CHNG II

BI TON M
L thuyt t hp l mt phn quan trng ca ton hc ri rc chuyn nghin cu s phn b cc phn t vo cc tp hp. Thng thng cc phn t ny l hu hn v vic phn b chng phi tho mn nhng iu kin nht nh no , ty theo yu cu ca bi ton cn nghin cu. Mi cch phn b nh vy gi l mt cu hnh t hp. Ch ny c nghin cu t th k 17, khi nhng cu hi v t hp c nu ra trong nhng cng trnh nghin cu cc tr chi may ri. Lit k, m cc i tng c nhng tnh cht no l mt phn quan trng ca l thuyt t hp. Chng ta cn phi m cc i tng gii nhiu bi ton khc nhau. Hn na cc k thut m c dng rt nhiu khi tnh xc sut ca cc bin c.

2.1. C S CA PHP M. 2.1.1. Nhng nguyn l m c bn:

1) Quy tc cng: Gi s c k cng vic T1, T2, ..., Tk. Cc vic ny c th lm tng ng bng n1, n2, ..., nk cch v gi s khng c hai vic no c th lm ng thi. Khi s cch lm mt trong k vic l n1+n2+ ... + nk. Th d 1: 1) Mt sinh vin c th chn bi thc hnh my tnh t mt trong ba danh sch tng ng c 23, 15 v 19 bi. V vy, theo quy tc cng c 23 + 15 + 19 = 57 cch chn bi thc hnh. 2) Gi tr ca bin m bng bao nhiu sau khi on chng trnh sau c thc hin? m := 0 for i1 := 1 to n1 m := m+1 for i2 :=1 to n2 m := m+1 ....................... for ik := 1 to nk m := m+1 Gi tr khi to ca m bng 0. Khi lnh ny gm k vng lp khc nhau. Sau mi bc lp ca tng vng lp gi tr ca k c tng ln mt n v. Gi Ti l vic thi hnh vng lp th i. C th lm Ti bng ni cch v vng lp th i c ni bc lp. Do cc vng lp khng th thc hin ng thi nn theo quy tc cng, gi tr cui cng ca m bng s cch thc hin mt trong s cc nhim v Ti, tc l m = n1+n2+ ... + nk. Quy tc cng c th pht biu di dng ca ngn ng tp hp nh sau: Nu A 1, A2, ..., Ak l cc tp hp i mt ri nhau, khi s phn t ca hp cc tp hp ny bng tng s cc phn t ca cc tp thnh phn. Gi s Ti l vic chn mt phn t t
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tp Ai vi i=1,2, ..., k. C |Ai| cch lm Ti v khng c hai vic no c th c lm cng mt lc. S cch chn mt phn t ca hp cc tp hp ny, mt mt bng s phn t ca n, mt khc theo quy tc cng n bng |A1|+|A2|+ ... +|Ak|. Do ta c: |A1 A2 ... Ak| = |A1| + |A2| + ... + |Ak|. 2) Quy tc nhn: Gi s mt nhim v no c tch ra thnh k vic T 1, T2, ..., Tk. Nu vic Ti c th lm bng ni cch sau khi cc vic T1, T2, ... Ti-1 c lm, khi c n1.n2....nk cch thi hnh nhim v cho. Th d 2: 1) Ngi ta c th ghi nhn cho nhng chic gh trong mt ging ng bng mt ch ci v mt s nguyn dng khng vt qu 100. Bng cch nh vy, nhiu nht c bao nhiu chic gh c th c ghi nhn khc nhau? Th tc ghi nhn cho mt chic gh gm hai vic, gn mt trong 26 ch ci v sau gn mt trong 100 s nguyn dng. Quy tc nhn ch ra rng c 26.100=2600 cch khc nhau gn nhn cho mt chic gh. Nh vy nhiu nht ta c th gn nhn cho 2600 chic gh. 2) C bao nhiu xu nh phn c di n. Mi mt trong n bit ca xu nh phn c th chn bng hai cch v mi bit hoc bng 0 hoc bng 1. Bi vy theo quy tc nhn c tng cng 2 n xu nh phn khc nhau c di bng n. 3) C th to c bao nhiu nh x t tp A c m phn t vo tp B c n phn t? Theo nh ngha, mt nh x xc nh trn A c gi tr trn B l mt php tng ng mi phn t ca A vi mt phn t no ca B. R rng sau khi chn c nh ca i - 1 phn t u, chn nh ca phn t th i ca A ta c n cch. V vy theo quy tc nhn, ta c n.n...n=nm nh x xc nh trn A nhn gi tr trn B. 4) C bao nhiu n nh xc nh trn tp A c m phn t v nhn gi tr trn tp B c n phn t? Nu m > n th vi mi nh x, t nht c hai phn t ca A c cng mt nh, iu c ngha l khng c n nh t A n B. By gi gi s m n v gi cc phn t ca A l a1,a2,...,am. R rng c n cch chn nh cho phn t a1. V nh x l n nh nn nh ca phn t a2 phi khc nh ca a1 nn ch c n - 1 cch chn nh cho phn t a 2. Ni chung, chn nh ca ak ta c n - k + 1 cch. Theo quy tc nhn, ta c
n(n 1)(n 2)...(n m + 1) = ( n m)!
n!

