit vi gia tc khc. Nu nghing ca thit
b l n nh th php o phi dng cc iu kin tn hiu tt, n gin chc chn rng cc php c c thc hin.
Cc cm bin nghing tinh vi hn bao gm con quay hi chuyn v cc thit b vi in t c kh (MEMS), khng cp
y.
Cm bin in dung
C th s dng in dung o cc chuyn ng gn hoc cc chuyn ng thng theo th t tng millimet. in dung C
ca mt cp hai bn cc t song song l
0
/
r
C A d ee =
, trong r
e
l hng s in mi tng i ca cht in mi gia
cc bn cc, 0
e
l hng s in mi ca khng kh, A l din tch b mt ca hai bn cc, v d l khong cch gia hai bn
cc. Khi cc bn cc dch chuyn theo 1 hng vung gc vi cc mt phng cha chng, th C l hm khng tuyn tnh vi
d. Khi mt bn cc dch chuyn tng i vi bn cc kia trong mt phng ca chng, th C l hm tuyn tnh vi din tch
b mt A. S dng iu ny to nn cm bin in dung pht hin ra cc vt, cht lng c tnh kim loi hoc phi kim
hay bt k vt no c hng s in mi ln hn khng kh.
Mt m hnh o c thng thng c mt bn cc ca mt t in trong mt my d, t trong mt cht cch in. Vt
quan tm bn ngoi to nn mt bn cc khc ca t in, v n phi c ni t qua mt cm bin gn (proximity) ni
t. Khi cm bin t ti mc tiu, in dung ca n tng, n thay i dao ng ca mch my d bao gm c t in. S
bin i dao ng ny c s dng xp x tn hiu hoc dng o khong cch.
Cc nh sn xut t in c Cutler-Hammer v RDP Electronics.
HNH 19.13 Nguyn tc hot ng ca mt LVDT
Cm bin cm ng xoay chiu
LVDT
Cm bin cm ng xoay chiu c bit nhiu nht l bin th vi sai bin i tuyn tnh, hay LVDT. LVDT l mt ng
vi li st t, dch chuyn ca li l mt bin c th o c (Hnh 19.13). Ci ng c qun quanh vi t nht l hai
cun dy, mt cun kch thch v mt cun cm ng. Mt dng xoay chiu (khong 1kHz) chy qua cun kch thch, v mt
tn hiu xoay chiu c ly t cun cm ng v c so snh v cng v pha ( 0 hoc 180
0
) vi dng in kch thch.
Cc thit b in t ph tr l cn thit trnh qu trnh iu bin, c gi l s nhn dng ng b. li mang mt thanh
kim loi c st t, lm tng t tnh gia cun kch thch v cun cm ng. Tu thuc vo v tr ca thanh st t trong cun
cm ng m tn hiu ly ra c th bng khng (khi m thanh st t gia cun cm ng), hoc l lm tng cng hay pha,
ph thuc vo v tr thanh st t.
LVDT l mt ng dng cng ngh cao v c th rt chnh xc, trong mt vi trng hp c th t mc micron (10
-8
).
Chng c mt lot cc bc dch chuyn t vi mm n m. Chng khng b qua cc sai lch v tr v dch chuyn phi tuyn,
ging nh dy cc bin tr.
Cm bin o gc tuyt i
Cm bin o gc thc hin php o gc quay trc, nh cc tn hiu hnh sin, cosin. N cng s dng k thut t trng
ca dng in xoay chiu tng t nh LVDT, v cc thit b in t ph tr cng c s dng cung cp s nhn dng
ng b. Cm bin o gc tuyt i cho gi tr rt th, bi vy n c u tin hn encoder quang hc trn cc trc ng c,
mc d chng khng chnh xc v chng yu cu thit b in t ph tr hn. Mt vi cm bin c thm cc tn hiu ra ging
nh l cc encoder tng i, dng so snh. Thm vo , cc cm bin loi ny cn a ra mt php o tuyt i gc
quay ca trc. Ging nh LVDT, cc cm bin o gc tuyt i cng c thit k v ch to vi trnh cng ngh cao.
Cm bin t tnh mt chiu
Mt trng in t hot ng da vo s di chuyn ca cc in tch (v d nh dng in trong cht bn dn) sinh ra mt
lc ht cc in t theo phng ngang, v lc ny c th sinh ra mt hiu in th vung gc vi hng dng in. Hiu ng
6
Cm bin
ny l nh, thm ch c trong cht bn dn, nhng n tr thnh c s cho vic hnh thnh mt lp cc cm bin th, r v
a nng.
Cc cng tc da trn hiu ng Hall
Cc cng tc da trn hiu ng Hall l cc thit b sinh ra tn hiu nh phn, ph thuc vo vic cng t trng c
vt qu ngng hay khng. Trong hnh dng cu thnh ca chng, nhng cng tc ny c th c kt hp nh l cc thit
b c 3 cc vi kch c nh mt transistor (TO-92), ch c mt chn ngun (3-24V), mt dy ni t, v mt u ra. Bnh
thng, u ra c th t ni t hoc khng, ph thuc vo trng thi ca t trng. Cc loi cng tc da trn hiu ng Hall
ny lun sn c trn th trng.
Cc khong ngng kch thch t mt vi Gauss (t trng tri t l 0,5 G) n hng trm Gauss, nh l trong nam chm
vnh cu. Thng th c mt vi cp trong vic i n v trong ngng. Cc cng tc da trn hiu ng Hall l c tr:
ngng m ca chng c th khc ngng ng. Thnh thong hiu ng tr c s dng to nn mt cng tc cht,
n c th ko di trng thi ca n (ng hoc m) n tn khi t trng trong n b o ngc. Cc cng tc khng c
hiu ng cht c th l n cc (ch phn ng vi mt hng ca t trng) hoc hai cc (phn ng vi c trng). Thi
gian ng hoc m ch l vi micro giy.
HNH 19.14 o mt rng ca bnh rng trong mt vt liu t s dng mt cng tc Hall v mt t trng nghing (Allegro
Microsystems, Inc)
HNH 19.15 u ra ca mt cm bin Hall tng t vi v tr tng i vi mt t trng. (Allegro Microsystem, Inc)
Cc cng tc Hall c di nhit hot ng rng v thng c s dng trong cc b phn ca ng c t. Chng c
nhng u im khc l khng nhy vi nhng sai lch c kh ca cc cng tc quang hc hoc c kh, nh l cc cht lng
hoc bi bn. Trong khi thng thng phn chuyn ng c xc nh l mt nam chm, n c th c t gn mt nam
chm c nh, nghing v b kch thch khi cng tc Hall chm vo phn st t, v d nh mt rng ca bnh rng, theo n
cho php pht hin i tng khng nhim t (hnh 19.14).
Nhng ng dng c bn l o mt thnh phn quay, thay th mt cng tc gii hn c kh. Cng tc Hall khng c
nhng phn di ng hoc h v n c treo t do. Mt ng dng thng thng khc l trong vic lp mi lin h gia cc
chuyn ng tnh tin v chuyn ng quay. Cng tc Hall c dng pht hin mt v tr, v xung u ra ca n c
dng nh l mt ch dn cho mt encoder tng i ci m c th tnh khong cch t im ch dn . Cc cng tc Hall
thng nh v khng t, do vy trong khong vi mm c th t nhiu ci, to nn mt encoder quay hoc tnh tin vi
phn gii thp hoc cng tc a v tr. Nh th mt encoder hay mt cng tc c nhng u im th ca cc cng tc Hall.
Cc cm bin Hall tng t
7
S tay C in t
Trong mt ci b c kch thc tng t nh cc cng tc Hall, v gi cng khng cao hn, cng c th c cc thit b
Hall ci m c mt u ra analog t l thun vi cng t trng (hnh 19.15). in hnh nh chng c nhiu mc nhy
cm t trng trong dy 100 G. Chng khng c ng dng trong vic o cc t trng ph trn tri t.
Cc cm bin Hall u c tc dng nh cc encoder tnh tin hoc quay. C th t hai cm bin Hall hai cnh gc
vung tnh c sin hoc cosin ca mt gc ca mt nam chm quay, do to thnh mt cm bin quay tuyt i. Cc
thit b mang tnh thng mi ca thuc tnh ny gi l in th Hall v c cc u ra bin i (v d nh sin v cosin, hoc
mt s lp li bc nht vi mi thay i). Tng phn vi cc in th l cc thanh trt v cc di in tr, cc cm bin
Hall cho php quay 360
0
khng ngng v khng b hao mn. Tuy nhin, tt c cc thit b da theo hiu ng Hall u nhy
cm vi t trng ngoi.
Cc cm bin Hall cng l nhng b chuyn i tuyt vi ca cc chuyn ng thng nh hoc chuyn ng theo cung
trn. Chuyn ng ca mt thanh nam chm qua mt cm bin Hall to ra cho cm bin mt t trng n c th c sp
xp lm bin i tuyn tnh vi cc dch chuyn qua mt dy t vi mm ti vi cm. (Thanh nam chm cha i ht chiu
di ca n). S b xung mang tnh thng mi l cc cm bin iu khin v tr.
Cc cm bin dy
Nhiu loi cm bin thng v cm bin quay, k c tng i v tuyt i, l tng t nh cc encoder quang hc nhng
chng s dng tnh cht t nhiu hn quang hc. Cc ng dng thng yu cu di h. Trong cc ng dng nu, cm bin
t c u im trong vic chng li bi bn, mc du cc di t trng cn c bo v trnh b ph hng.
Cm bin sng siu m
Cm bin sng siu m (US) o thi gian truyn ca mt xung ca sng siu m xuyn qua khng kh hoc cht lng
xc nh khong cch. C cc loi cm bin o c cc di t vi cm ti 10 m. u im ln nht ca cm bin siu m l
cc thit b in v cc b phn chuyn i ca n u nm trn cng mt v tr. Nhng cng c nhc im tng ng l
n c xu hng khng phn bit c: chng c th pht hin sai mc tiu, thm ch mt ci rt nh, c bit khi chng qu
gn b chuyn i. Cc cm bin lun ph bin vi cc cnh sng nh hng cn thn (gim xung 7

) ti gin s pht
hin sai cc mc tiu. Mt s thc hin thm vic b cho s thay i ca nhit khng kh, v n nh hng ti vn tc m
thanh. Loi cm bin ny c th s dng trong vic b cc kch thc hnh hc. V d nh, chng c th c dng pht
hin mc cht lng trong mt ng thng ng; s phn x ca xung sng m t cc thnh ca ng l nh nht.
Cc cm bin siu m in hnh c mt u ra analog t l thun vi khong cch ti vt ch. Trong mt mi trng
thun li, th mc chnh xc c th l 1%.
Magnetostrictive thi gian truyn
Mt k thut c chnh xc cao hn vi vic s dng thi gian truyn xc nh khong cch l b chuyn i dy
magnetostrictive (MTS). Mt nam chm di ng to nn mt mc tiu tng ng vi mc tiu m thanh trong cc cm
bin siu m, v khng cn chm vo dy magnetostrictive, n chnh l trung tm ca thit b. T trng hot ng trong dy
madnetostrictive to ra mt xung sng siu m trong dy khi mt xung in chy qua dy. Khong thi gian gia sng xung
in ti s pht hin ca xung sng siu m ti im cui ca dy dng quyt nh v tr ca nam chm dc theo dy (hnh
19.16).
HNH 19.16 Nguyn tc hot ng ca mt cm bin v tr tuyn tnh t gio (Temposonics, Inc.)
B chuyn i t gio khng c tnh chc chn vn c v th ca sng siu m truyn qua khng kh, nhng n t
c php o chiu di c ln tng t, ln ti vi m. S chnh xc v s n nh l tt hn rt nhiu so vi cc cm bin
sng siu m. Mt vi chuyn ng khng thng c b qua, bi v nam chm ch khng cn t ti v tr xp x gn vi
dy t gio.
Cm bin ng dng hin tng giao thoa ca Laser
8
Cm bin
Cc giao thoa k Laser c kh nng o c cc chuyn ng thng tng i vi chnh xc mc nanomet. Trong
mt giao thoa k, cc tia sng laser chun trc truyn qua mt b tch nh sng, a nng lng nh sng theo hai ng
khc nhau. Mt phn x trc tip vo b thu, ging nh dy cc cm bin quang, v ra mt ng i vi di c nh.
ng cn li phn x ngc tr li b thu t mt b phn x ngc (gng) c gn vo vt cn o. Hai sng tng cng
hoc trit tiu ln nhau khi giao thoa vi nhau ti b thu, to ra cc vn sng v ti. Cc vn giao thoa c phn tch tm
ra mi quan h v pha gia hai sng, n ph thuc vo di tng i ca ng i, bi vy c th o c khong cch
ti vt ang dch chuyn. Khi vt di chuyn, hin tng lp li khi di ca ng i tia sng thay i bi di bc sng
tia laser. V th giao thoa k laser chnh l mt thit b o tng i.
Giao thoa k laser l mt thit b t tin, chng ta s tho lun v n trong chng ny. Chng cng l loi c phn
gii cao nht. Cc giao thoa k rt nhy cm vi cc sai lch c kh v cc rung ng.
Cc bn c th tm thm nhiu thng tin v cm bin cc tp ch v cc loi cm bin hoc trong trang web: http://
www.sensorsmag.com/
Ti liu tham kho:
[1] Histand, M. B. and Alciatore, D. G., Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems, McGraw-Hill, Boston,
MA, 1999.
[2] Bolton, W., Mechatronics, 2nd edition, Addison Wesley Longman, New York, NY, 1999.
[3] Horowitz, P. and Hill, W., The Art of Electronics, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1998.
[4] Auslander, D. M. and Kempf, C. J., Mechatronics: Mechanical System Interfacing, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, 1996.
[5] Jones, J. L., Flynn, A. M., and Seiger, B. A., Mobile Robots: Inspiration to Implementation, 2nd edition, A. K. Peters,
Boston, MA, 1999.
19.2 Cm bin gia tc
Halit Eren
Gia tc ca chuyn ng l mt thnh phn rt quan trng ca cc thng s ng hc nh: v tr, vn tc, gia tc, v tc
bin thin gia tc. Mi mt thng s trn li c lin h tuyn tnh vi thng s cnh n. Bi th, tt c cc thng s ng
hc trn u c th c ly ra t mt thng s. V d nh, gia tc c th ly c qua o hm ca vn tc tng ng hoc
l tch phn ca tc bin thin gia tc. Tng t nh th, vn tc c th ly t o hm v tr tng ng hoc tch phn gia
tc. Trong thc t, ch s dng rng ri tch phn v n em n kt qu tt hn khi c nhiu v c s tt dn.
C hai k thut o gia tc: phng php o trc tip qua gia tc k c bit v phng php gin tip o hm vn tc.
Kh nng ng dng ca cc k thut trn ph thuc vo dng chuyn ng (chuyn ng thng, trn, chuyn ng cong)
hoc trng thi cn bng gia cc dao ng. Vi cc chuyn ng thng v chuyn ng cong, ngi ta u tin dng
phng php o gia tc k trc tip. Tuy nhin, ngi ta thng o gia tc gc bng cc phng php o gin tip.
Gia tc l mt thng s quan trng cho cc mc ch o dch chuyn tuyt i, dao ng, v o shock. Vi nhng
mc ch nh vy, c nhiu loi gia tc k vi cc tnh v di o rng nhm p ng cc yu cu ng dng a dng, ch yu
l trong 3 lnh vc: (1) cc ng dng thng mi - t, tu, dng c, th thao, (2) cc ng dng cng nghip - robot, iu
khin my mc, kim tra dao ng, v o c; v (3) cc ng dng c tin cy cao - qun s, khng gian, hng khng, o
ng t, chn ng, dao ng, v cc php o shock.
Gia tc k c s dng trong nhiu nm, nhng loi u tin l loi c kh vi cc tn hiu in tng t. Mc du,
trong cc ng dng hin nay vn c th tm thy cc loi gia tc c nhng cc gia tc hin i rt cn thit s dng cc thit
b bn dn trong cc chip in t c tch hp vi cc mch x l tn hiu. Cc gia tc k c kh pht hin ra lc da trn
mt khi lng khi c gia tc. Mt loi gia tc k mi, dng nhit, c th o v tr nh ng dng hin tng truyn nhit.
Tng quan v cc loi gia tc k
Mt gia tc k c bn gm mt khi lng c th di chuyn t do dc trc o bn trong mt ci v. Cng ngh ch to
gia tc k da nhiu vo c s ny v c th phn chia chng theo nhiu cch, nh l loi c kh hay in, ch ng hay b
ng, lch hay v tr cn bng khng,... Loi thng c dng trong o dao ng hay shock thng l dng lch, khi
m dng chng trong cc php o chuyn ng ca cc phng tin, my bay, v hn c l mc ch nh hng th ta c th
dng loi lch hay v tr cn bng khng.
Bi ny s tp trung vo cc php o trc tip vi cc dng gia tc k sau:
Qun tnh v c kh
in c
p in
p tr
o theo sc cng
9
S tay C in t
in dung hoc cn bng lc tnh in
Gia tc k nh v siu nh
Da trn cc nguyn tc hot ng ngi ta c th phn thnh cc nhm nh hn trong mi nhm chnh.
ng lc hc v cc c tnh ca cc gia tc k
Gia tc c quan h vi chuyn ng, mt vc t lng, biu din mt hng cng nh ln. Hng ca chuyn ng
c m t theo ngha ca mt s h trc to cc v trc giao. Hnh 19.17 minh ha ln lt cc chuyn ng thng,
gc, v cong.
HNH 19.17 Cc dng chuyn ng m gia tc k thng ng dng
HNH 19.18 Mt gia tc k ng in hnh
HNH 19.19 S sp xp ca cc gia tc k trong cc h thng nh v v ch dn
Ta c cc phng trnh cho mi loi chuyn ng:
Gia tc thng
2
2
0
( / )
lim
Dt
d ds dt Dv dv d s
a
Dt dt dt dt

= = = = =

(19.1)
Gia tc gc
q q
2
2
/
( / )
lim
Dt
d d dt Dw dw d
a
Dt dt dt dt
= = = =

(19.2)
Gia tc cong
2 2 2
2 2 2
dv d x d y d z
a i j k
dt dt dt dt
= = + + (19.3)
10
Cm bin
a v
a
l cc gia tc;
n
v
w
l tc ; s l khong cch; q l gc; i, j, v k l cc vc t n v tng ng theo cc
hng x, y, v z.
Vi ng dng cn chnh xc ca gia tc k, th s hiu bit ng n v cc c im ca chuyn ng l rt quan trng.
Cc lnh vc p dng c th l chuyn ng thng v cc dao ng, chuyn ng gc, s kim sot nghing ca mt i
tng, hoc s bin i dng chuyn ng ca qu trnh tng hp. Trong mi trng hp, vic chn la ng n cc gia tc
k l cn thit.
Phn chnh ca cc gia tc k cn c xem xt v phn tch ging nh mt thit b o a chn mt bc t do, n c th
c m t bi mt khi lng, mt l xo, mt dm c b tr ging nh hnh 19.18. Trong trng hp cc h thng c
nhiu bc t do, c th p dng cc nguyn tc ca dch chuyn cong nh trong phng trnh 19.3 v phi s dng cc b
chuyn i a nng to ra phng php o vi 1, 2 hoc 3 im o. Mt v d in hnh l nhng thit b dn hng v
nh v bng qun tnh nh minh ho trong hnh 19.19. Trong cc ng dng nh th, cc cm bin ng vai tr quan trng
trong vic nh hng v tm ng. Thng thng, h cc cm bin 3 trc thu nh c th pht hin ra s thay i trong
trc, bc rng, v gc phng v theo cc hng x, y, v z. Nu mt h thng mt bc t do tuyn tnh trong mt khong
thi gian bt bin, phng trnh vi phn bc hai c bn m t chuyn ng ca h thng lc l xo - khi lng c vit nh
sau:
2
2
( )
d x dx
f t m c kx
dt dt
+ + ( 19.4)
f(t) l lc, m l khi lng, c l hng s vn tc, v k l hng s ca l xo.
Tuy nhin, c s ca cc gia tc k cng l chuyn ng. Khi , lc c truyn qua l xo ti khi lng treo, ph thuc
vo kh nng chuyn i ca lc ti khi lng. Phng trnh (19.4) c hnh thnh qua vic a ra cc nh hng ca
chuyn ng da trn phng trnh sau:
2 2
1
2 2
d
osq - m
x d z dz
m c kz mgc
dt dt dt
+ + (19.5)

2 1
z x x
l chuyn ng tng i gia vt v gc,
1
x
l dch chuyn ca gc,
2
x
l dch chuyn ca vt, v l
gc gia trc cm bin v trng trng.
Phng php gii hon chnh cho phng trnh 19.5 c th thu c qua vic p dng nguyn tc xp chng. Nguyn tc
xp chng ni rng nu c ng thi nhiu hnh ng cng tc ng vo mt vt, th nh hng chung ca n l tng cc nh
hng thnh phn tc ng vo vt. S dng nguyn l xp chng v php chuyn i Laplace cho ta:
2
( ) 1
( )
X s
cs k
F s ms
+ +
(19.6)
hoc
2 2
n n
( )
( ) / 2 / 1
X s K
F s s zs

+ +
(19.7)
s l ton t Laplace, K = 1/k l nhy tnh,
n
/ k m l tn s dao ng ring (rad/s), v ( / 2) c km l h s
suy gim.
Tt c u l cc hm ca khi lng, vn tc, v cc h s l xo. Cc gia tc k c thit k v ch to vi nhng c
im khc nhau theo s la chn hp l ca nhng thng s trn. Danh sch cc nh sn xut c a ra trong bng 19.1.
11
S tay C in t
Dao ng
Chng ny cp n cc ng dng ca gia tc k o cc c tnh vt l nh l gia tc, dao ng hay s rung ng,
v cc chuyn ng chung. Mc du c nhiu khc nhau c bn trong cc dng chuyn ng, vic hiu r v cc nguyn tc
c bn ca dao ng s a cc ng dng ca cc gia tc k vo cc tnh hung khc nhau bi phng php xp x gn ng.
Dao ng l mt chuyn ng qua li c c t s tc dng ca cc lc thay i vo mt cu trc. Cc dao ng c th
l tun hon, ngu nhin tnh, ngu nhin ng, hoc tm thi.
Cc dao ng tun hon
Trong cc dao ng tun hon, mt i tng lp li chuyn ng ca chnh n trong mt khong thi gian no . C
th biu din n theo dng sng hnh sin:
( ) sin( t)
p
x t X
(19.8)
y x(t) l dch chuyn ph thuc thi gian, 2 ft l tn s gc, v Xp l bin ca dao ng ( dch chuyn ln
nht tnh t gc).
Vn tc ca vt cng l mt hm theo thi gian v c tnh nh sau:
p
( ) os( t)=V sin( / 2)
p
dx
v t X c t p
dt
+ (19.9)
trong v(t) l vn tc ph thuc vo thi gian, v
p p
V X
l vn tc ln nht.
Gia tc ca vt l o hm ca vn tc theo thi gian,
12
Cm bin
2
2
2
( ) sin( ) sin( )
p p
dv d x
a t w X wt A wt p
dt dt
+
(19.10)
trong a(t) l gia tc ph thuc thi gian, v
2
p p p
A X V
l gia tc ln nht.
T cc phng trnh c trc ta c th thy rng cc dng c bn v chu k dao ng tn ti trong cng gia tc, vn tc,
v dch chuyn. Nhng vn tc sm pha hn so vi dch chuyn mt gc 90
0
v gia tc cng sm pha hn vn tc mt gc
90
0
.
Trong t nhin, dao ng c th d on c, nhng khng hn l hm sin. Nu ta bit trc chng nhng chng
khng dng sin, c th biu din chng qua tng ca cc hm sin, theo phn tch Fourier:
0 1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) sin( ) sin( ) ... sin( )
n n n
x t X X t X t X t + + + + + + +
(19.11)

1 2
, ,...,
n

l cc tn s (rad/s), X0, X1, ,Xn l bin tng ng vi cc tn s, v
1 2
, ,...,
n

l cc gc pha.
S cc s hng c th l gii hn, v s cc phn t cng cao th xp x s c kt qu tt hn. Nhng phn t ny to
thnh mt chui rng vi cc tn s khc nhau. Chng ta c th biu din dao ng theo phm vi thi gian hay phm vi
khng gian, c hai phng php u rt hu ch trong khi phn tch.
Dao ng ngu nhin tnh
Cc dao ng ngu nhin thng gp trong t nhin, chng to thnh cc chuyn ng vi chu k bt quy tc v
chng khng bao gi lp li chnh chng mt cch chnh xc. V mt l thuyt m ni, ta cn quan st vi thi gian di v
tn thu c mt qu trnh hon thin ca nhng dao ng ny. Tuy nhin, c th s dng cc phng php thng k hay
l thuyt xp x phn tch qua vic cc mu i din. Cc cng c ton hc nh cc hm phn b xc sut, mt xc sut,
ph tn xut, cc hm tng quan cho, hm t tng quan, cc chuyn i Fourier s (DFTs), cc chuyn i Fourier nhanh
(FFTs), phn tch ph t ng, cc gi tr cn qun phng, v php phn tch lc s l mt vi k thut c th c p dng.
Cc dao ng ngu nhin bin i
Trong trng hp ny, cc tnh cht thng k ca cc dao ng bin i theo thi gian. C th p dng cc phng php
nh trung bnh thi gian hay cc k thut thng k.
Qu v shock
Bnh thng ta cn o c cc dao ng xy ra t ngt v trong thi gian ngn. C th m t shock v qu trnh qu
ca dao ng thng qua cc i lng nh lc, gia tc, vn tc, di chuyn. Nh trong trng hp qu v va p ngu
nhin, th trong phn tch ngi ta s dng cc phng php thng k v bin i Fourier.
Cc ngun sai s in hnh v li m hnh
Cc li trong phng php o gia tc xy ra do bn nguyn nhn chnh: cc cm bin, s thu nhn in t, x l tn hiu,
v cc li ng dng c bit khc. Trong cc phng php o gia tc trc tip, cc ngun gy ra sai s chnh l t cc cm
bin v t s thu nhn d liu bng in t. Nhng li ny s c tho lun trong phn khc v trong mt vi trng hp,
cc li cm bin v li thu nhn in t c th cao mc 5%. Vic ly mu v cc chuyn i A/D thng em li mt phn
ca nhng li ny v n l c hu cng nh n tn ti trong tt c cc h thng thu thp v tnh ton d liu. Tuy nhin c th
gim thiu nhng li ny qua vic la chn cn thn b dn knh, cc mch gi v ly mu, v cc chuyn i A/D.
Khi dng phng php o trc tip, phi kim tra cn thn la chn ng gia tc k ph hp vi cc yu cu ca mt
ng dng c th. gim thiu cc li, cc c im ca chuyn ng cn c nghin cu, v cn phi xem xt cc c tnh
sau ca cc gia tc k: p ng qu hoc nhy cho trc; di tn s; nhy, dy ng hc v khi lng; phn vi
ng hc; v cc iu kin mi trng nh nhit , s n nh in p, v s sai lch,
nhy ca gia tc k
Trong qu trnh o c, cc dch chuyn ngang ca h thng nh hng hu ht gia tc k v nhy ca ca nhng
chuyn ng ny chim mt vai tr chnh trong chnh xc ca cc php o. nhy theo phng ngang, cng nh cho,
ca gia tc k l phn ng ca n vi gia tc trong mt phng thng ng vi trc chnh ca gia tc k nh trong hnh 19.20.
nhy cho trc bnh thng c th hin l phn trm ca nhy cm trc chnh v nn thp mc c th. Cc nh sn
xut thng cung cp hng c nhy ti thiu.
13
S tay C in t
HNH 19.20 Minh ho v nhy cho trc.
Vic o hng nhy cho trc ln nht l mt phn ca qu trnh hiu chnh tng phn v nn nh hn 3 hoc 4%.
Nu dao ng ngang qu ln, n c th gy nn sai lch rt ln v kt qu. Trong trng hp ny, ta nn sp xp ring cc
mc dao ng v tn s cc ni dung ca cc chuyn ng cho trc. nhy cho trc ca cc gia tc k in hnh c m
t trong cc phn lin quan l khong 2-3% cc loi p in v 1% cho hu ht cc loi khc.
Di tn s
Cc php o gia tc bnh thng gn ging nh vic s dng php chia tuyn tnh ng cong nhy ca gia tc k.
nhy b gii hn cc vng tn s thp cng nh cc vng tn s cao quanh tn s cng hng t nhin. C mt quy tc kinh
nghim, c th t gii hn tn s cao cho php o bng 1/3 tn s gy cng hng ca gia tc k nh vy, cc dao ng
c o trong tuyn tnh di 1dB. Ta nn ch rng mt di tn s hu dng cho gia tc k c th cao hn 1/2 hoc 2/3 tn
s cng hng ca n. Tn s o c th c t cao hn gi tr trong cc ng dng m m tuyn tnh thp hn (v
d 3dB) l c th chp nhn. C hai nguyn nhn quyt nh gii hn tn s o thp. u tin l ngng tn s thp ca
cc b tin khuch i lin i. Th hai l nh hng ca cc s thay i ca nhit xung quanh trong khi gia tc k rt
nhy cm vi s thay i ny.
Khi lng ca gia tc k v di ng lc hc
Theo l thuyt, nhy ca b chuyn i cng cao th cng tt. C th phi a ra nhng tho hip cho nhy i vi
tn s, dy, qu ti, kch c,
Trong mt vi trng hp, nhiu li gy ra do vic la chn sai cm bin, khng ph hp vi ng dng. V d nh khi
lng ca gia tc k tr nn quan trng khi s dng kim tra cc vt nh v nh. Gia tc k khng nn mang thnh phn
c cu trc, do khi lng thm vo c th dn n s thay i ng k ti mc v tn s ti cc im o v lm sai lch cc
kt qu. C mt quy tc chung l khi lng gia tc k khng nn ln hn 1/10 khi lng hiu dng ca phn hoc cu trc
c gn ln o.
Di ng lc hc ca gia tc k nn lm cho hp vi cc mc gia tc cao hay thp ca cc i tng c o. Vi gia
tc k dng cho mc ch chung th di nm trong khong tuyn tnh t 5000g n 10.000g, y l di ph hp nht vi cc
thay i t ngt c kh. Cc gia tc k c bit c th o trn 100.000g.
p ng qu
Cc thay i t ngt c m t nh cc s gii phng nng lng t ngt di dng cc xung ngn biu din bi hnh
dng thay i v tng theo thi gian. Chng c cc cng cao v cc di tn rng. Trong cc ng dng m cc php o
qu trnh qu v thay i t ngt c mi lin quan, tnh cht tuyn tnh ton cc ca h thng o c th b gii hn cc
tn s cao hoc thp bi mt hin tng gi l bm v lch khng. Lch khng gy nn bi s khng tuyn tnh v pha trong
c cc b tin khuch i v gia tc k khng tr v trng thi n nh sau khi phi chu nhng thay i t ngt ln. Bm
gy nn bi cc thnh phn c tn s cao ca s kch thch ca gn vi tn s cng hng, ngn cn gia tc k tr li trng
thi n nh ca n. trnh sai s php o v nhng hiu ng ny, di tn dng cho iu khin nn c t trong vng
tuyn tnh.
Di thang o v qu ti
Hu ht cc gia tc k u c kh nng o theo c hai chiu: dng v m. Chng c thit k c th s dng khi qu
ti. Cc nh sn xut cng cung cp thng tin cho c hai c im ny.
iu kin mi trng
Khi chn la v lm vic vi cc gia tc k, cn phi xem xt cc iu kin mi trng nh cc di nhit , s thay i
nhit , cc nh hng ca t trng, m, v tp m. Cc nh sn xut cng cung cp cc thng tin v cc iu kin mi
trng.
14
Cm bin
Gia tc k qun tnh
Cc gia tc k qun tnh l cc gia tc k c kh s dng mt khi lng ng c treo bi 1 l xo hoc mt n by bn
trong mt khung cng nh trong hnh 19.17. Khung mang khi lng ng c ni cng vi ngun dao ng. S dng cc
tnh cht ca h thng dng thc hin php o. Khi h dao ng, khi lng c xu hng tr v v tr cn bng ca n
chuyn ng c th c ghi li ging nh mt dch chuyn tng i gia khi lng v khung. Mt b chuyn i xc
nh dch chuyn ny v a ra tn hiu n b x l. C th ch to cc phn t chuyn i bng cc vt liu c tnh in tr,
in dung, cm ng, p in, p tr, v quang hc. Trong thc t, khi lng ng khng em n mt trng thi n nh
tuyt i, nhng n c th t c mt v tr gn vi vi cc tn s xc nh.
Qua vic la chn hp l gia khi lng, l xo, v gim chn, c th s dng thit b ny cho c mc ch o gia tc v
o s dch chuyn. Ni chung, vt c khi lng ln cng vi mt l xo mm thch hp cho vic o dao ng v chuyn
dch, trong khi mt khi lng tng i nh v l xo cng c s dng trong cc gia tc k. Tuy nhin, thut ng ng
c s dng thng xuyn trong cc thit b, chng o cc mc dao ng rt chm ca nn v ca cc kt cu.
m t nhy ca gia tc khi lng ng trong hnh 19.17, phng trnh chuyn ng theo nh lut 2 Newton c
th c vit nh sau:
2
2 2 1
2 1
2
os( )
d x dx dx
m c kx c kx mgc
dt dt dt
+ + + + (19.12)
x1 l dch chuyn ca khung dao ng, x2 l dch chuyn ca khi lng ng, c l hng s vn tc, l gc lch gia
trc o v phng trng lc, v k l cng l xo.
Tr c hai v phng trnh cho
2 2
1
/ md x dt v sp xp li ta c
2 2
1
2 2
d
os( ) - m
x d z dz
m c kz mgc
dt dt dt
+ +
(19.13)
z = x2 x1 l chuyn ng tng i gia khi lng v vt c s.
Trong phng trnh (19.12), ta gi s rng lc ca l xo ln khi lng ng ch t l thun vi vn tc. Nu ta a vo
thit b mt dao ng iu ho nh sau:
1 0 1
( ) sin( ) x t X t
(19.14)

1

l tn s ca dao ng (rad/s), ta c
2
1
1
2
sin
d x
m mX t
dt

bin i phng trnh (19.13) thnh
2
1 1
2
cos( ) sin
d z dz
m c kz mg ma t
dt dt
+ + + (19.15)

2
1 0 1
a mX
Phng trnh (19.15) c th suy ra trng thi qu v trng thi n nh ca h thng. Trng thi n nh ca phng
trnh vi phn (19.15) c th c xc nh:
1 1
2
1 1
sin cos( )
( )
ma t mg
z
k k m jc


+
+
(19.16)
Sp xp li phng trnh (19.16) ta c
1 1
2 2 2 2
n
sin( ) os( )
(1 ) (2 )
n
a t mgc
z
r zr

+
+
(19.17)
Trong ( / )
n
k m l tn s dao ng ring ca khi lng ng, ( / 2 ) V c km l h s suy gim. C th vit h s
suy gim theo dng sau
/ ,
c
V c c
vi 2
c
c km . Trong gc pha l
1 2
1 1
( tan /( ) ) c k m

]

]
v
1
( / )
n
r
l t l
tn s.
Mt th ca phng trnh (19.17),
1 2 0 0
( ) / x x x
vi t l tn s
1
/
n

, minh ho trong hnh (19.21). Hnh ny ch ra
rng bin u ra bng vi bin u vo khi
/ 0.7
c
c c
v
1
/ 2
n
>
. u ra gn tr thnh mt hm tuyn tnh theo
u vo tn s cao. tho mn h thng, cc hng s thit b
/
c
c c
v
n

nn c tnh ton k hoc thu c qua vi ln

kim tra.
15
S tay C in t
HNH 19.21 Tn s
vi t l bin ca gia tc k ng.
Bng cch ny, chnh xc c d on ca php o c th c on trc qua cc tn s quan tm. Mt php so
snh phn tch c thc hin bi McConnell [7]; cc c gi quan tm xem phn ny c c cc thng tin c th.
Cc thit b dao ng c xy dng theo nhiu cch khc nhau. Trong mt thit b o in th, mt b phn th c s
dng o cc dch chuyn tng i gia khung v khi lng ng. Trong phn ln cc gia tc k o in th, thit b
c in y mt loi cht nht, n lin tc tng tc vi khung v khi lng ng gim chn. Nhng gia tc k ny c
tn s hot ng thp (di 100 Hz) v ch yu c dnh cho cc gia tc c thay i chm v tn s dao ng thp. Mt
h in hnh ca cc thit b ny c cc m hnh khc nhau, gm cc khong
1g t
ti
50g t
. Cc di tn s t nhin t 12
n 89 Hz, v h s suy gim

c th c gi trong khong t 0,5 n 0,8 bng vic b nhit v b bng gim chn.
in tr ca b phn th c th c chn trong di t 1000- 10000 W, vi phn gii tng ng 0.45- 0.25% ca ton di
o. nhy ngang trc nh hn 1% t . chnh xc ton b l 1% t ca ton di o hoc thp hn nhit phng. Kch
thc c vo khong
3
50mm
vi tng khi lng khong 1/2 kg.
Cc b chuyn i vi phn tuyn tnh c th thay i (LVDTs) s dng cch o khc ca dch chuyn tng i ca khi
lng ng v v ca gia tc k. Cc thit b ny c cc tn s t nhin cao hn cc gia tc k, ti khong 300 Hz. Do cc
LVDT c mc cn tr chuyn ng thp hn, n t c phn gi tt hn. Mt h in hnh ca cc gia tc k chuyn
i vi phn vi cht nht th hin cc c tnh sau. Mt di o t
2g t
ti
700g t
, tn s ring t 35 ti 650 Hz, khng
tuyn tnh l 1% ca mc ti a. Mc ti a ca u ra l khong 1V vi kch thch LVDT l 10V ti 2000 Hz, di h s suy
gim t 0,6 ti 0,7 , vi in th d ti v tr khng l nh hn 1%, v tr nh hn 1% mc cc i. Kch thc vo
khong
3
50mm
vi khi lng vo khong 120g.
B o bin dng dng in tr strain gages c s dng o dch chuyn ca khi lng ng. Trong trng hp ny,
khi lng ng c trn mt dm cng xn tt hn l dng l xo. in tr strain gages c gn cht trn mi mt ca
n cn bng o bin dng trong n xc nh dch chuyn dao ng ca khi lng. Mt cht lng nht c
y gim chn cho h thng. u ra ca cc thit b bin dng c ni vi mt mch cu thch hp. Tn s ring ca
h thng ny vo khong 300 Hz. Tn s ring thp l do cn mt dm cng xn rng ph hp vi vic treo cc in
tr strain gages.
Mt iu tr ngi ln ca cc thit b dao ng l cn thm cc mch b gim cc nh hng ca nhit . gim
chn ca thit b c th cng b nh hng bi s thay i v nht ca cht lng theo nhit . V d nh chng ta thng
dng du silicone trong cc thit b v tnh nht ca n ph thuc nhiu vo nhit .
Gia tc k khi lng treo, cng xn, v gia tc k qun tnh dng qu lc
C nhiu kiu gia tc k qun tnh khc nhau, chng hu ht u ang trong giai on pht trin v c s dng ph hp
cho nhiu trng hp khc nhau, v nh qu lc hi chuyn, rotor phn ng, dy dao ng, v cn bng lc li tm.
Thit b dy dao ng, hnh 19.22, li dng mt khi lng th c h tr theo chiu dc bi mt cp dy cng, dao
ng theo chiu ngang vi hnh dng tit din ngang v cc di bng nhau v cc khi lng. Tn s dao ng ca cc dy
c t mc vi nghn vng trn giy. Khi lng th c qua tm nn theo gia tc theo phng vung gc vi
cc si dy khng nh hng n bin dng si dy. Vi s hin din ca gia tc dc theo trc o, mt bin dng tn
ti trn hai dy, theo lm thay i tn s ca dao ng. Theo nh lut th hai v chuyn ng, cc tn s c vit nh
sau:
2 1
1
1
T
f
ml

v
2 2
2
2
T
f
m l

(19.18)
T l bin dng, ms l khi lng, v l l chiu di cc si
16
Cm bin
HNH 19.22 Mt gia tc k dy khi lng dao ng treo in hnh
Hiu T1 T2 t l thun vi ma, trong a l gia tc dc theo trc ca cc si dy. Mt cch biu din sai lch ca bnh
phng tn s nh sau:
2 2 1 2
1 2
4 4
s s
T T ma
f f
m l m l

(19.19)
T :
1 2
1 2
4 ( )
s
ma
f f
m l f f

+
(19.20)
Tng ca cc tn s
1 2
( ) f f + c th c gi c nh bng cch lin h sc cng ca dy so vi tn s ca mt b dao
ng chun. T , s sai khc gia cc tn s tr thnh t l thun vi gia tc. Trong mt s phin bn, tnh cht ging ci
dm ca cc phn t dao ng c dng bng cch kp cht chng ti cc im nt khng tng ng vi kiu c bn ca
dao ng ca n by, v ti cc tm tng ng ca s va chm ca khi lng th chung. Tn s ra t l vi gia tc v vn
tc th t l vi pha, y l mt u im quan trng. Nhng phin bn ci tin mi hn ca cc thit b ny a n cc gia
tc k dng cng xn, v chng c tho lun trong phn ti.
Trong mt gia tc k dng cng xn, mt dm cng xn nh c gn trn mt khi v c t ngc li vi b mt dao
ng, v mt c cu c kh thch hp c dng thay i ca chiu di dm. Chiu di dm c ngm nh sao cho tn
s t nhin ca n cn bng vi tn s ca b mt dao ng, v t thu c iu kin cng hng. Gn y cc thay i
nh ca cc s sp xp dm cng xn ang tm ra nhng ng dng mi trong cc vi gia tc k.
Mt dng khc ca cu hnh gia tc k khi lng treo, khi mt con lc quay quanh trc thng ng. H thng l iu
khin servo duy tr n v tr khng. Gia tc trng trng c cn bng bi gia tc ly tm. Tc trc t l vi bnh
phng gi tr a phng ca gia tc.
Gia tc k c in
Cc gia tc k c in c thnh phn c bn l iu khin servo v cn bng v tr khng hot ng da trn nguyn l
phn hi. Trong nhng thit b ny, mt vt c khi lng nhy gia tc c gi rt gn vi mt v tr trung tm hoc im
khng bng cch xc nh dch chuyn v phn hi cc nh hng ca dch chuyn. Mt lc t trng tng ng c to
ra chng li chuyn ng ca khi lng dch chuyn t v tr khng, do qu trnh tr li gi tr ny ging nh l mt l
xo c kh trong mt gia tc k thng vn lm. Cc u im ca vic tip cn ny l tuyn tnh tt hn v hn ch cc hin
tng tr, ging nh cc l xo c kh. Cng nh th, trong mt s trng hp, c th to thm b gim chn in, n c
nhy nh hn vi s thay i nhit .
Mt c im rt quan trng ca cc gia tc k c in l kh nng kim tra v ng hc v tnh hc ca cc thit b bng
cch a kch thch in vo cc h thng. Vic kim tra ny kh thun tin trong cc trng hp phc tp v tn km vi
yu cu chnh xc cao. Cc thit b ny cng hu ch cho cc h thng iu khin gia tc, v gi tr gia tc c th c a ra
17
S tay C in t
bi mt dng in tng ng t mt ngun ngoi. Chng c s dng cho mc ch o c cc chuyn ng thng thng
v iu khin cc dao ng tn s thp.
C nhiu loi gia tc k c in nh: Dng t trng v cun dy, cc dng cm ng,
Gia tc cun dy - t trng
Cc gia tc ny da trn nh lut Ampare: Mt cun cm mang dng in t trong mt t trng sinh ra mt lc t l
vi dng in, di cun cm trong t trng, mt t trng, v sin ca gc lch gia cun cm v t trng. Cc cun
dy trong cc gia tc k ny c t trong min hnh ng tr nm gia mt nam chm vnh cu v mt ng st non hnh tr.
Chng c gn bng cch mt ci cn c t trn mt bi c ma st rt nh hoc ch un cong to thnh mt khi
lng ng nhy vi gia tc. C cu nh (pickoff) o dch chuyn ca cun dy c gia tc v khin cun dy c cung
cp bi mt dng trc tip thng qua mt b iu khin servo thch hp tr li hoc duy tr iu kin khng. Cc dng
in trong mch tr li t l tuyn tnh vi gia tc, cung cp tng tc phn ng l khng ng k v b trung ho hon ton
bi mt cun dy b v tr i din cun dy chuyn ng, v h s khuch i ca h thng servo l ln ngn chn
s dch chuyn ca cun dy ni m t trng khng i.
Trong nhng gia tc k ny, cu trc ca t trng phi c che chn thch ng lm cho nhy ca h thng vi
cc nhiu lon hoc t trng ngoi l khng ng k. Cng nh th, khi xut hin gia tc th nhit cng tng do s to
nhit theo
2
i R
. Cc nh hng ca s to nhit trn trong vic biu din c quyt nh qua s phn b nhit v cc tnh
cht v truyn nhit ca cc gia tc k.
Gia tc k cm ng
Mi quan h gia dng in, t trng, v lc chnh l c s cho cc gia tc k in t trng dng cm ng. Cc gia tc
k ny c cc my pht in nhiu hn cc mt. Mt dng ca thit b ny, dng mn che t ( cup and magnet design),
bao gm mt phn t dao ng vi mt c cu nh v mt b iu khin servo dn ng mt kt ni my o tc . Mt t
trng vnh cu v mt vnh tr v thng lng, phn khng gian hp tng ng vi mt hnh tr dn in, c gn vo
phn t dao ng. Mt lc ko t l vi tc thu c bi s cm ng ca in t trng gia t trng v vt dn. C cu
nh o vng ca dao ng di gia tc v gy cho b iu khin servo quay rotor ko phn t dao ng hng ti v tr
khng. Di iu kin n nh, tc motor l mt php o ca gia tc nh tc ng ln thit b. Hot ng n nh ca
servo c thc hin bi s dng mt mng tin nh b vo thi gian tr qun tnh ca motor v s tng hp t trng.
chnh xc ca cc gia tc k dng servo l hn ch c bn bi s n nh v chc chn ca cc h s t l ca cc thit b
ghp ni v thit b chn t cng nh tnh cht ca thi gian v nhit .
Mt gia tc k khc da trn thit k v cm ng s dng s hnh thnh momen cm ng dng in xoy. C cu to lc
ca mt gia tc k cm ng bao gm t trng khng i, thng c cung cp bi mt nam chm vnh cu, xuyn thng
vo mt tm dn in. S dch chuyn ca tm dn trong t trng thay i to thnh mt sc in ng trong mi mch ca
in tr. Kt qu ny c c l theo nh lut Faraday. Trong cc gia tc k dng cm ng, cc dng in cm ng xoy tip
gip vi tm in tr, cn thit to cho h thng mt khp ni ko. V tc gc t l vi gia tc, v tr gc i din cho
s thay i vn tc. y l tnh nng c bit hu ch trong cc ng dng dng nh hng.
Mt thit b in hnh cho tnh kinh t da trn nguyn tc gia tc k iu khin servo c th c mt b to dao ng
chun thch anh cc nh, mt mang nn khng kh cng vi s b u tr ng cho h thng gim chn. Mt s m hnh
bin i, v du nh mt khi nng 30g c ngng v phn gii l 1
g
, mt p ng tn s 10 Hz l 0,05% v 100Hz
l 2%, mt tn s t nhin l 1500Hz, h s gim chn l t 0,3 - 0,8, v nhy chuyn i hoc ngang trc l 0,1%. V d
nh nu u ra dng in l 1,3 mA/g, mt in tr ch th 250 W s c mt in th cc i 10V cho 30g. Cc gia tc k ny
l ph hp cho cng vic yu cu chnh xc v c dng trong nhiu ng dng nh l hng khng v cc h thng iu
khin tn la, php o cc gc nghing dng cho vic nh hng cc ng dng vi cc l khoan trong lng t, v gc ln
trc trong cc h thng cn bng v trng lng my bay.
Gia tc k p in
Cc gia tc k p in c s dng rng ri vi mc ch o gia tc, shock, v dao ng. Chng l cc b chuyn i
truyn ng c bn vi cc tn hiu ra ln v kch thc tng i nh v chng l cc b ngun t to khng cn cp ngun
t bn ngoi. Chng c th hot ng tn s t nhin rt cao v do thch hp cho cc ng dng tn s cao v cc php o
xung ng.
Cc thit b ny s dng mt khi lng gn trc tip vi thnh phn p in hoc tinh th nh hnh 19.23. Khi p mt
chuyn ng bin i vo gia tc k, tinh th chu mt lc kch thch bin i (F = ma), gy nn mt in tch q t l c
hnh thnh ngang qua n. Nn,
ij ij
q d F d ma
(19.21)
Trong q l in tch hnh thnh v dij l h s p in ca vt liu.
Phng trnh trn ch ra rng, in th u ra ca vt liu p in ph thuc vo thuc tnh c ca n dij. Hai loi tinh
th p in thng c s dng l gm lead-zirconate titanate (PZT) v tinh th thch anh. Chng l cc vt liu t sinh
in v sn sinh ra in tch ln tu theo kch thc ca chng. H s bin dng p in ca PZT gp khong 150 ln so vi
18
Cm bin
thch anh. Theo , cc PZT l nhy v nh hn nhiu so vi thch anh. Cc gia tc k ny c dng trong cc ng dng
tn s cao. Tn s ban u vo khong 100 Hz. Cc thit b ny khng c p ng 1 chiu. V cc gia tc k p in c cn
tr c kh tng i thp, nh hng ca chng ln chuyn ng ca cc thnh phn cu trc nht l khng ng k.
HNH 19.23 S b tr ca mt gia tc k p in dng nn.
Trn phng din ton hc, hm truyn ca chng ging mt h thng bc 3 c vit nh sau:
0
2 2 2
( )
( ) ( 1)( / 2 / 1)
q
n n n
K s
e s
a s C s s s

+ + +
(19.22)
trong Kq l hng s p in lin quan ti in tch (C cm),

l hng s thi gian ca thch anh, v s l bin Laplace. C

mt lu cn quan tm l thch anh khng c hng s thi gian

, nhng hng s thi gian c quan st khi cc gia tc k

c ni vi mt mch in, v d nh, mt mch RC.
p ng tn s thp c gii hn bi c tnh p in /( 1) s s + , trong khi p ng tn s cao lin quan ti p ng
c kh. H s gim chn l rt nh, thng nh hn 0,01 hoc gn 0. chnh xc p ng tn s thp yu cu

rng, n
thng c thc hin bi vic s dng bin p in tr cao. cc tn s rt thp, cc hiu ng nhit c th nh hng
thng xuyn vo cc c tnh hot ng.
Trong cc gia tc k p in, hai cu hnh thit k c bn c s dng: cc dng ng sut nn v ng sut trt. Trong
cc gia tc k dng nn, tinh th c gi dng nn bi mt phn t c ti trng t trc; do dao ng thay i ng
sut trong dng nn. Trong gia tc dng ng sut trt, dao ng n gin lm bin dng tinh th dng trt. Cc gia tc k
dng nn c mt khi lng tng i tt cho t l nhy v t n hot ng tt hn. Nhng, v v lm vic nh l mt
phn ca h thng lo xo - khi lng, n c th sinh ra mt mt phn cch gi to trong u ra ca gia tc k nu c kch
thch xung quanh tn s t nhin ca n.
Cc gia tc k p in c di rng cc c tnh v c nhiu nh sn xut. V d, cc c tnh ca mt gia tc k shock c
th c nhy mc 0.004 pC/g v mt tn s t nhin ti 250.000 Hz, trong khi mt b c thit k cho cc dao ng
mc thp c th c nhy mc 1000 pC/g v tn s t nhin ch vo khong 7000 Hz. Chng c sn xut theo kch c
3 x 3 vi khi lng 0.5 g, bao gm c cc dy ni. Chng c khong nhit tuyt vi v mt s c thit k thch ng
vi mi trng bc x ca cc phn ng ht nhn. Tuy nhin, cc gia tc k p in theo xu hng c nhy cm ngang
trc ln hn cc loi khc, khong 2-4%. Trong mt vi trng hp, nhy cm ngang trc ln c th c lm ti gin
nh ta chn ra hng ng ca thit b trong sut qu trnh thit lp. Cc gia tc k ny c th c gn vi nt ren, vi
ximng hoc cht dnh, hoc mm cp t trng.
Gia tc k p tr
Cc gia tc k p tr ch yu l cc bn dn hiu chun bin dng vi cc h s hiu chun ln. Cc h s hiu chun
ln t tnh khng in ca vt liu l ph thuc ch yu vo bin dng, khng ch ph thuc vo kch thc. nh hng
ny c th c lm tng ng k bi vic cho thm vo bn dn cc cht ph gia v d nh silicon. Tt c cc gia tc k p
tr u s dng hai hoc bn hiu chun hot ng c sp xp thnh mt cu Wheatstone. S dng thm cc in tr chnh
xc, nh l mt phn mch in, trong chui vi u vo iu khin nhy, cn bng, v hn ch nhng nh hng
ca nhit . nhy ca mt cm bin p tr c c t phn ng mm do trong cu trc ca n v in tr ca vt liu.
Dy v in tr dy hoc mng c h s hiu chun thp, nh vy, s thay i in tr da vo bin dng l nh. Hnh
19.24 m t cu trc c kh ca gia tc k p tr.
Cc gia tc k p tr l hu ch trong vic thu thp thng tin dao ng cc mc tn s thp, v d nh di 1 Hz. Trong
thc t, chng vn l cc cm bin gia tc khng dao ng. Nhn chung chng c rng bng thng ln, khng tuyn
tnh nh v dch khng, v cc c tnh tr tt hn khi so snh chng vi cc c im ca gia tc k p in. Chng thch
hp o cc bin i t ngt trn 100.000 g.
19
S tay C in t
HNH 19.24 Gn cc gia tc k p in v p tr vo cc h thng qun tnh
Cc c trng in hnh ca cc gia tc k p tr nh sau: nhy 100 mV/g, di tn s t 0 750 Hz, tn s cng
hng 2500 Hz, di bin 25g, t l shock 2000g, v di nhit 0 95
0
C, vi tng khi lng khong 25g.
Hu ht cc cm bin p tr hin ti c sn xut t mt ming silicon n. N mang li s n nh hn v gim nhit
hn gia cc phn. Trong mt phn t o dng khi in hnh c mt chip silicon 1 mm kt hp vi 1 l xo, khi lng, v
mt cu gm 4 nhnh. Cc phn t ny c to thnh bi mt c im ca cht ph gia trong khi silicon phng nguyn
bn. Tip sau s khc mn ca cc knh gii phng s hiu chun v ng thi nh ngha cc khi lng nh cc phn ca
silicon trn bn gc.
Gia tc k hiu chun ng sut
Cc gia tc k hiu chun ng sut da trn cc thuc tnh in tr ca cc dy dn in. Nu mt dy dn c ko di
hoc b nn li, in tr ca n vn ph thuc (a) vo chiu di dy dn, v (b) thay i theo tnh cht c bn ca vt liu v
c gi l p tr. iu ny ch ra rng in tr sut

ca dy dn ph thuc vo ng sut c kh t ln n. S ph thuc

ny c biu din theo h s hiu chun:
/ /
1 2
/ /
dR R d
v
dL L dL L

+ + (19.23)
trong 1 xc nh in tr thay i theo chiu di, 2 ch ra in tr thay i theo din tch, v ( / ) /( / ) d dL L ni
rng in tr thay i theo tnh cht p tr.
C nhiu dng hiu chun ng sut: Cc hiu chun dy kim loi khng tip xc, cc hiu chun dy kim loi lin kt, cc
hiu chun l kim loi lin kt, cc hiu chun mng kim loi mng t trong chn khng, cc hiu chun bn dn lin kt, v
cc hiu chun bn dn khuch tn. Tuy nhin, y cc hiu chun dy kim loi tip xc hoc khng tip xc thng c
s dng rng ri hn. Mt phn ca cc gia tc k hiu chun ng sut c s dng, c bit l dng bn dn lin kt, ging
nh cc chuyn i p tr, nhng chng chu cc nhy cm vi nhit cao, s khng tuyn tnh, v mt s kh khn khc.
Tuy nhin, cng vi s pht trin ca cng ngh vi gia cng gn y, cc cm bin ny c ci thin ng k, t ta c
th tm ra c nhiu ng dng mi.
Cc gia tc k hiu chun ng sut khng tip xc s dng cc si dy ng sut ging nh cc phn t l xo v nh l
chuyn i chuyn ng, b tr tng t nh trong hnh 19.25. Chng hu ch vi cc chuyn ng thng thng v cc php
o dao ng t cc tn s t thp n trung bnh. Vi nhiu chn loi c cc c tnh sau: thang o t 5g t ti 200g t , di
tn t nhin t 17 800 Hz, in th kch thch 10 V DC hay AC, thang u ra 20mV t ti 50mV t , phn di nh hn
0,1%, khng chnh xc thp hn 1% di o, v nhy cho trc nh hn 2%. T l suy gim (s dng du nhn silicone)
l 0,6 0,8 nhit phng. Cc thit b ny nh v nh, thng di 25g.
Cc gia tc k hiu chun ng sut lin kt thng thng s dng mt khi lng c bi mt dm un cong mng.
t c nhy ln nht, s b nhit, v nhy cho c gia tc cho trc ln gia tc gc ngi ta gn cc hiu chun
ng sut vo dm ny. Chng c cc c im tng t vi cc gia tc k hiu chun ng sut khng tip xc nhng chng
c kch c v trng lng nng hn. V thng s dng du silicone gim chn. Cc hiu chun ng sut bn dn c s
dng rng ri nh cc cm bin ng sut trong cc dm cng xn v cc dng khi lng ca cc gia tc k. Chng cho php
cc mc u ra cao (0,2 - 0,5 V). Thng thng mt my 25g t c p ng phng t 0 n 750 Hz, h s suy gim 0,7, khi
lng l 28g, v nhit hot ng t -18
0
C ti +93
0
C. Mt m hnh 20.000g t 3 trc c p ng phng t 0 ti 15 kHz,
h s suy gim l 0.01, v di b nhit t 0 45
0
C, v kch c l 13 x 10 x 13 mm
3
v khi lng l 10g.
Cc gia tc k tnh in
20
Cm bin
Cc gia tc k tnh in hot ng da trn nh lut Coulomb gia hai vt mang in; do , chng l dng in dung.
Ph thuc vo nguyn tc hot ng v cc mch ngoi chng c th c phn loi chung thnh (a) gia tc k phn hi lc
tnh in, v (b) cc gia tc k in dung vi phn.
Gia tc k phn hi lc tnh in
Mt gia tc k phn hi lc tnh in bao gm 1 in cc, vi khi lng m v din tch S, treo trn mt cn trc nh c
th di chuyn tng i vi mt vi in cc c nh. Khong trng nh h gia trc v cc in cc c nh c duy tr bi
mt h thng servo cn bng lc, n c kh nng bin i in th ca cc in cc trong tng ng ti cc tn hiu t c cu
o s thay i tng i trong khong trng. Biu din ton hc ca in trng gia cc in cc
Q
E
kS
(19.24)
trong E l mt hoc gradient in th (dV/ dx), Q l in lng, S l din tch ca vt dn, v k l hng s cht in
mi ca khong trng b mt vt dn.
T cng thc ny, ta c th biu din lc trn mt n v din tch in cc (N/m
2
) nh sau:
2 2
2
2 2
F Q kE
S kS

(19.25)
Xem mt in cc l c nh v cc kia c th di chuyn v gi s rng in cc c th di ng c in th V1 v cc kia
c in th V2. Cng in trng trong khong trng E c tnh nh sau:
1 2
1
V V
E
h

(19.26)
T ta tm ra lc tng tc nh sau:
2 2
1 2
1 2 2
( )
2 2
k V V S kE S
F
h h

(19.27)
Trong s hin din ca gia tc, nu V2 c hiu chnh ngn tr cc c th di ng ti v tr khng, biu thc quan h
vi gia tc v in th c vit nh sau:
2
1 1 2
2
( )
2
F k V V S
a
m h m

(19.28)
Thit b ny nh m t ch c th o gia tc theo mt hng v u ra c c tnh dng qun tnh bc hai
1 2
( ) V V D a (19.29)
D l h s t l.
C th tuyn tnh ho u ra theo nhiu cch, mt trong s l phng php gc phn t. Nu b iu khin servo to ra
in th -V2 so vi cc in cc khc, lc tng tc gia in cc ny v in cc di chuyn tr thnh
2
2 1 2
2
( )
2
F k V V S
a
m h m
+
( 19.30)
v phng trnh cn bng lc ca in cc di chuyn khi thit b c gia tc a l
2 2
1 2 1 2
2 1 2
[( ) ( ) ]
2
kS V V V V
ma F F
h
+

hay
1 2
2 1 2
2 kSVV
ma F F
h

(19.31)
T , nu in th V1 c gi c nh v h s khuch i thu c t vng lp iu khin (loop) ln cc dao
ng trong khong trng l khng ng k, gia tc tr thnh hm tuyn tnh ca in th ra ca b iu khin.
S kh khn c bn trong vic c kh ho gia tc k lc tnh in l cng in trng tng i cao thu c mt
lc duy nht. suy gim c th c a ra do in hoc bi tnh nht ca mi trng kh trong khong khng gia hai
in cc nu khong trng h l nh. Hin tng nh thng in th phi tuyn cho php gradient ln hn trong nhng
khong trng rt nh.
Mt gia tc k tnh in in hnh c nhng c im sau: di 50g t , phn gii
3
10 g

, nhy 100 mV/g, phi

tuyn <1% FS, nhy chuyn i<1% FS, nhy vi nhit 6x10
-4
/K, shock c kh 10.000g, nhit hot ng -45
0
C n
21
S tay C in t
90
0
C, ngun nui 5VDC, v trng lng 45g. u im chnh ca gia tc k tnh in l kt cu c kh rt n gin, yu cu
ngun thp, khng c cc nguyn nhn dn n hin tng tr, h s nhit 0, v d che chn trnh cc ngun nhiu.
Gia tc k in dung vi phn
Nguyn tc thit k cc gia tc k ny l s thay i in dung tng tng vi gia tc tc dng. Trong dng ny, ngi
ta to ra mt khi lng ng ca gia tc k nh phn t di ng ca mt b dao ng in. Khi lng ng c bi
mt dm n hi di chuyn song song t chn . H thng ny c t c mt tn s danh ngha xc nh c th khi
khng b lm nhiu. Nu thit b l c gia tc, tn s s bin i cao hn hoc thp hn gi tr tn s danh ngha ph thuc
vo hng ca gia tc.
Khi lng ng mang theo mt in cc c t i din vi cc in cc gc c nh m n xc nh cc t in bin
i. Cc in cc gc c nh xc nh trc m bo duy tr dao ng trng mt khong thay i ca in dung xc nh
bi gia tc tc ng. Gi tr in dung ca t C bin thin c tnh theo:
kS
C
h

(19.32)
trong k l hng s ca cht in mi,

hng s in mi ca khng gian t do chuyn ng ca in cc, S l din tch

in cc, v h l khong cch bin thin.
Thay th ln ca khong khng gian cho gia tc khng ti h0, gi tr ca h tng ng vi gia tc a c th c vit nh
sau:
0
ma
h h
K
+ (19.33)
trong m l khi lng vt, K l hng s l xo, do vy
6
2
f
RC
(19.34)
V d nh, tn s ca dao ng ca mch dng tr khng c cho bi biu thc:
0
( / )
kS
C
h ma K

+
(19.35)
Thay gi tri C 19.34 ta c
0
6[ ( / )
2
h ma K
f
R kS
+
(19.36)
t B = 6 /(2 ) R kS biu thc c vit li nh sau
0
Bma
f Bh
K
+ (19.37)
S hng u tin ca biu thc bn phi biu din tn s lch khng c nh f0 v s hng th hai th hin s thay i ca
tn s ly ra t gia tc, do biu thc c vit li nh sau
0
f f f +
(19.38)
Nu so snh tn s u ra vi mt ngun c lp ca mt tn s khng i f0, do fa c th c tnh d dng.
Thng thng kiu gia tc k loi ny da trn mng chn mng un hnh xon c to ra l xo l xo, khi lng th, v
mt a di ng cn cho t in vi phn. Chuyn ng ca a gia cc in cc y khng kh song song vi b mt a v
qua cc l trong a to mng n hi nn. Do nht ca khng kh c nhy thp hn ca du, hng s suy gim
mong mun l 0,7 v rt kh thay i n 15%. Cc thit b ny rt d tm vi phm vi t 0.2g t (4Hz phn ng hon ton)
ti 1000g (3000Hz), nhy cho trc <1%, v mc u ra ti a l 1.5V t . Kch c ca mt thit b thng thng vo
khong 25mm
3
vi mt khi lng 50g.
Gia tc k nh v siu nh
Vo nhng nm cui ca thp k 70 cng ngh mch x l tch hp (IC) phng c bin i ch to cc cu trc in
c kh 3 chiu bi qu trnh vi gia cng. Cc gia tc k v cc cm bin p sut l cc cm bin IC u tin. Gia tc k u
tin c pht trin vo nm 1979. T tr i cng ngh ch to ngy cng pht trin ngy nay rt nhiu loi gia tc k
khc nhau xut hin. Hu ht cc cm bin u s dng cc khi gia cng siu nh hn l cc k thut gia cng siu nh
22
Cm bin
b mt. Trong khi gia cng siu nh, cong, cc dm cng xn, v cc thnh phn c bn khc ca gia tc k c sn
xut t cc khi silicon s dng cc tnh cht c kh ca cc tinh th silicon. Vi thit k v quy trnh phim hp l, cc
khi gia cng siu nh em li cc gia tc k hon ton n nh v bn vng.
Cng ngh khc c chn la nhiu lp ca cc tm phim mng, hay vi gia cng b mt, cho php cc vi cu trc di ng
c sn xut trn cc mng silicon siu mng. Vi b mt vi gia cng, cc lp ca cu trc vt liu uc b tr v ly lm
mu nh hnh 19.25. Cc cu trc ny c to thnh bi polysilicon v cc vt liu ph hp khc nh cc oxit silic. Cc vt
liu hot ng nh mt lp trc tip c khc n mn i sinh ra mt cu trc ng t do. Cng ngh gia cng b mt
cng cho php cc cu trc nh hn v phc tp hn c ch to theo nhiu lp trn mt nn n. Hnh 19.26 m t mt v
d c bn ca vi gia cng gia tc k hi i. Ngi ta gn nhiu gia tc k ln mt chip n, o gia tc theo cc hng x, y,
v z. Cng chnh chip ny a ra quy nh v tn hiu chnh. Tn hiu ra t chip thng c c di dng s.
HNH 19.25 Cc bc vi gia cng sn xut cc gia tc k nh v siu nh
HNH 19.26 Nhiu gia tc k trn mt chip n
Tt c cc gia tc k dng micro hoc nano u pht hin gia tc qua vic o chuyn ng tng i gia khi lng mu
v nn treo. Khi lng mu c treo trn nn qua mt l xo c kh. Khi cm bin chu gia tc, khi lng mu c xu
hng tr v v tr cn bng v do n dch chuyn i vi nn chuyn ng. Vic o cc dch chuyn ny nh kh nng
ca cc phng php p tr hoc p in s dng cng ngh CMOS. Mch in t c nhim v trit tiu lch khng, do vy
n nh lch khng, n nh h s khuch i, n nh lch khng gia tc, b nhit, tin lc, gim nhiu u ra
Nguyn tc hot ng ca mt s gia tc k khad tng t nh cn bng lc in dung hay gia tc k dm dao ng
c nu phn trc. K thut sn xut c th thay i tu theo cc nh sn xut khc nhau. Tuy nhin, gia tc k dm giao
ng thng c quan tm hn v n c thuc tnh khe h khng kh tt hn v ci thin tt hn c tnh lch khng.
Cc gia tc k dm dao ng, cn gi l cc chuyn i lc dm cng hng, sinh ra mt gia tc dc theo trc dng tn
hiu u vo t phn cng ca khung dao ng. Do , tn s cng hng ca dm dao ng tng hoc gim khi c gia
tc.
Trong DETF, mt b to dao ng in kt hp nng lng vo trong hai khung dao ng gi chng dao ng ti tn
s cng hng ca chng. Cc dm dao ng 180
0
v pha hu cc lc hot ng ti im cui. nh hng hu ng hc
ca thit k DETF ngn nng lng b mt mt qua cc im cui ca dm. T b cng hng cn bng ng DETF c
mt nhn t Q cao, dn n mt mch dao ng n nh. Cc tn hiu gia tc c sinh ra t mt b to dao ng nh l mt
sng vung c iu bin tn s c s dng cho giao din s.
23
S tay C in t
Tn s cng hng ca h thng phi ln hn nhiu bt k mt gia tc u vo no, v iu ny gii hn di o. Trong
mt gia tc k vi gia cng, s dng trong cc ng dng qun s, c cc c tnh sau: phm vi 1200g t , nhy 1,11 Hz/g ,
bng thng 2500 Hz, tn s DETF khng ti 9952 Hz. Tn s ti +1200g l 11.221 Hz, tn s ti -1200g l 8544 Hz, v
nhy nhit l 5 mg/
0
C. Kch thc ca gia tc k: ng knh 6 mm, chiu di 4,3 mm, khi lng khong 9g. Thi gian
bt nh hn 60 s, ngun nui t +9 n +16V DC, tn hiu ra trung bnh l mt xung vung 9000Hz.
B mt vi gia cng c s dng to ra cc gia tc k dng cho cc ng dng c bit, nh cc ng dng v ti kh
trong cng nghip t. Mt t in vi ba lp khc nhau c to bi cc lp xen k ca polysilicon v thu tinh
phosphosilicate (PSG) trn mt tm di 100mm, dy 0,38mm. Mt ming silicon dng lm nn cho kt cu c kh. Mt lp
m l xo gia c treo bi bn thanh tr gip. Cu trc di ng ny chnh l khi lng ng cho gia tc. Cc lp
polysilicon trn hoc di l cc a c nh cho cc t in vi phn. Tm knh c n mn dng axt hydrofluoric (HF).
X l tn hiu v lch khng
Cc b x l tn hiu thng thng thch hp cho qu trnh giao tip t gia tc k ti cc my tnh hoc cc thit b khc
cho qu trnh x l tip theo. Nhn chung, cc tn hiu th mi to ra c khuch i v lc ph hp bi cc mch lc trong
cc gia tc k. Tuy nhin, cc b chuyn i p tr v p in yu cu cc tn hiu c x l c bit vi cc c tnh c th
s c tho lun sau.
Gia tc k p in
Cc gia tc k p in cung cp mt nng lng nh ti cc b bin i tn hiu v chng c ngun tr khng cao. C th
xem mch tng ng ca mt gia tc k p in nh mt t in hot ng v t tch in cho chnh n khi chu ti c kh.
S chn la cc phn t ca mch bin i tn hiu ngoi ph thuc vo cc c tnh ca mch tng ng. Mt cch tip
cn ph thng nht l khuch i in tch v h s khuch i ca h thng v p ng tn s thp ca b khuch i l
hon ton xc inh. Hot ng ca mch cng ph thuc vo di dy ni v in dung ca gia tc k. Trong nhiu ng
dng, cc dy ni chng nhiu l cn thit trnh cc in tch xut hin do cc chuyn ng ca cc dy ni.
HNH 19.27 Mch khuch i in tch in hnh.
Khuch i in tch (c tr khng u vo khong 1000 M) trc tin chuyn ho in tch u vo thnh in p,
sau khuch i in p ny. N bao gm mt chuyn i in tch c u ra in p, n l kt qu ca tn hiu in tch
u vo thng qua mt t in phn hi duy tr in tch u vo mc u vo gn gi tr khng, nh trong hnh 19.27.
Nh c loi khuch i thut ton phn hi, u vo b khuch i c gi mc 0V; do , n trng ging nh hin tng
ngn mch u vo. Do vy, in tch u vo c lu tr trong t in phn hi, sinh ra mt in p qua n v in p
ny l bng vi gi tr ca in tch u vo c chia bi in dung ca t in phn hi. Hm truyn ca mch m t quan
h gia in p u ra v ln gia tc u vo c th c xc nh bi chuyn i phc sau:
0
0
1 1
1
a c
a f f f f f
E C C
S jR C jR C C
a G