n nh t tp A n tp B. 5) Gi tr ca bin k bng bao nhiu sau khi chng trnh sau c thc hin? m := 0 for i1 := 1 to n1 for i2 := 1 to n2 .......................
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for ik := 1 to nk k := k+1 Gi tr khi to ca k bng 0. Ta c k vng lp c lng nhau. Gi Ti l vic thi hnh vng lp th i. Khi s ln i qua vng lp bng s cch lm cc vic T 1, T2, ..., Tk. S cch thc hin vic Tj l nj (j=1, 2,..., k), v vng lp th j c duyt vi mi gi tr nguyn ij nm gia 1 v nj. Theo quy tc nhn vng lp lng nhau ny c duyt qua n1.n2....nk ln. V vy gi tr cui cng ca k l n1.n2....nk. Nguyn l nhn thng c pht biu bng ngn ng tp hp nh sau. Nu A1, A2,..., Ak l cc tp hu hn, khi s phn t ca tch Descartes ca cc tp ny bng tch ca s cc phn t ca mi tp thnh phn. Ta bit rng vic chn mt phn t ca tch Descartes A1 x A2 x...x Ak c tin hnh bng cch chn ln lt mt phn t ca A1, mt phn t ca A2, ..., mt phn t ca Ak. Theo quy tc nhn ta c: |A1 x A2 x ... x Ak| = |A1|.|A2|...|Ak|.

2.1.2. Nguyn l b tr:

Khi hai cng vic c th c lm ng thi, ta khng th dng quy tc cng tnh s cch thc hin nhim v gm c hai vic. tnh ng s cch thc hin nhim v ny ta cng s cch lm mi mt trong hai vic ri tr i s cch lm ng thi c hai vic. Ta c th pht biu nguyn l m ny bng ngn ng tp hp. Cho A 1, A2 l hai tp hu hn, khi |A1 A2| = |A1| + |A2| |A1 A2|. T vi ba tp hp hu hn A1, A2, A3, ta c: |A1 A2 A3| = |A1| + |A2| + |A3| |A1 A2| |A2 A3| |A3 A1| + |A1 A2 A3|, v bng quy np, vi k tp hu hn A1, A2, ..., Ak ta c: | A1 A2 ... Ak| = N1 N2 + N3 ... + ( k-1Nk, 1) trong Nm (1 m k) l tng phn t ca tt c cc giao m tp ly t k tp cho, ngha l Nm =
| Ai1 Ai2 1i1 <i2 < <im k ...

... Aim |

By gi ta ng nht tp Am (1 m k) vi tnh cht Am cho trn tp v tr hu hn U no v m xem c bao nhiu phn t ca U sao cho khng tha mn bt k mt tnh cht Am no. Gi N l s cn m, N l s phn t ca U. Ta c: N = N | A1 A2 ... Ak| = N N1 + N2 ... + ( kNk, 1) trong Nm l tng cc phn t ca U tha mn m tnh cht ly t k tnh cht cho. Cng thc ny c gi l nguyn l b tr. N cho php tnh N qua cc Nm trong trng hp cc s ny d tnh ton hn. Th d 3: C n l th v n phong b ghi sn a ch. B ngu nhin cc l th vo cc phong b. Hi xc sut xy ra khng mt l th no ng a ch.
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Mi phong b c n cch b th vo, nn c tt c n! cch b th. Vn cn li l m s cch b th sao cho khng l th no ng a ch. Gi U l tp hp cc cch b th v Am l tnh cht l th th m b ng a ch. Khi theo cng thc v nguyn l b tr ta c: N = n! N1 + N2 ... + ( nNn, 1) trong Nm (1 m n) l s tt c cc cch b th sao cho c m l th ng a ch. Nhn xt rng, Nm l tng theo mi cch ly m l th t n l, vi mi cch ly m l th, c (n-m)! cch b m l th ny ng a ch, ta nhn c:
m Nm = C n (n - m)! = m trong C n =

n! v k!

= n!(1

1 1 1 + ... + ( n 1) ), 1! 2 ! n!

n! m!( n m)!

l t hp chp m ca tp n phn t (s cch chn m i

1 1

tng trong n i tng c cho). T xc sut cn tm l: 1 1! + 2 ... + ( n 1) !

1 1 . Mt iu l th l xc sut ny dn n e-1 (ngha l cn > ) khi n kh ln. n! 3

S N trong bi ton ny c gi l s mt th t v c k hiu l Dn. Di y l mt vi gi tr ca Dn, cho ta thy Dn tng nhanh nh th no so vi n:

n Dn 2 1 3 2 4 9 5 44 6 265 7 1854 8 14833 9 133496 10 1334961 11 14684570

2.2. NGUYN L DIRICHLET. 2.2.1. M u:

Gi s c mt n chim b cu bay vo chung. Nu s chim nhiu hn s ngn chung th t nht trong mt ngn c nhiu hn mt con chim. Nguyn l ny d nhin l c th p dng cho cc i tng khng phi l chim b cu v chung chim. Mnh (Nguyn l): Nu c k+1 (hoc nhiu hn) vt c t vo trong k hp th tn ti mt hp c t nht hai vt. Chng minh: Gi s khng c hp no trong k hp cha nhiu hn mt vt. Khi tng s vt c cha trong cc hp nhiu nht l bng k. iu ny tri gi thit l c t nht k + 1 vt. Nguyn l ny thng c gi l nguyn l Dirichlet, mang tn nh ton hc ngi c th k 19. ng thng xuyn s dng nguyn l ny trong cng vic ca mnh. Th d 4: 1) Trong bt k mt nhm 367 ngi th no cng c t nht hai ngi c ngy sinh nht ging nhau bi v ch c tt c 366 ngy sinh nht khc nhau. 2) Trong k thi hc sinh gii, im bi thi c nh gi bi mt s nguyn trong khong t 0 n 100. Hi rng t nht c bao nhiu hc sinh d thi cho chc chn tm c hai hc sinh c kt qu thi nh nhau?
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Theo nguyn l Dirichlet, s hc sinh cn tm l 102, v ta c 101 kt qu im thi khc nhau. 3) Trong s nhng ngi c mt trn tri t, phi tm c hai ngi c hm rng ging nhau. Nu xem mi hm rng gm 32 ci nh l mt xu nh phn c chiu di 32, trong rng cn ng vi bit 1 v rng mt ng vi bit 0, th c tt c 232 = 4.294.967.296 hm rng khc nhau. Trong khi s ngi trn hnh tinh ny l vt qu 5 t, nn theo nguyn l Dirichlet ta c iu cn tm.

2.2.2. Nguyn l Dirichlet tng qut: Mnh : Nu c N vt c t vo trong k hp th s tn ti mt hp cha t nht

]N/k[ vt. ( y, ]x[ l gi tr ca hm trn ti s thc x, l s nguyn nh nht c gi tr ln hn hoc bng x. Khi nim ny i ngu vi [x] gi tr ca hm sn hay hm phn nguyn ti x l s nguyn ln nht c gi tr nh hn hoc bng x.) Chng minh: Gi s mi hp u cha t hn ]N/k[ vt. Khi tng s vt l k (]
N N [ 1) < k = N. k k

iu ny mu thun vi gi thit l c N vt cn xp. Th d 5: 1) Trong 100 ngi, c t nht 9 ngi sinh cng mt thng. Xp nhng ngi sinh cng thng vo mt nhm. C 12 thng tt c. Vy theo nguyn l Dirichlet, tn ti mt nhm c t nht ]100/12[= 9 ngi. 2) C nm loi hc bng khc nhau. Hi rng phi c t nht bao nhiu sinh vin chc chn rng c t ra l 6 ngi cng nhn hc bng nh nhau. Gi N l s sinh vin, khi ]N/5[ = 6 khi v ch khi 5 < N/5 6 hay 25 < N 30. Vy s N cn tm l 26. 3) S m vng cn thit nh nht phi l bao nhiu m bo 25 triu my in thoi trong nc c s in thoi khc nhau, mi s c 9 ch s (gi s s in thoi c dng 0XX - 8XXXXX vi X nhn cc gi tr t 0 n 9). C 107 = 10.000.000 s in thoi khc nhau c dng 0XX - 8XXXXX. V vy theo nguyn l Dirichlet tng qut, trong s 25 triu my in thoi t nht c ] 25.000.000/10.000.000[ = 3 c cng mt s. m bo mi my c mt s cn c t nht 3 m vng.

2.2.3. Mt s ng dng ca nguyn l Dirichlet.

Trong nhiu ng dng th v ca nguyn l Dirichlet, khi nim vt v hp cn phi c la chn mt cch khn kho. Trong phn nay c vi th d nh vy. Th d 6: 1) Trong mt phng hp c n ngi, bao gi cng tm c 2 ngi c s ngi quen trong s nhng ngi d hp l nh nhau. S ngi quen ca mi ngi trong phng hp nhn cc gi tr t 0 n n 1. R rng trong phng khng th ng thi c ngi c s ngi quen l 0 (tc l khng
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quen ai) v c ngi c s ngi quen l n 1 (tc l quen tt c). V vy theo s lng ngi quen, ta ch c th phn n ngi ra thnh n nhm. Vy theo nguyn l Dirichlet 1 tn tai mt nhm c t nht 2 ngi, tc l lun tm c t nht 2 ngi c s ngi quen l nh nhau. 2) Trong mt thng gm 30 ngy, mt i bng chuyn thi u mi ngy t nht 1 trn nhng chi khng qu 45 trn. Chng minh rng tm c mt giai on gm mt s ngy lin tc no trong thng sao cho trong giai on i chi ng 14 trn. Gi aj l s trn m i chi t ngy u thng n ht ngy j. Khi 1 a1 < a2 < ... < a30 < 45 15 a1+14 < a2+14 < ... < a30+14 < 59. Su mi s nguyn a1, a2, ..., a30, a1+ 14, a2 + 14, ..., a30+14 nm gia 1 v 59. Do theo nguyn l Dirichlet c t nht 2 trong 60 s ny bng nhau. V vy tn ti i v j sao cho ai = aj + 14 (j < i). iu ny c ngha l t ngy j + 1 n ht ngy i i chi ng 14 trn. 3) Chng t rng trong n + 1 s nguyn dng khng vt qu 2n, tn ti t nht mt s chia ht cho s khc. Ta vit mi s nguyn a1, a2,..., an+1 di dng aj = 2 k j qj trong kj l s nguyn khng m cn qj l s dng l nh hn 2n. V ch c n s nguyn dng l nh hn 2n nn theo nguyn l Dirichlet tn ti i v j sao cho qi = qj = q. Khi ai= 2 ki q v aj = k 2 j q. V vy, nu ki kj th aj chia ht cho ai cn trong trng hp ngc li ta c ai chia ht cho aj. Th d cui cng trnh by cch p dng nguyn l Dirichlet vo l thuyt t hp m vn quen gi l l thuyt Ramsey, tn ca nh ton hc ngi Anh. Ni chung, l thuyt Ramsey gii quyt nhng bi ton phn chia cc tp con ca mt tp cc phn t. Th d 7. Gi s trong mt nhm 6 ngi mi cp hai hoc l bn hoc l th. Chng t rng trong nhm c ba ngi l bn ln nhau hoc c ba ngi l k th ln nhau. Gi A l mt trong 6 ngi. Trong s 5 ngi ca nhm hoc l c t nht ba ngi l bn ca A hoc c t nht ba ngi l k th ca A, iu ny suy ra t nguyn l Dirichlet tng qut, v ]5/2[ = 3. Trong trng hp u ta gi B, C, D l bn ca A. nu trong ba ngi ny c hai ngi l bn th h cng vi A lp thnh mt b ba ngi bn ln nhau, ngc li, tc l nu trong ba ngi B, C, D khng c ai l bn ai c th chng t h l b ba ngi th ln nhau. Tng t c th chng minh trong trng hp c t nht ba ngi l k th ca A.