+ ] | `
+ + +
]
+
. , ]
(19.39)
Trong , E0 l chuyn i in tch u ra (V), a0 l ln gia tc (m/s
2
), Sa l nhy gia tc k (mV/g), Ca l in
dung gia tc k (F), Cc l in dung dy dn (F), Cf l in dung phn hi (F), Rf l in tr vng phn hi, v G l h s
khuch i vng h ca b khuch i.
Trong hu ht cc ng, Cf c chn ln so vi (Ca + Cc)/(1+G), h s khuch i h thng tr nn c lp vi
di ca dy dn. Trong trng hp ny, ngi ta n gin ho mu s ca phng trnh a ra mt h thng bc nht vi
(roll off) ti
24
Cm bin
3
1
2
dB
e f
f
R C

(19.40)
vi dc l 10dB trn decade. Trong thc t, p ng tn s thp ca h thng l mt hm ca cc thnh phn in
hon ton xc nh v khng thay i theo di ca cable. y l mt c tnh quan trng khi o cc dao ng tn s thp.
Nhiu gia tc k p in c sn xut vi b tin khuch i v cc mch bin i tn hiu c t trong cng mt v.
Mt s b tin khuch i gia tc k bao gm nhiu b tch phn chuyn i cc u ra t l vi gia tc thnh tn hiu vn
tc hoc dch chuyn. lm tt dn nhiu v cc tn hiu dao ng nm ngoi di tn s quan tm, ngi ta s dng cc b
tin khuch i v cc b lc thng thp hoc thng cao. iu ny trnh s giao thoa ca cc nhiu in vi cc tn hiu bn
trong di tn s tuyn tnh ca gia tc k. Tuy nhin, c thun li l nhng thit b ny thng c hai hng s thi gian, ni
v ngoi (Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that these devices usually have two time constants,
external and internal). S ln ln ca hai hng s thi gian ny c th dn n mt s vn , c bit vng tn s thp.
Cc nh sn xut thng qua cc thit k hoc thnh lp thng c nh cc hng s thi gian ni. Tuy nhin, cn phi tnh
ton cn thn cc nh hng ca cc hng s thi gian ngoi thng in khng ph hp.
HNH 19.28 S mt mch iu bin tn hiu in hnh cho cc gia tc k mt chip n.
Chuyn i p tr
Cc chuyn i p tr nhn chung c tn hiu u ra ln, in tr u ra thp, v cc nhiu ni thp. Tt c nhng thit b
ny c thit k cho cc in p kch thch khng i. Chng thng c chun ho cho cc dng in kch thch khng
i trnh cc nhiu bn ngoi. Chng c ghp vi mt mch cu in tr. Mt s c nhnh tr hot ng, cng vi hai
in tr chnh xc c nh cho php chun ho cc nhnh.
Vi gia tc k
Trong vi gia tc k, cc mch in t bin i tn hiu c tch hp trn ch mt chp bm bin. S khi trong hnh
19.28 a ra mt v d in hnh ca mch bin i tn hiu. Trong dng ny ca gia tc k, h thng in t c iu khin
bng mt mch dao ng thch anh v tn hiu ra ca mch to dao ng l tn hiu gia tc c iu bin tn s. Mt s
mch in cung cp u ra dng xung vung c th lm giao din s trc tip. Trong nhng trng hp ny khng yu cu
cho b chuyn i A/D do hn ch mt trong nhng nguyn nhn chnh gy li. cc loi gia tc k khc, cc mch bin
i tn hiu nh cc b chuyn i A/D c gn bn trong chip.
Gia tc k phn hi lc
Cc tn hiu t cc gia tc k phn hi lc thng c s ho dng trong cc h thng s. Mt gii php thng
thng l dng cc b chuyn i in th thnh tn s hoc dng in thnh tn s chuyn i cc tn hiu tng t thnh
cc chui xung. Cc b chuyn i ny l rt t, thng t hn nhiu so vi cc gia tc k, v gy ra thm sai lch kt qu.
y, cc h thng GPS ngy cng tr nn c ngha trong cc h thng o v tr trong c hc. Bi v cc ng lc hc
antenna, vic d, cc hiu ng a ng, v cung cp thm cho cc h thng ti hn nh l my bay, nhiu trong s nhng
h thng ny cn s tr gip qun tnh, b hp trong cc gia tc k v cc con quay hi chuyn. Vi s pht trin ca cng
ngh vi gia cng, trong tng lai chng ta s c cc h thng tr gip qun tnh GPS nh v mang li nhiu thun li. Nhng
s pht trin trn s yu cu qu trnh x l tn hiu vi khi lng ln v c chnh xc cao. Cn phi x l cc di ng
hc theo th t t 1000.000 ti 1( v d, 30-32 bit). t c cc yu cu chnh xc, mt thch thc ln ang ch i cc
nh lm v x l tn hiu.
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Bentley, J. P., Principles of Measurement Systems, 2nd ed., Burnt Mill, UK: Longman Scientific and Technical, 1988.
[2] Doebelin, E. O., Measurement Systems: Application and Design, 4th ed., Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 1990.
[3] Frank, R., Understanding Smart Sensors, Boston: Artech House, 1996.
25
S tay C in t
[4] Harris, C., Shock and Vibration Handbook, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1995.
[5] Holman, J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 5th ed., Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 1989. FIGURE 19.28 A typical
signal conditioning arrangement for single chip microaccelerometers. 2002 CRC Press LLC
[6] Lawrance, A., Modern Inertial Technology-Navigation, Guidance, and Control, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1993.
[7] McConnell, K. G., Vibration Testing: Theory and Practice, New York: Wiley, 1995.
[8] Machine Vibration: Dynamics and Control, London: Springler, 19921996.
[9] Measuring Vibration, Bruel & Kjaer, 1982.
[10] Sydenham, P. H., Hancock, N. H., and Thorn, R., Introduction to Measurement Science and Engineering, New York:
Wiley, 1989.
[11] Tompkins, W. J. and Webster, J. G., Interfacing Sensors to the IBM PC, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6 o nhit
Pamela M. Norris v Bouvard Hosticka
i hc Virginia
Gii thiu
Trong cng ngh cng nh cng nghip, nhit l mt trong nhng thng s rt c coi trng, tuy nhin cho n nay,
mt nh ngha chnh xc cho nhit vn cn ang b b ng. nh ngha n gin nht l gn nhit vi ng nng trung bnh
ca tng phn t cu thnh nn h thng. Khi nhit tng th hot tnh ca cc phn t tng do ng nng trung bnh
tng. l mt nh ngha y cho cc k thut o nhit c trnh by y. nh ngha ny gip chng ta hiu c
khi nim v nhit tuy nhin n li khng gip ta a ra c mt gi tr s cho nhit hay cung cp cho ta mt phng
php thun tin trong vic o nhit. Lut th khng ca nhit ng hc c a ra vo nm 1931 sau hn na th k so vi
lut th nht v th hai to c s cho vic o nhit . Lut ny cho rng nu hai vt cng cn bng nhit vi vt th ba th
chng cn bng nhit tng i mt. Bng vic thay vt th 3 bng mt ci nhit k, ta c th ch ra hai vt l cn bng nhit
khi chng c cng nhit cho d chng khng tip xc vi nhau.
BNG 19.4 Cc im xc nh c x dng trong ITS90
*
im cn bng ca hyr 13.8033K
Triple point ca nn 24.5561 K
Triple point ca argon 54.3584 K
Triple point ca thu ngn 234.3156 K
Triple point ca nc 273.16 K
im tan chy ca gali 302.9146 K
im ng bng ca Indi 429.7485 K
im ng bng ca thic 505.078 K
im ng bng ca km 692.677 K
im ng bng ca nhm 933.573 K
im ng bng ca bc 1234.93 K
im ng bng ca vng 1337.33 K
im ng bng ca ng 1357.77 K
*
Magnum (1990) cha ton b nh ngha ca cc im ny
26
Cm bin
Lut th khng khng c kh nng a ra mt gi tr s cho nhit . Do , ta phi tham chiu nhit theo mt thang
o chun. Hai thang o nhit tuyt i uc nh ngha sao cho nhit ti im 0 tng ng vi mt trng thi gi nh
m ti khng mt phn t no chuyn ng bn trong vt cht. y chnh l c s ca thang o Kelvin trong h chun (SI)
v thang o Rankine trong h Anh. Ngoi ra cn c thang o hai im da trn vic nh ra hai im nhit bt k. Cc
im ny thng c chn bng vi nhit m ti xut hin s chuyn pha ca vt cht trng thi tinh khit. Quen
thuc nht chnh l im ng bng v si ca nc 0C v 100C. S chuyn pha xy ra trong mt khong rng, kh
nhiu trng hp c im cn bng, ti c ba pha u cn bng, im ny c nh ngha trong Thang o nhit
quc t (International Practical Temperature Scale of 1990 - ITS90) - bng 19.4. Chng c th c s dng trc tip nh l
im chun gim st nhit vi gi thit cht l nguyn cht cng mt s cc iu kin khc nh p sut n nh ti
im t. Tiu chun ITS90 cng gii thiu c vic ni suy nhit gia hai im cho trc. V d, in tr bch kim c
dng trong gii hn nhit t 13.8 n 1235 K. Thng qua mt a thc bc cao c n gin ha ta ni suy ra nhiu
gi tr nhit gia hai mc nhit nh ngha t in tr s c nhit ph hp hn. S khc nhau gia ni suy tuyn
tnh ca in tr gia hai im nh ngha v ni suy vi a thc bc cao l khng bao gi vt qua 2mK (Magnum and
Furukawa, 1990).
Mt s phc tp khc na l thc t th nhit th hin l mt thuc tnh bn trong nhiu hn bn ngoi. V vy, nhit
khng th cng, tr v chia theo cch thng thng nh cc gi tr chiu di hay in p.
Bt k thuc tnh no thay i p ng theo nhit m d bo uc u c th c s dng trong cm bin nhit. Cc
thit b o nhit trong cp trong ti liu ny c phn loi theo phng php o. Phng php u tin da trn s gin
n nhit khc nhau ca cc loi vt liu rn, lng hoc kh. Nhit k thu ngn thuc loi nhit k ny l mt trong nhng
nhit k thng dng nht. Tip n phi k n cc thit b da trn s thay i pha. Cc cm bin v b chuyn i nhit
in. Bao gm cp nhit in, RTD, v nhit in tr, cng nh cc mch tch hp cm bin nhit. Loi cui cng ca cm
bin nhit l cm bin khng tip xc. Mt tho lun ring v o lng nhit vi c micro c a ra phn cui. Nhiu
k thut c m t trong phn ny bt ngun t nhng g c tho lun trc t th yu n quan trng phi c
thc hin cho php cc o lng nhit kch thc nh v/hoc p ng nhanh.
Cc loi nhit k da trn h s gin n khc nhau
Nhng nhit k da trn h s gin n khc nhau thng dng nht l nhit k c nhit trc tip. Nhng nhit k ny
c th phn loi theo trang thi vt liu s dng. Ta s nghin cu chi tit tng loi mt.
Kh - Rn
Nhit k bu kh dng xc nh im khng tuyt i bng cch ngoi suy s thay i p sut ca mt n cht kh
trong khi cu kim loi khi nhit thay i c th coi l mt v d ca loi nhit k kh - rn. Nu bu kim loi c cng h
s gin n nhit vi cht kh th p sut bn trong s l hng s v khng th l mt nhit k. Thay vo , cht kh theo
nh lut kh l tng ch ra rng, ti mt th tch khng i, p sut quan h tuyn tnh vi nhit v bnh cha kh thay
i tuyn tnh vi h s gin n theo th tch ca kim loi lm bu cha. H s gin n nhit ca kim loi thng c b
qua tr trong trng hp c yu cu c bit v s chnh xc ca im khng tuyt i.
Trong khi mt khi cu kim loi ln c bm y khng kh khng phi l mt thit b thun tin nhiu cho o lng
nhit, tr vic dng nh l mt dng c nghin cu hoc minh ho, th bu kh c th lm tng i nh v ni vi ng mao
dn nh iu khin p sut bm vo. Trong dng cu hnh thu nh, nhit k dng bu kh tr thnh thit b thc t cho o
lng nhit. Ch cn cc thit b lm vic trong vng kh l tng, t p sut bnh ta c th c nhit mt cch trc tip do
p sut t l tuyn tnh vi nhit .
Mt s hn ch chnh ca nhit k bu kh l thit b o ny nn c cn chun ring cho mt ci t c th do chiu di
ca mao dn b t nng, cng nh p sut v nhit xung quanh ti u o p sut, s nh hng n chnh xc ca
thit b. Nhng hn ch ny c th khc phc bng cch s dng cc phn t lng kim trong u o p sut b nhit ti
im ny hoc bng mt mao dn song song khng c bu kh theo mao dn chnh ln ti im o lng v mao dn song
song ny gn vi u o p sut loi b cc hiu ng t u o chnh. Ngoi ra, bt k s nguy him no v th tch ca
bu kh, nh mt vt lm, s lm x dch s cn chun. Loi dng c ny khng nn ln ln vi nhit k p sut hi nc c
th c hnh dng bn ngoi ging nh vy, nhng thay v cha kh l tng, chng cha cht lng hai pha v o p sut bo
ha ca cht lng . Kiu cm bin nhit ny s c tho lun phn sau.
Lng - rn
Nhit k thy ngn v thy tinh ph bin l mt v d v cm bin nhit dng lng rn. H s gin n nhit ca cht
lng, mc d khng c ln nh kh, nhng ni chung cng ln hn cht rn v trong nhiu trng hp h s gin n nhit
ca thu tinh c th b qua. Tuy nhin, trong cc thit b o chnh xc, h s gin n nhit ca thu tinh c coi l sai s
ng k. C hai cch ph bin lin quan h s gin n nhit ca thu tinh. Cc nhit k dng cho c nhit ca mt bnh
cht lng c th c mt su ph kn ring c ch r bi mt du hiu trn ng. Gi s phn cn li ca nhit k nm
trong iu kin chun ca phng th nghim. Tuy nhin, iu ny khng phi l mt gi thit tt, v c mt cch chnh xc
hn nm bt h s gin n nhit ca thy tinh so vi h s gin n ca thy ngn l dng mt cp ng nhit k. Mt dng
o nhit ca cht lng trong khi ci cn li o nhit trong vng ln cn trung gian ca ng. Mt cng thc hiu chnh
ng dn n gin c cung cp bi nh ch to nhit k c th c ng dng xc nh nhit ca bnh cha.
27
S tay C in t
T l dung tch bu vi l ca ng mao dn xc nh phn gii ca nhit k. Tng lng cht lng ban u trong nhit
k s xc nh gii hn ca nhit k. chnh xc ca l v vch chia quyt nh chnh xc ca nhit k. Nhit
c c t nhit k cht lng-thu tinh ch c gi tr khi m cht lng trong l ca ng mao dn l lin tc t bu ti im
c. Phn chia cch c th loi tr bng cch lm co ton b cht lng v bu hay trong mt s trng hp bng cch m
rng mt bu bn trn ca nhit k. Thu ngn l rt ph hp cho nhit ng bng khong -40
0
C n quanh 500
0
C.
Nhit si ca thu ngn ch l 357
0
C p sut tiu chun do vy nhit k thu ngn thit k cho loi nhit rt cao phi
c nn p bng mt cht kh trc khi hn kn nhit k. Cn hay cht lng khc c th c s dng thay cho thu ngn,
tuy nhin chnh xc thng thng l khng cao. Khong nhit ca cho nhit k dng cn l -200
0
C n 250
0
C.
Mt phng php thay th dng s sai khc trong h s gin n ca cht lng v cht rn o nhit l dng mt h
thng c in y vi mt cht lng v o s thay i dung tch ca cht lng bng v tr ca ng (a bourdon tube or
bellows). Nu dung tch ny c hng s gin n cao, t s nn c th c xem xt n (Doebelin, 1990). S kt hp ny c
hn ch ging nh nhit k bu kh nu trn, cng nh cng mt cch b gim nhng hn ch ny.
Kh, lng v rn
Mt vi nhit k s dng trc y bao gm mt bu kh ni vi ng dng ch U ng kn cha thu ngn hoc mt loi
cht lng khc. y l mt dng nhit k p sut s dng p k thu ngn hin th p sut. m bo chnh xc, cn
phi xt n h s gin n nhit khc nhau ca c ba pha kh, lng v rn. Tuy vy, nhng thit b o ny t khi c s dng
khi dng c o yu cu c chnh xc cao. Nhit k dng ny c s dng rng ri o di nhit nh nht-ln nht
ca khng kh mi trng c mt si kim loi nh ni vi chn ca p k thu ngn. Si kim loi ny phi c ma st
ln bn trong ng v khng b dnh thu ngn n c th duy tr trng thi t do trong ng thu tinh sau khi mc thu ngn
thay i. ng h o trn cu kim loi s hin th nhit nh nht cn ng h lp trn cc chn s hin th nhit ln
nht khi thu ngn rt xung. Khi quan st c nhit ln nht v nh nht, cc si kim loi c th c t trn nh ca
hai ct thu ngn bng lc li tm hoc t trng nu cc si c dng lm t st.
Rn - rn
Nhit in k lng kim bao gm hai kim loi c h s gin n nhit khc nhau c gn vi nhau. Khi nhit thay i
t nhit lin kt ban u th cc thanh kim loi ny s gin n khc nhau v gy ra lc trt gia hai thanh kim loi. T
thit b o trt ca hai thanh kim loi s cho php chng ta xc nh c s thay i nhit. Cu trc ca nhit k loi
ny rt phong ph t dng l n gin c nh trn mt u vi mt kim ch trn u cn li n ng xon c c c nh
trn mt u v mt trc quay ti u cn li c lin kt vi kim ch, c th thng qua h thng bnh rng. Trc ny c
gi trn cc trc trn vi kim ch nh mt ng h t ng xon c lng kim. Nhit k dng gy vi mt s mt u l
mt v d phn tip theo.
Do nhng thay i nhit s to ra lc, nn lun c mt s lc hi phc phn cp tc dng ln di lng kim. ng dng
ph bin nht l dng ngay di lng kim nh mt l xo hi phc. V tr cui cng ca di l im cn bng gia s trt do
cc h s gin n v nhit khc nhau v hng s n hi ca di. Trong mt s tnh hung, nhit k lng kim c cn
kch hot mt cng tc. Trong cc trng hp ny, lc trt trn di phi thng ti do cng tc v nh thit k phi coi n l
ti trng ngoi. Di nhit ca nhit k lng kim b gii hn bi nhit ti hoc nhit chuyn pha ca kim loi. Do
, cc nhit k loi ny lm vic tt vi nhit di 700
0
C, v chng c th b ph hy vnh vin nu cc kim loi thay i
tnh cht hoc lin kt gia cc kim loi khc nhau b hng. Mt cp kim loi ph bin l thp niken, nh hp kim inva vi h
s gin n v nhit rt thp, lin kt vi hp kim ng thau vi h s gin n v nhit cao.
Nhit k lm vic da trn s thay i pha
S thay i pha ca cc vt liu nguyn cht ti cc p sut ring c s dng trong bng thng s ITS90 xc nh
mt vi im nhit . Khi nim thay i pha l mt hm ca nhit cng nh p xut v dng kim loi ny c th dng
trong mt s dng nh mt phng tin xc nh nhit ca mt h thng bng cch quan st chnh s thay i pha hoc
cc iu kin ti hai pha cn bng. Mt s ng dng hu ch ca n s c tho lun sau.
Chuyn t trng thi lng sang kh
Nhit k t xa thng thng bao gm mt bu nhit k c cha cht lu hai pha lng-kh c ni vi u o p sut
thng qua ng mao dn. Khi xut hin c hai pha, p sut c trn u o cho ta gi tr p sut bo ho ca cht lu. Vic
khc phc nhng khuyt im ca nhit k dng ny c thc hin tng t vi vi nhit k dng kh v cht lng trn.
Bng cch gim st p sut bo ho, nhit biu th ph thuc vo nhit phn cn li ca h thng v khng nhy vo
th tch thc ca bu nhit k cng nh ng mao dn. Cht lng thng l dung mi hu c nh ethane c chn cho di
nhit ring. gi cht lng 2 pha hon ton trong bu nhit k, p sut c truyn qua ng mao dn bng cch dng
cht lng n pha nh du. Mt vi loi cht lng c ng cong bo ho tuyn tnh. Do vy, phn ln cc p k c t l phi
tuyn ng k khi chng c phn chia tng ng vi n v nhit . khc phc c iu ny, ngi ta c th s dng
l xo b c bit c t bn trong p k to ra thang o nhit tuyn tnh. Tuy nhin, i khi vic khc phc ny c
th gy ra nhng rc ri khng lng trc.
Di nhit ca cht lng ti nhit k kh b gii hn bi 2 pha ca lu cht v chng thng c s dng trong di
nhit t -40
0
C n 300
0
C, mc d mt thit b o n l him khi lm vic vi di nhit vt qu 150
0
C. Nu p sut
28
Cm bin
bo ho rt ln hn 100kPa, p sut kh quyn k c dng thay cho p k. Mt khc, chnh xc nht c th t c khi
s dng p k tuyt i. Th tch ca bu nhit k phi tng i ln so vi s thay i th tch ca ng mao dn trong p k
c hai pha c th tn ti bn trong bu nhit k.
B iu chnh nhit thay i pha nghch
B iu chnh nhit im c nh c th c xy dng da trn s thay i pha ca cc phn t cm nhn c bit. Mt
v d trong cc tham chiu im ng bng c hc s gin n t ngt ca nc khi ng bng c hiu l chu k h
thng lm lnh duy tr trng thi hai pha ca lu cht. S tan chy v ng lnh thc t ca bng duy tr nhit tham chiu.
Cc cht sp (mm, dnh, d chy) vi nhiu im tan chy c th c s dng cho nhng mc ch tng t.
Mt v d khc l kha in t c gi bng mt nam chm vnh cu cho n khi t ti nhit Curie m ti nam
chm mt i tnh cht t ha ca n, hay thay i tnh cht t st t sang thun t do kha s m. Khi vt liu lnh i, n
ly li tnh cht st t v do vy ng kha nhit. Nhng vt liu t tnh c nhit Curie khc nhau s c chn cho cc
ng dng thch hp.
B ch th nhit c nh
Bt k cht no thay i pha ti mt nhit c nh c th c s dng nh mt b ch th nhit . V d phn mu
lm bng sp vi im tan chy xc nh. Mt du hiu c to ra trn vt cn c quan st nhit , v nu sp chy, th
nhit ca vt ln hn nhit ca phn mu. Cc b ch th nhit c nh thng khng thun nghch v c th dng
vi nhiu cht khc nhau khng ch l sp.
Mt bin th c th l thun nghch hay khng thun nghch l sn cha th rn l lng ca sp hoc vt liu tng t c
nhit tan chy xc nh. Ch cn mt lng nh vt liu c sn ln vt to mt lp m c, khi chng tan ra v chuyn
thnh dng lng c ch s khc x gn ti ch s khc x ca vt liu c sn, n s tr nn trong sut. Ch th ny c th
c lm thnh chui im thay i theo nhit gip quan st nhit thc t tt hn. Cc im c th c lm thun
nghch ch th lin tc hay bt thun nghch ch th nhit cc i t c trong chu k gim st. Thc t, ch th bt
thun nghch thng dng hn ch th thun nghch.
Mc d sp c s dng rng ri, bt k vt liu no c thay i pha ring ti mt nhit xc nh c th c dng
nh mt b gim st. Cc k thut hnh nh cng c th c dng xc nh thay i pha. Mt ng dng nh th l dng
gadoli hoc cc phn t khc hp thu d dng ntron dng thch hp v quan st s tan chy bn trong bng cc phng
tin soi tia X ntron.
Cm bin v b chuyn i nhit in
Cm bin trong ng cnh ny l mt phn t thay i mt tham s in nh l mt hm s ca nhit . Sau , tham s
in ny c bin i thnh mt hm in hu dng, nh in p tuyn tnh vi nhit , vi cc thnh phn in t b
sung. Cm bin v cc thnh phn in t b sung to thnh b chuyn i. S bin i ca c tnh in theo nhit l s
khi ngun ca cc kh nng o lng cng nh s sp ca ton b h thng o in do nhng thay i khng mong
mun ca ca cc yu t nh h s khuch i ca mt b khuch i dn n nhng sai s nhit. N lc nhm loi tr
nhng bin i in do nhit nhiu hn l khai thc chng cho vic o lng nhit .
Cp nhit in
C s lin h gia nhit ca mt vt dn v ng nng ca cc electron t do. V vy, khi mt kim loi c t trong
khu vc c nhit , cc in t t do s khuch tn t khu vc c nhit cao (ng nng ln) n khu vc c nhit thp
(ng nng thp hn). Graien tp trung electron to mt graien in p do cc nguyn t mt li to thnh in tch
dng khng t do di chuyn. Graien in p ny s chng li s khuch tn sau ny ca cc electron trong dy dn v
thit lp trng thi cn bng n nh khi khng c dng in.
Cng sut nhit ca vt liu lin h s cn bng khuch tn nhit ca electron vi tnh dn in ca kim loi v l duy
nht cho mi vt dn cng nh thng thay i theo nhit . Tnh dn in ca vt liu c nh hng mnh n cng sut
nhit v n xc nh kh nng ca vt liu chu ng graien in p. Mt vt dn n l c nhit khc nhau hai u s
c s sai khc in th gia hai u . B quyt l kh nng o in p ti c hai u vt dn v nh vy xc nh sai khc
nhit gia hai u ny. Nu chng ta s dng cng mt kiu dy ni o in p dy dn ban u, th dy dn th hai
s sinh ra chnh xc sai khc in p khi cc u ca n c t vo cng nhit nh dy dn ban u. Do graien in p
l mt hm ca cng sut nhit l khc nhau i vi mi dng kim loi, nn c th dng dy dn th hai c dng dy dn
khc o graien nhit ban u. Ch mt vt dn khng c chuyn ng electron hoc dn v hn c th dng o
graien in p tuyt i lin quan n graien nhit ca vt dn ban u. khng phi mt nh l thc t, nn ch s
sai khc trong graien nhit-electron cm gia hai vt dn c th o. chnh l c s ca cp nhit.
Trong thc t, khi c hai kim loi c ni vi nhau v mi ni t ti nhit khc vi nhit hai u t do ca hai
dy dn, th hai u t do ny s xut hin s sai lch in p, l mt hm ca nhit tuyt i ti mi ni v nhit . Mi
lin h gia sai khc in p v sai khc nhit s l c tnh ca cp dy dn c chn. Trong mch in, hai u dy t
do ca cp nhit in chnh l im ni vi mch. iu ny nhc chng ta rng lun c mt mi ni th han cn xem xt nu
hai dy dn t cp nhit ni vi mt mch o. Trong mt s v tr ca b o, mch ng v mi ni th hai hnh thnh.
T cc gii thch trn, tt c cc nh lut cp nhit c in c th c xem xt. Cc nh lut ny c tng kt v tm
kim ng dng nh sau:
29
S tay C in t
nh lut 1. Mt kim loi th ba c a vo mch vi c hai u ca kim loi th ba ti im ng nhit khng nh
hng ti in p cm ng nhit ca cp kim loi ban u.
C hai gi quan trng lin quan ti nh lut ny. Gi th nht l bn cht tip xc in gia cc dy dn ti mi ni
khng quan trng, v bn thn cp nhit c th hnh thnh t hai dy c hn, hn bng ng thau, hn li hoc dp p vi
nhau. Trong tt c cc trng hp, kim loi th ba c mt ti mi ni nn n l cht n trong lin kt hn, hp km trung gian
c sinh ra bng vic hn cc kim loi khng ging nhau, hoc p kim loi gi cc u dy vi nhau. iu khng c
ngha rng khng c s quan tm khc vi cch hnh thnh ca mi ni. R rng khng th hn cc dy vi nhau v sau
dng mi ni trn im tan chy ca cht hn. Hu ht cc cp nhit trn th trng u c hn do nguyn nhn ny. nh
lut ny cho php o nhit ca mt vt kim loi bng cch hn trc tip mt dy dn vi n v tr cn o nhit . Cch
ny trnh thi gian tr khi truyn nhit gia vt v b cp nhit c lp. Gi th hai ca nh lut ny cho php mt mch
o lm t cc dy dn khc so vi nhng th c dng trong cp nhit c chn vo mch ngay c khi cc kt ni gia
mch o v hai dy cp nhit cng mt nhit .
nh lut 2. Nhit dc theo dy dn khng nh hng n c tnh in p cm nhit ca nhit hai mi ni.
iu c ngha l cc dy dn chnh ca cp nhit c th c dn thun tin qua cc vng nhit khc nhau, v ch
nhng nhit ti mi ni v v tr gim st mi quan trong trong vic xc nh in p.
nh lut 3. Mi kim loi c mt graien in p tng ng vi mi graien nhit cho trc c lp vi dy dn dng
gim st in p ny.
iu c ngha l mi dng kim loi c th c cn chun theo chun v s cn chun ny c gi tr vi tng kiu cp
nhit c lm t dy dn ny.
Nh vy, nhng tho lun trn c gii hn cho mch h v iu ny trnh nhng s phc tp ca nng lng ang c
cc electron chuyn i t mi ni c nhit cao hoc tn tht I
2
R trn dy dn sinh ra nhit v gim in p c o. Dng p
k khuch i tr khng cao hoc p k vi sai c tr khng v hn khi cn bng cho php o in p mch h thc t v loi
b cc ngun nhiu ny. Tuy nhin, do cc dy dn dng trong cp nhit thng l kim loi vi dn nhit hp l, nn c
th loi b nng lng t h thng c o bng vic dn nhit n gin dc theo dy dn.
thc s s dng cp nhit, nhit ti mt mi ni phi c xc nh v mt bng cc gi tr kim nh hay a thc
c tnh chun c s dng bin i in p o c thnh nhit ti mi ni. Hin c cc bng v a thc cho cc cp
kim loi thng dng dng trong cp nhit tham chiu ti im ng bng ca nc (Croarkin v cng s, 1993). Chng da
trn mt hp kim trung bnh tr khi hp kim ny thc s c th ly chnh xc con s trong bng. S thay i khng trnh
khi ny ca hm lng hp kim v ng dng ca cc bng chun l ngun sai s chnh trong cc gi tr ca cp nhit. Nh
s n lc tt nht ca cc nh sn xut, s thay i ny c th ch cn 2% sai s trong in p a ra cho mt o lng nhit
cho trc. Cc cun dy dn n l hoc cc cp nhit c to ra c th c cn chun gim thiu ngun sai s.
Nhit ca mi ni tham chiu phi c bit xc nh nhit ca mi ni ang o t in p c o. Nu nhit
ca mt trong nhng mi ni tham chiu khng ging nh nhit tham chiu ca bng chun th in p kt hp vi
nhit bit ca mi ni tham chiu c th c thm mt cch i s vo in p o c xc nh in p s c
o nu mi ni tham chiu c nhit xc nh trong bng. iu ny khng kh nh ln u tin. Nu mi ni tham chiu
c t trong mt bnh ng bng th khng cn hiu chnh khi dng cc bng chun danh ngha. d dng, c nhng thit
b lm lnh tham chiu ng bng c thit k ring dng cho o lng cp nhit. Cng c nhng cm bin in t cho
u ra in p hoc dng in t l thun vi nhit tuyt i v c gn vi h thng o. Chng c dng o nhit
ca khi cc ng nhit v sau bng mch tng t hoc phn mm my tnh, in p cp nhit lin h vi nhit
c thm vo in p o c thch hp. S phi hp ny cho php vic c trc tip in th lin h vi nhit cha
bit. Cng khng cn thit phi nhn mnh yu cu cm bin nhit cn phi c nhit ging vi nhit cc cc ca cp
nhit. Mt my qut a knh hoc thit b ghi m dng biu c th c bng u ni ko di n hng trm milimet. Nu
nhit c o ti mt im trn chiu di ny v ngun nng lng hoc cc ngun nhit khc trong my qut gy ra
graien nhit trn bng cc th c th xy ra nhng sai s nghim trng. Phi cn thn m bo rng khi ng nhit thc
s l ng nhit. Trong trng hp my qut trn, bng u ni v b dn knh cn phi c tch ra khi thit b m v
c bc cch in trc khi t c cc php chnh xc.
C rt nhiu loi cp nhit thng mi vi loi cu hnh v cht liu ph thuc vo cc yu cu o lng. Cng vi
cp nhit, cc ngnh cng nghip cung cp cc u c, b iu khin, dy dn v nhng thit b hu ch khc. Mt u c
cp nhit in hnh s c mt nhit tham chiu in t v cc iu chnh i vi quan h phi tuyn gia hiu in th v
nhit c xy dng sao cho vic cm mt loi cp nhit thch hp v c nhit tr nn n gin. Dy dn cho cc
loi chun c m ho mu sc vi v bc biu th cp dy dn v mu sc ca tng dy biu th chiu phn cc.
Tht khng may khi hu nh ch c mt s khng thng nht v cc tiu chun trn th gii. V d nh Hoa K
(ASNI/MC96-1,1982) mt v bc cp nhit mu vng biu th cp crm-nhm vi dy dn mu cho bit cc m khi
c nhit nng ln ( Hoa k, mu thng l dy m). Trong khi Nht (JIS-C 1610, 1981), v bc mu vng biu
th st-constantan vi dy dn biu th cc dng.
S oxi ho v nhim bn do pha trn khng ch nh ca dy dn nhit cao c th lm dch cn chun. Vic cn
chun cng c th dch chuyn nu nh hp kim thay i theo di ca cp nhit sau khi chu graien nhit nhanh
nhit cao cho php cc kim loi trong hp kim khuych tn sang mt kim loi khc. Tuy nhin, nu ch s dng vi cc
mc ch thng thng, cp nhit kh n nh, d dng s dng v ng tin cy vi cc loi ph hp khi s dng t gn im
khng tuyt i n 2000
0
C.
30
Cm bin
Kch thc vt l v khi lng nhit ca cp nhit xc nh phn gii khng gian v hng s thi gian, nhng chng
c th c ch to bng cc dy dn hoc cc mng kh tt nhm gii hn kch thc ca chng xung phm vi micro cn
u ra cng sut thc v mnh. Khng ging nh cc cm bin nhit in khc, cp nhit c th c nh trn tip im in
trc tip vi b mt c o, nh ci thin p ng thi gian o. Khi nim ny c th c m rng khi c mt mi ni
thc hnh thnh bi mt kim loi th ba c kt ta di dng hi lm cu cch ly gia cc dy o. Sau , cc mi ni
cha mng mng kim loi mng c th gim v mt l thuyt hng s thi gian xung di 1 s (Deobelin,1990). Nhng
nhc im chnh ca cp nhit l in p phi tuyn i vi p ng nhit, cn bit nhit tham chiu bng cc phng tin
khc hn l s dng mt cp nhit, v chnh xc tng i thp nu khng c cn chun ring.