2.3. CHNH HP V T HP SUY RNG. 2.3.1. Chnh hp c lp.

Mt cch sp xp c th t k phn t c th lp li ca mt tp n phn t c gi l mt chnh hp lp chp k t tp n phn t. Nu A l tp gm n phn t th mi
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chnh hp nh th l mt phn t ca tp Ak. Ngoi ra, mi chnh hp lp chp k t tp n phn t l mt hm t tp k phn t vo tp n phn t. V vy s chnh hp lp chp k t tp n phn t l nk.

2.3.2. T hp lp.
Mt t hp lp chp k ca mt tp hp l mt cch chn khng c th t k phn t c th lp li ca tp cho. Nh vy mt t hp lp kiu ny l mt dy khng k th t gm k thnh phn ly t tp n phn t. Do c th l k > n. k Mnh 1: S t hp lp chp k t tp n phn t bng C n+k . 1 Chng minh. Mi t hp lp chp k t tp n phn t c th biu din bng mt dy n 1 thanh ng v k ngi sao. Ta dng n 1 thanh ng phn cch cc ngn. Ngn th i cha thm mt ngi sao mi ln khi phn t th i ca tp xut hin trong t hp. Chng hn, t hp lp chp 6 ca 4 phn t c biu th bi: **| * | |*** m t t hp cha ng 2 phn t th nht, 1 phn t th hai, khng c phn t th 3 v 3 phn t th t ca tp hp. Mi dy n 1 thanh v k ngi sao ng vi mt xu nh phn di n + k 1 vi k s 1. Do s cc dy n 1 thanh ng v k ngi sao chnh l s t hp chp k t tp n + k 1 phn t. l iu cn chng minh. Thi d 8: 1) C bao nhiu cch chn 5 t giy bc t mt kt ng tin gm nhng t 1000, 2000, 5000, 10.000, 20.000, 50.000, 100.000. Gi s th t m cc t tin c chn l khng quan trng, cc t tin cng loi l khng phn bit v mi loi c t nht 5 t. V ta khng k ti th t chn t tin v v ta chn ng 5 ln, mi ln ly mt t 1 trong 7 loi tin nn mi cch chn 5 t giy bc ny chnh l mt t hp lp chp 5 t 5 7 phn t. Do s cn tm l C 7+5 = 462. 1 2) Phng trnh x1 + x2 + x3 = 15 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m? Chng ta nhn thy mi nghim ca phng trnh ng vi mt cch chn 15 phn t t mt tp c 3 loi, sao cho c x1 phn t loi 1, x2 phn t loi 2 v x3 phn t loi 3 c chn. V vy s nghim bng s t hp lp chp 15 t tp c 3 phn t v 1 bng C 35 15 = 136. + 1

2.3.3. Hon v ca tp hp c cc phn t ging nhau.

Trong bi ton m, mt s phn t c th ging nhau. Khi cn phi cn thn, trnh m chng hn mt ln. Ta xt th d sau. Th d 9: C th nhn c bao nhiu xu khc nhau bng cch sp xp li cc ch ci ca t SUCCESS? V mt s ch ci ca t SUCCESS l nh nhau nn cu tr li khng phi l s hon v ca 7 ch ci c. T ny cha 3 ch S, 2 ch C, 1 ch U v 1 ch E. xc nh s xu khc nhau c th to ra c ta nhn thy c C(7,3) cch chn 3 ch cho 3
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ch S, cn li 4 ch trng. C C(4,2) cch chn 2 ch cho 2 ch C, cn li 2 ch trng. C th t ch U bng C(2,1) cch v C(1,1) cch t ch E vo xu. Theo nguyn l nhn, s cc xu khc nhau c th to c l:
3 2 1 C 7 . C 4 . C 1 . C1 = 2

7! 4! 2 !1! 7! = = 420. 3! 2 ! 1! 1! . . . 3! 4 ! 2! 2 ! 1! 1! 1! 0! . . . . . . .

Mnh 2: S hon v ca n phn t trong c n 1 phn t nh nhau thuc loi 1, n2

phn t nh nhau thuc loi 2, ..., v nk phn t nh nhau thuc loi k, bng
n! . n1!. n 2 !.... n k !
n Chng minh. xc nh s hon v trc tin chng ta nhn thy c C n1 cch gi n1
2 ch cho n1 phn t loi 1, cn li n - n1 ch trng. Sau c C n n1 cch t n2 phn t loi 2 vo hon v, cn li n - n1 - n2 ch trng. Tip tc t cc phn t loi 3, loi 4,..., nk loi k - 1vo ch trng trong hon v. Cui cng c C n n1 ... nk 1 cch t nk phn t loi k vo hon v. Theo quy tc nhn tt c cc hon v c th l:

n k 2 C n1 . C n n1 .... C n n1 ... nk 1 =

n! . n1!. n 2 !.... n k !

2.3.4. S phn b cc vt vo trong hp.

Th d 10: C bao nhiu cch chia nhng xp bi 5 qun cho mi mt trong 4 ngi chi t mt c bi chun 52 qun? 5 Ngi u tin c th nhn c 5 qun bi bng C 52 cch. Ngi th hai c th 5 c chia 5 qun bi bng C 47 cch, v ch cn 47 qun bi. Ngi th ba c th nhn 5 c 5 qun bi bng C 42 cch. Cui cng, ngi th t nhn c 5 qun bi bng 5 C37 cch. V vy, theo nguyn l nhn tng cng c
5 5 5 5 C 52 . C 47 . C 42 . C37

5! 2 5! 5! 5! 5! 3 ! . . . . 2

cch chia cho 4 ngi mi ngi mt xp 5 qun bi. Th d trn l mt bi ton in hnh v vic phn b cc vt khc nhau vo cc hp khc nhau. Cc vt l 52 qun bi, cn 4 hp l 4 ngi chi v s cn li trn bn. S cch sp xp cc vt vo trong hp c cho bi mnh sau Mnh 3: S cch phn chia n vt khc nhau vo trong k hp khc nhau sao cho c ni vt c t vo trong hp th i, vi i = 1, 2, ..., k bng
n! . n1!.n 2 !.... n k !.( n n1 ... n k )!

2.4. SINH CC HON V V T HP. 2.4.1. Sinh cc hon v:

C nhiu thut ton c pht trin sinh ra n! hon v ca tp {1,2,...,n}. Ta s m t mt trong cc phng php , phng php lit k cc hon v ca tp {1,2,...,n} theo th t t in. Khi , hon v a1a2...an c gi l i trc hon v b1b2...bn nu tn ti k (1 k n), a1 = b1, a2 = b2,..., ak-1 = bk-1 v ak < bk.
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Thut ton sinh cc hon v ca tp {1,2,...,n} da trn th tc xy dng hon v k tip, theo th t t in, t hon v cho trc a 1 a2 ...an. u tin nu an-1 < an th r rng i ch an-1 v an cho nhau th s nhn c hon v mi i lin sau hon v cho. Nu tn ti cc s nguyn aj v aj+1 sao cho aj < aj+1 v aj+1 > aj+2 > ... > an, tc l tm cp s nguyn lin k u tin tnh t bn phi sang bn tri ca hon v m s u nh hn s sau. Sau , nhn c hon v lin sau ta t vo v tr th j s nguyn nh nht trong cc s ln hn aj ca tp aj+1, aj+2, ..., an, ri lit k theo th t tng dn ca cc s cn li ca aj, aj+1, aj+2, ..., an vo cc v tr j+1, ..., n. D thy khng c hon v no i sau hon v xut pht v i trc hon v va to ra. Th d 11: Tm hon v lin sau theo th t t in ca hon v 4736521. Cp s nguyn u tin tnh t phi qua tri c s trc nh hn s sau l a3 = 3 v a4 = 6. S nh nht trong cc s bn phi ca s 3 m li ln hn 3 l s 5. t s 5 vo v tr th 3. Sau t cc s 3, 6, 1, 2 theo th t tng dn vo bn v tr cn li. Hon v lin sau hon v cho l 4751236. procedure Hon v lin sau (a1, a2, ..., an) (hon v ca {1,2,...,n} khc (n, n ..., 2, 1)) 1, j := n 1 while aj > aj+1 j := j 1 {j l ch s ln nht m aj < aj+1} k := n while aj > ak k := k - 1 {ak l s nguyn nh nht trong cc s ln hn aj v bn phi aj} i ch (aj, ak) r := n s := j + 1 while r > s i ch (ar, as) r := r - 1 ; s := s + 1 {iu ny s xp phn ui ca hon v sau v tr th j theo th t tng dn.}