Thit b nhit in tr (RTD-Resistance Temperature Device)
Hu ht cc vt liu u c s bin thin in tr theo nhit . i vi kim loi, in tr tng cng vi nhit gn nh
theo mt cch tuyn tnh. Platin l mt kim loi c a chung cho cc o lng nhit in tr thc tin v thc s l bin
php ni suy ring gia rt nhiu cc im xc nh trn thang ITS90. Cc kim loi khc ngoi platin c th c s dng cho
cc ng dng c th. V d nh, mt cch o nhit ca cun dy trong ng c hay my pht l o in tr ca chng khi
vn hnh di ti. Cc cun dy bng ng t n hot ng nh mt thit b nhit in tr trong trng hp ny. Cc tho
lun di y ch yu dnh cho cc thit b nhit in tr platin nhng cc khi nim c th p dng cho tt c cc kim loi.
Vi cc o lng chnh xc trn mt phm vi nhit rng, cn p dng a thc bc cao xc nh nhit t in tr.
i vi cc o lng thc t trong phm vi hp hng trm mc khc nhau, in tr c th coi l tuyn tnh vi nhit .
Cc in tr platin xc nh bi ITS90 khng ging nh cc loi thng thng sn c. ITS90 yu cu dy dn platin nguyn
cht, khng cng to nn cm bin, thng vi in tr 25.5 0
o
C (Mangum v Furukawa, 1990). Hu ht cc b phn ca
thit b nhit in tr u s dng platin nguyn cht trn th trng vi mt in tr 100 hoc 50 0
o
, mc d cc gi
tr danh ngha cao hn thnh thong c dng gim thiu hiu ng ca in tr tip xc v dy dn trong mch v cc
in tr thp hn c s dng nhit cao. C mt vi ng cong platin chun khc nhau th hin s thay i cc hp
kim platin nguyn cht chun. Trong khi tt c cc hp kim l platin nguyn cht v mt danh ngha, h s bc nht vi nhit
t 0
0
C n 100
0
C ca tiu chun Chu u (DIN43 760) l 3,85m / -K trong khi tiu chun ca M l 3,92m / -K.
Bn cnh hai h s ph bin , cn c mt vi cc h s khc i vi platin nguyn cht. Khi mua cc thit b nhit in tr
v u c thit b nhit in tr, ngi s dng nn lu cc tiu chun p dng.
Cc b phn ca thit b nhit in tr c ch to nh mt dy dn qun quanh ng cch in hoc cc mng kt ta
trn cht nn cch in. Kch c ca c gi v dy dn, cng nh mi v bc cch in, s xc nh thi gian p ng ca
b phn. Cc mng thng nh hn cc cm bin qun dy v do c thi gian p ng nhanh hn. Tuy nhin, do yu cu
cch li thit b nhit in tr vi b mt o, v trnh lm bin dng cc b phn, thm ch c nhng thit b nhit in tr
mng mng nh c cc hnh s thi gian c o bng 1/10 giy. Trong trng hp c bit s dng dy trn o nhit
kh, hng s thi gian c th gim ng k ti 1/10 micr giy; tuy nhin, do vic t lm nng c miu t di y,
phng php o gi a phng c li hn phng php o nhit.
o lng nhit s dng mt thit b nhit in tr ch n thun l vn xc nh in tr ca n. Khng ging nh
cp nhit , mi quan h gia in tr v nhit l tuyt i, nn ta khng cn thm nhit tham chiu. Tuy nhin, o
lng in tr ca phn t ny khng phi lc no cng n gin. C ba k thut truyn thng, mi loi c nhng nhc im
ring s c cp ngn gn sau y.
Ph bin nht trong tt c cc k thut o cm bin t xa l s phc tp ca in tr dy dn. Nh cp trn, tt c
cc kim loi u bin thin theo nhit trong in tr do bt k dy dn no u ng vai tr nh cc thit b nhit in
tr. Do , nu nhit dy dn gia cc thit b nhit in tr v c cu u c thay i, th sai s s xy ra trong qu trnh
c nhit tr khi c ly cung cp cc hiu ng nhit dn. Vi l do , cc thit b nhit in tr trn th trng
thng c hai, ba, hoc bn dy ni vo cc in cc thc ca cc in tr, ph thuc vo k thut s dng iu khin cc
hiu ng dy dn nh trong hnh 19.58. S b tr nh trong hnh 19.58 c s dng nhng ni m di dy dn ngn,
in tr ca RTD cao so vi in tr dy dn hoc nhng ni khng cn chnh xc cao. Ba dy RTD trong hnh 19.58(b)
cho php mt chiu di dy dn tng ng c a vo mi pha ca cu ni sao cho cc thay i trong in tr dy dn
hai pha l nh nhau v s cn bng ca cu khng b nh hng. Cng cn phi lu rng cc RTD bn dy dn trong
hnh 19.58 (d) c th c s dng vi cc u c dnh cho cc loi RTD hai, ba hoc bn dy, v b qua vn v chi ph
v kch c, chng cn cho php nng cp u c sau ny. Hnh 19.58(c) cho thy mt cu trc thay th kh him ca mt
u d RTD bn dy trong hai dy dn to nn mt vng kn. Cc b tr ny thng c cn n ch khi nhiu RTD bn
trong cu v khng nn nhm ln vi cc loi RTD bn dy khc trong hnh 19.58(d) c hai dy dn mi u in tr.
31
S tay C in t
HNH 19.58 Mt s loi RTD v cc mch ng dng
Mt vn ph bin khc i vi tt c h thng u c l vic t lm nng ca cc RTD do dng in ang o chy
qua in tr. iu ny c th c gim thiu bng cch s dng cc dng in nh, c h s truyn nhit cao gia cm bin
v qu trnh o, hoc bng cch dng o lng xung thi gian cng sut thp. Mc d cc bc c th ly gim thiu n,
nhng vic t lm nng khng bao gi b loi b hon ton. Mt c im thng thy cc RTD l n c th c tn dng
nh l mt phng tin xc nh h s truyn nhit ca mt h thng, chng hn nh khi cc in tr platin c s dng
nh cc thit b o gi.
Nh ch ra trn, o nhit s dng mt RTD ch cn xc nh in tr ca n. Ba k thut truyn thng s c
cp ngn gn y.
Cu cn bng hon ton
Mt phng tin n gin nhng chnh xc cao xc nh in tr ca mt RTD l s dng chng trong mt chn ca
mt cu wheatstone v c in tr bin thin c cn chun chn i din khi cu c a n v tr cn bng, nh c
biu th bi dng in bng khng trong in k, in tr ca RTD ging vi in tr bin thin c cn chun. C mt vi
s thay i trn cch b tr ny loi b hu ht cc ngun sai s bng cch tch thit b gy li gia cc chn ca cu. V
d nh, nu mt RTD tch khi cu, mt cu trc ba dy dn c th c s dng a dy dn c di nh nhau vo hai
pha ca cu vi gc cu gi y c xc nh ti v tr RTD t xa nh trong hnh 19.58(b). Cui cng, chnh xc ca
qu trnh c b hn ch bi chnh xc ca cc in tr c lm kh chnh xc trong cu. Do in tr bin thin phi
c iu chnh vt l lm cn bng cu, nn phng php ny khng thch hp i vi cc b ghi d liu hay b hin th
nhit.
Cu khng cn bng
Nu in tr bin thin c cn chun trong cch b tr trn c thay th bng mt in tr c nh, th phm vi
khng cn bng ca cu c th c o bng mt vn k thay cho in k c gi tr khng. K thut ny c nhiu sai s do s
khng cn bng ca cu l khng tuyn tnh vi in tr ca RTD v u c ca vn k cng t l thun vi dng in kch
thch. Tuy nhin, n c th l mt bin php thc t o nhit trong mt phm vi hp nu nh cc gi tr in tr trong
cc chn xa ca cu cao hn RTD va in tr chn i din gn vi chn ca RTD. Ging nh vi cc k thut cu khc, ba
dy dn c th c sp xp trong cc chn i din ca cu cho cc cm bin t xa b vo cc thay i in tr dy dn.
Nu cc chn i din ca cu u c RTD, s mt cn bng ca cu t l thun vi s chnh lch v nhit ca hai RTD v
ch c mt cch duy nht gi di cn bng trong cc chn l s dng loi c bit bn dy dn trong nh trong hnh
19.58(c)
o lng in p v dng in mt chiu
Nu cho mt dng in khng i chy qua mt in tr, in p qua n s t l thun vi in tr. y l mt khi nim
n gin nhng phi i s ra i ca cc ngun in khng i v b khuych i in p tr khng cao th mi tr thnh s
thay th thc t cho phng php cu. Bng vic s dng bn dy dn nh trong hnh 19.58(d), mch dng in c th c
ch to c lp vi mch cm bin in th v in tr dy dn khng nh hng n u c.
Nhit in tr
Nhit in tr l cc cht bn dn khi c lm t xit ca nikel, c ban, mng gan, hoc kim loi khc. Oxit c t
vo bt mn v sau c nung to vt liu nhit in tr thc t sau c kt hp vo trong cm bin. Nhit in
tr l thit b cm nhn nhit in tr vi mt s phn bit ng ch so vi RTD nh h s nhit m ln, v p ng cc
k phi tuyn. in tr ca mt nhit in tr thng ln (vi ngn Ohm) n mc t quan tm ti in tr dy ni. Do vy
32
Cm bin
chng chc chn l cc thit b hai dy tr khi trng hp nhiu nhit in tr hoc cc thnh phn trong u o. Phi c lin
kt in gia dy dn v cht bn dn nhit in tr. Lin kt ny v v bc epoxi c trng t mt gii hn cho nhit
khng n nh ln nht, thm ch bn thn nhit in tr l mt vt liu chu nhit.
C mt s cch phi hp thc hin vi c tnh phi tuyn ca nhit in tr, t vic b mt ng cong c tnh dng
my tnh cho n s dng nhiu nhit in tr vi cc c tnh khc nhau cng in tr phi nhit trong mt mch cu vi mt
u o n. Vi nhit va phi trong di 200K, mt mch cu ngoi n gin c th c s dng tuyn tnh ho c
tnh ca tn hiu.
Mc d khng thng c gi l nhit in tr, Gec-ma-ni, Si-lic v Cac-bon l nhng cht bn dn c th c dng
o nhit bng cch o in tr ca chng. Gec-man-ni c s dng cho cc ng dng yu cu chnh xc rt cao ti
nhit ng lnh xung gn 1K. S thay i ca in tr c th l rt ln v rt phi tuyn. nhng kh lp li t 700 2K
n 6 60K (Doebelin, 1990). Si-lic c th c s dng nhit phng, ph thuc nhiu vo kch thch, c dc ca
ng c tnh ln. N him khi c s dng nh l mt cm bin nhit do cc phng php khc thc hin tt hn
trong khong lm vic -200
0
C n 200
0
C. in tr Cac-bon khng ch c dng ph bin trong cc phng th nghim m
cn c dng o nhit trong khong t 1 n 20K, nhng chng cn c kim nh ring r.
Cm bin nhit dng mch tch hp (IC)
Ri in p t cc B (base) n cc E (emitter) ca mt transistor hot ng ti dng in khng i l mt hm n gin
ca nhit tuyt i. Do vy, bt c transistor no cng c th c s dng nh l mt cm bin nhit . Trong thc t,
c mt vn xy dng thit b in t c n nh hn l mt phng tin thun li o nhit . C sn nhng mch
tch hp (IC) o dng in cc gp (C), khuch i, v tuyn tnh ho in p t cc B n cc E sinh ra tn hiu ra t l
thun vi nhit tuyt i. Cc cm bin nhit IC ph bin vi cc u ra 10mV/K, hay 1uA/K. Khong nhit c th
s dng thng gii hn trong khong -50
0
C n 150
0
C vi cng ngh mch tch hp. iu ny rt hu ch trong vic so snh
nhit ca mt tip xc ca cp nhit vi nhit ca mi trng c o quanh n. Mc d bn cht khng thm nc
nhng IC c v kim loi hoc nha ging nh transistor tn hiu v c th c trong ngun nc c nhit.
Cm bin IC vi u ra in p thng c thit b u cui, vi dy dn ty chn ct p ng. Khi cho dng in nh
khong 1mA chy qua, n s gy ra mt in p ri t l thun vi nhit tuyt i (National, 2000). Thm ch, mt b
chuyn i IC n gin hn c sn vi kch thch v dy dn tn hiu ring bit. N thng c cn chun 10mV/
0
F hoc
0
C. Chng c mt hn ch c hu l khng th o c nhit st nhit 0
0
F hoc 0
0
C tr khi c sn c ngun cung cp l
dng v m.
Cc IC c u ra in p rt thun tin khi nhit ang c gim st tc ng ti kt qu t c v khng quan tm
n in p ri trn dy dn, nhng vi cc cm bin t xa cn dy di, cc cm bin dng in c a chung hn. Cm
bin dng in cng l hai thit b u cui chy cc ngun dng in tr khng cao sao cho bt c in tr dy dn lm tng
in p nh th no cng khng nh hng n dng in qua cm bin (Alanog, 1997). C hai loi ny u c th c iu
chnh ring bng cch loi b in tr trn chip bng laser trong qu trnh ch to to ra p ng u ra nhanh hoc chng
c th c mt dy dn iu chnh bn ngoi. Mc d ct b v cn chun, nhng chnh xc ca chng trong khong -50
n 150
0
C thng him khi chnh xc hn 2-3
0
C. Mt s IC c th c kt hp nhau cho nhit nh nht hoc trung
bnh. Cc IC in p c t song song vi nhit nh nht, hay t ni tip vi nhit trung bnh, trong khi cc u
dng in c ni ni tip trong trng hp tnh gi tr nh nht, v ni song song trong trng hp tnh gi tr trung bnh.
Ngoi cc ng dng n gin ca cc ngun dng in v in p khng i a trn nhit , cn c nhiu mch mi to
ra bt c chc nng no c th hnh dung nh l c s ca o lng nhit .
Mc d ch l mt phn nh trn chp silicn ca IC cm nhn nhit , nhng s c ch khi quan tm n ton b chip,
v bc ca n, v dy dn ca cm bin. Vic tng khi lng nhit ny lm gim thi gian p ng ca thit b xung vi
giy. Hin tng t lm nng v truyn nhit qua dy dn cng cn quan tm v lm gii hn tnh ng dng ca cc thit b
ny trong o lng.
Nhit k khng tip xc
Tt c cc h thng gim st (cm bin) nhit c tho lun pha trc u dng tip xc vt l vi i tng
c o, hoc trong mt s trng hp c bit l i tng thc ang c o. Thng thng, vic thc hin kt ni vt l
l khng thc t, v cc thit b o khng tip xc c pht trin vt qua tr ngi ny. Hu nh tt c cc k thut
ny yu cu s pht tia hng ngoi t b mt ca vt c o, nhng trong mt s trng hp c bit, b mt c tnh cht
quang hc nh phn x, c th c khai thc xc nh nhit t xa.
Nhit k pht x hng ngoi
Bt c vt no c nhit ln hn nhit tuyt i u pht ra cc tia in t m ph ca chng c quan h vi nhit
b mt ca vt pht x. S dng c tnh ny ca ph, nhit ca i tng c th c xc nh trc tip v tuyt i. C
s vi sng ca v tr 3K, v nhit ca ngi sao ph thuc vo mu sc ca n l nhng v d in hnh v hin tng
ny. Nhit cng c th c xc nh t b mt pht x m khng cn s dng quang ph k. Nu hai vt c dng so
snh vi nhau v chng iu kin cn bng v nhit , khi nhit ca mt vt c xc nh, ta c th xc nh nhit
ca vt cn li. y l nguyn tc c bn ca tt c cc phng php o nhit da trn truyn nhit nu. iu ny cng
c m rng cho phng php o nhit khng tip xc bi v truyn nhit do bc x cng l mt bin php hai vt t
ti cn bng nhit. Nhiu nhit k hng ngoi c xy dng da trn hin tng ny.
33
S tay C in t
Dng n gin nht ca nhit k hng ngoi gm cm bin nhit gim st nhit ca vt c cch ly goi l u d,
v u d ny ch ph thuc vo truyn nhit do bc x vi b mt nhit cn o. Gi s l c hai b mt ca u o v vt cn
o c xem nh l vt en tuyt i, do vy khng c s mt mt nhit t u o ra mi trng xung quanh v trng quan
st ca u d b gii hn bi vt di o lng v ngc li hon ton khng b cn tr. Mi gi thit cn c xem xt khi
thc hin so vi trng hp l tng ca nhit k hng ngoi.
Khi nim ca vt en tuyt i l mt khi nim l tng, khi nhit lng pht ra b hp th ton b bi b mt. Do gi
thit ny, nhit pht ra l mt hm duy nht ca nhit b mt. Ch c s thay i nhit do hp th bi b mt l b phn x
bi b mt hay xuyn qua vt liu. pht x, m t kh nng pht x ca b mt mt vt en tuyt i, l hiu gia phn
phn x v phn truyn qua. Nu pht x nh hn mt nhng c lp vi bc sng th c gi l vt xm. Mt s vt
liu va c th l vt en, cng c th l vt xm do vy cn thc hin hiu chnh pht x, v n l hm ca nhit cn
o. Nu mt b mt ging nh vt xm trong mt khong gii hn ca bc sng, cng ti mt vi bc sng trong
khong ny c th c xc nh c lng cho ton b di ph. May mn l nhiu vt tht t ging nh vt xm trong
mt khong hp ca bc sng quanh 750nm v hnh dng ph nh mt hm ca nhit cho vt xm trong khong nhit
t 500-3000
0
C c xem xt ti cc bc sng ny c th o dng ph v nhit ch vi hai im. pht x ca b mt
c th c xc nh cng vi nhit bng cch chiu sng b mt vi mt chm laser hng ngoi v o tng s tia laser
pht x. S tia chiu sng bng tng ca s tia phn x v phn pht ra nhit hng ngoi. Cn thn hn, nu dng xung ngn
hay chm laser cng sut thp s cho php trnh lm nng b mt c o, v s sinh ra phn phn x bc sng ca chm
laser v do vy pht x ca n (vi b mt c) bng mt tr i phn x.
S truyn nhit ti hoc t mt u d bng trao i nhit pht x vi b mt cn o yu cu nhit ca u o c
xem nh ch m t nhit ca mt c o hn l ging ht nhit ca b mt cn o. Truyn nhit t u d ti thit b
c th thng qua dn nhit hay bc x nhit v c cung cp bng hiu chnh thit b i vi mt vt en ca mt nhit
bit. Khi iu ny c thc hin, nhit ca thit b c gim st v xung quanh c th c thit lp c mt lin
h tham chiu cho u d quan st nhit xung quanh thit b. Thay i lung photon thc t c th c xc nh bng cc
phng tin in t dng it quang, t bo quang in v cc phng php khc nh l cm bin quang in t cm nhn tia
hng ngoi. Khi thc hin iu ny, cc b lc di hp thng c s dng gii hn p ng ca u d cho mt bc
sng ca pht x hng ngoi trnh vic m cc photon r rng c th b phn x t mt b mt hoc gii hn p ng
ti mt bc sng c bit nhiu khng kh l nh nht.
Cc thnh phn quang hc thng c dng gii hn trng quan st ca u d, do vy phn xc nh ca b mt
c o c tp trung trn u o. Min l ton b u o nhn thy b mt cn o, khong cch gia u o v b mt l
khng quan trng, ngoi tr s lin quan hp th tia hng ngoi bi nc hay CO2 hoc mt kh hot ng i vi tia hng
ngoi.
Mt bin th ca k thut hng ngoi c tho lun trn l ha k dng si bin mt. Thit b ny c t thm vo
bn ngoi v bng n si t m nhit ca si bit l mt hm ca dng in chy qua n v quan st c. Tng
ca l nhit hoc mt b mt nng pht nhit thng c quan st bng mt thit b o t xa trong khi hiu chnh dng in
chy qua si t cho n khi n va bin mt khi nn chiu sng. Nhit ca si t s tng ng vi nhit ca ca b
mt vt nng pht nhit v c xc nh t dng in chy qua si t. Mt cch lc n gin l dng mt b lc thng di
hp mu cho thit b o nhit do vy mu sc ging nhau cho c si t v ch v n tr nn mt sng n sc sng
hn pht x. Nu pht x ca cc si t v b mt l ng nht, vic xc nh ny l rt chnh xc. Nu khng bng mt,
khi mt b lc n sc c s dng ch pht x mt bc sng cn bit cho vic xc nh chnh xc nhit .
o lng nhit c micr
Cng nghip vi in t ngy cng pht trin cho php cc thit b hot ng tn s cao, cc thit b ngy cng tr nn
nh gn hn, cc k thut o lng vi phm vi o ln v phn gii v thi gian cao tr nn ngy cng quan trng. Mt
s k thut c c th dng o nhit vi sai lch nh, nh l phn gii ln v gi tr, cng nh phn gii ln v thi
gian. Tuy nhin, nhiu k thut ang c pht trin tp trung vo cm nhn s sai khc nhit mc sai lch rt nh.
V d nh k thut phn x nhit dng xung laser lm nng v u d phn x nhit ca mu cho php quan st truyn
nhit trong khong thi gian rt nh phn nghn t giy. K thut o lin quan s thay i phn x tng ng vi s thay
i nhit s dng ch s phc hp ca vt liu ca phn x (Rosei v Lynch, 1972).
Ba phng php ph bin nht quan st hin tng nhit c micr bao gm cp nhit mng mng, vi cu mng mng v
k thut quang hc. Cp nhit t l nano thng thng c s dng kt hp vi mt knh hin vi lc nguyn t (AFM). K
thut ny khng gy ph hu do AFM a u d tip xc vi mu rt thn trng. Vi cu mng mng l mt cc mng mng
kim loi thng mng hn 100 nano mt v c rng ty vo cc ng dng. K thut ny da trn thc t l in tr ca
mt vi cu l mt hm bn vng ca nhit . Vi cu phi c lng t trn b mt mu, do vy k thut ny hoc l khng
tip xc hoc l khng ph hu. K thut quang h thng thng dng laser nh l mt ngun pht nhit v hoc l mt u
d nhit. nh hng ca nhit c th c quan st theo nhiu cch khc nhau. K thut phn x nhit da trn s ph
thuc ca phn nhit phn x (Paddock v Eeslay, 1986), trong khi k thut nhit quang xem xt s phn x ca chm d
bng s gin n nhit gy ra trn b mt (Welsh v Ristau, 1995). K thut o nh da trn thc t l ch phn khng kh
nm bn trn b mt b lm nng, n gy ra s thay i v ch s khc x lm cong chm d theo s thay i ca nhit .
(Gonzales, 2000).
34
Cm bin
HNH 19.59 (a) S s dng u d soi qut nhit.
(b) S nguyn l ca cp nhit sai lch nh cng xn AFM
K thut soi qut nhit (SThM)
SThM l mt v d tiu biu nht ca phng php o nhit da trn bc sng ngn (sub-micron length scales). Cp
nhit c nano bao gm phin kim loi mng gn trc tip trn mt u d AFM. Majumdar a ra mt tng kt d hiu v
RThM v bao gm c nhng m t v mt vi phng php sn xut nhng cp nhit nano mt ny (Majumdar, 1999). Hnh
19.59(a) ch ra s ca mt u d dng nguyn l soi qut v trong hnh 19.59(b) l s nguyn l ca mt cp nhit
thng thng. Mt s yu t nh hng n phn gii ca kt qu o. Cc yu t ny bao gm kch thc nh u cp
nhit c gi tr l 20 hoc 50nm, ng mang nng lng t do trung bnh ca vt liu c m t, v c ch truyn nhit
gia mu v cp nhit v c bn l mt yu t gii hn.
Hot ng ca dm AFM ging ht nh hot ng ca mt u d AFM. V l tng, cp nhit nhanh chng t ti trng
thi cn bng khi cp nhit c ni vi mu v khng nh hng ngc li n nhit ca b mt. Trong thc t, c mt
nng lng nhit xc nh truyn gia mu v cp nhit do nh hng n nhit vt mu, v cng c in tr nhit gy
ra hin tng tr ca kt qu o v gii hn phn gii. Khi mu v cp nhit c gn vo nhau, gy ra dn nhit rn-rn
t mu sang cp nhit. Cng c s dn nhit qua khng kh quanh u cp nhit v qua lp cht lng ng trong khe nh gia
u o v mu. Shi et al. (2000) m t hin tng dn nhit qua lp cht lng ny tri hn hn truyn nhit di iu kin
p sut thng thng.
K thut phn x nhit tm thi (TTR)
K thut phn x nhit, phng php o nhit gin tip, l k thut quang hc cho php o s thay i nhit nhanh
tnh theo n v nh hn mt phn ca giy. K thut ny hon ton da trn nguyn tc khng tip xc v phn x t l
thun vi nhit . Th nghim v TTR (Elsayed-Ali et al., 1991; Paddock and Eesley, 1986; Hostetler et al., 1997) trn hnh
19.60 c th c dng o p ng ca phn x nhit ca mt vt kim loi sau khi hp th xung laser siu ngn. Xung
laser ly t ngun laser hot ng 76MHz c tch thnh hai chm, chm c cng rt mnh c dng lm nng
tm phim (chm bm); chm c cng yu hn (chm d) c s dng o phn x. Chm bm truyn qua mt b
iu bin quang. Kt qu l ti y, chm ny b ct vi tn s iu bin 1 MHz.
HNH 19.60 Thc nghim ci t phng php o phn x nhit
35
S tay C in t
Chm d xuyn qua mt lng knh trn mt gi ng, c s dng lm tng di quang hc ca chm d v do
c thi gian tr gia bm v xung chm d. S phn x ca chm d l trung tm ca khu vc nhit c o bi mt
diode quang v gi n kho h khuch i vi tn s iu bin 1MHz. iu ny c li cho hi phc bin dng tm thi ca
mu. Thc hin phng php ny, u d nhit s o s thay i phn x i vi s thay i nhit dng ch s khc x
phc hp ca vt liu. hu ht cc kim loi v cht in mi, ch s phc hp ca khc x ph thuc t vo nhit (Price,
1947). phm vi di bc sng, nu h s phn x ln, h s phn x c th c m t bng tng tuyn tnh ca phn b
ln v mt phn b iu bin nh ca nhit . S thay i tng ng ca h s phn x xp x 10
-5
K. Vic d lock-in
1MHz cho php phn gii ca tn hiu tm thi nh. Bng cch so snh p ng nhit tm thi ca b mt vi m hnh
dn nhit ph hp, thuc tnh nhit-l nh l s khuch tn nhit v in tr bin nhit c th c xc nh (Hostetler
1997; Hostetler 1998; Smith 2000)
Kt lun
Cc loi cm bin c mt trn th trng dng gim st cc thng s lin quan n nhit rt a dng. Vic chn la
mt cm bin thch hp ph thuc rt nhiu vo cu trc vt l thc t ca vt liu cn o, cng nh yu cu v chnh xc,
hin th, v x l s liu. Cp nhit c th l mt la chn tt cho cc ng dng lin quan n o in ca h thng x l t
xa, nhit k bu kh ph hp cho cc h thng o t xa khng lin quan n in. Cc yu t a l v vt l thng gii hn
vic s dng cc loi cm bin khc nhau. Mt s yu t quan trng cn quan tm ti l chnh xc, khng gian, phn
gii yu cu. Cc kin y cung cp mt ci nhn khi qut v mt lnh vc rng ln l k thut o nhit . Mt s tham
kho hu ch c lit k di y s chi tit hn v nhng thng tin ny. o nhit ging nh mt ngh thut hn l mt
khoa hc vi nhiu c im v sng to k thut mi trong sut qu trnh pht trin. Do xu th ca cng ngh nano, ngy
cng c nhiu s ci tin trong vic xc nh nhit ca tng khu vc nh cn o. Cc phng php o nhit truyn
thng khng ph hp cho nhng vng nhit nh c th xc nh c chnh xc.
Ti liu tham kho
[12] Analog Devices Data Sheet for AD590 Temperature Transducer, 1997.
[13] Croarkin, M.C., et al., 1993, Temperature-electromotive force reference functions and tables for the letter-designated
thermocouple types based on the ITS-90, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Monograph 175.
[14] Doebelin, E.O., Measurement Systems, Application and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990. Elsayed-Ali, H.E.,
Juhasz, T., Smith, G.O., and Bron, W.E., 1991, Femtosecond thermoreflectivity and thermotransmissivity of
polycrystalline and single-crystalline gold films, Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 43, pp. 44884491.
[15] Gonzales, E.J., Bonevich, J.E., Stafford, G.R., White, G., and Josell, D., 2000, Thermal transport through thin films:
mirage technique measurements on aluminum/titanium multilayers, J. Materials Res., Vol. 15, pp. 764771.
[16] Hostetler, J.L., Smith, A.N., and Norris, P.M., 1998, Simultaneous measurement of thermophysical and mechanical
properties of thin films, Int. J. Thermophys., Vol. 19, pp. 569577.
[17] Hostetler, J.L., Smith, A.N., and Norris, P.M., 1997, Thin-film thermal conductivity and thickness measurements
using picosecond ultrasonics, Micro. Thermophys. Eng., Vol. 1, pp. 237244.
[18] Majumdar, A., 1999, Scanning thermal microscopy, Ann. Rev. Material Sci., Vol. 29, pp. 505585.
[19] Mangum, B.W. and Furukawa, G.T., 1990, Guidelines for realizing the international temperature scale of 1990 (ITS-
90), National Institute of Science and Technology, Technical Note 1265.
[20] National Semiconductor Data Sheet for LM135 series Temperature Sensors, DS005698, 2000.
[21] Paddock, C.A. and Eesley, G.L., 1986, Transient thermoreflectance from thin metal films, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 60,
pp. 285290.
[22] Price, D.J., 1947, The temperature variation of the emissivity of metals in the near infrared, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), Vol. 59, pp. 131.
[23] Rosei, R. and Lynch, D.W., 1972, Thermomodulation spectra of Al, Au, and Cu, Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 10, pp. 474
483.
[24] Shi, L., Plyasunov, S., Bachtold, A., McEuen, P.L., and Majumdar, A., 2000, Scanning thermal microscopy of carbon
nanotubes using batch-fabricated probes, Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 77, pp. 42954297.
[25] Smith, A.N., Hostetler, J.L., and Norris, P.M., 2000, Thermal boundary resistance measurements using a transient
thermoreflectance technique. Micro. Thermophys. Eng., Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 5160.
[26] Welsh, E. and Ristau, D., 1995, Photothermal measurements on optical thin films. Appl. Opt., Vol. 34, pp. 7239
7253.
36
Cm bin
19.7 Cm bin o khong cch v cm bin tim cn
Jorge Fernando Figueroa v H. R. (Bart) Everett
Cm bin o khong cch
Gii thiu
Cc cm bin ny c s dng o khong cch t mt im tham chiu ti mt i tng. Rt nhiu cng ngh khc
nhau c ng dng pht trin cc loi cm bin ny, tiu biu l nh sng/quang hc, hnh nh, vi sng, v siu m.
Cm bin o khong cch c th phn thnh 2 loi: Tip xc v khng tip xc.
Cm bin o khong cch khng tip xc
Cm bin o khong cch khng tip xc l loi cm bin o khong cch thc t im tham chiu ti mt i tng
khng thng qua tip xc vt l. C t nht by k thut o khc nhau c p dng trn cc cm bin ny:
o tam gic
Thi gian truyn
o dch pha
iu bin tn s
Giao thoa
Hi t qut
Cng tn hiu tr v
Cm bin o khong cch khng tip xc c phn chia thnh hai loi: ch ng (pht mt s dng nng lng vo khu
vc quan tm) hoc th ng (da trn nng lng pht ra t cc i tng trong khu vc quan tm). Cc thut ng thng
c s dng nh radar (radio direction and ranging), sonar (sound navigation and ranging), v lidar (light direction and
ranging) tng ng vi cc phng php ch ng da trn mt s k thut o trn. V d, radar s dng k thut thi gian
truyn, o dch pha, hoc iu bin tn s. Sonar thng s dng k thut thi gian truyn do tc m thanh chm o
bng cc thit b in t c gi thnh thp. Lidar thng da trn c s k thut laser s dng php o thi gian truyn hoc
o dch pha.
Vi cc loi cm bin tch cc (phn x), khong cch o hiu qu ph thuc khng ch vo mc nng lng pht ra m
cn ph thuc vo cc c tnh sau ca i tng:
Din tch tit din ngang - xc nh lng nng lng pht ra tc ng vo i tng.
H s phn x - xc nh lng nng lng truyn ti c phn x so vi lng nng lng b hp th hoc
xuyn qua.
tp trung - xc nh kh nng phn b li ca nng lng phn x.
Rt nhiu cm bin khng tip xc hot ng da trn vt l hc truyn sng. Sng c pht ra ti mt im tham chiu,
khong cch c xc nh bng cch o thi gian truyn t im tham chiu ti vt hoc suy gim ca cng khi
sng truyn ti vt v quay tr li im tham chiu. Thi gian truyn sng c o bng phng php thi gian truyn hoc
iu bin tn s.
o khong cch bng phng php thi gian truyn
Phng php thi gian truyn c minh ha trong hnh 19.61 v 19.62. Mt sng ca (ch pht ra vi chu k) c pht
ra v phn x t vt v b thu c v tr gn b pht. B pht v b thu c th c tch hp trn cng mt cm bin. B thu
cng c th c gn trn vt. TOF l thi gian t khi bt u pht n khi c tn hiu tr v. Khong cch c xc nh
bng cng thc
F/2 d c TO
khi b pht v b thu cng mt v tr, hoc
F d c TO
khi b thu c gn trn vt.
chnh xc thng l 1/4 ca bc sng khi pht hin tn hiu tr v, ti thi im bin ca n tin ti ngng gii hn. H
s khuch i c t ng tng ln tng ng vi khong cch m bo chnh xc. chnh xc c th c ci thin
bng phng php d bin cc i (hnh 19.63). iu ny lm cho vic xc nh thi gian n ca sng t ph thuc vo
bin tn hiu. Siu m, sng rai, hoc cc ngun nng lng quang hc thng c s dng; v vy cc thng s lin
quan n vic tnh ton khong cch l tc ca m thanh trong khng kh (gn 0.305 m/ms), v tc ca nh sng (0.305
m/ns).
37
S tay C in t
Hnh 19.61 Sng c pht v phn x li t vt. Khong cch d c tnh theo tc truyn sng
c
, v thi gian truyn
sng TOF theo cng thc
(1/ 2). . d c TOF