2.4.2. Sinh cc t hp:

Lm th no to ra tt c cc t hp cc phn t ca mt tp hu hn? V t hp chnh l mt tp con, nn ta c th dng php tng ng 1-1 gia cc tp con ca {a1,a2,...,an} v xu nh phn di n. Ta thy mt xu nh phn di n cng l khai trin nh phn ca mt s nguyn nm gia 0 v 2n 1. Khi 2n xu nh phn c th lit k theo th t tng dn ca s nguyn trong biu din nh phn ca chng. Chng ta s bt u t xu nh phn nh nht 00...00 (n s 0). Mi bc tm xu lin sau ta tm v tr u tin tnh t phi qua
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tri m l s 0, sau thay tt c s 1 bn phi s ny bng 0 v t s 1 vo chnh v tr ny. procedure Xu nh phn lin sau (bn-1bn-2...b1b0): xu nh phn khc (11...11) i := 0 while bi = 1 begin bi := 0 i := i + 1 end bi := 1 Tip theo chng ta s trnh by thut ton to cc t hp chp k t n phn t {1,2,...,n}. Mi t hp chp k c th biu din bng mt xu tng. Khi c th lit k cc t hp theo th t t in. C th xy dng t hp lin sau t hp a 1a2...ak bng cch sau. Trc ht, tm phn t u tin ai trong dy cho k t phi qua tri sao cho ai n k + i. Sau thay ai bng ai + 1 v aj bng ai + j i + 1 vi j = i + 1, i + 2, ..., k. Th d 12: Tm t hp chp 4 t tp {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} i lin sau t hp {1, 2, 5, 6}. Ta thy t phi qua tri a2 = 2 l s hng u tin ca t hp cho tha mn iu kin ai 6 4 + i. nhn c t hp tip sau ta tng ai ln mt n v, tc a2 = 3, sau t a3 = 3 + 1 = 4 v a4 = 3 + 2 = 5. Vy t hp lin sau t hp cho l {1,3,4,5}. Th tc ny c cho di dng thut ton nh sau. procedure T hp lin sau ({a1, a2, ..., ak}: tp con thc s ca tp {1, 2, ..., n} khng bng {n k + 1, ..., n} vi a1 < a2 < ... < ak) i := k while ai = n k + i i := i 1 ai := ai + 1 for j := i + 1 to k aj := ai + j i

2.5. H THC TRUY HI. 2.5.1. Khi nim m u v m hnh ha bng h thc truy hi:
i khi ta rt kh nh ngha mt i tng mt cch tng minh. Nhng c th d dng nh ngha i tng ny qua chnh n. K thut ny c gi l quy. nh ngha quy ca mt dy s nh r gi tr ca mt hay nhiu hn cc s hng u tin v quy tc xc nh cc s hng tip theo t cc s hng i trc. nh ngha quy c th dng gii cc bi ton m. Khi quy tc tm cc s hng t cc s hng i trc c gi l cc h thc truy hi.
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nh ngha 1: H thc truy hi (hay cng thc truy hi) i vi dy s {an} l cng
thc biu din an qua mt hay nhiu s hng i trc ca dy. Dy s c gi l li gii hay nghim ca h thc truy hi nu cc s hng ca n tha mn h thc truy hi ny. Th d 13 (Li kp): 1) Gi s mt ngi gi 10.000 la vo ti khon ca mnh ti mt ngn hng vi li sut kp 11% mi nm. Sau 30 nm anh ta c bao nhiu tin trong ti khon ca mnh? Gi Pn l tng s tin c trong ti khon sau n nm. V s tin c trong ti khon sau n nm bng s c sau n 1 nm cng li sut ca nm th n, nn ta thy dy {Pn} tho mn h thc truy hi sau: Pn = Pn-1 + 0,11Pn-1 = (1,11)Pn-1 vi iu kin u P0 = 10.000 la. T suy ra Pn = (1,11)n.10.000. Thay n = 30 cho ta P30 = 228922,97 la. 2) Tm h thc truy hi v cho iu kin u tnh s cc xu nh phn di n v khng c hai s 0 lin tip. C bao nhiu xu nh phn nh th c di bng 5? Gi an l s cc xu nh phn di n v khng c hai s 0 lin tip. nhn c h thc truy hi cho {an}, ta thy rng theo quy tc cng, s cc xu nh phn di n v khng c hai s 0 lin tip bng s cc xu nh phn nh th kt thc bng s 1 cng vi s cc xu nh th kt thc bng s 0. Gi s n 3. Cc xu nh phn di n, khng c hai s 0 lin tip kt thc bng s 1 chnh l xu nh phn nh th, di n 1 v thm s 1 vo cui ca chng. Vy chng c tt c l an-1. Cc xu nh phn di n, khng c hai s 0 lin tip v kt thc bng s 0, cn phi c bit th n 1 bng 1, nu khng th chng c hai s 0 hai bit cui cng. Trong trng hp ny chng c tt c l an-2. Cui cng ta c c: an = an-1 + an-2 vi n 3. iu kin u l a1 = 2 v a2 = 3. Khi a5 = a4 + a3 = a3 + a2 + a3 = 2(a2 + a1) + a2 = 13.

2.5.2. Gii cc h thc truy hi.

nh ngha 2: Mt h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht bc k vi h s hng s l h thc truy hi c dng: an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + ... + ckan-k , trong c1, c2, ..., ck l cc s thc v ck 0. Theo nguyn l ca quy np ton hc th dy s tha mn h thc truy hi nu trong nh ngha c xc nh duy nht bng h thc truy hi ny v k iu kin u: a0 = C0, a1 = C1, ..., ak-1 = Ck-1. Phng php c bn gii h thc truy hi tuyn tnh thun nht l tm nghim di dng an = rn, trong r l hng s. Ch rng an = rn l nghim ca h thc truy hi an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + ... + ckan-k nu v ch nu
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rn = c1rn-1 + c2rn-2 + ... + ckrn-k hay rk c1rk-1 c2rk-2 ... ck-1r ck = 0. Phng trnh ny c gi l phng trnh c trng ca h thc truy hi, nghim ca n gi l nghim c trng ca h thc truy hi. Mnh : Cho c1, c2, ..., ck l cc s thc. Gi s rng phng trnh c trng rk c1rk-1 c2rk-2 ... ck-1r ck = 0 c k nghim phn bit r1, r2, ..., rk. Khi dy {an} l nghim ca h thc truy hi an = c1an-1 + c2an-2 + ... + ckan-k nu v ch nu an = 1r1n + 2r2n + ... + krkn, vi n = 1, 2, ... trong 1, 2, ..., k l cc hng s. Th d 14: 1) Tm cng thc hin ca cc s Fibonacci. Dy cc s Fibonacci tha mn h thc fn = fn-1 + fn-2 v cc iu kin u f0 = 0 v f1 = 1. Cc nghim c trng l r1 = c cho bi cng thc fn = 1( 1 + 2 v f1 = 1 =
1 , 5
2

1+ 5 2

v r2 =

1 5 2

. Do cc s Fibonacci = =

1+ 5 n 1 5 n ) + 2( ) . Cc iu kin ban u f0 = 0 2 2 1+ 5 1 5 ) + 2( ). T hai phng trnh ny cho ta 1 1( 2 2

=-

1 . Do cc s Fibonacci c cho bi cng thc hin sau: 5 1 1+ 5 n 1 1 5 n fn = ( ) ( ). 5 5 2 2

2) Hy tm nghim ca h thc truy hi an = 6an-1 - 11an-2 + 6an-3 vi iu kin ban u a0 = 2, a1 = 5 v a2 = 15. a thc c trng ca h thc truy hi ny l r 3 - 6r2 + 11r - 6. Cc nghim c trng l r = 1, r = 2, r = 3. Do vy nghim ca h thc truy hi c dng an = 11n + 22n + 33n. Cc iu kin ban u a0 = 2 = 1 + 2 + 3 a1 = 5 = 1 + 22 + 33 a2 = 15 = 1 + 24 + 39. Gii h cc phng trnh ny ta nhn c 1= 1, 2 = 3 = 2. V th, nghim duy 1, nht ca h thc truy hi ny v cc iu kin ban u cho l dy {an} vi an = 1 2n + 2.3n. 2.6. QUAN H CHIA TR.

2.6.1. M u:
Nhiu thut ton quy chia bi ton vi cc thng tin vo cho thnh mt hay nhiu bi ton nh hn. S phn chia ny c p dng lin tip cho ti khi c th tm c li gii ca bi ton nh mt cch d dng. Chng hn, ta tin hnh vic tm kim nh phn bng cch rt gn vic tm kim mt phn t trong mt danh sch ti vic tm phn t trong mt danh sch c di gim i mt na. Ta rt gn lin tip nh vy cho ti khi cn li mt phn t. Mt v d khc l th tc nhn cc s nguyn. Th tc
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ny rt gn bi ton nhn hai s nguyn ti ba php nhn hai s nguyn vi s bit gim i mt na. Php rt gn ny c dng lin tip cho ti khi nhn c cc s nguyn c mt bit. Cc th tc ny gi l cc thut ton chia tr.

2.6.2. H thc chia tr:

Gi s rng mt thut ton phn chia mt bi ton c n thnh a bi ton nh,
n ( n gin gi s rng n chia ht cho b; trong thc b n n t cc bi ton nh thng c c [ ] hoc ] [). Gi s rng tng cc php ton thm b b

trong mi bi ton nh c c

vo khi thc hin phn chia bi ton c n thnh cc bi ton c c nh hn l g(n). Khi , nu f(n) l s cc php ton cn thit gii bi ton cho th f tha mn h thc truy hi sau: f(n) = af(
n ) + g(n) b

H thc ny c tn l h thc truy hi chia tr. Th d 15: 1) Thut ton tm kim nh phn a bi ton tm kim c n v bi ton tm kim
phn t ny trong dy tm kim c n/2, khi n chn. Khi thc hin vic rt gn cn hai php so snh. V th, nu f(n) l s php so snh cn phi lm khi tm kim mt phn t trong danh sch tm kim c n ta c f(n) = f(n/2) + 2, nu n l s chn.

2) C cc thut ton hiu qu hn thut ton thng thng nhn hai s nguyn. y ta s c mt trong cc thut ton nh vy. l thut ton phn nhanh, c dng k thut chia tr. Trc tin ta phn chia mi mt trong hai s nguyn 2n bit thnh hai khi mi khi n bit. Sau php nhn hai s nguyn 2n bit ban u c thu v ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit cng vi cc php dch chuyn v cc php cng. Gi s a v b l cc s nguyn c cc biu din nh phn di 2n l a = (a2n-1 a2n-2 ... a1 a0)2 v b = (b2n-1 b2n-2 ... b1 b0)2. n Gi s a = 2 A1 + A0 , b = 2nB1 + B0 , trong A1 = (a2n-1 a2n-2 ... an+1 an)2 , A0 = (an-1 ... a1 a0)2 B1 = (b2n-1 b2n-2 ... bn+1 bn)2 , B0 = (bn-1 ... b1 b0)2. Thut ton nhn nhanh cc s nguyn da trn ng thc: ab = (22n + 2n)A1B1 + 2n(A1 - A0)(B0 - B1) + (2n + 1)A0B0. ng thc ny ch ra rng php nhn hai s nguyn 2n bit c th thc hin bng cch dng ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit v cc php cng, tr v php dch chuyn. iu c ngha l nu f(n) l tng cc php ton nh phn cn thit nhn hai s nguyn n bit th f(2n) = 3f(n) + Cn. Ba php nhn cc s nguyn n bit cn 3f(n) php ton nh phn. Mi mt trong cc php cng, tr hay dch chuyn dng mt hng s nhn vi n ln cc php ton nh phn v Cn l tng cc php ton nh phn c dng khi lm cc php ton ny.
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Mnh 1: Gi s f l mt hm tng tho mn h thc truy hi f(n) = af( b ) + c vi