Hnh 19.62 nh ngha thi gian truyn sng Hnh 19.63 TOF tnh theo bin ln nht ca
tn hiu phn x tng chnh xc
Sai s ca phng php thi gian truyn c th do cc nguyn nhn sau:
S thay i tc truyn sng, c bit l vi cc h thng m thanh
Khng xc nh chnh xc c thi gian n ca xung phn x (Figueroa & Lamancusa, 1992)
Sai s ca mch nh thi s dng o thi gian truyn
S tng tc ca sng ti vi b mt ca i tng cn o khong cch
Tc truyn: Trong hu ht cc ng dng, s thay i tc truyn ca nng lng in t l khng quan trng v c
th b qua, ngoi tr cc h thng nh v s dng v tinh. Tuy nhin, nhn nh trn l khng ng i vi cc h thng s
dng m thanh, nguyn nhn l do tc ca m thanh chu nh hng r rt ca s thay i nhit v m. (Tc ca
m thanh t l vi cn bc hai ca nhit Rankine; nu nhit ca mi trng thay i 30
0
th sai s o s l 1ft ng vi
khong cch o l 35 ft.)
bt nh: Cn c gi l cc sai s bc thi gian (time-walk error) gy ra do s thay i cng tn hiu tr v
(l kt qu ca (1) s thay i phn x b mt ca vt, v (2) s suy gim tn hiu theo ly tha bc bn ca khong cch
do s phn k hnh cu). S khc bit trong mt tn hiu tr v tc ng ti thi gian tng (l thi gian tn hiu tng t
10% n 90% gi tr bin cc i) ca xung d c, v trong trng hp d c ngng gii hn c nh th nhng vt c
phn x thp s xut hin vi khong cch xa hn (Lang, 1989). V l do ny, cc b phn tch hng s thi gian thng
c dng thit lp ngng d ti mt s gi tr xc nh, cc gi tr ny tnh theo gi tr nh ca xung nhn c,
(Vuylsteke, 1990; Figueroa & Doussis, 1993).
nh thi: Tc ca m thanh trong khng kh l tng i thp. y l mt c im khin TOF tr thnh u th
trong cc h thng m thanh gi thnh thp. Ngc li, tc truyn dn ca nng lng in t c th t ra mt vi yu
cu cho cc mch o lng v iu khin phi hp trong cc ng dng quang hc hoc tn s rai. Do , cc cm bin
TOF da trn tc ca nh sng cn mch nh thi mc nano giy o khong cch vi phn gii khong mt foot
(Koenigsburg, 1982). c bit hn, c c phn gii 1mm th chnh xc ca mch nh thi phi l 3ps (Vuylsteke,
1990). Gii php ny c gi thnh cao hn mt cht v c th khng t hiu qu kinh t vi mt s ng dng, ngoi tr
trong cc ng dng c phm vi nh nhng yu cu chnh xc cao.
Tng tc b mt: Khi nh sng, m thanh, hoc sng rai tc ng vo i tng, tn hiu phn hi o c ch th
hin mt phn nh ca tn hiu ban u. Nng lng cn li phn x theo cc hng khc nhau v c th c hp th hoc
i xuyn qua i tng, ph thuc vo c tnh b mt v gc ti ca chm sng. V d, c th khng nhn c tn hiu tr
v do s phn x ti b mt i tng, c bit l trong vng siu m ca ph nng lng. Nu gc tip cn ca ngun pht
tn hiu bng hoc ln hn mt gi tr ngng no th nng lng phn x s b lch hng ra ngoi vng cm bin ca b
nhn. Tn hiu ri rc c th phn x t nhng i tng th cp (khng phi l i tng quan tm), quay tr li b d ti
nhng thi im khc nhau gy ra nhng tn hiu sai hay cn gi l d liu nhiu. b sai s, ngi ta thng ly gi tr
trung bnh ca nhiu php o lp li sao cho cht lng tn hiu (t l tn hiu so vi nhiu) mc chp nhn c. Tuy
nhin, xc nh khong gi tr ny s mt nhiu thi gian hn.
H thng TOF siu m
Phng php o khong cch TOF siu m hin nay l k thut o khng tip xc ph bin nht, ch yu l do cc h
thng gi thnh thp sn c v d dng ghp ni. Trong mt vi thp k trc, nhiu nghin cu p dng cho robot di ng
trnh va chm, tnh ton v tr v pht hin chuyn ng. Mt vi nh nghin cu nh gi s hiu qu ca cm bin
siu m khi hot ng trong cc mi trng bn ngoi (Pletta, 1992; Langer & Thorpe,1992; Pin & Watanabe, 1993;
Hammond, 1994). Trong cng nghip t, BMW kt hp bn b chuyn i p in (gn trn mt mng bo v mi
trng) trn c tm bo v mt trc v mt sau trong h thng iu khin khong cch (Siuru, 1994).
M un o khong cch Polaroi l mt thit b TOF loi tch cc, c thit k cho b phn t hi t ca camera v xc
nh khong cch ti i tng bng cch o thi gian t thi im truyn i mt sng siu m cho n khi nhn c tn
38
Cm bin
hiu phn hi (Biber, 1980). C th ni rng s pht trin ng k ca loi cm bin ny l do nhng tc ng ca n n
cng ng nghin cu robot v cc ng dng cng nghip. H thng ny c c gii thiu nhiu nht cc ti liu sau
(Koenigsburg, 1982; Moravec & Elfes, 1985; Everett, 1985; Kim, 1986; Arkin,1989; Borenstein & Koren, 1990). Vi nhng
c tnh c trng cho cc thit b o khong cch, Polaroid tr nn ph bin nh gi thnh thp (c b chuyn i v mch
o khong cch Polaroid c gi thp hn 50$), v c s dng rng ri trong cc ng dng truyn thng nh cm bin hi
t t ng ca camera (camera auto-focus sensor).
Cu hnh c bn nht bao gm hai thnh phn chnh: (1) b chuyn i siu m, v (2) m un in t o khong cch.
Hin nay c rt nhiu loi chuyn i la chn. phin bn u tin ca thit b tnh in (hnh 19.64), mt mng kim
loi rt mng c gn trn mt tm che pha sau to thnh b chuyn i in dung (Polaroid, 1981). Mt b chuyn i
tnh in c ng knh nh hn (7000-series) cng c pht trin cho cc camera Polaroid Spectra (Polaroid, 1987). Mt
b chuyn i p in c thit k bn vng (sri 9000), dng cho cc ng dng trong mi trng nng, lnh, di tri ma,
sng mui, v dao ng. Loi chuyn i ny c dng trong cc xe ti hng nng. Di o ca h thng Polaroid l t 0.3
m (1ft) ti 10.5 m (35ft), with a half-power (-3dB) beam dispersion angle of appproximately 12
0
for the original instrument-
grade electrostatic transducer. Mt chu k hot ng in hnh nh sau:
Mch iu khin kch hot b chuyn i v ch du hiu bo vic truyn bt u.
B nhn c trng trong mt chu k ngn trnh li d sai do tn hiu truyn cn d trong b chuyn i.
Khuch i tn hiu thu c vi h s tng dn theo thi gian b li s suy gim mt m theo khong cch.
Nhng tn hiu phn hi c gi tr ln hn mt ngng cho trc c ghi li v khong cch lin kt c tnh t
khong thi gian tri qua.
Hnh 19.64 T tri sang phi: (1) b chuyn i tnh in phin bn u tin, (2) b chuyn i mi trng sri 9000, v (3)
b chuyn i tnh in sri 7000 (ngun: Polaroid Corp)
Hnh 19.65 Gin thi gian cho m un o khong cch siu m 6500-series thc hin vng lp ch nhiu xung phn
hi vi u vo blanking (ngun: Polaroid Corp)
Trong ch phn hi n ca m un 6500-series, ng blank (BLNK) v blank-inhibit (BINH) c gi mc thp
khi ng initiate (INIT) chuyn ln mc cao kch dy xung pht ra. Tn hiu internal blanking (BLANKING) t ng
chuyn ln mc cao trong 2.38 ms ngn nga b chuyn i rung do vic hiu sai n l xung phn hi. Mi khi c tn hiu
tr v hp l, u ra phn hi (ECHO) s gi mc cao cho n khi c xc lp li nh vic chuyn u INIT t mc cao
xung mc thp. i vi qu trnh phi x l nhiu phn hi, u vo blank (BLANK) phi c gi mc cao trong t nht
0.44 ms sau khi pht hin tn hiu tr v u tin xc lp li u ra phn hi cho ln tr v tip theo nh biu din trong
hnh 19.65 (Polaroid, 1990)
H thng TOF s dng laze
H thng o khong cch TOF s dng laze, cn c bit n vi raa laze hay lidar, ln u tin xut hin ti phng th
nghim Jet Propulsion, Pasadena, CA, trong nhng nm 1970 (Lewis & Johnson, 1977). Nng lng laze c pht ra di
dng nhng xung ngn tc cao hng ti i tng cn o khong cch. Thi gian truyn ca mt xung phn x t i
39
S tay C in t
tng c s dng tnh khong cch ti i tng da trn tc nh sng. chnh xc ca nhng cm bin th h u
ca loi ny c th t ti vi centimet vi khong cch o t 1 n 5 m ( NASA, 1977, Depkovich & Wolfe, 1984).
Cng ty Schwartz Electro-Optics (bang Orlando, M) sn xut nhiu h thng o khong cch TOF s dng laze, cc
h thng ny s dng mt k thut mi bin i t thi gian sang bin nhm tha mn mc thi gian c nano giy yu
cu bi tc nh sng. Khi laze c pht ra, mt t mng c chnh xc cao bt u phng in t mt gi tr cho trc
vi tc c nh. Lng in nng phng ra t l vi thi gian tnh t khi tn hiu c pht ra, phn x ti vt v quay v
b thu (Gustavson & Davis, 1992). in p trn t c bin i t dng tng t sang dng s ngay ti thi im b thu
nhn c tn hiu phn hi. Sau , gi tr in p c bin i thnh khong cch v bc thi gian, v c hiu chnh
bng cch tra bng.
Hnh 19.66 Thit b o khong cch LRF 200 series
(ngun: Schwartz Electro Optics)
Hnh 19.67 Thit b o khong cch laze sri LD90-3
Loi-1 (an ton cho mt) l mt thit b c lp vi nhiu
phin bn khc nhau v c th o ti 150-500m di iu
kin kh quyn trung bnh (ngun: RIEGL USA)
Cc thit b o khong cch LRF-X (hnh 19.66) c kch c nh gn, tc x l cao, v c kh nng o c khong
cch ln ti 100m t hu ht cc b mt (h s phn x Lambertian nh nht l 10%). Mt h thng LRF-X c bn s dng
mt it laze InGaAs dng xung kt hp vi b d nhiu it quang, cung cp c u ra s (RS232) v tng t.
RIEGL Laser Measurement Systems, Horn, Austria, a ra th trng rt nhiu sn phm s dng thit b o khong
cch laze TOF xung ngn (nh h thng quan trc, cm bin o mc). Cc ng dng in hnh bao gm: cc thit b o
cao lidar, gim st tc xe, chng va chm cho xe, v o mc trong cc xil cha.
Cc thit b o khong cch laze h RIEGL LD90-3 (hnh 19.67) s dng ngun it laze gn hng ngoi v mt b d
it quang thc hin k thut o khong cch TOF ti 500m vi cc b mt khuych tn, v trn 1000m vi trng hp c
nhiu vt. Thi gian truyn tnh t khi tn hiu c pht ra cho n khi phn hi v b thu c o chnh xc bi mt ng
h thch anh v c bin i thnh khong cch bi mt b vi x l bn trong, s dng mt trong hai thut ton c.
Thut ton trit ting n kt hp phng php ly trung bnh cc php o v k thut kh nhiu loi b hin tng lch
hng ca cc httrong khng gian, v v vy rt hiu qu khi hot ng di iu kin bt li v nh sng (Riegel, 1994).
Ngc li, thut ton o chun cho php o khong cch vi tc cao m khng quan tm n vic kh nhiu, v do c
tc cp nht cao trong nhng iu kin mi trng thun li hn.
chnh xc o trong trng hp xu nht l khong cch 5 cm, thng thng chnh xc l 2 cm. Ngun laze gn
hng ngoi dng xung l loi an ton Loi-1 cho mt di mi iu kin hot ng.
Hnh 19.68 Cm bin vi sng, khng ging nh cc b d chuyn ng, cn mt b pht v mt b nhn ring bit (ngun:
Williams, 1989)
40
Cm bin
Hnh 19.69 Xc nh khong cch t o pha
Cm bin khong cch vi sng
Cng ngh vi sng c th c s dng o chuyn ng, tc , khong cch, v hng chuyn ng (hnh 19.68).
Cc cm bin loi ny rt bn do chng khng cha cc b phn chuyn ng. Chng c th hot ng an ton trong cc mi
trng d chy n do mc nng lng s dng rt thp. Cm bin khong cch loi vi sng hot ng trong iu kin nhit
t -55
0
C n +125
0
C, mi trng khi, bi, kh c, v phng x. Cc cm bin vi sng thng thng c s dng o
khong cch t 25 n 45000 mm, nhng cng c th o xa hn ty thuc vo nng lng v kch thc i tng. Nng
lng phn x v b thu b suy gim theo ly tha bc bn ca khong cch ti i tng. Bc sng thng thng l t 1
n 1000 mm.
Thi gian truyn sng (truyn ti vt v phn x v cm bin) l khong 2 ns trn mt foot hay 10.56 ms trn mt dm.
Khi o cc khong cch ngn c th gp phi mt vn , l vi phn gii 1 inch th mch phi phn gii 167 ps. Mt
phng php khc ph hp hn c dng o cc khong cch ngn l da trn mt tn s qut ca b pht tn hiu.
Trong trng hp ny, tn hiu tr v vn gi nguyn tn s khi to (thng l 10.525 GHz), v c so snh vi tn s hin
ti b thay i bi tc qut. V d, o khong cch 3ft, c th qut 5 MHz/ ms. Sau 6 ns, tn s thay i thnh 30 Hz
(6 ns * 5 MHz/0.001 s). Trong trng hp ny c th o c khong cch 0.0256 mm (0.001 inch) mt cch d dng. Khi
s dng phng php ny, cn c mt b khuych i tn hiu vi h s khuych i tng cng vi tn s. Xem phn iu
bin tn s hiu r hn v cc phng php iu bin tn s.
o pha
Thi gian truyn (TOF) c nh ngha l dch chuyn pha gia tn hiu pht v tn hiu thu khi khong cch nh hn
mt bc sng (Hnh 19.69). Gi s dch pha l f, khong cch s l
/ 4 / 4 d c f
nu b pht v b thu c t
cng mt v tr, hoc
/ 2 / 2 d c f
nu b thu c gn vo vt, trong c l tc truyn,

l pha o c, v
f
l tn s iu bin.
dch pha gia sng hnh sin pht ra v phn x c th o c bng cch nhn hai tn hiu vi nhau trong mt b trn
in t ri ly trung bnh kt qu sau nhiu vng iu bin (Woodbury, 1993). Qu trnh tch hp ny tng i mt thi
gian, lm gim tc cp nht. Kt qu c th c biu din nh sau (Woodbury, 1993):
0
1 2 4 2
lim sin sin
T
T
c d c
t dt
T

| ` | `
+

. , . ,

( ) 19.70
Rt gn thnh
4
cos
d
A

| `

. ,
( ) 19.71
Trong t l thi gian, T l khong thi gian trung bnh, v A l h s bin ca b khuych i tch hp.
T biu thc trc ca

, c th thy kt qu o c thc t l cosin ca dch pha v khng phi l dch pha ca

chnh n (Woodbury, 1993). Trng hp ny c gi l khong khng xc nh khi tng khong cch truyn (2 ln khong
cch t b pht n vt) vt qu bc sng iu ch (v d, o pha tr thnh khng xc nh khi

vt qu 360
0
).
Conrad v Sampson (1990) nh ngha khong khng xc nh ny l khong cch ln nht m lch pha l mt chu k
360
0
:
2
a
c
R
f

(19.72)
Trong
a
R
l khong thi gian khng xc nh.
41
S tay C in t
Xt phng trnh (19.73), c th thy rng tng khong cch truyn 2d bng mt s nguyn ln ca bc sng n cng
vi mt phn bc sng
x
tng ng vi dch pha. Do hm cosine ca

khng phi l hm n tr, s c hn mt khong

cch d tng ng vi php o dch pha bt k (Woodbury, 1993):
4 2 (
cos cos cos
d x n

+ | ` | `


. , . ,
(19.73)
trong
( ) / 2 d x n +
khong cch thc ti i tng
x
khong cch tng ng vi lch pha

n
s vng iu bin trn vn
Xem xt k li phng trnh (19.73), trn thc t, hm cosine khng n tr ngay c trong mt khong bc sng n
360
0
. V vy, nu ch o hm cosine ca gc pha, khong cch khng xc nh phi gim nhiu hn n mt na bc sng
iu bin, hoc 180
0
(Scott, 1990). Hn th na, dc ca ng cong l gi tr m tc thay i ca hm cosine phi
tuyn, khng phi l hng s trong di
0
0 180 , v bng khng hai u. Do , chnh xc ca k thut o dch pha
thay i nh mt hm ca khong cch ti vt, t trng hp tt nht thc hin cho mt gc pha 90
0
ti trng hp xu nht
ti 0 v 180
0
. V l do ny, khong o c th s dng thng b gii hn di 90% ca khong khng xc nh 180
0
(Chen,
1993).
Hnh 19.70 Sai s ca php o c th c loi b bng cch gii hn khong cch o ln nht nh hn khong khng xc
nh
a
R
Hnh 19.71 Ti cc tn s thp ca cc h thng siu m, mt mch d pha n gin hot ng da trn cng XOR s pht ra
mt in p tng t t l vi lch pha ca cc tn hiu u vo (ngun: Figueroa & Barbieri, 1991a)
Mt gii php cho vn ny l tin hnh o ln th hai nhng vi dch pha 90
0
so vi dng sng ban u, sau thc
hin php o sine ca gc pha thay v cosine ca gc pha. Thng tin b sung ny (ngha l thc hin c php o cosine v
sine) c th s dng m rng khong khng xc nh ca gc pha ti gii hn 360
0
(Scott, 1990). Hn th na, chnh
xc ca h thng cng cng c ci thin, do ti bt c vng no khi php o cosine c nhy thp nht th php o sine
s c nhy cao nht (Woodbury, 1993).
Tuy nhin, do nh hng ca khong khng xc nh nn khng th trnh khi s sai lch ca h s suy gim trong cc
phng php o d pha. Trong mt s ng dng, vn ny c gii quyt bng cch b tr ng i ca tn hiu sao cho
khong cch ln nht c th lun nh hn khong khng xc nh (hnh 19.70). Mt khc, bng cch thc hin lin tip cc
php o khong cch ti cng mt vt vi hai tn s iu bin khc nhau, s thu c hai phng trnh cho php xc nh gi
tr ca
x
v
n
(trong phng trnh 19.73). Kerr (1988) m t mt ng dng nh vy vi hai tn s iu bin l 6 MHz v
32MHz.
i vi vic iu ch sng vung ti tn s tng i thp, thng ng dng trong cc h thng siu m (20- 200kHz),
lch pha gia dng sng vo v ra c o bng mt mch tuyn tnh n gin nh trong hnh 19.71 (Figueroa & Barbieri,
1991a). u ra ca cng XOR s chuyn ln mc logic cao khi 2 tn hiu u vo c mc logic ngc nhau, to ra mt in
p trn t C1 t l vi lch pha. V d, khi hai tn hiu c cng pha (v d
0
), u ra ca cng XOR s mc thp v
in p V bng khng. in p u ra t gi tr ln nht khi

=180
0
. Tuy thc hin d dng nhng phng php trn b gii
hn tn s rt thp v thng xuyn phi hiu chnh tn s b sai lch do thit b s dng lu ngy hoc s thay i
ca iu kin xung quanh (Figueroa & Lamancusa, 1992).
H thng o pha di m rng.
Figueroa v Barbieri (1991a; 1991b) a ra mt phng php m rng khong khng xc nh trong cc h thng d
pha siu m bng cch chia tn s ca tn hiu nhn c v tn hiu mu. Do khong so snh c ngha b gii hn 1 bc
sng (trng hp tt nht), nn khi tn s ca cc tn hiu u ca b d pha gim mt h s no th s tng ln mt
42
Cm bin
gi tr tng ng. Nguyn tc hot ng phng php trn c biu din trong hnh 19.72. Do bc sng ca nng lng
siu m l rt ngn nn tng s khong cch o hiu qu ch l 4 inch sau khi chia cc tn hiu u vo ca b d cho 16.
V khong cch o nh nn cc h thng o khong cch bng phng php d pha khng c s dng rng ri trong cc
ng dng rbt, cho d Figueroa v Lamancusa (1992) a ra mt phng php lai nng cao chnh xc ca cc h
thng o khong cch TOF cho vic xc nh v tr trong khng gian ba chiu.
Hnh 19.72 Khi chia cc tn s u vo ca b so snh pha cho mt s nguyn th khong khng xc nh s c m rng
vi cng h s, tuy nhin phn gii s b gim (ngun: Figueroa & Barbieri, 1991a)
Young v Li (1992) gii thiu mt phng php hiu qu o khong cch da trn thng tin v pha. Phng php
ny xc nh tng s khong cch o bng cch ghp cc on pha lin tip vi nhau, cc on pha ny tr v trng thi ban
u mi khi lch pha ca tn hiu pht v tn hiu nhn c l 2 . y cng l mt phng php khc phc c
nhng nhc im ca cc h thng da vo pha o cc khong cch nh hn mt bc sng m. Cc gi tr gin on ti
cc im c lch pha l 2 c loi b bng cch ly o hm ca pha, tn hiu thu c rt mn vi nhng xung nhn
ti cc im gin on. Sau cc xung nhn c loi b, cc tn hiu c kt hp li vi nhau v nhn vi mt h s
xc nh khong cch tng. Phng php trn c kim tra trong mt th nghim s dng b chuyn i 40 kHz. Vi
khong cch t 40 n 400 mm th sai s l t 0.1629 t n 0.4283 t mm.
Phng php o khong cch bng sng laze lin tc c pht trin ti vin nghin cu Stanford vo nhng nm
1970 (Nitzan et al., 1977). Phng php ny c chnh xc tng ng vi phng php TOF s dng xung laze, nhng
c thun li hn mt cht. Tuy trnh c nhng kh khn ca vn o thi gian ca phng php TOF s dng xung laze
nhng li phi s dng thit b in t o pha tng i phc tp (Depkovich & Wolfe, 1984). Hn na, nhng kh khn ca
phng php o dch pha thng xy ra khi nng lng pht ra c phn x ng thi v b thu t hai b mt c khong
cch n cm bin khc nhau.
Cc thit b in t c s dng so snh pha ca mt sng n phn x v b thu vi sng mu. Tuy nhin, chng s
mt tc dng khi c nhiu sng phn hi ng thi v b thu. Adams (1993) a ra mt k thut pht hin trng hp
trn vi mc ch gim bt sai s ca php o.
iu bin tn s
y l phng php c dng nng cao chnh xc trong vic xc nh thi gian sng truyn n b thu. Thay v s
dng sng c mt tn s duy nht, mt sng c tn s thay i c dng
0
f f kt +
s c pht i. Sai lch gia tn s
pht v tn s thu c ti mt thi im bt k c tnh bng cng thc
( )
f f
f kt k t t kt
(hnh 19.73). u im ca
phng php ny l khng cn phi xc nh chnh xc thi im sng truyn n b thu. Tuy nhin, h thng phi s dng
cc thit b o tn s thi gian thc vi chnh xc cao v b chuyn i phi cho kt qu trong mt vng qut di tn s.
Phng php iu bin khng tuyn tnh cng c th c s dng lm gim nh hng ca nhiu v nng cao chnh
xc.
Sng c phn x t vt n b thu ti thi im t T + . Trong T l thi gian sng i t b pht ti vt v quay tr li
b thu:
2d
T
c
, d l khong cch t b pht n vt, v
c
l tc truyn sng.
Hnh 19.73 Sai lch tn s gia tn hiu pht ra v tn hiu thu t l vi thi gian truyn ti bt k thi im no
43
S tay C in t
Hnh 19.74 ng cong tn s thu c dch i mt khong theo trc thi gian so vi tn s chun
Sng thu c s c so snh vi mt sng chun ly t b pht. ng cong tn s ca tn hiu thu c (hnh 19.74)
s c hin th trn cng trc thi gian vi ng cong tn s ca tn hiu mu nhng cch ng cong tn s ca tn hiu
mu mt khong thi gian ng bng thi gian sng c truyn t b pht ti vt v quay tr li b thu. Do nh hng ca
hiu ng Doppler nn ng cong tn s ca sng thu c cng c th b dch chuyn dc theo trc tn s so vi sng mu.
B trn tn s kt hp hai tn s trn to ra tn s p
b
F
:
( ) ( )
b
F f t f T t kT +
trong k l hng s
Tn s
b
F
c dng xc nh khong cch ti vt:
4
b
r d
F c
d
F F

trong
d l khong cch ti vt
c
l tc truyn sng
b
F
l tn s p
r
F
l tn s iu bin
d
F
l tng sai lch tn s FM
Khong cch cn o t l thun vi tn s p, chnh xc ca kt qu ph thuc vo tuyn tnh ca s thay i tn
s trong khong thi gian o.
Hin nay, nhng u im trong vic iu chnh bc sng ca it laze cho php cc k thut o bng sng siu m v
rada c th c dng vi laze. Tn s hoc bc sng ca it laze c th c thay i bng cch thay i nhit ca n.
Hy xem xt trng hp ca mt it laze c bc sng l 850 nm, nu thay i bc sng ny 0.05 nm trong thi gian 4
s

th tc thay i tn s tng ng l 5.17 Mhz/ns. Chm laze ny khi phn x ra khi b mt vt 1m s sinh ra tn s p
34.5 MHz. Mc tuyn tnh ca dch tn s s quyt nh chnh xc ca h thng.
Hnh 19.75 Phng php o khong cch tam gic xc
nh khong cch B n im
3
P
bng cch o cc gc

v ti cc im
1
P
v
2
P
Hnh 19.76 H thng o khong cch 3 chiu tch cc
44
Cm bin
Khc vi phng php o dch pha, phng php iu bin tn s cho kt qu ch sau mt ln o. Tuy nhin phng php
ny cng c mt s hn ch, nguyn nhn l do yu cu v tuyn tnh v tnh tun hon ca dc tn s. Do hu ht
cc thit b o khong cch FMCW hin c trn th trng u s dng raa, trong khi cc thit b laze li s dng phng
php thi gian truyn hoc phng php d pha.
o khong cch bng phng php tam gic
Phng php o tam gic da trn mt tin quan trng ca lng gic hc. Theo tin ny, nu bit trc di ca
mt cnh v hai gc ca mt tam gic th c th xc nh c di ca cc cnh cn li cng nh ln ca gc th ba.
nh lut Sin c th c sa li nh sau biu din di ca cnh B theo di ca cnh A v hai gc v

:
Trong cc ng dng o khong cch, i vi cc cm bin bit trc ng c s A, di ca cnh B chnh l
khong cch ti im
3
P
trn i tng (hnh 19.75).
Cc h thng o khong cch bng phng php tam gic c chia thnh hai loi: th ng (ch dng nh sng xung
quanh i tng quan tm) v ch ng (dng mt ngun nng lng chiu sng i tng quan tm). Cc thit b d
hng (my quay phim, mng nh bn dn) ca h thng th ng c t ti v tr ca im
1
P
v
2
P
(hnh 19.76). Hai
cm bin hnh nh c b tr cng nhn n im
3
P
to thnh mt tam gic o. Bng cch o hai gc v

, kt hp
vi hng v khong cch A bit ca hai cm bin nh, ta c th xc nh c khong cch ti i tng quan tm.
Cc h thng ch ng t mt ngun nh sng iu khin c (v d nh laze) ti im
1
P
hoc im
2
P
v hng v
im
3
P
. Mt cm bin nh s c t ti im cn li v cng hng v im
3
P
. nh sng pht ra t ngun sng s c
phn x ti i tng, mt phn ca nh sng phn x s truyn n b d. V tr ca chm sng trn b d cho php xc
nh gc

, p dng nh lut Sin ta s tm c khong cch ti i tng.

c im lm vic ca cc h thng o tam gic ph thuc vo vic h thng l ch ng hay th ng. Cc h thng
th ng s dng cc camera thng thng v yu cu iu kin chiu sng tt, trong trng hp nh sng mi trng qu ti
th cn phi dng thm nh sng nhn to. Hn na, cc h thng ny cn gp kh khn trong vic khp cc nh ca mt
im c thu bi cc camera khc nhau. Ngc li, cc h thng ch ng ch s dng mt b d duy nht v khng yu
cu ngun chiu sng c bit no cng nh khng gp phi cc vn ca h thng th ng. Tuy nhin, trong s trng
hp cc h thng ch ng khng hot ng c, nguyn nhn l do khng phn x c nh sng hoc do s hp th nh
sng ca b mt i tng.
chnh xc ca cc h thng o tam gic s b gim khi khong cch n i tng tng. Cc h thng ny cng c sai
s khi o cc gc v

. Ngoi ra, chng cng gp kh khn vi hin tng khut vt. Bn cht ca hin tng khut
vt l mt phn ca i tng ch c th c quan st t mt im t camera duy nht (
1
P
hoc
2
P
). Khong cch A gia
1
P
v
2
P
l nguyn nhn ca hin tng che khut ny (cng mt im trn i tng nhng ch mt trong hai camera thu
c nh ca im ). Khi ln ca ng c bn A tng th chnh xc ca php o cng tng, tuy nhin kh nng xy
ra hin tng che khut vt cng tng ln. Do , khi thit k cc h thng o tam gic nn chn mt gii php tha mn
tng i cc yu cu trn.
Stereo Dispairty
Stereo dispairty l phng php o khong cch ch ng s dng k thut o tam gic. Phng php ny c nguyn tc
hot ng ging nh mt ngi. Khi mt vt c quan st t hai im nm trn mt phng vung gc vi hng nhn th
nh quan st c t hai vi tr s lch nhau mt khong cch theo phng nm ngang. Khong cch ny c gi l sai
lch v t l nghch vi khong cch t h thng quan st n vt.
Hu ht cc ng dng kiu ny u s dng hai camera ging ht nhau (hoc l mt camera c th di chuyn c theo
phng ngang) cung cp hai nh khc nhau ca vt cho h thng o. Hai camera thng thng c hng n cng mt
im, tuy nhin trc ca hai camera khng th ct nhau ti im quan st ging nh mt ngi. Hn ch ny lm cho vic t
cc camera gp i cht kh khn, nguyn nhn l do phng php o ny ch c th thc hin c ti nhng ni c vng
quan st trng nhau. Trong thc t, vic phn tch c thc hin trn mt di sai lch chn trc dc theo trc Z v hai pha
ca mt phng vung gc, mt phng ny c c sai lch bng khng v c gi l horopter (hnh 19.77). S kt hp ca
vng nh chn trc v di sai lch ny to thnh mt khi ba chiu gi l ca s quan st ba chiu (Burt et al., 1993).
Gn y c rt nhiu cc nghin cu nhm pht trin cc h thng c kh nng thay i hng ca camera mt cch linh
hot, cc h thng ny c gi l active vision. Vic s dng rng ri thut ng ny gy ra mt s nhm ln vi cc h
thng o s dng ngun sng ch ng. Mt thut ng khc hp l hn c dng ch cc h thng trn l verging
stereo. Mechanical verging l qu trnh xoay mt hoc c hai camera quanh trc thng ng nhm t c sai lch
khng ti im trn trc (Poggio, 1984):
Qu trnh cn chnh cc camera c bn bc nh sau:
Xc nh mt im trong nh ca mt camera (Fig. 19.79, left).
Xc nh im chn trc trong nh ca camera cn li (Fig. 19.79, right).
Xc nh v tr theo phng nm ngang ca 2 nh so vi mt im gc.
Di Z c xc nh da vo sai lch theo phng nm ngang.
45
S tay C in t
Hnh 19.77 Ca s quan st ba chiu l th tch ca vng quan tm mt pha ca mt phng c sai lch bng khng -
horopter (ngun: David Sarnoff Research Center)
Hnh 19.78 H thng camera stereoscopic ny s dng mt i trc vt-ai c thay i khong cch c s v gc nghing
theo yu cu (ngun: Robotic System Technology, Inc)
Nhn qua th phng php ny c v n gin, tuy nhin rt kh xc nh nh ca im trn trc trn camera th
hai (Hnh 19.79). nh ca mt vt hoc mt im trn vt thng c c trng bi cc im nh c cng sng khc
nhau, do k thut khp cc im nh c cng sng ln thng c s dng gii quyt vn trn (Conrad &
Sampson, 1990). Tuy nhin, rt kh p dng k thut trn ti cc vng nh m cc im nh c cng sng v mu tng
i ging nhau (Jarvis, 1983b). Cc yu t khc nh mt nh b m do che khut, hoc c tnh ca nh b thay i khi quan
st nh t cc gc nhn khc nhau cng gy ra kh khn khi p dng k thut khp im nh ni trn. Qu trnh khp hai nh
ca cng mt im c gi l tm im tng ng, c rt nhiu phng php nhm gim bt qu trnh tnh ton ca k
thut khp nh ni trn c a ra tho lun (Nitzan, 1981; Jarvis, 1983a; Poggio, 1984; Loewenstein, 1984; Vuylsteke
et al., 1990; Wildes, 1991).
Hnh 19.79 Di Z c xc nh t sai lch gia hai nh ca vt trn hai camera
46
Cm bin
Vn quan trng nht trong qu trnh khp nh l gii hn epipolar (gim min tm kim t 2 chiu xung 1 chiu).
Mt phng epipolar l mt phng c to bi im P trn vt v v tr ca 2 thu knh camera phi v tri, R v L (hnh
19.80). Giao tuyn ca mt phng ny v mt phng nh bn tri c gi l ng epipolar tri. Do im P nm trn mt
phng epipolar nn nh ca n, im
l
P
phi nm trn ng thng epipolar tri. Tng t, im
r
P
cng nm trn ng
thng epipolar phi trong mt phng nh phi. Nu cc camera c b tr sao cho ng epopilar trng vi ng qut
chnh trong nh th vic tm im tng ng trong nh th hai s c gii hn trn ng qut ngang cha im chn trc
trong nh th nht. Phng php cn chnh camera cng cho kt qu tng t nh cch lm trn.
gim bt thi gian x l nh th hu ht cc phng php tm im tng ng ch s dng nh c phn gii thp
v ch kim tra chi tit nhng vng nh chn trc. S dng biu din h ging nh s phn b tp trung ca mt
ngi (hnh 19.81) s cho php m rng vng quan st m khng lm phn gii hoc lm tng thi gian tnh ton (Burt et
al. 1993). H c phn gii cao phi c dch t khung nh ny sang khung nh khc kim tra cc vng nh quan tm
khc nhau mt cch c lp. tp trung l ln nht vi nhng sai lch nh xung quanh mt phng horopter v gim nhanh
khi sai lch tng (Burt et al., 1992).
Phng php o tam gic ch ng
o tam gic ch ng l dng khc ca phng php o khong cch stereo disparity. Tuy nhin, mt trong hai camera
c thay th bi mt ngun sng laze (hoc l n LED) chiu vo b mt ca i tng quan tm. Camera cn li c b
tr cch ngun sng mt khong cch A cho trc v phi m bo rng cc im c chiu sng nm trong vng quan st
ca n (hnh 19.82).
Hnh 19.82 H thng o khong cch bng phng php tam gic ch ng s dng CCD camera lm b d
47
Hnh 19.81 Biu din h lm tng
tp trung ti tm ca ca s
quan st v lm gim phn gii
ca khu vc xung quanh (ngun:
David Sarnoff Research Center)
Hnh 19.80 Mt phng epipolar l mt
phng c to bi tm ca hai thu knh
L , R v im P trn vt (ngun:
Vuylsteke et al., 1990)
S tay C in t
i vi cc b d kiu mng mt chiu hoc hai chiu th khong cch c xc nh t khong cch c bn A v v tr
tng i ca im sng trn mt phng nh. i vi cc b d n c th dch chuyn nh it quang hoc tranzito quang
th gc quay ca cm bin v ngun sng c xc nh ti thi im cm bin quan st cc im c chiu sng. Mi quan
h lng gic gia cc gc ny v khong cch c s A cho php xc nh khong cch n vt. c c thng tin v
nhng vng ba chiu th cc n chiu laze tam gic c qut theo c phng ngang v phng thng ng. Trong cc h
thng c b thu v b pht c lp vi nhau th ton b h thng c th dch chuyn c. i vi cc h thng c b phn
quang dch chuyn th gng v thu knh c qut ng thi trong khi n laze v b d vn ng yn.
Nhc im ca phng php o tam gic ch ng l hin tng khut vt (tc l camera khng quan st c cc im
chiu sng v ngc li) cng nh hin tng hp th nh sng ca b mt vt, hoc l nh sng khng phn x c t b
mt vt (xem chng 9). Tuy nhin phng php ny khng tn ti vn tm im tng ng nh phng php Stereo
dispairty. Phng php ny cng khng b ph thuc vo tng phn ca mi trng lm vic cng nh gim c nh
hng ca iu kin chiu sng xung quanh (nh sng ca mi trng c th tr thnh nhiu lm gii hn phn gii ca
khong cch o).
Hnh 19.83 HERMIES IIB s dng h thng o khong cch 3 chiu ch ng vi mt ngun laze ngoi xc nh r cc
vt ch trong nh ca camera
H thng 3 chiu ch ng
Do vic tnh ton rt phc tp v nhng kh khn trong vn tm im tng ng nn phng php 3 chiu b ng
ch c s dng trong nhng trng hp n gin. Mt ngun sng ch ng kt hp vi hai camera c s dng
khc phc nhng nhc im trn. nh sng ch ng trn gip h thng c th lm vic ti nhng ni c tng phn
thp. Vic xc nh cc im sng tr nn n gin hn bng cch ly khung nh k tip khi ngun sng khng hot ng
tr i khung nh hin ti. p dng phng php ngng cho nh thu c t php tr trn s xc nh c vng sng tch
cc. Qu trnh trn c thc hin lin tip trn hai camera, v dch chuyn theo phng ngang ca tm im sng s
c xc nh.
Ngun sng v cc camera khng nht thit phi thng hng vi nhau trong cc h thng 3 chiu ch ng. Trong thc t,
ngun sng thm ch khng cn phi gn trn rbt. Kilough v Hamel a ra hai cu hnh mi s dng ngun sng ngoi
cho rbt HERMIES IIB (rbt ny c ch to ti Oak Ridge Nation Laboratory). Hai CCD camera en trng c gc quay
rng c gn trn c cu a nghing ti nh u rbt (hnh 19.83). Tn hiu ra tng t ca hai camera c s ha bi
b gi khung di dng 512x384 im nh. phn gii c gim xung 256x256 nh b x l nh Hypercube. H thng
x l nh ny c s dng iu khin hai cnh tay ca rbt HERMIES.
thc hin nhim v ny th mt n LED hng ngoi c gn vo cui cnh tay HERO-1 gn tay gp v c nh
hng sao cho nm trong vng quan st ca hai camera. Hai camera s lin tip thu nh trong khi n LED c chuyn
trng thi t on sang off v ngc li. nh thu c trng thi off s c tr bi nh thu c trng thi on, v tr ca
im sng trn nh thu c sau php tr chnh l v tr ca n LED. Tm ca cc im sng c tnh ton xc nh
chnh xc ta ca cc im sng trong cc mng nh tr. Vc t khong cch ti n LED c th c xc nh d dng
nh dch theo phng ngang ca cc im sng. Phng php ny cho php thit lp v tr thc t ca tay gp trong khung
ta tham chiu ca rbt. Cc kt qu thc nghim ch ra rng chnh xc khong cch 2 ft l 2 in vi sai s 0.2 in
(Kilough and Hamel, 1989).
Mt n laze bn dn hng ngoi gn trn mt gi ba chn iu khin t xa c s dng to ra im ch trong
nh ca mt trong hai camera. Phng php c m t trn li c p dng v h thng chuyn trng thi ca n
laze t on sang off. Qu trnh tr nh lin tip s cho php xc nh vct khong cch ti vt trong khung ta tham chiu
ca rbt. Sai lch khong cch gia tay gp v vt c s dng iu khin cnh tay v chuyn ng ca rbt. Cc qu
48
Cm bin
trnh x l nh cho tay gp v i tng ch nn thc hin lun phin v st vi thi gian thc, iu ny s gip rbt c th
tip cn v gp mt vt bt k vi vng iu khin kn lin tc.
nh sng c cu trc
Cc h thng o khong cch s dng nh sng c cu trc l mt trng hp ring ca h thng o tam gic ch ng.
nh sng mu (c th l mt ng, mt chm im sng, hoc l mt li nh sng) c chiu ln b mt ca vt trong
khi camera quan st nh sng mu t mt v tr thun li. Thng tin v khong cch c th c xc nh thng qua s bin
dng do thay i su nh ca chm sng chiu. Vic s dng cc hiu ng nh sng c bit ny nhm mc ch lm
gim cc tnh ton phc tp v nng cao tin cy ca vic phn tch cc vt th ba chiu. K thut trn thng c p
dng xc nh nhanh khong cch ca cc vt chuyn ng c t thng tin, do hay c dng trong cc ng dng trnh
va chm. Besl (1988) gii thiu mt cch tng quan v k thut chiu nh sng c cu trc, trong khi Vuylskete et al.
(1990) phn loi cc ng dng c cng b theo cc c im sau:
S lng v kiu cm bin
Kiu quang hc (thu knh hnh cu hay lng tr, gng, nhiu ng knh)
Dng nh sng (im, ng)
S bc t do ca c cu qut (0, 1, hoc 2)
V tr qut xc nh hay cha xc nh
Hu ht cc phng php s dng nh sng c cu trc i hi phi chiu mt ng nh sng vo vng quan tm.
Phng php ny c gii thiu u tin bi tc gi P.Will v Pennington ca trung tm IBM Research Division
Headquarters, Yorktown Heights, NY. H thng ca h to mt mt phng nh sng bng cch chiu mt ngun sng mnh
trc chun qua mt khe h, do to ra mt ng sng ngang qua khu vc quan tm. (Cc h thng gn y to ra hiu ng
tng t bng cch qut mt chm lazer qua mt thu knh lng tr, hoc l bng cch qut nhanh mt chm sng theo mt
hng). Trong nh thu c ca camera, ti im ng nh sng ct vt, l vin sng m s dch chuyn ca n t l vi
su ca nh. Trong v d m t hnh 19.84, nu v tr nh cc im sng phn x thu c trong nh cng thp th khong
cch t im tng ng trn vt n ngun laze cng ngn. Mi quan h chnh xc gia dch chuyn ca vin sng v
khong cch cn o ph thuc vo di ca ng c s gia ngun sng v b d. Ging nh h thng o tam gic, khi
ln ca ng c s tng th chnh xc cng tng, tuy nhin kh nng xy xa hin tng khut vt cng tng ln.
Hnh 19.84 H thng s dng nh sng c cu trc (thng dng trn cc rbt di ng) chiu mt ng nh sng nm
ngang vo khu vc quan tm v nh sng phn x t vt s c d trn nh ca mt CCD camera c hng xung di
Thng tin v khong cch trong khng gian ba chiu cho ton b quang cnh c th thu c mt cch tng i nh cc
k thut vin nh sng. Vng khng gian ba chiu trong vng quan st ca camera c th c to ra bng cch ghp nhiu
ng vin hai chiu st nhau. Chiu th ba ca khng gian thng c to ra bng cch qut mt phng laze qua khng
gian nh. So vi phng php o tam gic mt im th phng php vin nh sng s ha mt phng trong thi gian ngn
hn, v c t phn chuyn ng hn do ch phi qut theo mt chiu. Nhc im ca phng php ny l vic xc nh
khong cch mt nhiu thi gian v kh v phi nh v x l nhiu khung nh.
Mt cch tip cn khc ca phng php nh sng c cu trc cho cc ng dng khng gian ba chiu l chiu mt li
hnh ch nht ca cc im hoc ng nh sng c tng phn cao ln mt mt phng. S thay i su ca nh lm
cho li nh sng b bin dng, nh c th xc nh khong cch. Phn m rng do bin dng c xc nh bng cch so
snh li nh sng dch chuyn vi mu li nh sng gc nh sau (LeMoique & Waxman, 1984):
Xc nh cc im giao ct ca nh li bin dng.
nh k hiu cho cc im theo h ta thit lp cho li nh sng mu chiu.
Tnh ton sai lch gia cc im giao ct v/hoc gia cc ng ca hai li.
Bin i sai lch v khong cch cn tm.
Qu trnh so snh yu cu s tng ng gia cc im trn nh v cc im trong li nh sng mu, iu ny c th gy
ra kh khn trong qu trnh thc hin. Thc hin php tng quan gia cc im trn li nh v cc im trn li nh sng
mu s lm gim bt kh khn ca vn trn. Thng s thit k ch yu l dy ca cc ng to thnh li nh sng v
khong cch gia cc ng . Cc ng qu mng s lm gin cc khng gian nh c nhiu vt, iu ny gy ra hin
tng khng lin tc v lm nh hng n qu trnh nh k hiu cho cc im giao ct. Ngc li, nu qu dy s gy kh
khn cho vic xc nh s bin dng ca li, iu ny s lm gim chnh xc ca php o (LeMoique & Waxman, 1984).
Min lm vic d kin ca cm bin s xc nh mt ca cc im cn thit cho vic biu din y cnh v phn
gii mong mun.
49
S tay C in t
Cc h thng xc nh v tr t tnh
Phng php d t s dng mt ngun pht t trng (3 trc) v mt cm bin nh thng bo v tr v hng ca n
so vi ngun pht t trng. Cc h thng ln thng dng rt nhiu ngun pht t trng v nhiu cm bin, cc cm bin
ny c th d rt nhiu im vi tn s ln ti 100 Hz trong di khong cch t 3 n 20 ft (Polhemus Incoperared, and
Ascension Technologies). Cc h thng ny thng chnh xc hn 0.1 in v khong cch v
0
0.1 v gc quay. Cc h thng
t tnh khng ph thuc vo ng i t ngun pht n vt nh cc h thng quang v cc h thng m thanh, tuy nhin cc
vt kim loi trong mi trng s gy nh hng ln t trng v lm sai kt qu o. Cc h thng ny cng cn phi ni dy
cp vo mt thit b trung tm (ging nh cc h thng LED v m thanh). Cng ngh ny hin nay tng i mnh v c
s dng rng ri cho cc thit b d cm tay n hoc i, cc thit b i u, phn tch c sinh hc, ha (s ha trong
3D), xc nh v tr vt rn.
Cc ngun t trng c th l AC hoc DC. Cc ngun DC thng pht ra cc xung hn l s pht x lin tc vi mc
ch lm gim ti a s giao thoa vi cc ngun t khc. Cc h thng s dng xung cn cho php o cc t trng tn ti
trong mi trng. Thng tin v cc t trng bn ngoi ny cho php nng cao chnh xc v lm gim nhy cm i
vi cc vt kim loi.
Hnh 19.85 Mch pht ca h thng xc nh v tr t tnh Hnh 19.86 Mch thu ca h thng xc nh v tr t tnh
Hnh 19.85 m t mt b pht iu khin in t in hnh. Thit b ny cung cp cc xung dng mt chiu ti cc ng
ten ca n, ti mt thi im ch gi ti mt ng ten. B pht ny gm mt li trn c qun cc ng ten X, Y, Z. Khi mt
ng ten no ca b pht c kch hot th cc thng s s c c trn 3 ng ten ca cm bin. Ti thi im ban u b
pht khng c kch hot, khi cm bin c th o c cc thnh phn x, y, z ca t trng tri t. Trong lc hot ng,
my tnh gi ti b bin i s-tng t (D/A) mt con s biu din bin ca xung dng in gi ti ng ten chn
trc. B D/A s chuyn i bin ny thnh mt in p iu khin tng t. in p iu khin ny c a ti b a
knh (MUX), b a knh ny s kt ni in p iu khin vi ngun dng ca b pht X, Y, Z.
Cm bin bao gm ba ng ten trc giao v rt nhy vi cc t trng mt chiu. Rt nhiu k thut khc nhau c th c
s dng thc hin cc cm bin mt chiu. Flock (Ascension Technologies) s dng mt t k nh hng ba trc. Tn
hiu u ra ca cm bin c chuyn ti b x l tn hiu. Nh m t trong hnh 19.96, b phn x l tn hiu ca cm bin
gm mt b a knh (MUX) dng nhn tn hiu iu khin t my tnh, chuyn cc tn hiu mong mun X, Y, Z ti b
khuch i vi sai (DIFF). B khuch i vi sai ny loi b cc thnh phn ca t trng tri t ( o trc ) khi tn hiu
thu c. u ra ca b khuch i vi sai lc ny ch cn tn hiu thu c tng ng vi t trng pht. Tn hiu
c lc nhiu v khuch i. B chuyn i tng t-s a tn hiu mt chiu v dng tn hiu s v truyn v my tnh.
Cc phng php o khong cch khc
Cc phng php sau y c s dng o s dch chuyn, v do c th c dng xc nh khong cch
dch chuyn.
Hnh 19.87 Encoder quang o gc loi Incremental
50
Cm bin
Hnh 19.88 Encoder quang o gc loi Absolute
Odometry
y l mt trong rt nhiu phng php xc nh v tr v l phng php o khong cch gin tip. Khong cch c
xc nh bng cch o s vng quay ca bnh xe khi n dch chuyn t v tr tham chiu n v tr ch. Vng quay bnh xe
c o bng cc encoder gc, encoder ny c th l s hoc tng t.
Encoder quang o gc
Cc thit b ny gm mt ngun nh sng, h thng quang hc nh dng v to ng i cho nh sng, mt bnh xe
m ha trn c nhng rnh trong sut, v mt b phn thu nhn nh sng. C hai loi encoder quang: incremental v
absolute.
Encoder quang o gc loi incremental. S nguyn l c miu t nh hnh 19.87, trn bnh xe c cc rnh trong
sut dc theo ng trn. Hai hng rnh c t lch pha
0
90 c dng xc nh s vng quay v hng. Hai dy xung
lch pha
0
90 vi nhau s c to ra khi bnh xe quay (knh A v knh B). Khong cch c xc nh bng cch m s
xung tnh t v tr khng bt k ban u. im tham chiu s mt khi h thng mt ngun. Chiu quay ca bnh xe c xc
nh nh vo vic kim tra dy xung no c to ra trc.
Ngoi hai knh ni trn i khi h thng cng knh th ba (knh Z), mt xung s c to ra sau mi vng quay. phn
di ph thuc vo s rnh trn vng trn. Nhng bnh xe ln c th t phn gii ln hn. Tng qung ng dch
chuyn ph thuc vo h thng c s dng m xung. Do vic m xung c thc hin bn ngoi cm bin nn c th
o c khong cch vi n v mt.
Vic gii m cc xung (knh A, B, Z) xc nh dch chuyn gc c thc hin nh cc chip in t c bit (Hewlett
Packard sn xut mt h cc chip in t), hoc l cc mch in t tch hp hon chnh. Cc mch thu thp d liu v cc
b m c lp trnh xc nh khong cch t cc cm bin ny.
Cc cm bin hin c trn th trng c tc vn hnh ti a l 6000 vng/pht, s m ti a trn mt vng quay l
360000, phn gii ti a l
0
0.001 , p ng tn s ln ti 150 kHz.
Encoder quang o gc loi absolute. Cc encoder loi ny c mt bnh xe c m ha sao cho mi rnh trn bnh xe
biu din cho mt s bit, cc rnh ny c th l on (trong sut) hoc off (c) (hnh 19.88). Do , v tr gc ca bnh xe c
gi tr tuyt i c xc nh bi gi tr m ha ca rnh ang thng hng vi b phn pht quang. V tr ca bnh xe vn
c nh ngay c khi cm bin b mt ngun nui. Khi nh sng pht ra t thit b pht quang i ngang qua ng thng gia
hai rnh th v tr ca bnh xe c tng ln mt n v. Tuy nhin, v tr ca bnh xe l khng xc nh khi bnh xe dng li
ti v tr m nh sng nm bn phi ca ng thng gia hai rnh. gim bt sai s th h thng hin th c xc nh
theo m Grey. Theo phng php m ha ny th ch mt bit c thay i gia hai rnh k tip. V vy sai s gim xung
ch cn 1 n v.
Cc cm bin loi ny thch hp i vi cc ng dng o khong cch nh c my trm milimt. Cc bnh xe ln c th
cha nhiu rnh hn, v mt rnh biu din nhiu bit hn. Cm bin hin c trn th trng c th t ti 11 bit, vi phn
gii 1/ 2 t bit hin th cui cng.
Encoder quang o chuyn ng thng. Cc encoder loi ny cng ging nh cc encoder o gc, nhng thay v s dng
bnh xe m ha th chng s dng mt thanh m ha v mt thanh trt, trn thanh trt c cc thnh phn in t v
quang. Khong cch c o dc theo thanh. Cc encoder loi ny trn th trng c th o c khong cch ti a l 2150
mm, phn gii ti a l 0.08
m
, tc hot ng ti a l 508 mm/s.
in k
in k l b chuyn i in p-in tr. Chng c mt cun dy v mt cng tc trt. Khi cng tc trt chuyn ng
dc theo cun dy th in tr s thay i theo mi quan h tuyn tnh vi khong cch tnh t mt u ca in k ti v tr
hin ti ca cng tc trt (Hnh 19.89). Bin tr c qun ging nh b chia in p sao cho in p u ra t l vi
khong cch dch chuyn ca thanh trt (Hnh 19.90). phn gii c tnh bng s vng dy trn mt n v khong
cch, v cc nh hng do ti ca mch chia in p cng cn c xem xt.
51
S tay C in t
Hnh 19.89 Nguyn tc hot ng ca in k
Hnh 19.90 Mch tng ng ca in k
Hnh 19.91 B bin i vi sai bin thin tuyn tnh
B bin i vi sai bin thin tuyn tnh
B bin i vi sai bin thin tuyn tnh (LVDT) pht ra mt tn hiu xoay chiu, c bin t l vi s dch chuyn ca
mt li di ng (hnh 19.91). Khi li ny thay i v tr so vi cc cun dy n s lm thay i t trng, do lm thay i
bin in p trong cun dy th cp.
phn gii ca LVDT ph thuc vo thit b dng o in p. phn gii ln nht c th t c l 25
m
. Cc
tn hiu tnh (tn s thp) c th o bng ng h xoay chiu. i vi cc tn hiu tn s cao th phi dng cc thit b o c
bit thc hin vic gii iu bin, hoc l phi s dng mt h thng thu thp d liu x l tn hiu bng my tnh.
Mt b bin i vi sai bin thin quay hot ng vi nguyn tc cng ging nh LVDT v c th o c gc ti
0
40 t .
Cm bin tim cn
Cc cm bin tim cn c dng pht hin s hin din ca cc vt khong cch gn. Cc cm bin loi ny c
pht trin nhm ci tin cc cm bin c chc nng tng t nhng hot ng da vo phng php tip xc trc tip. Nhng
u im hin nay ca cng ngh in t nng cao kh nng hot ng v tin cy ca cc cm bin tim cn, s lng
cc ng dng cng v th m tng ln. Nh mt h qu tt yu, cc h thng s dng cng tc hnh trnh c kh gi y
chuyn sang s dng cc cng tc khng tip xc thc hin chc nng tng t. Cc cm bin tim cn ng phn chia
thnh nhiu loi ty theo c tnh c th dng to ra s chuyn mch:
T tnh
Cm ng
Siu m
Vi sng
Quang
in dung
Vi cc c tnh tin cy, cm bin tim cn rt ph hp vi cc ng dng trong mi trng khc nghit trong khi vn m
bo tc p ng cao v tui th ln. Cc cm bin loi ny c th c thit k chng li nhng dao ng v va p
mnh, lc tc ng c th ln ti 30000 Gs vi p sut gn 20000 psi (Hall, 1984). Burreson (1989) v Peale (1992) phn
tch cc u im cng nh cc yu t cn xem xt khc trong vic la chn cm bin tim cn cho cc ng dng trong cc
52
Cm bin
mi trng khc nghit. Hn na, cc cm bin tim cn hot ng rt hiu qu khi cn pht hin cc vt chuyn ng vi
tc cao (c th lm hng thit b nu dng cm bin tip xc vt l), hoc l khi cn c s cch bit gia cc b phn kim
loi v cc b phn phi kim loi. Ball (1986), Johnson (1987), v Wojcik (1994) a ra cc tm tt tng quan v cc loi
cm bin tim cn khc nhau vi hng dn la chn c th cho tng loi cm bin.
Cm bin tim cn t
Dng n gin nht ca cm bin tim cn t l cng tc t hnh ng. Hai l st t c t tr nh c t so le st nhau t
hai u ca mt ng hn kn, chng c b tr sao cho u ca chng chng nh ln nhau nhng khng tip xc. Hai u
pha ngoi ca hai l tr thnh hai in cc tri du khi c t vo mt t thng bn ngoi. Lc ht lin tip qua khe h s
ko hai l mng li vi nhau to thnh s tip xc in (Hamlin, 1988).
Hnh 19.92 Cng tc t hnh ng c hn kn, loi thng m, c bm kh tr, chng bi v n mn
Cc cm bin ny c gi thnh thp v rt bn, do c s dng lm cm bin ng m ca ng dng trong an ninh.
C hai loi cm bin t: thng ng v thng m. Cm bin loi ny c mt s vn nh lng tip xc, dao ng khung,
v r b mt ng trong trng hp ti in cm hoc in dung (Burreson, 1989). iu ny khin cho cc nh thit k la
chn cm bin t c hiu ng bn dn Hall thay cho cm bin tim cn t.
Hiu ng Hall c a ra bi E.H. Hall vo nm 1897. Hall cho rng khi t mt vt dn mang c dng in chy qua
trong mt t trng th s sinh ra mt in p nh i qua vt dn theo hng nm ngang (hnh 19.93):
h
h
R IB
V
t