mi n chia ht cho b, a 1, b l s nguyn ln hn 1, cn c l s thc dng. Khi
O n b , a1 O log n , a=1 f(n) = . {
log a

Mnh 2: Gi s f l hm tng tho mn h thc truy hi f(n) = af( b ) + cnd vi mi

n = bk, trong k l s nguyn dng, a 1, b l s nguyn ln hn 1, cn c v d l cc s thc dng. Khi

O(n logb a ), a > b d d d f(n) = O ( n logn), a = b d O(n ) , a < b d

Th d 16: Hy c lng s php ton nh phn cn dng khi nhn hai s nguyn n bit bng thut ton nhn nhanh. Th d 15.2 ch ra rng f(n) = 3f(n/2) + Cn, khi n chn. V th, t Mnh 2 ta suy ra f(n) = O( n log 2 3 ). Ch l log23 1,6. V thut ton nhn thng thng dng O(n2) php ton nh phn, thut ton nhn nhanh s thc s tt hn thut ton nhn thng thng khi cc s nguyn l ln.

BI TP CHNG II:
1. Trong tng s 2504 sinh vin ca mt khoa cng ngh thng tin, c 1876 theo hc
mn ngn ng lp trnh Pascal, 999 hc mn ngn ng Fortran v 345 hc ngn ng C. Ngoi ra cn bit 876 sinh vin hc c Pascal v Fortran, 232 hc c Fortran v C, 290 hc c Pascal v C. Nu 189 sinh vin hc c 3 mn Pascal, Fortran v C th trong trng hp c bao nhiu sinh vin khng hc mn no trong 3 mn ngn ng lp trnh k trn. 2. Mt cuc hp gm 12 ngi tham d bn v 3 vn . C 8 ngi pht biu v vn I, 5 ngi pht biu v vn II v 7 ngi pht biu v vn III. Ngoi ra, c ng 1 ngi khng pht biu vn no. Hi nhiu lm l c bao nhiu ngi pht biu c 3 vn . 3. Ch ra rng c t nht 4 ngi trong s 25 triu ngi c cng tn h vit tt bng 3 ch ci sinh cng ngy trong nm (khng nht thit trong cng mt nm).
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4. Mt tay vt tham gia thi u ginh chc v ch trong 75 gi. Mi gi anh ta c t

nht mt trn u, nhng ton b anh ta c khng qu 125 trn. Chng t rng c nhng gi lin tip anh ta u ng 24 trn. 5. Cho n l s nguyn dng bt k. Chng minh rng lun ly ra c t n s cho mt s s hng thch hp sao cho tng ca chng chia ht cho n. 6. Trong mt cuc ly kin v 7 vn , ngi c hi ghi vo mt phiu tr li sn bng cch nguyn hoc ph nh cc cu tr li tng ng vi 7 vn nu. Chng minh rng vi 1153 ngi c hi lun tm c 10 ngi tr li ging ht nhau. 7. C 17 nh bc hc vit th cho nhau trao i 3 vn . Chng minh rng lun tm c 3 ngi cng trao i mt vn . 8. Trong k thi kt thc hc phn ton hc ri rc c 10 cu hi. C bao nhiu cch gn im cho cc cu hi nu tng s im bng 100 v mi cu t nht c 5 im. 9. Phng trnh x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 21 c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m? 10. C bao nhiu xu khc nhau c th lp c t cc ch ci trong t MISSISSIPI, yu cu phi dng tt c cc ch? 11. Mt gio s ct b su tp gm 40 s bo ton hc vo 4 chic ngn t, mi ngn ng 10 s. C bao nhiu cch c th ct cc t bo vo cc ngn nu: 1) Mi ngn c nh s sao cho c th phn bit c; 2) Cc ngn l ging ht nhau? 12. Tm h thc truy hi cho s mt th t Dn. 13. Tm h thc truy hi cho s cc xu nh phn cha xu 01. 14. Tm h thc truy hi cho s cch i ln n bc thang nu mt ngi c th bc mt, hai hoc ba bc mt ln. 15. 1) Tm h thc truy hi m Rn tho mn, trong Rn l s min ca mt phng b phn chia bi n ng thng nu khng c hai ng no song song v khng c 3 ng no cng i qua mt im. b) Tnh Rn bng phng php lp. 16. Tm nghim ca h thc truy hi an = 2an-1 + 5an-2 - 6an-3 vi a0 = 7, a1 = -4, a2 = 8.

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