trong :
h
V
l in p Hall
h
R
l h s Hall ph thuc vo vt liu
I l dng in vi n v ampe
B l mt t thng (vung gc vi I ) c n v l Gauss
t
l dy ca vt dn c n v l cm
Hnh 19.93 Hiu ng Hall (ngun: Lenz, 1990)
S ra i ca cng ngh bn dn thc y s pht trin ca rt nhiu lnh vc khc nhau. Tuy nhin, vic ch to
silicon trong thi gian u vn c nhng kh khn v cha c ng dng rng ri, nguyn nhn l do gi thnh cao, nhit
khng n nh, tin cy thp (McDermott, 1969). Nhng u im ca cng ngh mch tch hp sau (thit k nguyn
khi, vt liu mi, b nhit bn trong) ci thin ng k n nh v nhy. V d, nu mt dng in 100 mA chy
qua vt dn InAs t trong t trng c mt t thng 10 kG (Hines, 1992)s sinh ra mt in p 60 mV. Rt nhiu ng
dng trong cng nghip t (v d nh b to thi gian ca h thng nh la in t) a cng ngh trn ln tm cao
mi vo cui nhng nm 70 (White, 1988). C rt nhiu ng dng trong vic ch to r bt nh cm bin tc v v tr, o
chiu ng c, dn ng, la bn.
Quan h tuyn tnh gia in p ra v mt t trng ngang l mt yu t quan trng quyt nh kh nng ng dng
rng ri ca cc cm bin hiu ng Hall hin i. Cc cm bin hiu ng Hall c tch hp b iu chnh in p v khuch
i tn hiu u ra nng cao n nh. in p ra
0
V
dao ng xung quanh v tr cn bng trng khng (thng thng
l mt na in p cung cp
cc
V
), vi bin v hng dao ng ph thuc vo s phn cc v ln ca t trng (White,
1998). (Lu rng bt c s thay i no ca hng t trng khi phng vung gc cng lm thay i bin in p ra).
Tn s p ng c th ln hn 100 kHz.
53
S tay C in t
Vi s tr gip ca b d ngng Schmitt-trigger v mt mch iu khin u ra ph hp th cm bin hiu ng Hall
tuyn tnh s lm vic nh mt b chuyn mch hiu ng Hall s. Hu ht cc thit b hin c trn th trng u s dng cc
b iu khin tranzito cung cp u ra mch h khi khng c t trng (Wood, 1986). im d ngng thng c t
mt gi tr ln hn in p cn bng trng khng. Khi vt qua gi tr ny b iu khin u ra s chuyn v trng thi
on (cc ngun hoc cc ca, ty thuc vo loi tranzito PNP hay NPN c s dng). u im ni bt ca phng php
thit k trn l lm gim s nh hng ca phn cc t trng ngc i vi b chuyn mch hiu ng Hall. iu ny cng
ging nh vic ch c cc nam ca nam chm vnh cu mi kch hot c b chuyn mch, thm ch ngay c khi c s tip
xc trc tip ca cc bc cng khng gy ra tc ng chuyn mch bi v in p u ra khuch i nh hn im d
ngng Schmitt-trigger. Thi gian p ng chuyn mch rt nhanh, thng thng khong 400 ns (Wood, 1986).
Cm bin tim cn cm ng
Cc b chuyn mch tim cn cm ng ngy nay l loi cm bin cng nghip c s dng nhiu nht d cc vt kim
loi v phi kim loi trong khong cch gn. Cc thit k hnh lng tr vi ng knh 4mm c s dng trong hn mt
thp k (Smith, 1985). Do c kh nng cm ng qua nhng vt phi kim loi nn cc cm bin ny c th c ph, bc, thm
ch l hn, cho php chng lm vic trong nhng khu vc nhim hoc ngp trong cht lng. p ng tn s c th ln ti 10
kHz (Carr, 1987).
Hnh 19.94 (A) S khi ca mt cm bin tim cn kiu ECKO (ngun: Smith,1985), v (B) mch dao ng tng ng
(ngun: Carr, 1987)
Cm bin tim cn cm ng sinh ra mt t trng tn s rai dao dng (100kHz n 1MHz) xung quanh mt cun dy
qun quanh mt li st t. Khi mt vt kim loi i vo t trng c pht ra t b mt cm bin s mt dng in xoy
c sinh ra trn b mt ca vt kim loi . Dng in xoy ny li sinh ra mt t trng th cp tc ng ngc tr li t
trng ca u d, do lm u d dao ng. Tr khng hiu dng ca cun dy u d thay i ko theo s thay i ca
tn s dao ng (hoc thay i bin ), thay i ny s c bin i thnh tn hiu ra t l vi khe h cm ng gia u d
v vt.
S ca mt cm bin tim cn cm ng in hnh c m t nh hnh 19.94. B dao ng gm mt thit b ch ng
(tranzito hoc IC) v cun dy ca cm bin. Carr(1987) a ra mch tng ng (hnh 19.94B) ca cu hnh trn, trong
cun dy ca cm bin c m hnh ha bi cun cm
p
L
mc ni tip vi in tr
p
R
, cp ni gia cun dy v thit b
ch ng c biu din bi in dung C . Trong trng hp ca b dao ng Collpitts th kt ni u d-cp l mt phn
ca mch to tn s cng hng.
Khi mt vt dn i vo t trng th cc tc ng ca thnh phn tr khng
p
R
tng ln, tr khng ca mch to tn s
cng hng gim i, do lm tng dao ng. Khi khe h gia cm bin v vt gim dn th bin tn hiu u ra ca b
dao ng cng gim theo cho n khi khng cn dao ng na. Cm bin tim cn cm ng kiu ny thng c gi l
ECKO (eddy current-killed oscillator). Nhng khe h nh hn ngng nh nht ny s khng c dng tnh ton khong
cch cn o, v do to thnh mt vng khng xc nh, khi s khng c tn hiu u ra.
Gim st bin u ra ca b dao ng bng mt b d ngng cho php to ra mt b cm bin tim cn cm ng vi
u ra s on/off (hnh 19.95). Khi mt vt kim loi tin gn n b mt ca cm bin th in p u ra ca b dao ng s
gim xung, thm ch thp hn mc ngng kch hot, sau b so snh ngng s chuyn t trng thi off sang trng
thi on. Nu tng khong cch ca khe h th in p s tng tr li, v u ra chuyn v trng thi off khi vt qua ngng
nh. Sai lch nh gia ngng kch hot v ngng nh c gi l khong tr, c tc dng gim s mt n nh ti
nhng im gn ngng d. Thng thng khong tr c gi tr t 3% n 20% ca khong cch hiu qu ln nht
(Damuck & Perrotti, 1993).
Bng 19.94 Khong cch o danh ngha i vi cc vt liu khng phi l thp mm phi c thay i vi cc h s suy
gim lit k trong bng sau
54
Cm bin
Hnh 19.95 Sai lch nh (khong tr) gia mc kch hot v mc nh s loi b s mt n nh ca u ra khi vt di
chuyn xung quanh ngng o
Khong o hiu qu c gi tr xp x ng knh ca cun dy o (Koenigsburg, 1982) v chu nh hng ca vt liu,
kch thc v hnh dng ca vt. i tng chun trong cng nghip (dng xc nh khong cch o danh ngha) l mt
ming st nh dy 1
2
mm cng ln vi ng knh ca cm bin, hoc bng ba ln khong cch o danh ngha
(Flueckiger, 1992). i vi cc kim loi st th vic tng dy ca vt khng c tc dng ng k no (Damuck & Perrotti,
1993). Nu vt c cng nhiu thnh phn kim loi khng cha st th khong cch d cng gim (xem bng 19.4). i vi
nhng kim loi khng phi l st th c th o c khong cch xa hn vi nhng vt hnh l mng c dy nh hn
khong suy gim t trng bn trong ca chng (Smith, 1985). Hin tng ny c gi l hiu ng l mng gy ra bi s
xuyn qua ca t trng sng rai sinh ra dng in xoy b mt trn pha bn kia ca vt.
C hai loi cm bin tim cn cm ng c bn l: (1) c v bo v (hnh 19.96A) v (2) khng c v bo v (hnh
19.96B). Khi mt cm bin loi khng c v bo v c t trn mt b mt kim loi, nu tm kim loi cng gn cm
bin th cng ngn cn hot ng ca cm bin (Swanson, 1985). Cm bin loi c v bo v vi mt vng kim loi ng
trc qun quanh c s dng gii quyt vn trn, khi t trng s c tp trung pha trc cm bin v hn
ch c vic d theo phng ngang (Flueckiger, 1992). Tuy nhin, khong cch ti a m cc cm bin loi c v bo v c
th d c ch bng mt na so vi cc cm bin loi khng c v bo v (Swanson, 1985).
Hin tng giao thoa ln nhau gia cc cm bin tim cn cm ng c th xy ra nu khong cch theo phng ngang
gia chng nh hn hai ln ng knh ca cm bin. Biu hin ca hin tng trn l s mt n nh ca tn hiu ra, hoc l
khong cch o hiu qu b gim. Hin tng trn thng xy ra khi mt cm bin hot ng bnh thng v cc cm bin
khc ang ri tr (Smith, 1985). i vi cc cm bin loi c v bo v th mt na khong cch khuyn co trn cng
loi b hin tng giao thoa (Gatzios & Ben-Ari, 1986). Khi cc cm bin c b tr i din vi nhau th khong cch
ti thiu gia cc cm bin phi tng ln hai ln.
Hnh 19.96 Cm bin tim cn in cm loi c v bo v (A) c th c nhng trong kim loi m khng b nh hng n
s hot ng, trong khi loi khng c v bo v (B) phi c t trn nhng b mt phi kim loi (Flueckiger, 1992)
Cm bin tim cn in dung
Cm bin tim cn in dung rt ging vi cm bin tim cn in cm. Cm bin in dung khng nhng pht hin cc
vt liu kim loi m cn c th pht hin cc vt liu in mi. Khong cch o hiu qu ln ti vi inch. Cc cm bin ny
hot ng da vo s thay i in dung gia u d (hoc a d) v mi trng xung quanh. Khi mt vt tin gn n cm
bin, s thay i ca khng gian xung quanh v cc c tnh in mi trong vng lm vic khin in dung tng ln. S thay
i ca in dung c th c pht hin bng cc cch sau y: (1) dng in chy qua u d tng ln (Hall, 1984), (2)
55
S tay C in t
mch RC bt u dao ng (McMahon, 1987), (3) tn s ca mt dao ng ang xy ra b gim (Vranish et al., 1991). Cc
ng dng in hnh trong cng nghip ca cm bin in dung bao gm: o mc cho cc loi vt liu khc nhau (dng cht
lng, vin, bt), pht hin sn phm (c bit l qua cc bao b khng phi l kim loi).
Cm bin tim cn siu m
Cc cm bin trnh by trn u hot ng da vo s hin din ca vt trong vng lm vic lm thay i c tnh
in mi hoc mt tnh cht no (in cm, in dung), kt hp vi cc mch cm ng tch hp. Cm bin tim cn
siu m l mt dng cm bin phn x hot ng da trn s thay i nng lng ca tn hiu c pht i v quay tr li
b d sau khi phn x ti i tng ch. Mt cm bin tim cn siu m in hnh bao gm 2 b bin i (mt pht tn
hiu, mt thu tn hiu), cho d tc ca m thanh chm cm bin c th hot ng vi mt b bin i duy nht.
B pht tn hiu truyn i mt sng dc trong di siu m ca ph m thanh (thng t 20 n 200 kHz), v ln hn ngng
nghe ca ngi.
Cc cm bin tim cn siu m hot ng hiu qu khong cch ln, chng c dng pht hin cc hu ht cc vt
th, cht lng, v cht rn. Tn hiu pht ra s c phn hi v b thu khi c mt vt i vo trng m thanh. Cng ging
nh cc cm bin phn x khc, khong cch ln nht c th pht hin vt khng ch ph thuc vo mc nng lng c
pht ra m cn ph thuc vo din tch tit din ngang ca vt, phn x ca vt, v hng nhy ca cm bin. Khi bin
ca tn hiu nhn c ln hn mt ngng chn trc th u ra ca cm bin s thay i trng thi v bo rng pht hin
c vt. Vi s pht trin ca cc b vi iu khin gi thnh thp th cc cm bin tim cn siu m c thay th bi cc
h thng o khong cch siu m a nng vi di khong cch pht hin vt ln (xem phn cc h thng TOF siu m).
Cm bin tim cn vi sng
Cm bin tim cn vi sng hot ng di khong cch 5-150 ft, hoc xa hn (Williams, 1989). Loi cm bin ny rt
ging vi cc cm bin tim cn siu m trnh by phn trn, im khc bit gia chng l cm bin tim cn vi sng
pht i nng lng in t trong di vi sng ca ph nng lng tn s rai. FCC dnh gii tn s 10.50-10.55 GHz v
24.075-24.175 GHz cho cc cm bin nhiu trng vi sng, l mt dng ca cm bin tim cn vi sng. Nng lng pht ra
t ng ten ca b pht c phn x ti vt v quay tr li ng ten ca mt b thu ring bit (xem hnh 19.68 ca phn Cm
bin khong cch vi sng), nu nng lng ny l ln (ln hn mt ngng chn trc) th u ra ca cm bin s thay
i trng thi bo rng pht hin c vt trong vng quan st. Mt dng khc ca cm bin tim cn vi sng ch s
dng mt ng ten thu/pht duy nht. Loi cm bin ny gim st dch Doppler gy ra bi mt vt chuyn ng xc nh
s dch chuyn tng i ca vt so vi cm bin. Kch thc ca cm bin tim cn vi sng thng ln hn kch thc ca
cm bin tim cn in cm, cm bin tim cn in dung, v chng thng c s dng pht hin cc vt c kch thc
ln.
Cm bin tim cn quang
Cc cm bin tim cn quang (quang in) thng dng trong cng nghip c chia thnh 3 nhm c bn: (1) tng
phn, (2) phn x ngc, (3) khuch tn. (Nu xt k v ng ngha th tn ca hai nhm u khng phn nh chnh xc bn
cht ca cm bin tim cn). Khong cch o hiu qu l t vi inch cho n vi trm ft. Cm bin tim cn quang c dng
trong mt s ng dng ca trong lnh vc rbt nh: D sn nh, nh v chuyn ng, v trnh va chm. Trong cng nghip
c cc ng dng sau: pht hin vt ti khong cch ln nht cho trc (dng m, hoc l lm vic trn mt phn ca
vt), pht hin s xm phm cho cc h thng an ninh, cn chnh thng hng. Nng lng gn hng ngoi iu bin
thng c s dng gim s nh hng ca nh sng xung quanh, do nng cao cht lng tn hiu, m bo s hot
ng tin cy ca cm bin. Cc sng di mu thng c s dng tr gip vic cn chnh cc thit b trong khi ci t
v chun on h thng.
Hot ng thc t ca cm bin tim cn quang ph thuc vo nhiu yu t. Khong cch o hiu qu l ph thuc vo
tnh cht vt l (kch thc, hnh dng, phn x, cht liu), tc v hng dch chuyn ca vt cn pht hin, cch thit
k cm bin, cht lng cng nh s lng ca nng lng m cm bin pht ra v thu v. Kh nng tun hon ph thuc
vo kch thc ca vt, s thay i ca iu kin xung quanh, s thay i ca phn x hoc cc thuc tnh cht liu khc
ca vt, v n nh ca cc mch in t trong cm bin. c tnh hot ng c bit ca tng loi cm bin s c s
dng ty theo yu cu c th ca tng ng dng nhm mc ch ti u kh nng lm vic ca cm bin.
Kiu tng phn
Loi cm bin trn cn c gi l mt in, c dng trong rt nhiu ng dng t sau nm 1950. Mt s ng dng
tiu biu nh: m vt, m ca t ng, bng tn hiu in bo, v cc h thng an ninh. B thu v pht tn hiu c b tr
cch bit hai pha ca khu vc quan tm. B pht truyn i mt chm nh sng (thng dng n LED) v pha mt b thu
quang in. Bt c vt no chuyn ng ngang qua gia b pht v b thu s lm gin on chm sng, do lm ngt mch
in. Di khong cch hiu qu ca loi cm bin ny c th ln ti hng trm ft hoc xa hn. Cm bin kiu tng phn
thng c s dng trong lnh vc an ninh.
Kiu phn x ngc
56
Cm bin
Cm bin tim cn quang kiu phn x ngc c pht trin t loi cm bin tng phn bng cch s dng gng
phn x nng lng pht ra t b pht v b thu (b thu c b tr song song vi b pht). B phn x ngc loi ba gc
(hnh 19.97) thm ch thay th cc tm gng gim bt nhng kh khn trong khi cn chnh thit b. Loi ba gc lng
knh c ba mt phng phn x vung gc vi nhau v mt mt y. nh sng i vo qua mt y c phn x bi cc mt
phng khc v quay tr li qua mt y v ngun pht. Mt vt phn x ngc tt s tr v cm bin mt nng lng gp 300
ln nng lng phn x t mt t giy (Banner, 1993). Trong cc nh my t ng ha, vt c pht hin khi n lm gin
on chm nh sng (mc d mt s trng hp i hi phi t b phn x ngc trn vt).
Hnh 19.97 B phn x ngc loi ba gc c s dng lm tng khong cch o hiu qu v n gin ha vic cn chnh
thit b
Hnh 19.98 Cm bin tim cn kiu khuch tn hot ng da trn nng lng
phn x t b mt vt
Hnh 19.99 Cm bin tim cn khuch tn hot ng ch hi t c dng xc nh gn ng khong cch n vt
Kiu khuch tn
Cm bin tim cn quang kiu khuch tn hot ng gn ging vi cm bin tim cn quang kiu phn x ngc, tuy
nhin nng lng c phn x t b mt ca vt cn pht hin thay v t b phn x ngc (hnh 19.98). c im ny cho
php cm bin pht hin c mt vt bt k trong cc mi trng v nh hnh.
Loi cm bin ny c rt nhiu u im so vi phng php o khong cch siu m. trong vic pht hin cc vt
khong cch gn. Do nng lng c truyn i vi tc ca nh sng nn hu nh khng c thi gian tr, trong khi phi
mt gn 1 giy cp nht lin tc mt mng 12 cm bin siu m. Thm vo , nng lng nh sng c th d dng hi t
do trnh c s nh hng ln nhau gia cc cm bin gn lin k, cho php t chy ng thi nhiu cm bin. Vic s
dng tn hiu c bc sng ngn lm gim nh hng ca hin tng phn x b mt ca vt, cho php pht hin hiu
qu hn cc vt c b mt khng bnh thng. Nhc im ca loi cm bin ny l khng cho php o trc tip khong
cch, v khi phn x ca b mt vt thay i th kt qu s khng n nh.
Kiu hi t
B thu v b pht trong cc cm bin tim cn khuch tn c th c sp xp, b tr m bo chnh xc ca thng
tin v v tr. Trc quang ca n LED trong b pht c t lch mt gc so vi trc quang ca n LED trong b thu sao
cho giao im ca hai trc to thnh mt vng hp nh hnh m t trn hnh 19.99, do ch nhng vt nm cch cm
bin mt khong cch xc nh nh trn mi c kh nng phn hi nng lng v b thu. Nhng vt nm ngoi vng trn s
khng c pht hin. c im trn gip cm bin tim cn khng b ph thuc vo phn x ca b mt vt v hot ng
rt hiu qu trong trng hp vt cn pht hin khng c phn bit r so vi cc vt nn.
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58
Cm bin
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S tay C in t
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19.8 Cc h thng nhn bit nh sng, hnh nh v nhn dng
Stanley S. Ipson
Gii thiu
Cc b (nhn bit) cm bin nh sng c (di ph rng) rt nhiu loi. n gin nht l cc cm bin c u ra d bin
dch v giao tip vi cc thnh phn khc nh cc b vi x l. Ngc li, nhng cm bin hnh nh trong my video hay my
camera s c ti hng triu cm bin a ra cc cc tn hiu u ra m phc tp trong vic kt ni, v i hi phi c cc b
x l mnh chuyn i. Khng xt n phc tp, mc ch ca cc b nhn bit nh sng l o nh sng. Phn C
bn v o lng bc x s gii thiu mt s cc thut ng v o lng bc x th hin c tnh ca nh sng, ngun sng v
cc b chuyn i. Tuy cc nh sn xut thng ghi r cc c tnh ca thit b theo h n v photometric ca php o nh
sng tng ng vi di nh sng nhn thy c ca th gic ngi v vy cn thit nm c ng thi hai php o nh sng
radiometric v photometric. Ngun sng s c trnh by trong phn Cc ngun sng. Nguyn l hot ng v c tnh
ca mt vi loi b chuyn i nh sng thng dng nht bao gm: ha in, quang tr, it quang, v tranzito quang s c
trnh by trong phn Cc b chuyn i nh sng. Cc h thng quan st c cc thnh phn quang hc to nn hnh nh v
cm bin hnh nh chuyn hnh nh nh sng thu c sang tn hiu in. S hnh thnh nh c gii thiu trong phn
S hnh thnh nh, trc khi gii thiu cc b chuyn i nh sng c s dng rng ri nht da trn cc cng ngh
CCD (thit b ghp ni in tch) v CMOS (cht bn dn xit kim loi), trong phn Cc cm bin hnh nh. Phn cui
cng s cp n mt s phn t cn thit khc to thnh mt h thng quan st hon chnh.
C bn v o lng bc x
nh sng quan st c l nng lng in t bc x vi bc sng rt ngn trong di t 400 n 700 nm. nhng bc
sng nh hn, vo khong 30 nm, l nhng tia cc tm khng quan st c, nhng bc sng ln hn, cho ti 0.3 mm, l
cc tia hng ngoi v cng khng quan st c. Mc d bc x in t th hin bn cht sng bao gm cc hin tng giao
thoa v nhiu x, tuy nhin n cng c nhng thuc tnh ca ht vi vic pht ra v hp th mt lng nng lng gi l
Photon - lng t nh sng. Nng lng

ca mt photon lng t nh sng c bc sng c tnh bi:

hc

(19.74)
trong h l hng s Planck (6.6 10
-34
Js), c l vn tc nh sng (3 10
8
m s
\
) [1]. nh ngha c bn nht trong php o
nh sng chnh l nng lng bc x, i khi cn gi l quang thng (F), n chnh lnng lng (s photon) trn mt n v
thi gian i qua mt vng xc nh trong khng gian, n v o l ot (W) v c th p dng cho c bc x nhn thy v
khng nhn thy. n v o nh sng tng ng l lumen (lm), c tnh n s thay i nhy ca mt vi cc bc sng
khc nhau. Mt ot ca bc x bc sng 555 nm quy c tng ng vi 683 lm. bc sng khc s lumen s gim i
(ti mt na cc bc sng 510 v 610 nm) theo ng cong p ng ca mt c dng hnh chung theo tiu chun CIE.
Cc i lng khc nh ri, cng sng, chi c o theo tp trung ca lung nh sng. ri (E) l tng nng
lng bc x ri trn mt n v din tch b mt, c n v l Wm
2
. Tng nh sng o c tng ng l ri, n v l lm
m
2
(lux). Cng nh sng (I) ca mt ngun sng im chiu sng mt b mt t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch d
t im ti b mt. n v l
-1
Wsr
tng ng vi cng sng o bng Canla (lm sr
-1
hay cd). chiu sng ca
mt ngun im c cng sng I ti mt din tch b mt nh A cch ngun sng mt khong cch d, v c php tuyn
nghing mt gc vi ngun sng (hnh 19.100) c tnh theo:
2
cos( ) F I
E
A d

(19.75)
60
Cm bin
HNH 19.100 Mt ngun im c cng sng I pht ra nng lng bc x F trong mt gc khi i din vi din tch A.
sng khong cch d so vi ngun l I/d
2
. Khi kch thc ca A nh hn d, gc khi c th xp x bng Acos()/d
2

Mc d thc t rt t ngun sng c th coi xp x l ngun im (khng k n cc ngi sao trong bu tri m), nhng
ngi ta thng dng phng php xp x tnh sng trn mt b mt bng cch gi s ngun sng c cng l
tng. Sai s do b qua phm vi khng gian ca ngun sng nh hn 1% nu khong cch ti ngun sng ln hn 10 ln so
vi kch thc ln nht ca ngun [2]. Khi khong cch ny gp nm (ba) ln kch thc ngun sng, sai s vo khong 4%
(9%). Cng bc x l i lng d o nht ca ngun sng v thng c trch dn nh mt tham s thuc tnh ca
ngun. Mt s ngun sng pht x u theo mi hng v c cng c lp vi phng. Mt s ngun khc li pht x
khng u. Mt ngun sng im Lambertian l ngun sng trong cng bin thin theo phng
cos ( )
o
I
, trong
l gc gia phng o vi phng c cng mnh nht Io. Rt nhiu ngun sng c cng theo gc gim nhanh hn
so vi trng hp ngun sng Lambertian, gim mt na khi khi gc lch l 60
0
.
Khi mt ngun sng c phm vi khng gian ng k, chi (R) theo mt phng cho c nh ngha l cng
nh sng chia cho din tch ca ngun pht ra theo cng phng v c o bng (Wsr
-1
m
-2
). Ngc li, cng ca
mt ngun sng c tnh bng tch ca din tch pht sng v chi. chi rt quan trng khi cp n cc h thng
quang. C th, chi ca hnh nh to bi thu knh bng vi chi ca vt th, tr trng hp b mt mt trong qu trnh
thu v phn chiu. Thc t ny c dng tnh ri ca nh t chi l thuyt bng mt thu knh l thuyt. chi,
i khi cn c gi theo mt cch khng cht ch l sng v c o bng cd/m
2
. Ngoi tr mu sc, sng ch cp
n thuc tnh nh sng m ta c th nhn bit hoc quan st c. Do c tiu chun ha theo kch thc, chi ca
cc ngun sng vi kch thc khc nhau c th c so snh. V d, chi ca mt tri vo khong 1.3 10
6
W sr
1
m
2
,
chi ca mt bng n thy ngn 1000W vo khong 10
7
W sr
1
m
2
v chi ca tia lade HeNe 1-mW vi ng knh
chm 1mm v phn k 1mrad l vo khong 1.6 10
9
W sr
1
m
2
. chi ca hu ht cc ngun sng tng dn theo
phng quan st ti phng php tuyn ca ngun sng. Ngun sng Lambertian m rng l mt ngoi l, cng v din
tch c chiu bin thin nh nhau so vi phng quan st, do chi c lp vi phngquan st.
Vic cn thit l c lng p ng ca mt b nhn bit nh sng vi cc ngun sng khc nhau. Rt kh tnh ton
chnh xc v y nh yu cu cc thng tin khng sn c, bi vy thng th ngi ta c lng mt cch n gin sau
iu chnh thit b to ra c p ng mong mun. Nu b rng ca ngun sng nh so vi khong cch d ti b o
th bc x c nhn bit bi b o c th c c lng bng cch gi s ngun sng l mt ngun im Lambertian c
cng sng I bng tch ca sng B v din tch min S. sng c nhn bit bi b o tnh theo [2]:
2 2
cos( ) cos cos I BS
E
d d

(19.76)
trong

v ln lt l cc gc gia php tuyn ca ngun vi b o tng ng vi ng thng ni ngun v b o.

Nu ngun sng l hnh trn, gc khi l S/d
2
c th xp x bng
2
, vi iu kin

- o bng radian, c tnh bng t

s gia bn knh ca ngun vi khong cch t ngun ti u o l nh. Cc b nhn bit nh sng c mt phng p ng
vi bc x, n c th l qu rng hay qu hp cho mt ng dng. Vic m rng gc p ng ca b o vi nh sng c th
gim bng cch s dng ng chun trc. Nu u o nm trn tiu c ca thu knh, gc m c th gim hay tng ty vic s
dng thu knh hi t hay phn k. Nu ngun l ngun im, tt c nh sng hi t bi thu knhtrn b o, do lm tng
thm nhy bng chnh t l gia din tch thu knh v b o.
Cc ngun sng
Vic la chn u o phi xt n bn cht t nhin ca ngun sng, ngun sng c th l nh sng ban ngy, n si t
Vonfram, n thch anh halogen, n hunh quang, i t quang, v.v. Nhng thuc tnh ring bit ca cc loi ngun sng
pht sinh mt phn bi cu trc v mt phn bi cc qu trnh vt l dn n s pht ra ca nh sng[3]. Nhiu ngun sng l
ngun nhit trong t nhin, do nh sng pht ra nh nhit cao. Mt vt b t cho ti khi nng sng, nh dy tc trong
n dy tc vonfram, pht ra mt di quang ph lin tc ca bc x in t vi cng ph thuc vo nhit v b mt
pht x ca n. mt nhit xc nh, khng b mt no bc x nhiu hn vt en tuyt i, vt c pht x 1.0 mi
bc sng. Khi thit k h thu nhn nh sng iu quan trng l phi ch n vng sng nhn thy t cc n (c n hunh
quang) thng km mt lng ng k bc x khng nhn thy nhng vn c nhn bit bngcc b o thm ch mt cng
khng phn bit c. Rt nhiu ngun sng hot ng nhit gn nhit phng v do khng c s cn bng v
nhit. S pht quang l thut ng chung dng m t vic to ra nh sng tc ln do nhit ca n...
61
S tay C in t
Mt s v d v nhng ngun sng ny l cc it pht quang, bng km-sunfua pht quang v cc chm in t photpho
b kch thch trong mn hnh vi tnh hay mn hnh ti vi. Nhng thuc tnh chnh ca cc ngun sng bao gm: tng chi
hay nng lng u ra; hiu sut chuyn i t nng lng in sang nng lng bc x; di quang ph u ra; hng pht
x; din tch b mt pht x; kch thc n v nhit hot ng. Bng 19.5 lit k cc thuc tnh ca mt s ngun sng
thng dng theo cc bng d liu ca nh cung cp n.
Bng 19.5 Cc c tnh ca mt s dng ngun sng khc nhau
Cc b o nh sng
B chuyn i nh sng s chuyn nng lng bc x m n hp th c thnh cc tham s ca thit b nh in tr,
in tch b mt, dng in hay in p. Mt s cc b cm bin nh sng c gii thiu trn hnh 19.101.
Mt s tn hiu in t cng cn c chuyn i t dng c bn ca u ra b chuyn i thnh tn hiu in p ph hp
hn, v d nh vic s ho bng cch s dng b chuyn i tng t - s (ADC). B ny c th c tch hp bn trong b
o hoc l cc thnh phn m rng bn ngoi. Cc b nhn bit nh sng c th c chia thnh hai loi chnh: nhit v
lng t nh sng - photon. Trong cc b dng nhit, hiu ng nhit ca bc x hp th c to ra s thay i ca cc tham
s ph thuc nhit nh in tr (trong cc dng c o x nng blmet) hoc sc in ng nhit in (trong pin nhit in).
u ra ca cc b o dng nhit ny thng tng xng vi nng lng bc x b o hp th c min l hiu sut hp th
l nh nhau mi bc sng, u ra c lp vi bc sng. Loi b o dng nhit c s dng rng ri nht l u o ho
in (pyroelectric detector) s c cp n trong mc tip theo. Cc b o dng photon, ngc li vi b o dng nhit,
ph thuc vo s pht sinh cc in tch t do do s hp th cc photon ring l. Cc photon ny c in tch do lm thay
i in tr thit b, nh trong trng hp ca quang tr, hoc dng in hoc in p
Hnh 19.101 Mt s v d ca b chuyn i nh sng nh trn hnh. hng trn cng t tri sang phi l bn it quang vi
din tch 1, 5, 41.3, v 7.5mm
2
. Cui cng l b lc mu nh sng. Trn hng gia t tri sang phi l quang tr CdS, B o
ha in, tranzitor quang, v it quang silic cha 4 thnh phn cm bin khc nhau. Hng cui cng t tri sang phi l
CCD tuyn tnh 256 nguyn t, mng CMOS tch hp cha 64 nguyn t, v it quang silic tuyn tnh 16 nguyn t trong
ng gi 24 chn
62
Cm bin
Hnh 19.102 Cc thnh phn c bn trong b o ha in. S tng gc chiu vo trn vt liu ha in lm cho nhit ca
n tng ln v tr trn b mt vt liu cng thay i. Dng in nh chy qua in tr RL c gi tr khong 10
11
. JFET gim
tr khng u ra n R
u ra nh trong cc i-t quang v tranzito. Tt c cc b o dng photon u yu cu mt lng nh nng lng photon
to ra cc in t t do v v vy c mt bc sng ti a, nu nm ngoi khong , chng s khng hot ng, gi tr ny
tu theo loi vt liu ca b o. Hay ni cch khc, cc b o dng photon thng p ng nhanh v nhy hn vi nhng
thay i v mc pht x hn l cc b o dng nhit.
Cc b o ho in
Cc b o ho in dng vt liu l gm cha st (II), st (III)) (nh lead zirconate hay lithium tantalate) v cc phn t
u c mt m men lng cc in vnh cu [4]. Khi cha n nhit ti hn, nhit Curie, cc lng cc mt phn c
sp thnh hng v to ra hin tng phn cc trn ton b tinh th. Khi vt liu b t nng, nhit ca n tng ln, lm
tng xo trn ca cc phn t, gim s phn cc mng ti khng nhit Curie. Mt b o c bn, hnh 19.102, gm c
mt tm mng lm bng vt liu st t sao cho s phn cc trc giao vi din tch b mt ln cc in cc trong sut
c lm kh . Chng c ni vi mt in tr ti (ln ti 10
11
). S tng bc x ri vo b o lm tng nhit ca n
v l nguyn nhn dn ti s thay i in tch b mt t l vi s phn cc. iu ny dn ti s thay i in tch trn cc
in cc v c dng in chy trong in tr ti. Do in tr ti trong cc b o dng ha in c gi tr ln, mt mch tr
khng ph hp, nh ngun JFET, thng c dng trong cc b o loi ny, xem hnh 19.102. Cc b o ho in ch p
ng vi nhng thay i sng v c bitc th nhn bit c nng lng bc x n 10
-8
W 1 Hz. Do b o ny phn
ng vi nhit sinh ra do hp th bc x, chng p ng c vi mt di quang ph rng. Cc b o dng ny thch hp cho
cc ng dng lm cc b o hng ngoi gi r, cc h thng bo ng, h thng cu ho.
Cc b dng o Photon ( Photon detector)
Thng thng cc b o photon s dung rng ri c lm t vt liu bn dn. Trong cht bn dn, cc in t in y
mc nng lung c th trong vt liu ti nh trong vng ha tr (VB - valence band). Vng ha tr c ngn cch vi nh
vng dn (CB - conduction band) bng mt vng cm (Eg - Enegy gap), l mt c tnh ca vt liu. Nhng vng nng lng
ny hoc l hon ton y hay hon ton rng nhit 0 tuyt i (0 K). nhit cao hn, c s cn bng gia cc in
t c kch thch nhit vt qua qua vng cm (to ra cc in t t do trong vng dn, cc l trng t do mang in tch
dng trong vng ha tr) v s kt hp tng cp cc in t t do v l trng. S lng in t t do v l trng tng nhanh
cng nhit (T) theo h s Boltzmann: exp(Eg /kT), vi k l hng s Boltzmann (1.38 10
23
J/K). Hin tng mt cn
bng xy ra nu cc photon c mc nng lng cao hn Eg b ht bi cc in t c kch thch vt qua vng cm. Khi
ngun bc x mt i, s in t v l trng d tha s nhanh chng gim v khng, thi gian ti hp ny ty thuc vo tng
loi vt liu. Khi xut hin cc in tch t do d tha, c s thay i ng k tnh dn in v tnh cht ny thng dng
trong cc b o dng quang tr (hay cn gi l quang dn). Tng t, trong cc b o tip xc, tc to ra quang in tch
c chuyn thnh u ra l dng in hay in p. Tt c cc u o photon bn dn c di quang ph tng i hp, vi
nh bc sng vo khong hc/Eg. u o quang tr v tip xc s c nghin cu k hn trong cc mc di y.
Hnh 19.103 Mch o ca mt b nhn bit nh sng n gin s dng quang tr. Khi ri nh sng tng in tr ca
quang tr gim, in p u ra tng. Mu in cc hnh rng lc thng c dng trong cc quang trdo c din tch vt
liu quang dn tng i ln v khong cch gia cc in cc nh, kt qu s c nhy cao
63
S tay C in t
Quang tr
dn in ca cht bn dn c bng tng ca 2 thnh phn l in t v l trng [5], c th:
n p
ne pe +
(19.77)
Trong : n(p) l s in t (l trng) trn mt n v th tch trong vng dn (vng ha tr; n( p): linh ng ca
in t (l trng); e: gi tr in tch ca in t.
Nguyn l hot ng ca cc u o quang tr l khi tng hp th cc photon nh sng s lm tng s n v p dn ti
tng tnh dn in. u o gm a tm bn dn t trn b mt cc in cc cho php iu chnh in tr nh minh ha trong
hnh 19.73.
Dng in cm ng - photon t l thun vi chiu di ca cc in cc v t l nghch vi khong cch gia chng, v vy
thng thng cc in cc ca quang tr thng lm theo hnh rng lc nh trn hnh 19.103 . Bi v in tr RC t l
nghch vi dn in, s bin thin ca RC gn lin vi cng sut PD theo quan h tuyn tnh, mt t di dng:
10
log log
C D
R a b P
(19.78)
trong : a, b l cc hng s.
Sunfua catmi thng c s dng trong cc b nhn bit cc bc x nhn thy do gi thnh thp v kh nng p ng
ca n tng ng vi kh nng ca mt ngi. Cc vt liu quang dn khc bao gm sunfua ch vi khong 1000 n 3400
nm, Indi (indium antimonide) trn 7000nm, Telua catmi thy ngn c nhy ti a trong di 5000 - 14.000 nm. Di sng t
5000-14.000 nm rt quan trng v n l cc bc x chnh pht ra bi cc vt th c nhit bng hoc hn vi nhit mi
trng xung quanh, ng thi di sng ny cng l vngtruyn tt trong mi trng khng kh. Cc thit b quang dn khi s
dng d cc bc sng di (hng ngoi) phi thng xuyn c lm mt, nu khng s b nhiu do s dao ng nhit
cain tch. C th xp x th theo h s Boltzmann, mt u o vi khong nng lng ca vng cm Eg th cn lm mt
ti nhit nh hn Eg/25k.
u o tip xc
Trong quang tr, tc sinh ra cc cp in t-l trng ph thuc vic hp th bc x, s kt hp v ti hp ph thuc
c tnh ca thit b; dn in ph thuc vo s lng cc in tch t do. Tuy nhin trong u o tip xc [6], qu trnh
to ra cc cp in t-l trng xy c lp v trc qu trnh ti hp c th pht hin c dng in cm ng, nh trong
cc it quang hay tranzito quang.
HNH 19.104 y l cu trc c bn ca mt it quang silic in hnh. Mt vng trng in tch to ra do s khuych tn
cc in tch t do qua b mt silic gia lp p v lp n. N m rng ti a v pha silic dng n v lp ny c t tp cht hn
dng p. Bt k cp in t-l trng no sinh ra trong vng ny u b ngn ti hp vi nhau do s tn ti ca mt in
trng, do chng gp phn vi cc photon hnh thnh nn dng in. Vng bn dn loi p c lm mng cc photon
c th xuyn qua sang vng rng.
Vic chia cc in t v l trng trong in trng kt hp vi lp tip gip P-N to ra vt liu bn dn, thng l silic.
Cu trc ca mt it quang silic in hnh th hin trong hnh 19.104. Vt liu nn l silic loi n, c to ra bng cch trn
mt lng nh cht nhm V vo silic nguyn cht nhm IV. S kt hp cc in t t do trong vng dn ca silic s loi b
cc in nguyn t mang in tch dng. Mt lp bn dn silic dng p c hnh thnh trn b mt vt liu nn do b sung
mt s nguyn t nhm III, v d s khuch tn hoc ion ho. Cc nguyn t nhm III kt hp vi cc l trng t do trong
vng ho tr loi b cc ion in tch m. Lp tip gip P-N l vng ranh gii gia vng p v vng n, lng cc ion tri
du l bng nhau. Cc in t v l trng t do s di chuyn t vng m n chim a s sang vng n chim thiu s qua lp
tip gip. Khi cc in t di chuyn nh vy n lm cho bn dn N mt in t v tch in dng, ngc li bn dn P tch
in m. . Vng trng in tch khng cha cc in tch t do. S di chuyn ca cc in t t do tip tc cho ti khi lc
khuych tn cn bng vi lc in trng ni ti trong vng trng in tch. Khi trng thi cn bng thit lp, in p ca
in trng ny vo khong 0.6 V (i vi vt liu Silic). Ngi ta gi y l in trng ni ti hay barie in th. Vi cc
it quang trong hnh 19.104, vng in tch ny m rng v pha n hn l pha p do cha nhiu tp cht khc nhau. Vng
bn dn p c thit k rt mng, do cc bc x c th i qua n v cc tip xc kim loi c lm bng cc vt liu dng
n hoc p.
64
Cm bin
Khi chiu nh sng c bc sng nh hn (hc/Eg) s xut hin thm cc cp in t-l trng trong vng trng in tch,
chng c tch ri ngay di tc dng ca in trng v c th c nhn bit theo 2 cch. Nu it quang h mch bn
tri, in p Vp trn it l hm lga ca sng PD:
ln
D
p
o
P Ae kT
V
e hci
| `

. ,
(19.79)
trong :
: hiu sut hp th photon,
A: din tch hp th ca it quang,
i0: dng (dark current)sinh ra do nhit.
y l ch quang in. Nu i-t phn cc ngc, dng quang dn ip c tnh theo cng thc di y:
D
p
P Ae
i
hc

(19.80)
HNH 19.105 Mt tranzito quang n gin. Dng quang dn theo chiu cc gc-cc pht c th c khuych i hng
trm ln bi tranzito. Dng in ca tranzito quang ln hn nhiu so vi it cng loiv thi gian p ng cng ln hn
ch quang dn, dng in qua it quang quang bin thin tuyn tnh vi mnh ca nh sng. Dng in i0 bin
thin nhanh theo nhit v gii hn nhy ca thit b. Tuy nhin, ch quang dn thng c s p ng nhanh hn, n
nh hn v c khong lm vic rng hn ch quang in ni trn. p ng KD ca mt b o c xc nh theo
p D
P
i K K
, nh hn 1 AW
-1
trong it silic. Trong trng hp l tng, KD bin thin tuyn tnh theo bc sng theo
phng trnh 19.80 ti gi tr ngng, xc nh bi khong nng lng vng cm. Cc it quang c nhiu thuc tnh khc
nhau nh: nhy (din tch hp th nh sng), tc p ng, di quang ph hot ng, gc ti hn (hng ri sng).
Ngoi ra it quang c th s dng n chic hay a chic (mng vung, hay ng) ng b trong mt nhm.
Trong nhiu ng dng, tn hiu u ra ca cc it quang cn c khuych i. C th dng mt b khuych i ring
bit hay mt b khuych i ngay trong tranzito quang. Nu thit k bc x c th ri vo vng gc (base region) ca
tranzito th sau dng ny c chnh tranzito khuych i. Thng thng khng cn thm cc kt ni ngoi vi ti cc gc
vic khuch i dng quang in c thc hin bi mt mch n gin nh hnh 19.105. Thng thng mt tranzito quang
c nhy gp hng trm ln it quang cng loi tuy nhin tn s p ng li kh thp. Trong cc cm bin trng thi (ht
bng, nhn dng ng xu, cm bin nh mc) thng s dng cc tranzito quang tch hp vi cc n LED vi quang ph
ph hp. Ta c th tham kho c tnh ca mt s b nhn bit nh sng tiu biu trong bng 19.6.
Bng vic sp xp nhiu b nhn bit nh sng nh thnh mt mng ta c th o cng sng bao trm mt vng. y
chnh l tng ca cc my video v my chp nh. Vn ny s c nghin cu k hn trong mc cc b cm bin
hnh nh, tuy nhin tt hn ht l ta xem xt cch to nh ca cc u o.
HNH 19.106 y l s m t nguyn l hot ng ca mt thu knh trong mi trng n (thng l khng kh). Cc
im c s (principal points) v im nt (nodal points) trng nhau N1 v N2, chiu di ca cc tiu c trc v sau u
bng f. Cc tia sng t i tng qut qua thu knh to ra cc im nh tng ng. Vi trng hp h s phng i bng
0.5, nh c to s nm sau tiu c F2. Vi cc i tng xa, mt phng nh trng vi mt phng vung gc vi trc quang
65
S tay C in t
hc i qua F2. Thng thngcc thu knh hot ng chnh xc vi mt khong quang sai khi gi thit rng khong cch t
thu knh ti vt ln hn khong cch ti nh. Trong nhng trng hp chp nh cn cnh, tc l khong cch t thu knh
ti nh ln hn ti vt, ngi tao ngc thu knh tng cht lng nh
S to nh
Mc d, cc nh c hnh thnh qua cc l nh (small pinholes), cc thu knh l b phn cn thit i vi sng ca
nh. Vic s dng thu knh rt a dng, t cc thu knh n thnh phn n gin dng tng lng nh sng thu c
trong cc u o hay camera gi r ti cc ng knh my nh phc tp c kh nng phng to thu nh i tng thu hnh, vi
cu hnh bao gm t 14 n 20 thnh phn, c kh nng thu nhn nhng hnh nh cht lng cao nhiu kch thc khc
nhau. Hai thng s quan trng nht ca thu knh l tiu c - xc nh v tr nh v h s hiu dng ca thu knh (f-
number - f#) c trng cho tc hay lng nh sng thu nhn c. Trc quang hc ca thu knh l trc i qua trc tm
thu knh, ni m tia sng i qua khng b lch hng. Mt thu knh xc nh thuc tnh bng su im chnh, ([2] nm dc
trn trc quang hc nh thu knh hi t trn hnh 19.106. V tr v phng i ca nh ca mt i tng c th xc nh
nh cc im chnh ny, 2 im tiu c, 2 im nt, 2 im c s. Khi mt tia sng i vo thu knh qua im nt th nht th
tia sng ra khi thu knh im nt th hai theo phng song song v cng hng vi tia sng i vo thu knh. Mt tia
sng song song v i gn trc quang hc khi i qua thu knh s hi t (thu knh hi t) hay phn k (thu knh phn k) v
ct trc quang tiu c ca thu knh. Giao im gia tia sng i vo v thot ra khi thu knh l im nm trn mt c s.
Giao im gia mt c s vi trc quang hc l im c s. Nh vy s c hai im nt, hai tiu c v hai mt c s bi v
nh sng c th n thu knh t cc pha khc nhau. Tiu c trc v sau ca thu knh l khong cch gia im tiu c
trc v sau ti cc mt c s tng ng. Trong iu kin bnh thng, khi thu knh hot ng trong mi trng n cht, v
d khng kh, v tr ca cc im nt v im c s mt trc v sau ca thu knh s trng nhau. Trong trng hp tng
qut, khi thu knh khng i xng, tiu c trc v sau ca thu knh l khc nhau. thu knh mng l tng th cc mt
c s s trng kht vi nhau v vi tm thu knh, nhng trong h a thu knh, chng c th cch nhau t +20 n -10 mm,
tu thuc vo vic thit k thu knh. Tiu c ca thu knh f c tnh t khong cch ti nh u v khong cch ti vt v theo
cng thc:
1 1 1
u v f
+
(19.81)
Cc khong cch u c o ti mt c s. H s phng i m, nh ngha l t l gia kch thc nh v vt, bng vi t
l gia khong cch nh vt v lin quan n tng khong cch nh-vt DT theo cng thc:
2
( 1)
T N
f m
D D
m
+
+ (19.82)
Trong DN l khong cch gia hai mt c s. Thng thng thu knh c khong tp trung t 5-10% chiu di tiu c,
c h s phng i ti a t 0.05 n 0.1. Kch thc m rng yu cu vi thu knh hi t v cng, chnh l tch s gia h
s phng i v chiu di tiu c bi v khong cch ti nh l f(m+1). rng hiu chnh (depth of field hoc depth of
view) F0 l khong gia im gn v xa i tng nht m trong khong nh r nt nht. Khong ny ph thuc vo h s
f# ca thu knh, h s phng i, v m chp nhn c C trong mt phng nh [7]. Kch thc im nh ph thuc vo
cm bin nh v vi phim 35mm th C thng c gi tr vo khong t 0.02 n 0.033 mm, cn vi nh ca mng cm bin,
C l khong cch gia cc phn t ca u o, thng vo khong 0.01 mm. rng hiu chnh gim khi h s phng i
tng, vi m ln hn 0.1 th F0 c tnh theo cng thc:
0 2
( 1)
2
C m
F f
m

+
(19.83)
Fi l khong dc trc m mi im trong u c th thu c nh nt. Khong t cm bin l rt gii hn khi c f-
number v h s phng i u nh. Khi m nh, Fi gim xung 2Cf#v/f v bng m
2
Fo. Khi m ln, Fi s t b gii hn hn.
Cn thit kt hp nh sng ca vt vi chi ca nh trn cm bin. Cc tnh ton chnh xc l kh khn, Ngi ta
thng a ra cc xp x n gin v sau a ra cc hiu chnh nh sng v m ng knh. Mt vt c chp trong mt
cnh khng phi l ngun sng nhng vn nhn thy do vt phn chiu li nh sng. Do , sng ca vt phi c c
lng bng lng bc x ri trn n v h s phn x Ro ca b mt vt. V d, nu vt c b mt Lambertian, ri Lo th
sng c tnh bi:
o
o
R
B L

(19.84)
Khi mt thu knh s dng thu nh, ri trn trc quang ti mt thu nh l Ls (lux) c tnh theo sng B (cd m
-2
)
theo cng thc
2
#
[2f ( 1)]
s
TB
L
m

+
(19.85)
66
Cm bin
Trong , f# l t l gia chiu di tiu c v ng knh m ca thu knh, tn hao trn cc thu knh l h s truyn
T. Do mt s nhn t hnh hc, ri ca nh gim theo gc so vi trc quang hc vi gi tr khong cos
4
. Khi gn
trc, sng bin thin kh chm nhng vi gc 30
0
lng sng gim i l 1-cos
4
30 = 44% . Cng thc (19.85) l c s
tnh tc ng m ca thu knh da trn f-number ca chng v cng cho thy ri t l nghch vi f-number. Cng thc
trn ng khi h s phng i nh, nhng vi nhng cng vic cn cnh, khi m khong cch nh ln hn chiu di tiu c,
f-number f# cn c thay bng (m+1)f# khi tnh ton ri. Thu knh c thit k sao cho ph hp vi cc kch thc nh
chun nh 36mm 24mm trong nh 35mm hay kch thc cm bin ti vi 1 , 2/3 , 1/2 , 1/3 v 1/4 . Cc kch thc
c nh ngha bng hai ln chiu ngang ca nh hnh ch nht c t l 4:3. V d nh cm bin 1 s c chiu rng 12.7
mm, chiu cao 9.5 mm v ng cho l 15.9 mm. Kch thc thu knh gn nh kch thc danh ngha d dng tng
thch vi cc cm bin. Gc ln nht ca depth of field ca mt thu knh hi t v cng l:
1
2tan ( )
2
F
OV
C
F
f

(19.86)
trong , CF l ng cho ca cm bin. V d nh trong thu knh 35 mm vi chiu tiu c l 55 mm s c field of view l
43. Vic mo v nhn hng v pha cnh ca depth of field l chp nhn c nn ta c th s dng thu knh 2/3 vi
cm bin 1/2 , nhng khng c iu ngc li. Mt thu knh camera 35-mm, vi chi ph tng i thp thng thng
c dng nhiu hn cc thu knh C-mount tng ng dng cho cc camera TV, do cn mt chuyn i C-mount sang
cc Pentax, Cannon, or Nikon mount.
Cm bin hnh nh (Image Sensors)
Vic to ra cc tn hiu u ra t mt cm bin hnh nh tiu chun bao gm bn qu trnh sau: S quy i tng ng t
phn b khng gian ca sng trn mt phng nh v s phn b khng gian in tch tng ng; thu thp v lu tr li
thng s in tch gn vi im m thng s ny c to ra; truyn hoc c s liu v in tch ny; chuyn i sang tn
hiu in p u ra. Mi qu trnh ny u c th thc hin theo nhiu cch. V d nh trong cm bin n chn khng, ngi
ta dng vt liu u o quang dn v qut chm in t c d liu. Trong khi , cm bin CMOS s dng u o it
quang v bus c d liu. Cc thit b bn dn c s dng rt rng ri, tuy nhin y ta ch ch n hai loi l CCD
v CMOS. Trong cc thit b ny sng ca nh c o bi mng mt hay hai chiu ca cc vng ly mu vi cc v tr c
nh trong qu trnh ch to. Mi mu l mt phn t nh hay cn gi l im nh v cng c nhiu im nh th nh phn
gii cng cao c ghi li. Cc cm bin c s im nh trong di t mi nghn n hng triu im nh. Cc cm bin mu
s c cc b lc mu, kiu khm hay sc, tng u o, gi tr mu mt im nh c ni suy t cc gi tr ln cn. Trong
cc thit b mu, phn gii mu nh hn phn gii sng, tuy vy iu ny khng quan trng v chnh mt ngi
phn gii mu cng km hn so vi sng. Trong cc camera t tin s dng ba cm bin c sp thng hng, mi cm
bin s dnh ring cho mt mu gc. Cc camera tch hp vi cc cm bin ny thng to ra tn hiu ti vi theo cc chun
khc nhau [8] (RS-170, NTSC cho tivi 525 ca M, CCIR hay PAL cho cc tivi chun Chu u) hay tn hiu s ra my tnh
(RS 423, USB, IEE 1394, FireWire).
Thit b ghp ni in tch CCD (Charge-Coupled Devices)
Trong thit b CCD, mt lng in tch bit lp, vo khong 10 n 10
6
in t, chuyn ng qua vt liu bn dn, t v
tr bn trong mt CCD ti lin k bng cch cp mt chui xung in p ti cc in cc cng. Trong cc cm bin nh
sng dng CCD, photon to ra lng in tch tch t trong cc im nh (photosites), cc im nh ny s c thay i bi
cc t bo CCD v sau c chuyn qua cc t bo CCD khc ti t bo c gn b khuych i u ra. Mt CCD c
ch to trn mt bng nim phong tinh th n silicon dng P v bao gm mng t bo mt hoc hai chiu cha in tch
khong 10 micromet tnh t tm. Hot ng ca t bo CCD ba pha c minh ha trong hnh 19.107.
Hnh 19.107 Minh ha s di chuyn ca cc in tch t mt ging th nng ti ging tip theo trong CCD ba pha. Mi t
bo CCD c ba in cc G. Trong s th nng trn, mt ging c to thnh di in cc th nht trong mi t bo
CCD nh in p cp cho pha 1. Khi in p pha 1 gim v in p pha 2 tng, cc ging th nng c s b hy b v cc
ging mi c to ra di cng th hai trong mi t bo khin cho cc in tch trong ging chuyn ng v mt pha nh
67
S tay C in t
trn hnh v. hon thnh mt chuyn ng ca in tch ti ging u tin ca t bo CCD k tip ta cn thm hai vng
nh trn
Mi t bo c 3 cng G gn nhau trn c cch ly vi silicon bng mt lp mng silicon dioxide. Mt in th dng
c a vo mt trong cc cng ny s ht v gi li tt c cc in tch t do to ra trong silicon do tc ng ca nhit v
nh sng trong khi cc l trng t do uc y v tp hp li nh cc in cc cht nn. Cc in th thp hn cc cng ln
cn s cch ly chng vi cc t bo xung quanh, to ra mt ging th nng trong t bo. Mt t bo c kch thc 8.8
micromet c th cha 200.000 in t trc khi bo ha. Cc t bo c ch to c nhy nh sng c cc in cc lm t
cht tng hp silicon na trong sut nn nh sng c th i vo cc vng lu gi trong khi cc t bo ch vi nhim v di
chuyn cc in tch c bao ph bi lp b mt chn sng. Trong qu trnh hot ng, in th cc in cc c gi
khng i trong mt khong thi gian (thi gian tch phn) cho php cc ht tch in tch t trong cc im nh t l vi bc
x trong. Ti thi im cui ca khong thi gian ny mt chui xung in p uc a vo cc in cc chuyn cc in
tch t mt t bo lu gi n t bo tip theo cho n khi chng n c b khuych i cm bin to ra mt in th
khong 0.6 microvolt trn mi in t. Hiu sut di chuyn in tch (CTE) ca mt thit b thc l di 100% v t 99.95%
n 99.999% in tch lu tr c chuyn n t bo tip theo ty thuc vo kt cu chnh xc v tn s o. iu ny cho
php cc thit b c sn xut ra vi mt dy chuyn gm hng trm hoc hng ngn cc t bo tch tr cung cp cho mt b
khuych i.
Mc d c rt nhiu loi cu trc CCD, cc c tnh c bn cc CCD ca cc hng sn xut khc nhau l tng t nhau.
cc cm bin nh sng CCD, s bin thin ca in p u ra vi bc x l tuyn tnh, t mc ti thiu t bi nhiu ti mc
ti a s dng c t bi s bo ha ca khuych i u ra hoc do dung tch hn ch ca cc t bo tch in. Phm vi
ng ca mt thit b c nh ngha l t l ca tn hiu u ra ln nht so vi u ra t nhiu. Cc nh sn xut c th a
ra cc s liu v nhiu di dng cc gi tr ton phn hoc gi tr ton phng (thng l nh hn 5 ln), tuy nhin gi tr
ton phn ph hp hn cho cc ng dng v hnh nh. Do cc hn ch v sn xut, cc im nh khng c c nhy v
cc c tnh tn hiu ti ng u. V d nh chng ta c th d dng o tnh khng ng u ca phn ng quang (PRNU)
bng cch s dng cc cm bin quangcng dng v khng ng u ny thng vo khong 5-10%. Nu cn, cc nh
hng ny c th loi b bng cch kim tra kch c. Phn ng quang ph c bn ca mt cm bin silicon c phm vi t 200
n 1100 nm vi nhy ti a vo khong 1 A in tch c to thnh trn mi microwatt ca bc x ti, tuy nhin iu
ny c th thay i do cu trc ca in t to thnh trn b mt ca silicon. Cc photon c bc sng di hn s thm nhp
su hn cc photon c bc sng ngn hn v phn ng bc sng ngn thng t n 450nm nh vic hp th trn b mt
cc lp. Cc photon hng ngoi c th pht ra cc in t t mt khong cch tnh t im vo silicon v kt qu l in tch
c th c tch t bi mt t bo khc. iu ny lm gim phn gii ca thit b v i khi d khng cn n hot ng
hng ngoi nhng trong bc x bao gm tia hng ngoi (nh bng n Vnfam), do vy ngi ta thng dng mt b lc
phn chiu hng ngoi (b lc hot-mirror). Nu yu cu phn ng quang ph rng nht c th, cc thit b c cht nn c
mi mng v vn hnh vi vic chiu sng trn b mt sau ni c nhiu in cc.Cc thit b c chiu sng mt sau rt d
v v tn km, tuy nhin chng c dng trong cc ng dng nh sng yu nh thin vn hc v sinh hc.
Tt c cc t bo CCD tch t in tch tuyn tnh theo thi gian do cc in t pht nhit trong cc t bo v ti cc b
mt chung in cc. Ging nh phn ng quang, tn hiu ti thay i khc nhau vi cc t bo khc nhau v c th c b
bng vic xc nh kch thc. Vic gp phn to nhit l quan trng nht i vi cc ng dng nh sng mc thp v
c th gim bt bng cch lm mt cm bin s dng my lm lnh in nhit (my lm lnh Joule Thomson) hoc nit lng
(liquid nitrogen dewar). khong -60
0
C, tn hiu ti s gim 50% mi khi gim nhit 7 C, do mt thit b lm lnh
Peltier to ra, tn hiu ti thng c gim cn mt in t trn mt pixel mi giy. Mt nhit quan trng khc ph thuc
vo c im ca cm bin CCD, c tng theo lm mt, l sn nhiu ca my khuych i u ra t l thun vi T

v
thng tng ng vi khong 300 in t nhit phng. Mt CCD s dng trong thin vn hc minh ha cho tc dng
ca vic lm mt. Hot ng di m 110 C, thit b ny c s liu nhiu c ra l 10 in t, mt dng in thp hn 0,3
in t mi pht, v hiu sut lng t chuyn cc photon nhn thy c vo trong cc ht in t l t 70 n 80%. nh
sng c th c hi t trong vi gi so vi thi gian khong t 1/8 n 1/4 giy ca mt tng thch. So snh vi cc fim
chp nh trc kia s dng cho cc hnh nh mc nh sng thp trong thin vn hc, cc CCD c lm mt nhy cm
hn t 10 n 100 ln, p ng tuyn tnh hn l phi tuyn v c di ng hc rng hn nn c vt th m nht ln vt th
sng u c th c ghi li trong cng mt thi gian phi sng.
S di chuyn ca in tch t mt t bo sang mt t bo bn cnh cng mt thi gian v CTE s gim dn khi tng tc
m v nhit lm mt. iu ny hn ch s lng t bo c th s dng chuyn in tch t mt im nh ti b phn
khuych i u ra. N cng hn ch tc d liu c th chuyn ra khi CCD v tc truyn hnh nh kt qu. Tuy nhin,
cng ngh CCD c nhiu thay i nhm mc ch tng c tnh hot ng. V d nh cc CCD pha o (10), mt s in
cc c thay th bng cc vng cy ion phng x v kt qu l tng phn ng xanh v cho nhy cao hn, do vic loi
mt s cng b mt v n gin ha s hot ng do s cng trn mi t bo t hn. S ng gp ln nht cho cc tn hiu
ti (dark) l loi b trung gian, v k thut pinning c th c s dng loi b cc trng thi trung gian, a ra mt cch
tng bin tn hiu ti cng nh tng hiu sut lng t v CTE. Ngi ta c th ci thin nhiu u ra thng qua vic s
dng mt k thut gi l ly mu kp tng quan. K thut ny thc hin vic ly u ra l hiu ca hai tn hiu, mt u l tn
hiu in tch hin thi v mt u khng, do vy cc thnh phn chnh ca nhiu c loi b. Mt s cu trc CCD
c thc hin [11]. Trong s cc thit b ny, bao gm c thit b ng, thit b mt ca ton khung, chuyn khung, cc loi
chuyn i gia s c cp n trong cc phn tip theo.
68
Cm bin
Thit b ghp ni in tch tuyn tnh (Linear CCD)
Mt cm bin CCD tuyn tnh bao gm mt ng c th ln ti hng ngn im nh v mt thanh ghi dch CCD song
song gn k v cui cng l mt khuych i cm bin. Mi im nh c phn cch vi thanh ghi dch bi mt cng
truyn. Trong qu trnh hot ng, mt in th c a ti mi cng im nh to ra cc ging lu tr trng, nhng
ging ny sau tch t mt lng in tch t l thun vi cng nh sng theo thi gian. Mt xung truyn cui giai
on hi t khin cho tt c cc gi in tch tch t c truyn qua cng truyn ti cc t bo thanh ghi dch. Cc in tch
qua thanh ghi dch ti b khuych i cm bin c m v to ra mt chui xung in p vi bin t l thun vi nh
sng hi t trn cc im nh. Trn thc t, cc thanh ghi dch thng c t trn c hai pha ca im nh, cc im nh
xen k nhau c ni vi cng truyn bng cc thanh ghi bn phi v bn tri. Nhng thanh ghi ny s chia u thi gian cn
thit ghi tt c d liu. Gii hn s lng in t lu tr c trong mt t bo (thng bng t 1000-2000 ln din tch
ca im nh o bng m
2
), l im mc trc khi cc in t lan sang cc t bo bn cnh. Hin tng blooming xy ra
khi mt im nh b qu sng. N c th c gim bt vi h s 100 bng cch thm cc cng chn (antiblooming gate)
gia cc im nh ln cn v cng truyn v cc knh gia cc im nh ln cn. in th trn cng chn c t vi mt
gi tr cho php cc in tch tha ra ngoi thay v i vo trong cc cng truyn v thanh ghi dch. Bng cch o cc in th
ny, s ln tch hp bin thin s t hn xung cu trc vi thi gian khung phi sng c th t n.
Hnh 19.108 Minh ha ba cu trc c bn trong CCD dng min. Trong CCD ton khung (full-frame transfer), hu ht cc
min thit b c s dng nh cc im nh. Cc in tch pht photon c chuyn cng lc xung tng ct ca t bo
theo cc thanh ghi dch ngang ni chng c chuyn c xung thit b khuych i u ra trc khi din ra s di chuyn
theo hng dc ca in tch. CCD ton khung s hn ch s cn thit ca cc l chn sng ngn s chn in tch, iu ny
c th xy ra bng cch cung cp mt vng lu tr m trong tt c cc in tch pht photon c th chuyn thnh hng dc
nhanh chng cui mi giai on tch hp. Cc CCD m cho php tt c cc in tch pht photon c chuyn ti cc
thanh ghi dch dc cng mt lc, iu ny gn nh loi b cc ngun chn in tch
Thit b in tch min
Ba cu trc c bn c s dng trong CCD dng min c minh ha trong hnh 19.108. CCD ton khung bao gm mt
min nh do cng truyn tch ra t thanh ghi dch CCD ngang. Trong min nh mi im nh l mt b phn ca thanh ghi
dch dc do cc trm dng knh v cu trc chng bc mu tch ra t cc thanh ghi dch ln cn. Trong sut qu trnh tch
hp nh sng, cc ng h dc khng hot ng v cc im nh thu thp cc in t quang. Vo cui qu trnh, cc in tch
c ghi li theo chiu dc vo mt hang v ng thi trong cc thanh ghi dch ngang. Cc in tch trong thanh ghi ngang
sau c chuyn nhanh chng ti thit b khuych i u c do ng dng ca mt tnh hiu ng h hng ngang. V d
nh, RA101J, mt CCD nguyn khung kch c 10241024 ca EG&GReticon lu gi c t l c 30 khung mi giy.
trnh lm m bn hnh nh trong sut qu trnh c, mt cm bin nguyn khung phi hot ng vi ca chn ngoi hoc
c s dng trong cc ng dng c nh sng thp i hi thi gian tch hp di hn so vi thi gian c, nh trong thin
vn hc.
Cc CCD truyn khung lm gim nhu cuu s dng mt ca chn ngoi bng cch cung cp mt vng lu c chn nh
sng bn trong ton b in tch nh c chuyn i vi mt t l gii hn c bn do cc yu t CTE. in tch c c t
cc vng lu tr s khng dnh bn trong sut thi gian tch hp. Trong mt vi thit b, v d nh EG&G Reticon RA1102,
vng lu tr tch thnh hai pha i din trong min nh. iu ny lm tng hiu qu hot ng khi chia s lng ti a
chuyn i cn thit ti c vng lu tr gn nht. Vi cc cm bin thit k dnh cho hot ng xen k, tri ngc vi
phng thc c qut khng kt hp, vic ct gim din ra t ng. Sau mi giai on tch hp tng ng vi mt min
video v ch cn mt na s hng trong khung ti mt thi im. V d nh, sn xut mt khung video hn hp gm 576
ng nh (tiu chun CCIR) cn mt cm bin chuyn i khung vi 288 hng lu tr. Bng vic thay i cc tn hiu
xung, mt na s hng l c th c thay th bng hng chn theo chiu dc. iu ny s m bo rng cc hng chn v l
cha dng cc thng tin khc nhau v gim canh th v b ngang ca cc t bo gp i khong phn cch gia cc ng
trong khung. Rt nhiu cng ty nh Cohu, Dalsa, EG&G Reticon, EEV, Kodak, Philips v Thomson-CSF sn xut cm bin
CCD chuyn khung v camera.
69
S tay C in t
R rng l cu trc m (ILT) gip xa sch cc vt bn trn nh khi cung cp cho mi ct im nh mt thanh ghi
dch CCD dc chn nh sng ln cn trong in tch c chuyn i bng mt xung chuyn i. Sau ni dung ca cc
thanh ghi dch dc c chuyn ng thi mt pixel ti mt thi im ti mt thanh ghi dch ngang ni m sau chng
nhanh chng c chuyn ti u c khuych i. Phng php ny khin cho vic t n thi im tch hp ngn v kim
sot vic phi sng vi cng ngh qut hin i. N cng gia tng khong cht gia cc im pixel hot ng lm gim
nhy ca vng cm bin hnh nh v lm tng hiu ng th so vi cm bin chuyn khung. i vi cm bin chuyn
khung, h s lm y, l t l ca min nh nhy cm vi nh sng c th t ti 100% trong khi bnh thng ch vo khong
thp hn 50% i vi thit b chuyn xen k. Cc vt th sng khu bit c xu hng to ra cc vt dc trong mt thit b ILT
do nh sng mnh c th lt qua di knh chn sng hp xung quanh cc thanh ghi dch dc gy ra cc vt bn trn nh
ging nh trong thit b nguyn khung. i vi cc hot ng xen k, v d nh hai im ln cn 1 v 2, 3 v 4,c
chuyn ti mt t bo thanh chuyn n trong mt trng v trong trng sau th pixel 2 v 3, 4 v 5 c chuyn cng lc.
iu ny kh ging cc hot ng xem k ca mt CCD khung chuyn. Cc cng ty nh Hitachi, NEC, Panasonic, Pulnix v
Sony sn xut cm bin ILT CCD v cc my camera.
Cm bin CMOS
cm bin hnh nh CMOS da trn cng ngh ra i trc cng ngh CCD. Tuy nhin, cc cm bin CCD thung cho
hnh nh p hn cc thit b CMOS do chng chim lnh a s trn th trng. Tuy nhin cng ngh lu i ngy nay
c quan tm hn do chng c nhng li th ni bt hn so vi cc CCD. Cng ngh CMOS s dng trong cm bin tng
t nh cng ngh sn xut RAM ng v do c th sn xut vi gi thnh r, phn gii cao, nh a ch ngu nhin, s
dng t nng lng. Cng c th tch hp cm bin hnh nh, iu khin, x l, v ghp ni trong cng mt chip, do mt
my quay camera trn chip c th s dng cng ngh CMOS m khng phi cng ngh CCD. Theo kt qu nhng nghin
cu v pht trin gn y, rt nhiu nh sn xut tuyn b to ra c cc cm bin CMOS cho cng cht lng vi cc
cm bin CCD. Cc hng sn xut cm bin CMOS c th k n nh Fillfactory, National Semiconductor, Philips, ST
Microelectronics v Y Media sn xut.
Mt cm bin CMOS bao gm mt mng cc iot quang c ni vi u c khuych i bng cc bus v cng tc
MOS. Nguyn tc ca u c c minh ha trong hnh 19.109. Mi mt pixel c ni vi khuych i u ra bi mt
chuyn mch m iu khin bus ni vi thanh ghi dch k thut s. Dch mt bit qua cc thanh ghi ni vi cc diot quang tun
t ti khuych i u ra. Cc u c ngu nhin ca cc iot quang c th c thc hin bng vic thay th thanh ghi
dch bng b gii m a ch ni vi mt bus a ch. Cc mng iot quang hai chiu c c sp xp thnh theo cu hnh
tng t vi mt ma trn chuyn mch cho vi mt cng tc v mt iot mi giao im cc thanh ghi dch dc v ngang.
qut mng ny, thanh ghi dc khi ng cc hng y cng tc v cc iot quang trong hng a tn hiu vo trong cc
ng dn dc. Chng ln lt c kt ni vi khuych i u ra qua cc b chuyn mch ni vi thanh ghi dch ngang.
S dng hai thanh ghi dch ngang ring bit v tch cc chc nng chn hng v iu chnh hng cho php loi ca chp
in c mn cun hot ng vi mt t l phi sng tung ng vi s lng cc hng.
Hnh 19.109 Minh ha nguyn tc u c trong mt cm bin CMOS mt kch c. Mi mt pixel c ni vi mt khuych
i u ra qua mt cng tc MOS m cc dy iu khin ca n c ni vi thanh ghi dch s. Dch mt bit qua cc thanh
ghi ni vi cc diot quang tun t ti khuych i u ra
Hnh 19.110 Minh ha mt CMOS in hnh vi ba transito v pixel hot ng. Transito T1 ni vi ng t li (reset) cho
php in dung ca iot quang c t li khi bt u qu trnh tch hp dng in quang. Trong thit b phng thc
CMOS lin tc, transitor ny c kt ni hot ng nh mt in tr c gi tr cao. Transito T1 v T3 cho php tn hiu
c chuyn t iot quang ti b khuych i dc thng qua cc ng bus dc
70
Cm bin
Cc mng iot quang ni chung c t m rng cu trc in cc qua mi thnh phn cm bin hn so vi cc mng CCD
do p ng quang ph s mn hn v lan rng hn di xanh cui cng ca quang ph, y l mt li th cho cc cm
bin mu. Hiu sut lng t ln nht cng cao hn, t 60%-80% so vi 10%-60% ca cc cng quang dn n cng sut
in u ra tng gn nh gp i so vi cng sut vo. Trong trng hp khc, cc iot quang c mc nhiu ln hn CCD
do dng in r khi phn cc ngc. it quang c th hot ng ch tch hp hoc ch lin tc. i vi loi u
tin, in dung it quang c iu chnh li theo th hiu dch ngc t v sau c php th ni. Sau , in tch
trn in dung ca it quang s c phng nh dng in to bi photon v cc dng in r . Sau mt khong thi gian
tch hp nht nh, cc in tch cn li c th c c v lch so vi gi tr t s t l thun vi sng ca iot nu
cc ngun r khng ng k. C hai loi thit b im nh ch ng v b ng u c pht trin. i vi loi th hai,
in tch trn iot quang c c thng qua mt MOSFET, transito ny chuyn in tch thnh in p v khuych i. Hnh
19.110 minh ha mt CMOS in hnh vi ba transito im nh ch ng. Transitor 1 t li iot quang v sau mt khong
thi gian tch phn thch hp, cc tn hiu pixel c c thng qua b phn b dn ngun transito 2 v transito chn lc 3.
Hai im bt li ca phng php ny l h s lm y thp do min pixel do transito khuych i s dng v s gia tng
khng ng u cc pixel do s bin i cc c tnh ca transito. Trong phm vi ibis ca cc cm bin CMOS do cng ty
Fill Factor sn xut, mt iot quang din tch nh c s dng lm gim dng in ti v nhiu kTC ng thi lm tng
h s chuyn i in tch thnh in p (9
V
trn mt in t ti u ra ibis 1). Cu trc pixel a ra mt hng ro in
th, ngn cc photon - in t cm b ht bi cc cu trc trong mt pixel hn l trong cc diot quang. iu ny cho php cc
diot quang thu ht hu ht cc in t sinh ra trong cht nn di cc pixel do lm tng h s lm y. Trong cc thit b
tch hp, mu nhiu c nh do s thay i trong cc ngng MOSFET c th gim bt bng vic ly mu i tng quan.
Pixel c ly mu ti im cui ca qu trnh tch phn v sau c t li v ly mu ln na. S khc bit trong hai
mu chnh l php o cng nh sng v s t do b p pixel. kim sot s khng ng u trong phn ng quang
khng h n gin. S khng ng u ny l do s thay i v th tch thu thp it quang, in dung chuyn tip, in
dung cng ca b khuch i MOSFET. Trong ibis4 ca cm bin 12801024 pixel, PRNU is quoted as less than 10% peak
to peak with half saturation in the neighborhood.
Mt cm bin nh sng vi p ng pixel lin tc s c li th khin cho cc pixel c th c truy cp theo trnh t bt
k khng cn c thi gian tch hp cho nn mt thut ton x l nhc th quyt nh pixel hay mt nhm pixel no c
tip theo. Trong mt lot cc cm bin Fuga doFillfactory thit k, ch hot ng lin tc c thc hin bng cch cho
pho ton-dng in pht ra i qua in tr ni tip. Do photon-dng in cm ng rt nh nn in tr ni tip phi rt ln v
n c nhn ra bi mt MOSFET hot ng vi s o ngc khng ng k. Kt qu ca s chuyn dng in thnh in
p l bin i loga v cc thit b c mt phm vi ng rt rng (bc 6 ca ln hay 120dB) vi gii hn ti l 10
-4
W m
-2
.
Tn hiu ra ca mt pixel n l khng th p ng tc thi i vi s thay i ca ri do hng s thi gian RC ca in
dung iot quang v in tr ni tip. Mt gi tr in hnh cho hng s thi gian ny l mt phn triu giy. Do s khng
ng u ca cc pixel mu nhiu c nh ca cc thit b ny rt ln, t 50-100%,v khng gim c bng cch ly mu
i tng quan do phn ng lin tc. Tuy nhin, nhiu ny c nh nn n c th gim bt nh hiu chnh theo bng gi tr
lu tr trong PROM do cc my quay camera n sc hay mu c hiu chnh hon ton vi 10241024 pixel rt ph
bin vi cc cm bin Fuga.
Cc h thng quan st
Cc h thng quan st c ng dng rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc nh sn xut, o lng trong khoa hc k thut, gim
st t xa v dn ng robot. Trong h thng quan st, cc thnh phn nh c bn khng ch l mt chip cm bin m l mt
my camera hon chnh nh
Hnh 19.111. 3 camera nh trn hnh. Gn nht l mch camera r tin vi cm bin CMOS v thu knh 4 mm. gia l
camera CCD CCIR, c thu nh bi cc thu knh 9,5 n 75 mm. Camera xa nht l camera CCD Cohu 4712 cht lng
cao vi cc thu knh 16mm v ng m rng 20 mm
71
S tay C in t
ta thy trong hnh 19.111, n bao gm: mt mng cm bin, h in t ph tr, nh dng tn hiu ra v cc thu knh. Tu
thuc vo tng ng dng my quay c th l n sc RS-170/CCIR, mu NTSC/PAL, phng php qut lu tin, qut bin
thin hay qut theo dng. Min nh, phn gii, khong lm vic, su nh v tc thu nh l nm thng s chnh ca
mt h my quay camera. Mu sc i khi l quan trng vi cc ng dng tuy nhin cc nh trng en li thng c a
chung bi v chng yu cu t b nh v x l nhanh hn. Nh mt quy tc, trong cc ng dng o lng kch thc, cc
cm bin phi c c phn gii t nht l gp hai ln t s gia chiu ln nht v nh nht ca vt quan tm. nh sng
phi t sao cho sng (illuminate) trong nh thu c ca vt ta quan tm l tt nht c th . nh sng c th l nh sng
bao quanh, hunh quang tn s cao, n LED, ngun nng sng, hay thch anh halogen. Vic giao tip ca my quay vi
my tnh ch thng cn trang b thm card thu nh (a frame grabber hay video capture card). Cc nh cung cp my quay
thng quy nh cc loi card tng thch vi loi my quay ca mnh. Cc card ny s cha d liu nh t my quay on-
board hay trong b nh h thng, y cn c s ly mu v s ho tn hiu tng t. Trong mt s trng hp u ra ca
cc my quay l tn hiu s tng thch vi cc giao thc chun nh USB 2.0 hay IEE-1394 Fire Wire bi vy khng cn
s dng thm card thu nh na. My tnh phi mnh x l tng nh trong mt thi gian ngn nht c th hay l cho
php hon thnh mt chui cc x l trong mt khong thi gian cho trc. Cc phn mm trong my nhn dng s to ra cc
chng trnh x l d liu nh. Phn mm ny c th c nhiu dng, bao gm cc th vin C iu khin cc chc nng thit
b, iu khin Active X v mi trng lp trnh trc quan s cho php ngi dng d dng sp t cc qu trnh x l nh.
Khi mt nh va c phn tch h thng phi cho php kt ni vi kt qu iu khin qu trnh hay thm thng tin vo c
s d liu. iu ny yu cu mt giao din vo/ra s hay kt ni mng. Mt ngi v b no c th nhn dng i tng v
cc cnh trong mt di cc iu kin a dng. H thng my nhn dng hin nay cn km linh hot do vic to ra mt
h thng hon thin yu cu mt s la chn t m tt c cc thnh phn ca h thng v cn xc nh chnh xc mc ch s
dng sao cho n gin ho ti a nu c th.
Ti liu tham kho
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[107] Hewitt, H. and Vause, A. S., Lamps and Lighting, Edward Arnold, London, 1966.
[108] Fraden, J., Pyroelectric thermometers, in The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, Webster, J. G.,
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[110] Sze, S. M., Semiconductor Devices, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1985.
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[112] CCIR, Characteristics of Monochrome and Colour Television Systems, Recommendations and Reports of the CCIR,
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[113] Amelio, G. F., Charge coupled devices, Scientific American, 176, 1974.
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[115] Rutherford, D. A., A new generation of cameras tackles tomorrows challenges, Photonics Spectra, September, 119,
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[116] Asano, A., MOS sensors continue to improve their image, Advanced Imaging, 42-44f, 1989.
[117] Dierickx, B., Meynants, G., and Scheffer, D., Near 100% fill factor in CMOS active pixels, in Proc. IEEE Workshop
on Charge-Coupled & Advanced Image Sensors, Brugge, Belgium, P1, 1997.
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72